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B000355870
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
EIGHTH EDITION.
ENCYCLOPEDIA B Pi IT AN MCA,
EIGHTH EDITIONT.
In every country where Science and Literature have been long and successfully cultivated,
and books extensively multiplied, attempts more or less skilful have been made to reduce the
mass of information to a compendious and regulated form, and to furnish a ready access to its
varied details by means of Encyclopaedias. Of the importance and advantages of such publica
tions, there can scarcely be two opinions. Executed on a plan sufficiently comprehensive, they
ought to embrace all the departments of human learning, rendering the Alphabet a ready key,
not only to the Arts and Sciences, but to the multiplied details of History, Biography, Geo¬
graphy, and Miscellaneous Literature. A work thus constructed is not only valuable to the
Scholar and the man of Science as a Dictionary of Universal Reference, but the subjects being
treated in a form consistent with Systematic Exposition, as well as with Alphabetical Arrange¬
ment, the book becomes an inestimable treasure to those who, although they cannot afford
leisure for very laborious research or profound investigation, are yet desirous to possess that
general information on all subjects which constitutes an intelligent and well-informed man.
Among books of this class, the Encyclopedia Britannica has long been conspicuously
eminent. As a Great Repertory of Human Knowledge, it has continued since 1771
to accumulate the ever-increasing treasures of Science and Literature. It was first published
in three volumes 4to, 1771 ; next, in ten volumes, in 1778; in eighteen volumes in 1797, to
which was added the Supplement, in two volumes, by Bishop Gleig, in 1801; this was fol¬
lowed by an edition, in .twenty vofr^i^lSlO ; and other two editions during the succeeding
ten years ; to which was added'^celebrated Supplement, in six volumes 4to, edited by Pro¬
fessor Napier, commenced in 1815, and finished in 1824.
The. Seventh Edition, which was completed in 1842, embodied whatever remained
valuable in the previous editioiS and in the Supplements, and was further enhanced in value
by the addition of'some ofvthe most celebrated disqnisitions which have adorned the literature
the nineteenth century. The publication thus of .Seven Editions with successive improve¬
ments, and the Sale of 35,000 copies, not during an excitement raised by a factitious reputa-
. tion/ but during a succession of years, in which the work was tested and approved by the most
a'beomplished and scientific scholars, remains an irrefragable proof of its unquestionable merit,
and have'given it so decided a preference in public favour, that its popularity, instead of suffer-
/ • ,
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, EIGHTH EDITION.
ing diminution from rivalship, has steadily continued to increase, and never stood higher than at
the present time.
It has been the leading object of its conductors to combine abstract w.th pract.cal, and sol.d
with pleasing information, in such proportions as would be most useful and most acceptable to
the public, to deliver the truths of Science in the most accurate and intelhgible form, and, at
the same time, to pay due attention to those branches of knowledge, which, though not admitting
of a scientific shape, are yet deservedly popular, and have a powerful influence on the taste,
habits, and character of the individual,-in a word, to render the Work at once a Dimo^nv
of Science, a Copious Abstract of Literature and Philosophy, and a Book of Universal
Reference. .
The Eighth Ebition will undergo careful revision and extensive alterations, so as to be
accommodated to the improved taste and advanced intelligence of the times. Arrangements are
accordingly made to secure the co-operation of the most eminent living Authors, who have con-
'tributed treatises in the various departments of Science, Literature, the Arts, Manufactures,
Commerce, Statistics, and General Knowledge, to supersede those now rendered obsolete by the
progress of discovery, improvements in the Arts, or the general advancement of society.
“ In giving effect to the extensive plan of reconstruction thus adopted, due consideration will,
at the same “time, be given to the great and permanent value of many of those Articles and
Treatises with which the former Editions were enriched. The possession of these invaluable
contributions forms, indeed, a characteristic feature of the Work, and gives it a decided pre-
eminence over every other publication of its class.
To the Gentleman and the Merchant, to the Agriculturist and the Manufacturer, to the
Clergyman and the Layman, to the Student of Science or Philosophy and the Cultivator of
Literature or the Fine Arts, the Encyclopsedia Britannica will prove an acquisition of the highest
value. The great scope of its information also recommends it to Emigrants and other person
resident in quarters where access to books is difficult, or whose fortunes do not permit them the
enjoyment of extensive libraries.
To all such the Publishers confidently recommend the Encyclopedia Britannica, as a
Work deserving of their confidence and support, and worthy of the National Name.
EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
[Edinburgh, August 1, 1853.
LIST OF WOKKS
PUBLISHED BY
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
NEW WORKS IN THE PRESS.
Waverley Novels. A New Library Edition,, containing all the latest cor¬
rections of the Author,
Uniform with the Standard English Authors. To he completed in Twenty-five Volumes, demy
8vo. Price 9s.
Publishing Monthly. The printing, however, is proceeding more rapidly, so that those who
desire to complete their Sets before the termination of the periodical issue, will have an opportu¬
nity of doing so on the 1st of November 1853.
Each volume contains a complete Novel or Novels, illustrated with a frontispiece and
Vignette, painted and engraved by the most eminent Artists of the day.
Lay of the Last Minstrel. By Sir Walter Scott, Bart.
New Edition, with the Author’s last Introductions, Notes, Corrections, and Additions.
With One Hundred Illustrations, by Birket Foster and John Gilbert. Beautifully printed
on a warm tinted paper, uniform with the Illustrated Edition of the Lady of the Lake, Long¬
fellow’s Poems, &c.
Notes on Norway and its Glaciers.
Followed by Journals of Three Excursions in the High Alps of Dauphine, Berne, and Savoy, in¬
cluding the Ascent of the Jungfrau. By James D. Forbes, F.E.S., &c. &c., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, and Author of “ Travels through the Alps.”
With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Lithographed Illustrations. Eoyal 8vo.
Class-Book of Botany.
Being an Introduction to the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom. Part II. \egetable Physiology,
and Systems of Classification, &c. By J. H. Balfour, M.D., F.E.S.E., Regius Keeper of the
Royal Botanic Garden, Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh, &c.,
&c. With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo.
4
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK'S PUBLICATIONS.
NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED.
The Ladv of the Lake. New Illustrated Edition.
By Sir Walter Scott, Bart. Including all his latest Copyright Notes, Various Keadings
Tud Additions. Exquisitely Illustrated by Birket Foster and John Gilbert, uniform noth the
Illustrated Editions of Thomson, Goldsmith, and Longfellow’s Poems, forming a beautiful and
aPPXlll“o0nks of the Scenery are from Sketches drawn on the spot during the past
summer by Mr Foster expressly for this Work, and comprise all the principal places alluded
" ^Tjloth, gilt edges, 15s.; morocco, elegant or antique, 21s.; morocco elegant, bound by
Hayday, 24s. ^
Life of Sir Walter Scott. New Edition, in One Volume.
By J. G. Lockhart. With Twelve Engravings. Cloth, 7s. 6d.; extra, gilt edges, 8s. 6d.
HI.
Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott. New Edition, in One Vol.
Foolscap 8vo, portable size, including The Lord oe the Isles, ^
Poetry contained in no other edition of the same size. With a Life of Sooxr, and Illustrations
on Wood and Steel. Foolscap 8vo, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt edges, os.; morocco antique,
gilt edges, 10s.or crown Svo.with additional Engravings, 6s.; morocco antique, gilt edges, 10s. 6d.
1Y.
Treatises and Essays on Subjects connected with Economical
Policy ; with Biographical Sketches of Quesnay, Smith, and Ricardo. By J. R. M'Chlloch, Esq.,
Author of the Commercial Dictionary, &c. 8vo, 14s., cloth.
Y.
Treatise on Biblical Criticism. By Samuel Davidson, D.D.,
Author of “ Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament,” “ Introduction to the New Testament,"
“ Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied,” &c. Two vols. 8vo, 28s., c ot .
VI.
Elementary Greek Grammar. By Db L. Schmitz, F.R.S.E.,
Rector of the High School, Edinburgh, &c. &c. Limited to the Attic Dialect but more compre¬
hensive than the Grammars commonly used in our Schools. The Irregular Verbs are Simplified
by a system of Classification, and the rules of Syntax contain all that is essential to a thorough
knowledge of the Greek Language. 12mo, os. Gd., cloth.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
5
NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED—
VII.
Life of Lord Jeffrey.
By Lord Cockburn, one of the Judges of the Court of Session. Second Edition. Two vols. 8vo,
25s., cloth.
“ Our expectations on taking up these volumes were very high, and they have not been disappointed. The
book contains a variety of excellent matter, and the Letters of Lord Jeffrey will heighten the respect that attaches
to his name.”—Athenaeum.
“ Taken altogether, this is a most pleasing and satisfactory book.”—Examiner.
“ One of the letters we would fain give entire, as not only one of the best in the volume, but one of the
happiest pieces of epistolary writing in the language.”—Literary Gazette.
VIII.
The Christian World Unmasked. New Edition.
Edited, and with a Life of Berridge, by the Rev. Dr Guthrie, Minister of Free St John’s,
Edinburgh. 12mo, cloth, 2s. 6d.; gilt edges, 3s.; sewed, 2s.
“ The book which we introduce anew to the public, has survived the test of years, and still stands towering
above things of inferior growth like a cedar of Lebanon. Its subject is all-important; in doctrine it is sound to
the core ; it glows with fervent piety ; it exhibits a most skilful and unsparing dissection of the dead professor ;
while its style is so remarkable, that he who could preach as Berridge has written, would hold any congregation by
the ears.”—Editor’s Preface.
IX.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Highly Illustrated Edition.
By Mrs H. Beecher Stowe, with One Hundred and Thirty Illustrations by Matthew Urlwin
Sears, Frontispiece by John Gilbert, and Vignette by Phiz. Cloth, gilt edges, 10s. 6d.
X.
Black’s Picturesque Guide to the Trosachs, Loch Catrine, Loch
Lomond, and Central Touring District of Scotland.
Exquisitely illustrated by Birket Foster, Esq., from Sketches taken on the spot during the
Summer of 1852. Foolscap 8vo, cloth, 5s.
Notwithstanding the many Guide-Books to this famed, and of all others, most frequented
part of Scotland, there has not as yet appeared one which, while it fulfilled its professed object,
viz., the guidance of Tourists to all the localities deserving their partial or casual notice, would
serve at the same time as a worthy memorial of that Scenery which, from the time of Sir Walter
Scott, has never ceased to delight crowds of visitors from all parts of the World.
This desideratum the Publishers now desire to supply by the Work in question, upon the
production of which, neither expense nor labour have been spared to make it everything that
could be desired by the Tourist and admirer of Nature.
*** A Cheap Edition of this Work has also been published without the Woodcuts. Price Is.
6
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
BLACK’S ATLASES.
LAST EDITIONS, WITH ALL THE LATEST DISCOVERIES.
Black’s General Atlas of the World, 1853.
Containing Seventy-one Maps, engraved on Steel, in the first style of the Art, hy Sidney Hall,
Hughes, and others ; with Introductory Chapters on the Geography and Statistics of the differ¬
ent Countries in the World, and an Index of all the Names occurring in the several Maps,
amounting to above 60,000, with their Latitude and Longitude, and the number of the Map in
which they will he found. New Edition, containing all the latest discoveries in Australia, Cali¬
fornia, Africa, and Capt. Inglefield’s in the Arctic Regions, with numerous improvements and ad¬
ditions. Strongly and elegantly half-hound in morocco, with gilt leaves. Price £2,16s.
This work is published on the plan of small impressions, and frequent new and corrected
issues. The publishers are thus enabled to take advantage of every discovery as it appears, and
to offer the public an Atlas that can be relied upon for accuracy, beauty, and comprehensiveness.
“ Large enough to be distinct, without being so large as to be unwieldy ; it has all that any one can require
for general use, and all that could be introduced, without making it too bulky or too expensive, and so counter¬
balance its principal intention.”—Church or England Quarterly Review.
Black’s School Atlas.
New Edition, with the principal Maps required for Instruction m Physical, Ancient, and Scrip¬
ture Geography. A Series of Thirty-seven Maps, by W. Hughes, F.R.G.S., late Professor of
Geography in the College for Civil Engineers, Sidney Hall, and John Bartholomew ; with an
Index of Names, exhibiting the Latitude and Longitude of places, and reference to the Maps.
Royal 4to or 8vo, half-bound, 10s. 6d.
“ The best Atlas of Modern Geography that has yet fallen in our way; it is at once a duty and a pleasure
to recommend it.”'—English Journal of Education.
Black’s Beginners’ Atlas.
A Series of Twenty-seven Coloured Maps of the Principal Countries in the World. In oblong
12mo, price 2s. 6d., cloth ; Is. in paper cover.
Black’s County Atlas of Scotland.
Containing Maps of all the Counties, in their Parochial and District Divisions, with the
Railways, places of Historical and Legendary Note, Memoranda of Battles and former Bounda¬
ries ; a General Map of Scotland; and a Series of Eight Historical Maps, exhibiting the Geo-
graphy of the Country.from the 1st to the 19th Century. To which are added, Descriptions oi
Scotland and each of the separate Maps, and a complete Index to all the Parishes, shewing
respectively their Population, the County, Presbytery, and Synod in which each is situated, and
the Post-Town. Quarto, coloured, 21s., cloth.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
WORKS BY JOHN KITTO, D.D.
Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature.
By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., Editor of “ The Pictorial Bible,” &c., &e. Assisted by
numerous able Scholars and Dirines, British, Continental, and American, whose Initials are
affixed to their respective contributions. Illustrated by Maps, Engravings on Steel, and 554
Engravings on 5iVbod. In Two thick 'S/ olumes 8vo, £3, cloth.
“ It is not too much to say, that this Cyclopaedia surpasses every Biblical Dictionary which has preceded it,
and that it leaves nothing to be desired in such a work, which can throw light on the criticism, interpretation, his¬
tory, geography, archaeology, and physical science of the Bible. It is beautifully printed, and is illustrated with
fourteen engravings of maps and views, besides more than five hundred well-executed, woodcuts of subjects calcu¬
lated to elucidate the Holy Scriptures.”—Horne’s Introduction to the Critical Analysis of the Scriptures,
Ninth Edition, vol. v., p. 437-
“ In the Cyclopaedia before us, we recognise the closeness of the connection between the Scriptural and pro¬
fane subjects of the ancient world ; the learning and ability with which the one class is made to throw light upon
the other ; the industry with which obsolete usages are again restored to the knowledge of mankind ; the acute
criticism which is made to bear on the most disputed forms and things of revelation ; and the extraordinary illus¬
tration which the most recondite subjects receive at the hands of the contributors.”—Athen-eum.
Popular Dictionary of the Bible.
By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., &c.. Editor of the Pictorial Bible. Illustrated by 336 En¬
gravings on Wood. 8vo, 10s. 6d., cloth or half-bound calf.
This work is studiously accommodated to the wants of the great body of the religious public.
To Parents, to Sunday School Teachers, to Missionaries, and to all engaged, either statedly or
occasionally, in the important business of Biblical Education, the volume is confidently recom¬
mended as the most valuable Compendium of Bible Knowledge for the People which has ever
appeared in this country.
History of Palestine Illustrated.
A new Edition, with Map and upwards of 200 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 6s., cloth; 6s. 6d., cloth,
gilt edges.
History of Palestine for Schools.
From the Patriarchal Age to the Present Time ; with Introductory Chapters on the Geo¬
graphy and Natural History of the Country, and on the Customs and Institutions of the Hebrews,
By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., Editor of “ The Pictorial Bible,” &c., &c. With Questions for
examination, by Alexander Reid, LL.D., Rector of the Edinburgh Institution. 12mo, 3s. 6d.,
or with Map of Palestine, 4s., bound.
8
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS,
SIR WALTER SCOTT’S WRITINGS AND LIFE.
WITH THE AUTHOR’S LAST INTRODUCTIONS, NOTES, AND ADDITIONS.
Waverley Novels. 45s.; 50s.; £3, 13s, 6d.; £7, 4s.; £10,16s.
EACH NOVEL MAY BE HAD SEPARATELY AT THE FOLLOWING PRICES.
Abbot,
Anne of Geierstein,
Antiquary,
Betrothed—Highland Widow
Black Dwarf, &e.,
Bride of Lammermoor,
Count Robert of Paris,
Fair Maid of Perth, .
Fortunes of Nigel,
Guy Mannering,
Heart of Mid-Lothian,
Ivanhoe,
Kenilworth,
1/9
21-
18
2/-
i/6
1/4
1/8
2-
1/11
1/9
2/3
1/11
1/11
Legend of Montrose, &c..
Monastery,
Old Mortality,
Peveril of the Peak, .
I
Pirate, .
Quentin Durward,
Redgauntlet,
Rob Roy,
St Ronan’s Well,
Surgeon’s Daughter, &c..
Talisman—Two Drovers, &c.,
Waverley,
Woodstock,
1 6
1/9
2/6
111
1/11
1/10
1/11
1/9
2 6
1/9
21-
I.
People’s Edition. 5 Vote., royal 8vo, sewed, £2, 5s.; cloth, £2, 10s.
With Portrait, Fac-simile, and Vignette Titles, after designs by Harvey.
II.
Cabinet Edition. In 25 Vote., foolscap 8vo, cloth, £3, 13s. 6d.
With Vignettes, Fac-simile, and Engraving from Greenshield’s Statue of the Author.
III.
Author’s Favourite. In 48 Vote., foolscap 8vo, cloth, £7, 4s.
With Ninety-Six Engravings on Steel by the most eminent Artists.
IV.
Abbotsford Illustrated Edition. 12 Vote., super-royal 8vo, cloth, £10,16
With 120 Engravings on Steel, and nearly 2000 on Wood.
0
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS,
SIR WALTER SCOTT’S WRITINGS—(co^'nw^),
Poetical Works. 5s., 6s., 10s., 18s., 24s., 36s.
I POCKET EDITION FOR TOURISTS. Lay of the Last Minstrel—Marmion—Lady
of the Lake—Rokeby—and Lord of the Isles. Illuminated Covers, gilt edges, Is. 3d.
each. Cloth, lettered, Is. 6d.,; full bound morocco, 2s. 6d.
II. —New Edition in One Yol., portable size, including The Lord of the Isles, and a variety
of other Copyright Poetry contained in no other pocket edition. With a Life of Scott, and
Illustrations on Wood and Steel. Foolscap Bvo, cloth, gilt edges, 5s.; or crown 8vo, with
additional Engravings, 6s.
III. —In One Yol., royal 8vo, cloth, 10s. People’s Edition, with Yignette Title, and Fac-simile.
THE SAME, large paper, with 26 Engravings from Turner, &c., forming a companion to the
Novels, Abbotsford Edition. Cloth, lettered, 18s. ; full morocco, elegant, 32s.
IV. —In Six Vols., fcp. 8vo, cloth, 24s., with 12 Engravings after Turner, and Fac-simile.
V. —In Twelve Vols., fcp. 8vo, cloth, £1, 16s., with 24 Engravings from Turner’s Designs.
*** No separate Poem, or collected edition of Poems, by Sir Walter Scott, is complete,
unless it bear the imprint of A. G. Black; The Lord of the Isles, and other
principal Poems, Notes, &fc., being copyright.
Prose Works. 26s.; £4, 4s.
I. —In Three Vols., royal 8vo, cloth, lettered, £1, 6s.
II. —In Twenty-eight Volumes, cloth, lettered, £4, 4s., with 56 Engravings from Turner ; Por¬
traits and Maps.
Tales of a Grandfather. 6s.; 10s. 6d.; 15s.
I. —In One Vol., royal 8vo, cloth, 6s.
THE SAME, large paper, with 11 Engravings after Turner. Cloth, 10s. 6d.
II. —Numerous Illustrations, 3 vols., cloth, 12s., extra, gilt edges, 15s.
III. —(HISTORY OF FRANCE). By Sir Walter Scott. Numerous Illustrations. Cloth 4s. ;
extra, gilt edges, 5s.
10
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
LIFE AND WRITINGS OF SIR WALTER SCOTT—{continued).
Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 10s., 18s., 20s.
I. —In One Vol., royal 8vo, uniform with the People’s Edition, Set No. III. Cloth, lettered, 10s.
THE SAME, large paper, with 14 Engravings after Turner and others, uniform with the
Abbotsford Edition. Cloth, lettered, 18s.
II. —In Five Vols., foolscap 8vo, with Maps, Portraits, and 9 Engravings after Turner, uniform
with the Cabinet Edition, in 50 Vols. In sets, cloth, lettered, 20s.
Life. By J. G. Lockhart, Esq. 7s. 6d., 10s., 18s., 30s.
I.‘—In One Vol. New Edition, 12 Engravings. Cloth, 7s. 6d.; extra, gilt edges, 8s. 6d.
II.—In One Vol., royal 8vo, with Portrait and Fac-simile, uniform with the People’s Edition,
Set No. III. Cloth, lettered, 10s.
THE SAME, with 11 Engravings from Turner and others, uniform with the Abbotsford Edi¬
tion, Set No. I. Cloth, lettered, 18s.
III.—In Ten Vols., foolscap 8vo, with 20 Engravings on Steel, and Fac-simile. Cloth, lettered,
£1, 10s.
Beauties of Sir Walter Scott.
A Selection from his Writings. Two Engravings. Cloth, gilt edges, 5s.; extra, gilt sides and
edges, 6s.
Readings for the Young, from the Works of Sir Walter Scott.
Numerous Illustrations, 3 vols. in one. Cloth, gilt edges, 7s.; separate vols. 2s. 6d.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
11
MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC WORKS.
Balfour—Class-Book of Botany.
Being an Introduction to the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom. By J. H. Balfouk, M.D.,
F.R.S.E , Begins Keeper of the Boyal Botanic Garden, Professor of Medicine and Botany in the
University of Edinburgh, &c.
Part I. Structural and Morphological Botany, with upwards of One Thousand Illustrations.
8vo, 10s. 6d., cloth.
Ballingall—Military Surgery.
By Professor Sir George Ballingall. Fourth Edition, with numerous Illustrations. 8vo,
14s., cloth.
« The Author has collected and arranged the whole of the established tacts, he has added the result of his
own experience, and executed a System of Military and Naval Surgery of inestimable value to those engaged in
the practice of that branch of the healing art.”—Lond. Med. and Suito. Journal.
Christison’s Dispensatory.
A Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain, comprising the Natural History, De¬
scription, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Actions, Uses, and Doses of the Articles of the Materia Medica.
By Robert Ciiristison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh.
New and improved Edition, with a Supplement, containing the most important New Remedies
which have come into general use since the publication of the last Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia in
1841. 8vo, 20s., cloth.
“ We earnestly recommend Dr Christison’s Dispensatory to all our readers, as an indispensable companion,
not in the Study only, but in the ‘ Surgery’ also.”—'Brit, and For. Med. Review.
Christison—Treatise on Poisons.
In relation to Medical Jurisprudence, Physiology, and the Practice of Physic. By Robert
Christison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. lourth
Edition, enlarged, corrected, and improved. 8vo, 20s., cloth.
Christison—Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys.
And its connection with Dropsy, Inflammation, and other Diseases. By Robert CiiRiSTisOh,
M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh. 8vo, 8s., cloth.
“ The illustrative cases, thirty-one in number, are narrated with Dr Christison’s usual clearness, and, like
the rest of the work, are highly instructive. We strongly recommend this book to our readers.”—London Medical
Gazette.
12
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC V/ORKS—(continued).
Craigie—Elements of General and Pathological Anatomy.
Presenting a view of the present state of knowledge in these Branches of Science. By David
Craigie, M.D., F.R.S.E., &c. &c. Second Edition, enlarged, revised, and improved. 8vo,
24s., cloth.
“ A work of great value, and one which does great credit to the Author’s erudition and laborious research.’’—
London Medical Gazette.
Craigie—Elements of the Practice of Physic.
Presenting a View of the present state of Special Pathology and Therapeutics. By David
Craigie, M.D., F.R.S.E., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, Physician to
the Royal Infirmary, Emeritus President and Extraordinary Member of the Royal Medical So¬
ciety, &c. &c. &e. 2 vols. 8vo, 24s., cloth.
“ We are inclined to regard Dr Craigie’s Elements as the best we at present possess.”—Lond. Med. Gazette.
Forbes—Travels through the Alps of Savoy.
And other Parts of the Penine Chain, with Observations on the Phenomena of Glaciers. By
James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec.R.S.E., Corresponding Member of the Royal Institute of France,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. New Edition, revised
and enlarged. Illustrated by a large Map of the Mer de Glace of Chamouni, Lithographed Views
and Plans, and Engravings on Wood. Imperial 8vo, 28s., or with the large Map coloured,
in a case, 31s. 6d., cloth.
Marshall—Enlisting, Discharging, and Pensioning of Soldiers.
With the Official Documents on these Branches of Military Duty. By Henry Marshall,
F.R.S.E., Deputy Inspector-General of Army Hospitals. Second Edition. 8vo, 7s. 6d., cloth.
“ -A- most valuable book, and ought to be in the library of every medical officer in the public service, whether
of the army or navy.”—British and Foreign Medical Review.
Miller—Principles of Surgery.
By James Miller, F.R.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. New
Edition, illustrated by 238 Woodcuts. 8vo, 16s., cloth.
“ An admirable epitome of the surgical science of the day. Being written by a sound practical surgeon, ac¬
customed to the public teaching of his science, it has that clearness of diction and arrangement which renders it an
excellent manual for the student, as well as that amount of scientific and practical information which makes it a
safe and valuable guide to the practitioner.”'—Lancet.
Miller—Practice of Surgery.
By James Miller, F.R.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh, &c. New
Edition, illustrated by 227 Woodcuts. 8vo, 16s., cloth.
,, ^ 6 }iaive n,0 hesitatlon in stating that the two volumes form, together, a more complete text-book of surgery
than any one that has been heretofore offered to the student.’’—Northern Journal of Medicine.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
13
MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC V/ORKS—{continued).
Nicol—Manual of Mineralogy.
The Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom; containing a General Introduction to the Science,
and Descriptions of the several Species, including the more recent Discoveries and Chemical
Analyses. By James Nicoi., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History, King’s College,
Aberdeen. Post 8vo (pp. 596), 12s., cloth.
“ There is a completeness about this Manual of Mineralogy which must recommend it to every one pursuing
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THE
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VOLUME IV.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH.
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MDCCCLIV.
[The Proprietors of this Work give notice that they reserve the right of Translating it.]
I
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TO
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NEILL AND CO., PRINTERS, EDINBURGH
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
ASTEONOMY.
PART II.
THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical CHAP. I.
Astronomy
GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS.
Sect. I.— Of the Celestial Sphere.
When a spectator on a clear evening directs his atten¬
tion to the sky, he perceives a concave hemisphere stud¬
ded with innumerable brilliant points, all which appear to
move in parallel directions, constantly preserving the
same distances and relative positions. New groups of
stars incessantly follow one another, rising in the east,
mounting to a certain height, and then gradually sinking
till they disappear in the west. On turning his face to¬
wards the north he observes some groups of stars which
remain visible during the whole night; wheeling round a
certain fixed point, and describing circles of greater or
less magnitude, according as they are at a greater or less
distance from that point. The same phenomena are ob¬
served every successive night; and as the stars present
always the same configurations, and succeed each other
in the same order, the mind is irresistibly led to the hy¬
pothesis of the diurnal revolution of the whole heavens
about a fixed axis. This hypothesis implies that the stars
move in parallel planes, and that their mutual distances
remain invariable. In order, however, to be assured that
such is the case, it is necessary to have recourse to more
accurate observations, and to refer their successive posi¬
tions to something that is fixed,—to certain points or
planes which do not participate in the general motion.
Horizon. What is most obviously adapted for this purpose is the
Horizon, or the plane which appears extended all round
us, and bounded by a circle of which the eye of the spec¬
tator occupies the centre. Let the circle SENW (fig.
Plate 1) represent the horizon, C being the centre or place of
LXXVI. t^e observer. Suppose now that a star is observed to rise
1®’ at a certain point of the horizon A, and, after tracing its
circuit in the sky, to set at the point A'; suppose, also,
that another star rises at B, and sets at B'; then, if the
distances AB, A'B' are measured by means of some an¬
gular instrument, it will be found that AB is equal to A'B',
and that this is the case with regard to any two stars
whatever. Since therefore the arcs AB and A'B' are
equal, it follows that the chords A A', B B', joining their
extremities, are parallel; whence we infer, that if two
stars rise successively at the same point of the horizon A,
VOL. IV.
they will also set at the same point A', a circumstance Theoretical
which is of itself strikingly indicative of the uniformity Astronomy
of the motion of the celestial bodies.
Through C let a perpendicular be drawm to the chord Cardinal
A A, meeting the boundary of the horizon in S and N. points.
These two points are the South and North points of the
horizon ; and another straight line drawn through C, pa¬
rallel to A A', will meet the horizon in E and W, the East
and West points. The four together, namely, S, E, N, W,
are called the four Cardinal points of the horizon. The
horizontal circle is itself denominated the Azimuth Cir- Azimuth.
cle. Azimuth distances are measured from the North
and South points, so that S A is the azimuth distance of a
star’s rising at A, and SA' is that of its setting at A'. The
complement of the azimuth, or its defect from a right an¬
gle, is called the Amplitude, which is consequently mea- Ampii-
sured from the East and West points ; thus the arc EA tude.
is the amplitude of a star’s rising at A, or its ortive am¬
plitude, and WA' is that of its setting, or its occasive am¬
plitude.
Conceive a straight line to pass through C, perpendi¬
cular to the horizon. This line, which is called the Ver¬
tical, will meet the visible hemisphere in a point directly
above the observer, which is denominated the Zenith ; the Zenith,
point diametrically opposite, in which the prolongation of
the vertical meets the invisible hemisphere, is the Aadfr. Nadir.
The plane determined by the vertical and the straight
line NS is called the Meridian, because when the sun Meridian,
reaches it, he is equally distant from the points at which
he rises and sets, or, it is mid-day. The great circle
formed by the intersection of the meridian with the ce¬
lestial sphere is the 3Ieridional circle; it divides the
sphere into the eastern and western hemispheres. Any
circle passing through the Zenith and Nadir is called a
Vertical Circle ; that which intersects the meridional cir-Vertical,
cle at right angles, or which passes through the points
E and W, is called the Prime Vertical.
Let HPZH' (fig. 2) represent a meridional circle pass-Fig. 2.
ing through P, that point of the sphere which appears to
remain immovable; and let Z be the zenith, and HH' the
horizon. Join PC', and let it meet the circle in F. The
points P and P' are denominated the Poles of the world,
and the straight line PF is the Axis about ’which the
whole heavens appear to revolve. Let also uv, Hp, hi,
JEJE, </H', be projections of the paths of different stars
A
2 ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical on the vertical plane PZH. One of the first circum-
Astronomy. stances which strikes the attention of the observer is the
inequality of the times during which different stars con¬
tinue visible above the horizon. A star which describes
the circle MM continues visible during a shorter time
than one which describes kl, and still shorter than one
which moves in th?. It will be remarked, however, that
the interval between two successive risings of the same
star is always the same, in whatever point of the horizon
it makes its appearance. Those which describe MM are
peculiar in this respect, that the interval between their
rising and setting is exactly equal to that between their
setting and rising; hence the great circle which they de-
Equator. scribe is called the Equator, and when the sun de¬
scribes that circle, the days and nights are exactly of the
same length. In general, the time during which a star
continues visible is greater in proportion as its path is
nearer to the visible pole. Those, however, which de¬
scribe the circle H<7, or any other parallel, as uv, nearer
to P, remain always above the horizon; hence such
circles are called circles of Perpetual Apparition, and the
stars describing them are called Circumpolar Stars.
There are some other technical terms, chiefly employ¬
ed in the old treatises of astronomy, to denote particular
Second- circles of the sphere. A Secondary to any great circle, is
aries. a circle passing through the poles of its primary: thus
the meridian is a secondary to the horizon HIT, and to
Colures, the equator MM'. The Colures are two secondaries to
the equator, one of which passes through the equinoctial
points, and is called the Equinoctial Colure; the other
intersects the equator at the distance of 90° from the
former, and is denominated the Solstitial Colure. The
small circles parallel to the equator are simply termed
Parallels. Parallels; those which are parallel to the horizon are
Almican- called Almicantars ; and the different meridians are like-
tars. wise termed Hour Circles.
The hypothesis of a spherical revolution implies, as has
already been mentioned, that the stars move in parallel
planes, or describe parallel circles round the pole. This
point, in reference to any particular star, must be deter¬
mined by observing whether its angular distance from the
pole remains invariable during its whole revolution. Let
Tig. 3. 2 (fig. 3) be the zenith, P the pole, and S the place of a
star. The arcs PZ, ZS, PS, which join these points on
the sphere, will form a spherical triangle, of which the
sides PZ and ZS, or the distances of the pole and the star
from the zenith, are given by direct observation. The
angle PZS is also given in the same manner, for it is
equal to the star’s azimuth counted from the north point
of the horizon. In the triangle ZPS we have therefore
given the two sides ZP and ZS, together with the includ¬
ed angle PZS, from which data the polar distance PS
is found by the following formula of spherical trigono¬
metry :
cos. PS = sin. ZS sin. ZP cos. PSZ + cos. ZS cos. ZP.
In order to adapt this formula to logarithmic computa¬
tion, an auxiliary angle may be assumed such, that
tan. p = cos. PZS tan. ZP, by the substitution of which
the formula becomes
cos. ZP. cos. (PZS — <p)
cos. PS zr ;
cos. <p
from which the polar distance PS of the star can be easi¬
ly computed.
On performing the computation for any particular star,
PS is always found to be of a constant magnitude, what¬
ever may be the value of PZS, that is, at whatever part
of its course the star is observed. Hence we infer that
the diurnal motion of the stars round the pole is exactly
circular.
After having recognised that the celestial bodies move Theoretical
in parallel planes, the next object of the astronomer is toAstronomy
determine whether they revolve with velocities uniform'"
or variable. For this purpose it is necessary to compare,
by means of a well-regulated clock, the angular distances
between the meridian and the successive positions of a
star, with the times elapsed since the star’s passage over
the meridian. Let mno (fig. 4) be the parallel described Fig. 4.
by a star, and sd two of its successive positions. The arcs
ns, nd, intercepted between the meridional plane and the
planes passing through the axis PP' and the points s, s',
are measured by the arcs of the equator Ca, Cb. Now, it
is the result of constant experience, that the number of
degrees in the arc Ca or Cb is to the number in the
whole circumference as the time employed by the star in
describing na or nb is to the time in which it completes
a revolution. The time occupied by the star in com¬
pleting its revolution is called a sidereal day; and the
uniformity of the diurnal revolution enables us to calcu¬
late the angle CPs, which is measured by Ca, without
having recourse to any other observation than that of the
star’s meridional passage. Denoting a sidereal day by T,
the interval of time which elapses while the star describes
the arc ns by t, and the angle at the pole by P, we shall
have the analogy T: £:: 360 : P; therefore P= 370° ;
a formula which gives the angle at P, or its measure Ca.
The angles CPs, CPs’, and slY are called Hour Angles, Hour
because the arcs which they intercept on the star’s pa-ansles-
rallel of declination correspond to the hours and fractions
of an hour into which the sidereal day is divided. For
example, if the hour angle sPs' contain 15°, the two
planes passing through s and s' will intercept on mn, the
diurnal circle of the star, an arc equal to 15°; conse¬
quently there will be 24 such arcs in the whole circum¬
ference, each of which will be described in the 24th part
of a sidereal day, or in one hour of sidereal time. In con¬
sequence of this perfect uniformity of the diurnal motion,
the arc which a star describes on its parallel is conve¬
niently measured by the time of its description ; and the
sidereal day, or the interval between two successive re¬
turns of the same star to the plane of the meridian, offers
the most perfect unit of time, inasmuch as it is exactly
the same to all the inhabitants of the earth, and remains
absolutely unalterable in all ages, being one of the very
few invariable elements of the system of the world.
In fixing the position of a point on a plane surface, Method 0f
geometers usually refer it to two straight lines at right
angles to each other, the positions of which are sup-at.5ng
posed to be known. The same practice is imitated by0fp0ints
astronomers, who refer the position of any point on theon the
surface of the sphere to two great circles, which are em-sphere,
ployed as a system of rectangular co-ordinates, and from
which all distances are measured. The equator being a
circle of the sphere not subject to any arbitrary condition,
but determined by the very nature of the spherical revo-
lutjori, is obviously well adapted for this purpose. It is
therefore universally employed as a term of comparison
in assigning the places of the celestial bodies. Suppose
an hour circle passing through the star s to intersect the Fig. 4.
equator at a; the arc sa, which measures on the sphere
the distance of s from the equator, is called the Declination Declina-
of the star. All other stars situated on the same parallelUon*
mo have the same declination; and it is invariable for all
places of the earth, because it is not affected by the
diurnal motion which is performed in the parallel mo.
The declination is northern or southern, according as
the star is situated in the northern or southern hemi¬
sphere. It is expressed in degrees from 0 to 90, proceed-
3
astronomy.
Right As¬
cension.
Theoretical ing from the equator to the pole. The polar distance
Astronomy. p$ is the complement of the declination, because rs-\-sci
_ go0. In order to distinguish s from all other stars
which may be situated on the same parallel, we must also
know the point a of the equator to which it corresponds ;
and for this purpose it is necessary to select a point qp ot
the equator for the origin of the co-ordinates. This point
ought to be independent of the diurnal motion, otherwise
its position could only be determined for a single instant
of time ; and it must be such that it can be readily lound,
in whatever part of the earth the observer may be si¬
tuated. Astronomers have agreed to employ tor this
purpose the point determined by the intersection ot the
equator with another very remarkable circle of the sphere,
of which we shall speak hereafter, and to ^ount tlie
grees on the equator, setting out from from 0 to dbh,
in the direction opposite to that of the diurnal motion, or
from west to east. The arc wa, which measures the
distance between <r> and a, is called the Right Ascension
of the star s: it is also the right ascension of any other
star situated in the hour circle PsP. It is measured
by the interval of time which elapses between the tran¬
sit of the star s over the meridian, and that of the
point t, which has been chosen as the point ot de¬
parture. It may be remarked that the point qp is also the
origin of sidereal time; that is to say, the time is count¬
ed 0 hour 0 min. 0 sec. when that point passes the me¬
ridian.
From these definitions it is easy to conceive the gene¬
ral method of forming a catalogue of stars. A clock be¬
ing regulated to sidereal time, and marking 0 hour at the
instant of the transit of the point v (or any star chosen
arbitrarily), the hours, minutes, and seconds, are noted
at which the stars successively pass the axis of the tran¬
sit instrument, together with their respective altitudes at
the same instant. These observations give the right
ascensions and declinations ; for the time is easily convert¬
ed into degrees, at the rate of 15° an hour, or by the for¬
mula given above for determining the hour angle. If
the star s pass the meridian one hour after s', the arc a b,
which measures the distance between their horary circles,
PaP, P6P, is 1 hour or 15° ; and the declination of a star
s which moves in the parallel kl (fig. 2) is H'/— H /F,
that is, equal to the difference between its meridional al¬
titude and the complement of the altitude of the pole H P.
Modern celestial charts are constructed on the principle
of assigning to each star the place indicated by the values
of these two co-ordinates ; and as observation proves that
the mutual distances and relative positions ot the stars
scarcely undergo any sensible variation, a globe or chart
once constructed will serve to represent the state of the
heavens for at least a long series ot ages,
x.xjjiana- Having now considered the general phenomena ot the
tion of the (iiurnal revolution, and explained the terms that are tech-
I116110' nically employed in assigning the positions of the celestial
bodies, we may next proceed to inquire how these phe¬
nomena are to be accounted for,—whether the stars are
really in motion, as they seem to be, or if the apparent
motion is only an illusion occasioned by the revolution of
our own earth. The perfect uniformity of the motions ot
the different stars renders it exceedingly improbable that
they are disconnected; hence the simplest view of the
phenomena is obtained by substituting for each star its
projection on the celestial sphere, at an infinite distance,
and supposing this sphere, with the projections ot all the
stars, to revolve in 24 hours from east to west round an
immovable axis. But it is easy to see that tlm p leno-
mena will be equally well explained by supposing that
the starry firmament is absolutely at rest, and that
Fig- 2.
Explana-
mena.
the earth revolves in the same time, round the same Theoretical
axis, but in an opposite direction, from west to east. In v j
both cases the stars remain immovable, the pheno-
mena are exactly the same, and, relatively to Spherical
Astronomy, in which we only concern ourselves with the
apparent motions, it is absolutely indifferent which of the
two hypotheses we adopt. They are both only modes ot
explaining certain appearances; and the one may be em¬
ployed which renders the explanation most simple and
perspicuous. The proofs of the earth’s motion will go on
accumulating as we proceed. At present we need only
remark, that as the organ of sight makes us acquainted
with the existence of relative, and not of absolute motion,
it is impossible to decide, merely from appearances, whe¬
ther the motion we perceive is real or otherwise ; tor
whatever motion one body may have in respect of another, it
is always possible to explain the phenomena by supposing it
to be perfectly at rest, and the other to move in an opposite
direction. The conclusions which we draw from the opti¬
cal effects of motion afford no mathematical certainty with
regard to the cause of that motion. The hypothesis ot
the revolution of the sphere is attended with innumerable
and insurmountable difficulties. The distance ot the near¬
est fixed star from the earth is not less than 350,000 times
the distance of the sun; a distance which light, prodi¬
gious as its velocity is, would not traverse in less than five
years. This immense line, therefore, supposing the hea¬
vens to revolve round the earth, would form the radius ot
a circle, the circumference ot which, six times largei,
would be passed over by the star in the space of 24 hours ;
its velocity must therefore be 6x5x 31)5=10950 times
greater than that of light. This velocity, which is nearly
equivalent to 2100 millions of miles in a second ot time,
is so enormous that it baffles the utmost efforts of the ima¬
gination to form any conception of it; and the supposi¬
tion of its existence will appear still more revolting when
we reflect that the distance of the nearest star is probably
many thousand times less than that ot the Milky v\ ay.
If we ascribe the motion to the earth, its velocity, though
it may still be supposed great, is moderate in comparison
of many well-known phenomena of nature. A point on
the equator will describe in 24 hours a circle of about
25,000 miles, or about 17 miles in a minute; a velocity
somewhat exceeding that of sound, but /400 millions o
times less rapid than the preceding.
In all that has hitherto been said respecting the appa¬
rent motion of the starry sphere, we have only had regard
to the innumerable multitude of stars which constantly
maintain the same relative situations, and which are in
consequence called.Ffa?ee? Stars. I here are, however, seve¬
ral other bodies, some of them remarkable on account ot
their splendour, which, besides participating in the general
motion, have peculiar motions of their own, and are inces¬
santly shifting their positions among the fixed stars. An
attentive observation of the state ot the sky during a few
successive evenings, will suffice to show that there are
some stars which have in the mean time changed their
places; and, on continuing to observe them, they will be
found to separate themselves from particular constella¬
tions, and gradually but imperceptibly to approach others,
till they at length appear, after unequal intervals of time,
in an opposite quarter of the heavens, from this cir¬
cumstance they were designated by the Greeks Planets,
that is, wandering stars, in contradistinction to those which
obey only the law of the diurnal motion. Besides the sun
and moon, there are five discernible by the naked eye, and
which have consequently been known from the remotest
ages. These are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and oa-
turn. Twenty-eight others, including Neptune, Uranus,
ASTRONOMY.
the sun
and moon,
Theoretical and the small planets, have been discovered by the aid of
Astronomy the telescope. Astronomers, with a view to abbreviate their
descriptions, have appropriated a certain symbol to each of
these planets, as well as to the sun and moon: thus, for the
older planets, in the order of distance from the sun, the names
and characteristics are as follows:—
The Sun ....© Ceres 
Mercury Pallas $
Venus $ Jupiter 
Mars $ Saturn T?
Vesta ifr Uranus H
Juno 0
The Earth, which, as we shall afterwards see, is also a
planet, and takes its place between Venus and Mars, has
for its symbol ®, and the moon ]). Venus, Jupiter, and
sometimes Mars, are distinguished by their extraordinary
brilliancy. Mercury, on account of his proximity to the
sun, is rarely visible to the naked eye. Uranus, discover¬
ed by Sir W. Herschel in 1778, can with difficulty, by
reason of his great distance, be perceived without a tele¬
scope. Ceres, and the other planets discovered since 1801,
are extremely small in size, and can only be seen with the
aid of the telescope.
Motions of Of all the celestial bodies, the most interesting to us
are the sun and moon ; and their peculiar motions have ac¬
cordingly, in every age of astronomy, been studied with
the greatest attention. The proper motion of the moon is
particularly remarkable. In the course of a single night
she separates herself very sensibly from the stars in her
vicinity, moving over a space nearly equal to her own
breadth in an hour, and completing a whole circuit in
about 27 days. The sun moves with much less velo¬
city, but his motion is still sufficiently apparent. If we
take notice of the stars which immediately follow him
when he sinks under the horizon, we shall find that in the
course of a few nights they will be no longer visible.
Others which, some time previously, did not set till long
after him, have taken their places and now accompany the
sun. In the morning similar appearances present them¬
selves, but in a contrary order. The stars which appear in
the eastern horizon at sun-rise, are, after a few days, con¬
siderably elevated above it at the same time. Thus the sun
seems to fall daily behind the stars, by insensible degrees,
till at last he appears in the east when they are about to
set in the west. To account for these appearances, the
ancients supposed the sun’s diurnal motion to be really
slower than that of the stars; hence they supposed him
to be attached to a different sphere. For like reasons
they ascribed particular spheres to the moon and each of
the planets ; and as no trace of these imaginary spheres is
perceptible in the heavens, they next supposed them to be
crystalline and transparent. The appearances are ex¬
plained equally well, and with infinitely greater simplicity,
by ascribing to the sun a proper motion, in a direction op¬
posite to that of the diurnal rotation of the sphere, in con¬
sequence of which he advances to meet the stars, instead
of falling behind them.
The greater part of the observations of the early as¬
tronomers had for their object the determination of the
positions of the stars relatively to the sun at his rising
and setting, by which they fixed the seasons, and regulat¬
ed the operations of agriculture. They distinguished all
these phenomena by technical terms, which occur very
frequently in the works of the ancient poets, particularly
in Hesiod and in Ovid’s Fasti. A star which rises at the
same time with the sun is effaced by his light, and is said
to rise cosmically (ortus cosmicus). Soon after, when the
sun by his proper motion has advanced so far to the east
that the star can be perceived on the eastern horizon in
the morning twilight, it disengages itself from the Sun’s Theoretical
rays, and is said to rise heliacally (ortus heliacus). At the Astronomy,
end of six months, the sun being diametrically opposite
the same star, it sets as the sun rises, and in this case it
is said to set cosmically (occasus cosmicus): at nearly the
same time it rises when the sun sets, and is said to rise
acronically (ortus acronyctus). The sun afterwards begins
to approach the star, till he advances so near that it is
again about to be effaced by his light; it is now said to
set heliacally, or just so long after the sun as to be visible
when he has disappeared (occasus heliacus). At the end
of a year, the star again rises and sets at the same mo¬
ment with the sun; it is now said to set acronically (oc¬
casus acronyctus). These distinctions, and the ancients
had several others of the same kind, which are all defined
by Ptolemy, are now scarcely ever mentioned. They have
lost the whole of their interest since, in the progress of
astronomy, more certain methods have been discovered of
determining the commencement of the year and the sea¬
sons.
The proper motions of the planets are in general, like Stations
that of the sun, in a direction opposite to the diurnal mo- an<I retro-
*ion, or from west to east, among the stars : but they do gradations*
not preserve the same character of uniformity ; the planet
sometimes becomes stationary among the fixed stars, and
even advances from east to west in the direction of the
diurnal motion. In this case it is said to retrograde.
This retrograde motion is, however, not of long con¬
tinuance. After having been accelerated during a short
time, it begins to relax. The planet again becomes sta-
tionary, and then resumes its direct motion from west to
east. These phenomena were observed in the remotest
antiquity, and their explanation formed the principal part
of the rational astronomy of the Greeks and the Arabians.
Besides the planets, other bodies occasionally make Comets,
their appearance in the heavens, which, by reason of the
extraordinary phenomena they exhibit, have been fre¬
quently contemplated with terror and dismay, and re¬
garded by superstitious ignorance as harbingers of cala¬
mity, and precursors of the divine vengeance. These
bodies shoot down, from the remote regions of space, with
inconceivable velocity, towards the sun. At their first ap¬
pearance they are small; their light is feeble and dusky;
and they are generally accompanied by a sort of nebulo¬
sity or luminous tail, from which they have derived their
appellation of Comets (coma, hair). As they approach the
sun, their apparent magnitudes and brilliancy greatly in¬
crease, and the nebulosity sometimes occupies a large
portion of the heavens, presenting a magnificent and as¬
tonishing spectacle. Flaving attained the point of their
orbits nearest the sun, they again recede to enormous dis¬
tances, and vanish by insensible degrees. They differ
from the planets not only by the appearances they present,
but also by the diversity of their motions; for, instead of
being confined to a particular zone, and moving from west
to east, they traverse the sky indifferently in all directions.
They are visible only in a small part of their orbit, which,
being near the sun, is passed over with prodigious rapidity.
They seldom continue visible longer than six months.
Their number is entirely unknown, but during the last
two centuries upwards of 170 have been observed, and
their orbits computed.
Thus we recognise three distinct classes of celestial
bodies ; the planets, the comets, and the fixed stars. It
is the business of the astronomer to determine the posi¬
tions of these bodies in the heavens; to observe their
motions, and measure them with precision; to discover
the laws by which their courses are regulated; and from
these laws to assign the past or future state of the heavens
ASTRO
Theoretical at any given instant of time. The fixed stars form infi-
Astronomy.nitely the most numerous class; but their motions being
sensibly uniform, and their mutual distances invariable, the
principal object with regard to them is to determine their
places and relative positions. The comets in general re¬
turn only after long periods ; and observations are not yet
sufficiently numerous to allow any certain deductions to be
made with respect to their nature and constitution. The
planets present a great variety of curious phenomena;
they are always within our view; observations on them
may be multiplied indefinitely ; and for this reason, as well
as on account of their proximity, and their forming a
system of which the earth constitutes a part, they present
by far the most interesting objects of astronomical study.
Sect. II.— Of the Globular Form of the Earth, Parallax,
and Refraction.
Having now considered the general phenomena of the
diurnal motion, we proceed next to inquire into the form
of the earth, and our situation with respect to the centre
round which the celestial sphere appears to revolve. The
plane of the horizon seems to be stretched out indefinitely
till it actually meets the sky ; but this illusion is quickly
dissipated by transferring ourselves from one place to an¬
other on the surface of the earth, and attending to the
phenomena which such a change of place gives rise to.
Let an observer, for example, set out from any given
point in the northern hemisphere, and proceed directly
south. In proportion as he advances, the stars in the
southern region of the heavens will be elevated more above
the horizon, and describe larger segments of their diurnal
circles, while new ones come into view which were invisible
at the station he left. On the other hand, the polar star,
with those in its vicinity, will be depressed, and some stars
which before continued above the horizon during the whole
time of their revolution will now rise and set. The planes
of the diurnal circles become also more perpendicular to
the horizon, so that the aspect of the heavens is entirely
changed. If, instead of advancing in the direction of the
meridian, the spectator proceeded towards the east or
west, he would in this case also remark that his horizon
constantly shifted its position. A star will pass his meri¬
dian sooner as he advances eastward, or later as he travels
westward; in short, by a change of place in any direction
whatever, the perpendicular to the horizon, or the plumb-
line, will correspond to a different point of the heavens.
The plane of the horizon is therefore variable, and its va¬
riation by insensible degrees indicates with the greatest
evidence the rotundity of the earth. Experience also
shows that a spectator sees more of the terrestrial surface
in proportion as he is elevated above it; and that on a
mountain surrounded by the sea, or standing in the middle
of a level plain, the horizon appears equally depressed all
round, which is the distinctive feature of a spherical cur-
Fig. 5. vature. In fig. 5 let O be the place of a spectator on the
summit of a mountain, the straight line H H will represent
his horizon, and Oh, Oh' the directions of visual rays to
the remotest visible points on the surface of the earth. The
inclinations of these lines to the plane of the horizon, or
the angles HO/i, H'O/f are called the apparent depression ;
and these being always observed to be equal to each other,
it follows that the curve AAA' is a circle. On the Peak
of Teneriffe, Humboldt observed the surface of the sea to
be depressed on all sides in an angle of nearly 2°. The sun
arose to him 12 minutes sooner than to an inhabitant of the
plain ; and from the plain, the top of the mountain appeared
enlightened 12 minutes before the rising or after the set¬
ting of the sun. The same phenomena, though on a smaller
N O M Y. 5
scale, are observed with regard to every mountain or ele- Theoretical
vation on the earth. Another familiar illustration of the^^^P
globular figure of the earth is derived from the successive
and gradual disappearance of a ship which leaves the shore
and stands out to sea. The hulk disappears before the
sails and the rigging, and the top of the mast is the last part
that is visible. The ship thus appears gradually to sink
under the horizon, exactly in the same manner as she must
necessarily do on the supposition that the surface of the
sea is spherical. The appearance of the moon at the time
she is eclipsed is also demonstrative of the roundness of
the earth. When the moon penetrates the shadow of the
earth, the line which separates the illuminated from the
eclipsed portion of the disk is circular; evidently proving
the conical form of the shadow, and consequently the
roundness of the body by which the shadow is projected.
From all these considerations, it is inferred with the high¬
est certainty that the earth with its waters forms a round
mass, isolated in space.
The globular form of the earth is a property common
to it with the other bodies which compose the planetary
system. The sun and moon are evidently round bodies;
and when the planets are examined through a telescope
their disks appear sensibly circular; and as they are known
to have a motion of rotation, in consequence of which
they successively present different points of their surfaces
to the earth, the uniform roundness of their disks may be
taken as a conclusive proof of their sphericity. We shall
by and by have occasion to remark other striking ana¬
logies between the planets and the earth.
Since the figure of the earth is spherical, the horizon- Sensible
tal plane cannot coincide with any considerable portion and ra-
of its surface. It may be defined to be the plane which ^al hon-
touches the earth at any given point, and is perpendicu-zon'
lar to the vertical line, or the direction of gravity at that
point. The Sensible Horizon of any place is the plane which
passes through the eye of the spectator, perpendicular to
the plumb-line at that place. The Rational Horizon is a
plane parallel to this, passing through the centre of the
earth. The particular phenomena of different places de¬
pend on the position of their horizon with respect to the
planes of the apparent diurnal motion of the sun and stars.
The rational horizon of a place on the equator passes
through the poles, and divides equally the equator and
its parallels. Hence the days and nights are always
equal in such places, and each of the stars performs one
half of its revolution above, and the other below its ho¬
rizon. The circles of diurnal motion are all perpendicular
to the horizon, and therefore the inhabitants are said
to be under a Right Sphere. If a spectator could place
himself directly under the pole, his horizon would co¬
incide with the equator, and the whole of the north¬
ern celestial hemisphere would be within his view,
while no part of the southern hemisphere would be vi¬
sible to him, on account of its being always beneath the
horizon. The circles of the diurnal motion being parallel
to the equator, and consequently also to the horizon, the
fixed stars would never either rise or set. A spectator
thus situated is said to be under a Parallel Sphere. In in¬
termediate places the circles of the diurnal motion are
oblique to the horizon, one pole being always elevated
above it, and the other equally depressed below it. The
stars whose distances from the elevated pole are not
greater than the arc of its elevation above the horizon
never set, while those within the same distance oi the
depressed pole never rise. These phenomena belong to
all places situated between the equator and the poles,
and the inhabitants of such places are said to be under
an Oblique Sphere.
6
ASTRONOMY.
Fig. 2.
1 lieorctieal The situation of a place on the surface of the earth is
C^Sdeterniined two co-ordinate circles, in the same man¬
ner as that of a star on the celestial sphere. Let Z
(fig. 2) be a place of which the position is required to
be assigned with reference to circles of the terrestrial
sphere, analogous to those which we have described as
belonging to the sphere of the heavens. Since the axis
of the celestial sphere passes through the centre of the
earth, we may suppose the poles of the world, the equa¬
torial circle, and the meridians, to be transferred to the
earth s surface, so that the same figure may represent
either the celestial or terrestrial sphere. The intersec¬
tion of the plane P Z iE with the surface of the earth is
the terrestrial meridian of the place Z, and the straight
lines C Z, C JE, in that plane, intercept an arc of the ter¬
restrial meridian between Z and the equator, containing
as many degrees as the arc of the celestial sphere which
measures the declination of the zenith of the place Z.
I he angle JECZ which is measured by the meridional
arc /E Z is called the Geographical Latitude of Z. But in
order to particularize the point at which the equator is
intersected by the meridian, it is necessary to assume
some point of the equator to which all the other points of
that circle may be referred. The meridian passing through
the assumed point is called the First Meridian ; and the
angular distance between the planes of the first and any
other meridian measured by the equatorial arc intercep¬
ted by these planes on the equator, is called the Geo¬
graphical Longitude of the place through which the last
meridian passes. The longitude is said to be east or west,
according as the degrees of the equator are counted from
the first meridian towards the east or west. It is usual to
reckon the degrees towards the east, all round the globe, or
from 0 to 360°. From these definitions it is evident that
the geographical latitudes and longitudes are exactly ana¬
logous to the declinations and right ascensions on the ce¬
lestial sphere. The first point of the terrestrial equator
cannot be determined by any star or fixed point in the
heavens, on account of the diurnal motion ; it is therefore
necessary to fix its position by means of known places on
the earth; and geographers are in the habit of assuming
as the first meridian that which passes through the capi¬
tal city or principal observatory of their country. The
choice is of no importance; for in geography, as in astro¬
nomy, what is essential to be known is only the difference
of longitudes or meridians, in order to reduce the situ¬
ation of a place, or observations which have been made at
it, to any indicated meridian.
Magnitude The length of the terrestrial radius is a very im
as the angle O S C, which is extremely small on account Theoretical
of the sun’s great distance, may be neglected in the cal-Astronomy*
culation, the angle Z C S at the centre is also equal to
7 12, and therefore the whole circumference equals
360° -1
rjo y2' ^ M O* To obtain the length of the meridian, it
is therefore only necessary to measure the arc MO.
Liatosthenes assumed the distance between Syene and
Alexandria to be 5000 stadia; hence the circumference of
360c
the earth =
7° 12'
X 5000 stadia — 250,000 stadia. The
of tlie
earth
Fig. G.
portant element in astronomy, inasmuch as it furnishes
the observer with the only scale by which he can esti¬
mate the distances of the sun, moon, and planets. On
the supposition that the figure of the earth is perfectly
spherical, the general principles on which its magnitude
may be determined are sufficiently obvious; but the ac¬
curate determination of its actual dimensions is attended
with great practical difficulties, which can only be over¬
come by the perfect instruments and refined science of
modern times. Eratosthenes seems to have been the
first who made use of astronomical methods to determine
the circumference of the earth, or the length of the me¬
ridian. He remarked that, at Syene, in the Thebais, the
sun on the meridian, at the time of the summer solstice,
was vertical; and that at Alexandria, at the same time,
his zenith distance was 7° 12'. Now let S (fig. 6) be the
sun, vertical to M, and Z the zenith of Alexandria, C
being the centre of the earth, and O Alexandria. The
angle Z O S is the sun’s zenith distance, which was ob¬
served to be 7° 12'. But ZOS = ZCS + OSC; whence,
uncertainty which exists respecting the length of the
Egyptian stade prevents us from deriving any precise in¬
formation from this rude attempt to estimate the dimen¬
sions of the globe.
The method which has just been described takes for
granted that the meridian is exactly circular,—an assump¬
tion which, even supposing the method perfect in all
other respects, would lead to erroneous results, especially
in an arc of so great a magnitude as seven degrees. In
a small arc, of 1° for example, the error arising from the
non-sphericity of the earth will be insensible; for it is
certain, from the phenomena before explained, that the
deviation from the spherical figure is not very consider¬
able ; and besides, whatever the nature of the meridional
curve may be, it will sensibly coincide with its osculating
circle, throughout the extent of an arc of 1°. It has been
found by numerous and accurate experiments, that the
lengths of arcs of 1° on the same meridian are longer in
proportion as we advance nearer the pole. Hence, on ac¬
count of the similarity of the isosceles triangles of which
these arcs form the bases, their sides, or the terrestrial
radii, must also be longer, and consequently the convexity
of the earth is less towards the pole than at the equator.
I he surface of the earth is extremely irregular, even in¬
dependently of the inequalities occasioned by mountains
and cavities; yet it has been discovered that the meri¬
dional curves differ almost insensibly from ellipses; whence
it is concluded that the figure of the earth is an ellipsoid
of revolution about its shortest axis. In comparing the
results of the various measurements which have been
made with the formulae belonging to the dimensions of
such a body, this conclusion has been fully verified; and
the lengths of the arcs, the ellipticity, the distance of the
pole from the equator, and, in short, all the elements of
the spheroid, have been determined. The results of
theory and observation give an ellipticity amounting very
nearly to ; that is to say, the equatorial is to the polar
diameter in the ratio of 306 to 305. The following mav
be regarded as a very near approximation to the dimen¬
sions of the earth in English miles :—
Semidiameter of the equator 3963*7
Semidiameter of the pole 3949*8
Semidiameter at the latitude of 45° 3956*2
Ellipticity ^  13
Length of 1° of the meridian  69*06
Quarter of the meridian of Paris 6214*47
The figure of the earth is one of the most difficult and
most important questions of astronomy ; and as our limits
will not permit us to treat it in this place with all the de¬
tails which its importance renders necessary, we shall re¬
serve, for a separate article, an account of the different
geodetical operations which have been undertaken with a
view to determine it, together with the development of
the mathematical theory of its equilibrium. See Figure
of the Earth.
In describing the phenomena of the diurnal revolution,
we have supposed the eye of the spectator to be placed
ASTRONOMY.
in the centre of motion, on which supposition the appa-
• rent and true places of the celestial bodies will be the
' same. This, however, as is evident, can only be rigorous¬
ly true in respect of one point of the earth’s surface, and
is therefore most probably not true of any. Astronomers
have on this account agreed to refer all the motions to
the centre of the earth; that is, to consider the centre
of the earth as the centre of the celestial sphere, and to
regard as the true geocentric place of a star, that at which
it would appear to a spectator placed at the centre. But
the spectator is necessarily placed at the surface. In or¬
der, therefore, to render observations made at different
stations on the earth’s surface comparable with one ano¬
ther, we must consider what changes will be produced in
the apparent positions of the celestial bodies, in conse¬
quence of their being observed from a point not situated
in the centre of motion. (
Fig. 6. Let O' and O (fig. 6) be two stations on the earth s
Parallax, surface on the same meridian, from both of which a star
S is observed at the same time. As an object is always
seen in the direction of the visual ray, the spectator at O
will refer the star S to a certain point I on the surface of
the celestial sphere, while the spectator at O' will refer it
to a different point T in the direction O' P; and the differ¬
ence of the apparent places I and P depends on the mag¬
nitude of the angle OSO', which is subtended by the chord
of the arc 00'. If a third spectator could be placed at C,
the centre of the earth, the same star would appear to
him in the direction CS, and be referred to its true place
on the sphere at Q. Now, the difference between the
angles ZOS and ZCS, that is, the angle OSC, under which
the radius of the earth is seen by an observer at S, is
called the parallax of S. On account of the great dis¬
tance of the fixed stars, this angle is insensible with regard
to the least distant of them ; it is, however, very sensible
in the case of the moon, with regard to which it amounts
to about 1°. The greatest parallax of the nearest planets
does not exceed 30".
From the definition which has just been given, it ap¬
pears that the parallax of an object is the angle comprised
between two lines drawn from the object, the one to the
centre of the earth, and the other to any point whatever
on its surface. But it is evident, that while the distance
of S from the earth remains constant, the angle OSC will
vary with the angle ZOS, that is, with the distance of the
star from the zenith, or its altitude above the horizon.
Fig. 7- Let OH (fig. 7) represent the horizon. It is easy to
see that the angle OSC will have its greatest value when
OS touches the surface of the earth, or coincides with the
horizon OH, that is, when the angle ZOS r= 90°. It is
equally evident that the parallax OSC vanishes entirely
when the line CS coincides with CZ, that is, when the
object is in the zenith of the observer at O; hence the
parallax depends on the altitude of the object, according to
a law which we now proceed to determine.
Fig. 7. In the triangle OSC (fig. 7), we have sin. OSC: sin.
SOZ : : CO : CS, whence sin. OSC = ^p sin. SOZ. Let
the angle SOZ, or the zenith distance of the object — Z,
the semidiameter of the earth OC = a, the distance of
the object CS = r, and the parallax OSC = p, we have
then sin. p — - sin. Z. On account of the smallness of
•L r
the angle/*, which, as we have mentioned, in no case ex¬
ceeds 1°, the arc may be substituted for the sine (for their
difference even in an arc of 1° does not exceed 0"T8):
the above expression therefore becomes jo i= ^ sin. Z ;
that is to say, the parallax of an object is proportional to the Theoretical
sine of its zenith distance. At the zenith, Z = 0, there- Astronomy
fore sin. Z - 90, and the parallax vanishes: at the hori-^ '
zon, Z — 90°, and sin. Z = 1; the parallax, therefore, be¬
comes equal to -. In this case it is at its maximum, and
is denominated the Horizontal Parallax; in all other cases
it is called the Parallax of Altitude. Denoting the hori¬
zontal parallax by P, we have V = whence
p —Y sin. Z ;
that is to say, the parallax of altitude is equal to the hori¬
zontal parallax, multiplied by the sine of the apparent zenith
distance. It is evident that the apparent altitude SOH is
always less than the true altitude SBH, by the whole
amount of the parallax; the effect of the parallax is there¬
fore to depress the object, or increase its zenith distance;
hence, if 6 be the apparent altitude of the star, and & its
true altitude, d'will be found from the equation ^(tf + P)
sin. Z.
From the above results it is manifest, that if the hori¬
zontal parallax can be by any means determined, the
parallax at any other altitude will be found at the same
time. The determination of the horizontal parallax is,
however, attended with considerable difficulty, and vari¬
ous methods have been proposed and practised to ascer¬
tain its exact amount, modified by particular circum¬
stances in the cases of the different celestial bodies. The
method, however, which serves as the basis of all the
others is extremely simple, and exactly analogous to that
by which the distance of a remote object is determined
on the surface of the earth. Suppose two observers to
be stationed at the points O and O' (fig. 6), of which the Fig. 6.
latitudes are known, and which are both situated on the
same meridian, and let them simultaneously observe the
zenith distances of the star S; these observations will
give the angles ZOS, Z'O'S, whence their supplements
SOC and SO'C become known at the same time. A third
angle of the quadrilateral figure SOCO', namely OCO', is
also known, being measured by the meridional arc OMO',
the difference or sum of the latitudes of the two observ¬
ers, according as they are on the same or opposite sides
of the equator. The two sides also, CO and CO', being
semidiameters of the earth, are supposed to be known;
every part of the quadrilateral figure is therefore deter¬
mined, and its diagonal CS may be calculated by the rules
of plane trigonometry. But when CS is determined, the
horizontal parallax is obtained immediately from the for-
CO
mula P = -, that is, P = -p^-. On this principle the ho-
r Lo
rizontal parallax of t»he moon was determined by Lacaille
and Lalande, the former observing at the Cape of Good
Hope, and the latter at Berlin ; and the parallax of Mars
by Lacaille at the Cape, and Wargentin at Stockholm.
Let us suppose two lines to be drawn from the centre
of a planet touching the surface of the earth in points
diametrically opposite; the inclination of these two straight
lines is the double of the horizontal parallax; but the
same angle also measures the diameter of the earth as
seen from the planet: hence the horizontal parallax of a
planet is equal to the apparent semidiameter of the earth
at the distance of the planet. From this consideration
the true diameter, and consequently the volume, of a
planet may be found by measuring its apparent diame¬
ter, that is, the optical angle under which its diameter
appears when seen from the earth. Let d be the appa¬
rent, and D the true diameter of a planet; the angle ^d
is comprised between two straight lines drawn from the
8 ASTRO
Theoretical earth, the first of which is directed to the centre of the
Astronomy p]anet? and the last is a tangent to it: hence D = r
tan. \dox r sin. \d, according as r is the line which touches
the planet or that which is directed to its centre. Now,
on account of the smallness of the angle ^d, the sine and
tangent are sensibly equal to the arc; we may therefore
suppose in all cases Y) — r d. Combining this with the
D d
equation P = —, we deduce — = -p-; which gives the ra¬
tio between the true diameters of the planet and the eaith
in terms of the apparent magnitude and horizontal paral¬
lax of the planet. It follows also from this last equation
that or the ratio tlie aPParent diameter and paral¬
lax of a planet, is constant; the horizontal parallax may
therefore be found at any time whatever by measuring
the planet’s diameter.
From the equation Pr:—, we have rrr p; that is, the dis¬
tance of a planet from the earth is known in terms of its
parallax and the earth’s semidiameter. The parallaxes,
therefore, give the ratio of the distances of all the planets
from the earth, and consequently of their distances from
one another, and from the sun; hence the radius of the
earth furnishes the scale by which the astronomer mea¬
sures the dimensions of the whole solar system, and the
magnitudes or volumes of all the bodies of which it is
composed. On this account the accurate determination
of the parallaxes of the celestial bodies is a problem of
great importance in practical astronomy.
Fig. 7. If evident from the mere inspection of the figure,
that the plane in which the straight lines C S and O S are
situated is the vertical plane passing through S, conse¬
quently the whole effect of the parallax is to diminish the
altitude of a planet in its vertical circle. When the ob¬
servation, therefore, is made in the meridian, the effect of
the parallax is to alter the declination, without producing
any change whatever in the right ascension of the planet.
Out of the meridian it is necessary to have regard to the
azimuth or hour angle, as well as to the altitude, in calcu¬
lating the correction due to the parallax. When we sup¬
pose the earth to be spherical, the formulae for the calcu¬
lation of the parallax are extremely simple, because the
radius is constant, and the vertical line, or perpendicular
to the surface of the earth, passes through its centre.
But in the case of the true or elliptical figure of the earth
neither of these circumstances takes place. The radius
in this case is variable, and must be determined by a par¬
ticular process of computation for every point on the me¬
ridian ; and the vertical line, with reference to which the
latitude of the place and the altitudes are determined,
does not pass through the centre of the earth, but makes
different angles with the axis. These circumstances ren¬
der the calculation of the parallax a matter of much
greater complication and difficulty.
The term parallax in its general signification properly
denotes change of place. There are consequently various
kinds of parallaxes, such as parallax of right ascension, of
declination, longitude, latitude, &c. In what has preced¬
ed, we have supposed the earth to be at rest in the centre
of the universe, and therefore have had regard solely to
the variations produced in the apparent diurnal motions
by the eccentric position of the observer on the surface
of the earth, and which are comprehended generally under
the denomination of the diurnal parallax.
The effects of the diurnal parallax are only sensible
with regard to those bodies of which the distance from
the earth is not so great as to be incomparable with the
N O M Y.
earth’s semidiameter. That the apparent place of an ob-Theoretical
ject must be changed in consequence of a change in the
situation of the observer, is a simple geometrical truth
which no experiment was required to discover. The first
observers must accordingly have anticipated a parallax
in all the celestial bodies; and it was doubtless only
after considerable experience that they admitted the ex¬
istence of any exception to the general law. There is,
however, another cause of variation in the apparent posi¬
tions of the celestial bodies also connected with the earth,
the existence of which could not be known a priori, but
must have been discovered by experience alone. We al¬
lude to the refraction of the rays of light in passing through
the earth’s atmosphere.
The angular distance between two stars is found to un- Refraction
dergo very sensible variations at different hours of the
day. This phenomenon cannot be explained by any pro¬
per motion of the stars, because it evidently depends on
their altitude above the horizon; and the differences are
found to be the same daily at the same altitude. It is
most striking when we compare a star which, without set¬
ting, passes the meridian twice a day, once near the ze¬
nith, and the second time near the horizon, with another
star situated very near the pole, and of which the alti¬
tude is consequently nearly invariable. It will be found
that at the time of the first transit the distance between
the two stars is greater than at the second by nearly half
a degree. It is evident, therefore, that the phenomenon
consists in diminishing the distance between a star situated
in the horizon and the visible pole, that is to say, in^ ele¬
vating the stars, whereas the effect of the parallax, is to
depress them. The refraction also takes place in an
equal degree with regard to the fixed stars, and even the
moon and planets, without being in any degree modified
by the great differences in the distances of the celestial
bodies, contrary in this respect likewise to the parallax,
which depends entirely on the distance. The reason of
this will be evident from the consideration of the physical
cause of the phenomenon.
According to the known principles of optics, a ray of Theory of
light, in passing obliquely from one transparent medium refraction,
into another of a different density, does not hold on in its
rectilinear course, but is refracted, or bent towards the
denser medium. Now, the atmosphere which surrounds
the earth may be regarded as composed of an infinity of
concentric spherical strata, the densities of which are
greater in proportion as they are nearer to the earth’s sur¬
face. When a ray of light, therefore, proceeding from a
star enters the atmosphere, it is inflected towards the
earth, or bent so as to form a smaller angle with a per¬
pendicular to the surface of the earth ; and this inflection
will be increased by every successive stratum of the at¬
mosphere through which the light passes. In fig. 8, let Fig. a
AA', BB', CC', represent fhe boundaries of the successive
strata, which, for the sake of illustration, we here suppose
to have a finite thickness. A ray of light proceeding
from S comes in contact with the highest stratum of the
atmosphere AA' at a. The molecular attraction of this
atmospherical stratum, acting in the direction of a normal
to A A' at a, causes the luminous ray to deviate from the
direction S x, and assume another, a y, in which it would
continue to move if the atmosphere were equally dense
from A A' to the earth. But in the course of its progress
the ray penetrates another denser stratum at 6,. and con¬
sequently suffers another inflection ; so that instead of
proceeding in the direction a y, it is bent into a new direc¬
tion bz, more nearly perpendicular to the concentric strata.
A similar effect is produced at c, so that the luminous
ray, when it finally reaches the observer at O, has as-
astronomy.
9
Fig. 9.
Theoretical sumed the direction c O. In its progress from a to 0, it
Astronomy. has therefore successively moved in the direction ot e
sides of the polygon a, b, c, O ; and to the spectator at O,
the star from which it proceeded, instead of appearing in
its true place at S, will appear to be at S', or in the last
direction of the visual ray. Now, if A A' is the most ele¬
vated stratum of the atmosphere into which the ray enters
in the direction S a, it is clear that the whole eftect is
produced by the atmospherical strata situated below A ,
and that the length of S a is perfectly indifferent; hence
the refraction is entirely independent of the distance ot
the stars, provided they are beyond the limits ot the
earth’s atmosphere. ' , „
The decrease of the density of the atmosphere, from the
surface of the earth upwards, follows the law of continuity,
or takes place by insensible degrees; so that the luminous
ray, in traversing the atmosphere, enters at every instant
into a denser medium, and is therefore continually brought
nearer and nearer to the vertical direction. Hence the
true path of the ray is curvilinear, and concave towards
the earth, as represented in fig. 9. This is equivalent to
the supposition that the thickness of the different concen¬
tric strata of uniform density is infinitely small, and that
the lio-ht, as it successively penetrates each, deviates from
its former path by an infinitely small angle, which may be
considered as the differential of the refraction, the total
amount of which will therefore be obtained by integration.
The direction of the ray, when it reaches the eye of the
observer, is the tangent to the last portion of its curvilinear
path; and the apparent zenith distance of the star will be
ZOS', while the real zenith distance is ZOS. The difference
of these two angles, namely S'OS, is what is denominated
the Astronomical Refraction. It is evident that the whole
path of the ray is confined to the vertical plane, in which
the star and the eye of the observer are situated; for the
earth and its atmosphere being very nearly spherical,
that plane will divide the strata symmetrically; there will
therefore be no displacement in a lateral direction, or
no refraction out of the vertical plane. When the ob¬
served star is due north or south, the vertical plane is the
plane of the meridian; hence, in meridional observations,
the whole of the refraction, like that of the parallax, takes
place in declination, while the right ascension remains un-
altered.
J u. It is evident that the amount of the refraction is greater
retraction. in proportion as the observed star is nearer to the horizon ;
for in this case the luminous rays strike the tangent planes
of the atmospherical strata more obliquely, and have be-
sides to traverse a greater extent ot atmosphere before
they arrive at the eye of the observer. On determining
by experiment the refraction at every altitude fiom
to 90°, tables of Refraction may be constructed, which
will furnish the means of discovering the law of its dimi¬
nution; but as such a process would be exceedingly
tedious, and likewise subject to lead to erroneous results
on account of the inevitable errors of observation, it is
found more convenient to assume some hypothesis for
a basis of calculation, and to verify the results which
it leads to by comparing them with observation. In
regard to media which may be said to be permanent, such,
for instance, as water and glass, the determination of
the refraction is not attended with great difficulty; but
the circumstances are greatly altered when we come to
make experiments on the atmosphere. In this case the
difficulty arises from the incessant changes which the at¬
mosphere is undergoing relatively to its refringent powers ,
changes which it is impossible for the observer fully
to appreciate, inasmuch as he can only determine its
physical state within a short distance of the earth, while
that of the upper strata remains wholly unknown to him. Theoretical
The refringent power of the atmosphere is affected by its
density and temperature. The effects of the humidity are
insensible; for the most accurate experiments seem to
prove that the watery vapours diminish the density of the
air in the same ratio as their refractive power is greater.
It is therefore only necessary, even in delicate experiments,
to have regard to the state of the barometer and thermo¬
meter at the time the observation is made. At a medium
density, and at the temperature of melting ice, it was
found by Biot and Arago, from a great number ot exact
experiments, that at any altitude between 10° a^d l“e
zenith the refraction is very nearly represented by the
formula r = 60"-6 tan. (Z — 3*25 x r), m which r is
the refraction corresponding to a given zenith distance z,.
With the exception of the numerical co-efficients, this for¬
mula was first given by Bradley ; but whether it was de¬
duced from theory by that great astronomer, or was only
empirical, is uncertain. Bradley’s formula was r = 5/
tani (Z  3 X r). WTien the direction of the lumi¬
nous rays makes a smaller angle than 10° with the horizon,
it becomes indispensable to take into account, in the cal¬
culation of the refraction, the law of the variation ot the
density of the atmosphere at different altitudes; a law
which is subject to incessant variation, from the operation
of winds, and other causes which agitate the atmosphere,
as well as the decrease of temperature in the superior
regions. For this reason all astronomical observations
which have not refraction directly for their object, or
which are by their nature independent of its influence,
are made at an elevation exceeding 10°. For lower
altitudes, it is to be feared that no theory will ever be
found sufficiently exact to entitle the observations to
much confidence. „ . . u
The existence of the atmospherical refraction was not un- r irst ob-
known to the ancient astronomers ; but it is only in modern serva^ions
times that the subject has been studied with the requisite
3 .aw of
care to admit of its influence being calculated in the reduc¬
tion of observations. Ptolemy does not allude to the subject
in the Almagest, but he has given a sufficiently exact idea
of it in his work on Optics. He mentions experiments
made to ascertain how far a ray of light is bent from its
rectilinear course in passing from air into glass and water ;
and observes that the astronomical refraction brings a
star nearer to the zenith, and that it is feebler in propor¬
tion as the star is more elevated. He likewise indicates
a method of measuring its effects, although he does not
seem to have attempted to practise it. The same notions,
but in a less precise form, were reproduced in the Optics
of Alhazen. Walther began to estimate the effects of re¬
fraction near the horizon; and dycho, a century aftei,
found the means of measuring them with greater accuracy,
and was thereby enabled to construct a table, lycho es¬
timated the horizontal refraction at 34', and supposed it
to vanish at the altitude of 45°; which proves that his
ideas on the subject were less accurate than those of
Ptolemy, who says expressly that it vanished only at the
zenith. Dominic Cassini was the first who proposed an hy¬
pothesis for calculating the refraction at any altitude ? and
he computed a table, which was published in 1662. Since
that time the subject of refraction has been investigated,
theoretically and practically, with the most scrupulous and
delicate attention, and tables constructed to exhibit its^
amount at every altitude, and at the different seasons of
the year. (See Mecanique Celeste, tom. iv. p. 231; Mr
Ivory’s Paper in the Phil. Trans, for 1823, p. 409; De-
lambre, Astronomic du xviii. Siecle, p. 774.)
The refringent power of the atmosphere gives rise to a
number of curious phenomena. When the sun appears in
tion.
B
VOL. IV.
10
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical the horizon, the rays of light which issue from the extre-
Astronomy. mities of his vertical diameter are refracted unequally on
account of the difference of altitude, so that the disk, at
pearance other times circular, then assumes an oval appearance;
of the sun and on measuring the horizontal and vertical diameters by
and moon means of the micrometer, the former is sometimes found
in the ho- to exceed the latter by four or five minutes of a degree,
rizon. This effect is particularly remarkable when the sun is ob¬
served at his rising or setting from the top of a mountain,
or an elevation near the sea-shore, in which cases the dif¬
ference of the two diameters sometimes, in particular
states of the atmosphere, amounts to upwards of 6', or a
fifth of the whole apparent diameter of the sun. In the
case of the moon this oval appearance is seldom so per¬
ceptible ; for unless she happens to be exactly full, or in
opposition, at the same time that she is in the hori¬
zon—and this can rarely be the case—the defect of the
illumination of her disk reduces her figure to those
rounder but somewhat irregular shapes which it often
exhibits. The horizontal refraction being equal to the
apparent diameter of the sun or moon, it happens also
that either of these luminaries, and consequently any
other of the celestial bodies, may be entirely visible
above the plane of the horizon, when in fact it has set
below it. A curious instance of this was observed at
Paris in 1750. The moon rose eclipsed, while the sun,
whose place at the time of a lunar eclipse is diametrically
opposite to that of the moon, still appeared above the ho¬
rizon. Another phenomenon occasioned by the refraction
of the atmosphere is the appearance of the moon when
she is eclipsed, or immersed in the earth’s shadow, and
consequently receives no light directly from the sun. On
these occasions her disk continues distinctly visible, and
is of a dusky red colour, exhibiting the appearance of
tarnished copper, or iron nearly red-hot. This phenome¬
non occasioned great perplexity to the ancient astrono¬
mers who were unacquainted with the refractive powers
of the atmosphere; and some of them ascribed it to the
native light of the moon, in virtue of which she continues
visible when hid from the sun’s rays. Plutarch ingeniously
supposed it to be occasioned by the light of the stars re¬
flected from the dark surface of the moon; but the quan¬
tity of this light is greatly too small to produce the effect
in question. It is now explained by the scattered beams
of light bent into the earth’s shadow by refraction in
their passage through the atmosphere.
Twilight. The refraction of the rays of light in traversing the
earth’s atmosphere is the cause of Twilight, which sensibly
lengthens the duration of the day, and prevents a sudden
transition from light to darkness on the disappearance
of the sun. When the sun is more than 33' below the
horizon, the refraction is not powerful enough to bring
his rays sufficiently near the earth to reach our eyes;
they pass over our heads, and are irregularly reflected
by the molecules of the atmosphere. By this means a
portion of the celestial vault is enlightened, while the
sun is invisible. This illumination of the upper regions
is called the twilight. It commences as soon as ob¬
jects can be distinguished before sun-rise, and terminates
when they cease to be visible after the sun has set. The
time, however, at which the twilight commences and ter¬
minates cannot be assigned with any degree of precision.
It is generally supposed to be limited by the depression
of the sun 18° below the horizon. Lacaille found the li¬
mit in the torrid zone to be between 16° and 17°. Ac¬
cording to Lemonnier, it varies in France between 17°
and 21°. The duration of the twilight will evidently be
longer or shorter according as the inclination of the plane
of the sun’s orbit to the horizon is more or less oblique.
To assign the time at which it is a maximum or mini- Theoretical
mum, or of a given length at a given latitude, is a pro-Astronomy-
blem of pure geometry, which has been frequently solved
since the time of the Bernoullis.
The scintillation or twinkling of the stars is another Scintilla-
phenomenon produced by certain modifications of atmo-Bon of the
spherical refraction. The atmosphere is at all times more stars‘
or less agitated ; and on this account the clusters of mole¬
cules of which it is composed are constantly undergoing mo¬
mentary compressions and dilatations, which occasion mi¬
nute differences of refraction, and consequent changes in
the directions of the luminous rays. The minute and ra¬
pid variation^ thus occasioned in the apparent places of
the stars produce the twinkling or tremulous appearances
which, in certain states of the atmosphere, particularly on
the approach of rain after a long drought, are very re¬
markable. The agitations of the atmosphere are mani¬
fest to the eye in the tremulous motion of the shadows
cast from high towers, and in looking at objects through
the smoke of a chimney, or over beds of hot sand. The
scintillation of the planets is much less than that of the
stars. This proceeds from the magnitude of their disks,
which, although apparently very small, are still far greater
than those of the fixed stars, and indeed so considerable,
that the accidental variations in the directions of the rays
of light are too minute to displace them entirely. The
borders of their disks are affected only by a slight undula¬
tion ; whereas the stars, which are merely brilliant points
of insensible magnitude, undergo a total displacement.
The apparent enlargement of the sun and moon in the Horizon-
horizon is an optical illusion, connected in some measure tal moon,
with the atmosphere, of which various explanations have
been given since the time of Ptolemy. According to the
ordinary laws of vision, the celestial bodies, particularly
the moon, which is nearest to the earth, ought to appear
largest in the meridian, because their distance is then less
than when they are near the horizon; and yet daily ex¬
perience proves that the contrary takes place. To an ob¬
server placed at E (fig. 10), the visual angle subtended by Fig. 10.
the moon in the horizon at M is somewhat less than that
under which she appears in the zenith at O ; and this fact, a
consequence indeed of her circular motion, is proved by
accurate measurements of her diameters in those circum¬
stances by the micrometer. The mean apparent diameter
of the moon, at her greatest height, is 31' in round num¬
bers, but in the horizon she seems to the eye two or three
times larger. The commonly received explanation of this
phenomenon was first given by Descartes, and after him
by Dr Wallis, James Gregory, Malebranche, Huygens,
and others, and may be stated as follows. The opinion
which we form of the magnitude of a distant body does
not depend exclusively on the visual angle under which
it appears, but also on its distance ; and we judge of the
distance by a comparison with other bodies. When the
moon is near the zenith there is no interposing object
with which we can compare her, the matter of the atmo¬
sphere being scarcely visible. Deceived by the absence of
intermediate objects, we suppose her to be very near. On
the other hand, we are used to observe a large extent of
land lying between us and objects near the horizon, at
the extremity of which the sky begins to appear; we
therefore suppose the sky, with all the objects which are
visible in it, to be at a great distance. The illusion is also
greatly aided by the comparative feebleness of the light
of the moon in the horizon, which renders us in a manner
sensible of the interposition of the atmosphere. Hence
the moon, though seen under nearly the same angle, al¬
ternately appears very large and very small. Desaguliers
illustrated the doctrine of the horizontal moon on the
astronomy.
TheoreUcal supposition of our imagining the visible heavens to be
Astronomy. only a small portion of a spherical surface, P (S
jq\ ;n which case the moon, at different altitudes,
FiS- 10- appear to be at different distances, and therefore seem to
vary in magnitude, as at », n, o. It is evident, however
that this affords no explanation of the phenomenon; for
why does the sky, it may be asked, appear to be a smalle
segment than a hemisphere ? In the solution of t is que -
tion the whole difficulty is contained. _
It may be remarked that these illusions disappear as
soon as the intermediate objects are concealed from view.
They may be destroyed by regarding the moon thr°^
a tube, which permits her disk alone to be seen, and
this manner she will appear no larger at the horizon than
near the zenith. The same effect may be produced by
viewing her through a smoked glass, because
tint permits only the luminous object to be seen, com
ceals all the rest. The only precaution necessary to be
observed in making this experiment, is to place the eye
such a position that the surrounding bodies may not be
visible.
CHAP. II.
OF THE SUN.
gECT X of the Apparent Circular Motion of the Sun in
the 'Ecliptic, and Position of the Ecliptic in Space.
The consideration of the diurnal motion common to all
the celestial bodies, and the succession of day and night
resulting from it, forms the first object of astronomy. Ihe
second is to pass from the diurnal motion of the sphere to
the proper motion of the sun, and from the vicissitudes of
the day to the seasons of the year. The sun, as has a -
ready been remarked, is constantly shifting his place
among the stars. If we observe the altitude of any star,
or group of stars, above the eastern horizon at sun-set,we
shall find, on making the same observation a few days af¬
terwards, that its elevation is considerably increased, and
that it has approached nearer to the meridian. At the
end of three months it will appear at sun-set on the meri¬
dian, and from that time continue to advance nearer and
nearer to the sun, till it is at last concealed by the splen¬
dour of his rays. After remaining for some time invisible,
it will again make its appearance in the morning to the
westward of the sun, and its distance from him will con¬
tinue to increase daily, till, at the end of a year, it has
made a complete circuit of the sky, and regained the po¬
sition it occupied at the time of the first observation.
The earliest observers explained this phenomenon by sup¬
posing the diufnal motion of the sun to be less rapid than
that of the stars, in consequence of which he constantly
falls behind them. This supposition would be admissible
if the sun remained constantly in the plane of the equa¬
tor • but as he deviates considerably from that plane,
on both sides of it, it is infinitely more simple to ascribe
to the sun a motion of his own, independent of the diur¬
nal motion, and performed in a contrary direction, in vir¬
tue of which he traces an oblique route among the star®-
Sun’s The oblique path of the sun may be determined by ob-
course serving the positions of the stars near which, he succes
in the sive]y passes in the course of the year. The same object
heavens- is however accomplished with much greater precision by
the modern practice of observing his declinations and
right ascensions, that is to say, his distances from the
equator, and an arbitrary meridian. In this manner his
place may be accurately assigned every day ; and by a
repetition of similar observations, a series of points wil
be obtained on the surface of the celestial sphere, whic i
11
mark out his annual course. The result of constant
perience shows, that the declination reaches its maximum ,  ,
on the south side of the equator about the 22d of De¬
cember, when it amounts to 23-465 degrees From this
time it gradually diminishes till about the 21st of Maich,
when the sun reaches the plane of the equator. At this
time the days and nights are of equal ength all over the
earth, and the instant of time at which the sun s centre
is in the equatorial plane is called the instant of the
equinox. The sun then appears on the opposite side of
the equator, and his declination or meridional altitude
continues to increase till about the 22d of June, when he
becomes stationary, and then again shapes his course
towards the equator. His maximum declination on the
north side of the equator is exactly equal to that on the
south, amounting to 23°;465. The sun now continues to
approach the equator till about the 24th of Septembe ,
when he again reaches that plane, and a second equi¬
nox succeeds. Continuing still to move in the same di¬
rection, he declines from the equator southward, till he
reaches his former limit about the 22d of December, after
which he resumes his former course. Tronics
The two small circles of the sphere, parallel to the P
equator, which pass through the two points where the de¬
clination is great, are called the Solstices or the Tropics;
that on the northern hemisphere is called ^ Tropic of
Cancer, and the other is called the Tropic of Capricorn.
These two parallels, which mark the extreme limits of
the sun’s declination, are, as has just been stated, equally
distant from the equator, with regard to which the varia¬
tions of declination on either side are perfectly symme¬
trical and uniform. . . .,
If at the time of the vernal equinox we remark the
stars which set in the true west while the sun is rising in
the east, and which are then separated from him by a semi-
circumference, it will be found that the difference of their
right ascensions, and the right ascensions of those which
have precisely a similar situation relatively to the sun at
the time of the autumnal equinox, is exactly 1HO . it
follows, therefore, that the solar orbit intersects the equa¬
tor in two points diametrically opposite ; but> we have seen
that its northern and southern declinations are equal;
hence the orbit projected on the sphere must be a great
circle, provided it lies wholly in the same plane. Whether
this is the case or not it will be easy to prove by means o
a few observations, in the following manner.
Let AQ (fig. 11) be the equator, AE the orbit of the Fig. .
sun PSM, PTN two circles of declination, drawn through
any two points S and T of the orbit. If the sun’s path is
confined to a plane, then AE must be a great circle, and
tan. MS
we shall have the equation sin. AM— — . MAS’ accord"
mg to the well-known properties of spherical triangles.
Let the cotangent of the unknown but constant angle
MAS = w, the declinations MS = D, NT = D', the right
ascensions AM=M, ANrzfE'.; then, according to the
above formula, we must have sin. M = n tan. D, and sin.
fE' = w tan. D', at whatever points of the orbit b and I
may be situated. From these two last equations there result
also cos. M-VT—iPtimFD, cos. ^' = Vl—^ tan.2 D',
which, being substituted in the trigonometrical formula
sin. (fE'—!)=sin. .E'cos. iE—cos. M’ sin. JE, we shall
have sin. (M'—M)z=n tan. D' Vl—n2 tan.2 D n tan. D
VI —n2 tan.2 D'. The observations of the meridional al¬
titudes will give the declinations D and D'; and the dif¬
ference of right ascensions, JE'—M, will be found by com¬
paring the time of the sun’s culmination, or transit over
12
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical the meridian, with that of a star. If, therefore, it is
found that, by assigning a certain constant value to n, this
equation will satisfy all the observations, combined by
pairs, of the sun’s right ascensions and declinations, it will
follow that the plane determined by any two points in
the sun’s course and the point in which it intersects the
equator, has always the same inclination to the equator;
in other words, all the planes so determined are identical.
Now the observations of the sun’s right ascensions and
meridional altitudes, which have been made daily during
so great a number of years, and under so many different
meridians, are found to conform entirely with the preced¬
ing formulae: they therefore furnish so many proofs that
the projection of the sun’s orbit is a great circle of the
celestial sphere, and that the orbit itself is wholly confined
to the same plane.
Ecliptic. The great circle which the sun describes in virtue of
his proper motion is called the Ecliptic. It has received
this name from the circumstance that the moon, during
eclipses, is either in the same plane or very near it.
These phenomena can in fact only happen when the sun,
earth, and moon are nearly in the same straight line,
and, consequently, when the moon is in the same plane
with the earth and the sun. The angle formed by the
planes of the ecliptic and equator, and which is measured
by the arc of a circle of declination intercepted between
the equator and tropic, is called the Obliquity of the Ecliptic.
The two points in which the equator and ecliptic intersect
each other are called the Equinoctial Points : they are also
denominated the Nodes of the Equator ; and the straight
line conceived to join them is the Line of the Equinoxes, or
the Line of the Nodes. The node through which the sun
passes on coming from the south to the north of the equa¬
tor is called the Ascending Node, and is usually distin¬
guished by the character Q ; the opposite node is the
Descending Node, and is marked by £?. A straight line
passing through the centre of the earth, perpendicular to
the plane of the ecliptic, is called the Axis, and the
points in which its prolongation meets the sphere are
called the Poles, of the Ecliptic ; these denominations be¬
ing analogous to those of the axis and poles of the equa¬
tor. The two small circles of the sphere which pass
through the poles of the ecliptic, and are parallel to the
equator, are called the Polar Circles.
Signs of The ecliptic has been divided by astronomers, from time
the zodiac, immemorial, into twelve equal parts, called Signs, each of
which consequently contains 30 degrees. The names and
symbols by which they are characterized are as follows :—
North of the Equator.
Aries 
Taurus  &
Gemini  n
Cancer  05
Leo  a
Virgo  nji
Nodes.
South of the Equator.
Libra 
Scorpio  rti
Sagittarius  f
Capricornus 
Aquarius  ~
Pisces  x
In each of these signs the ancients formed groups of
stars, which they denominated asterisms, constellations,
animals (£w<W), not confined to the ecliptic, but included
within an imaginary belt, extending 8° on each side of it,
to which they gave the name of Zodiac (gud/axo; xuxXos,
circle or zone of the animals). The term sign is now em¬
ployed only to denote an arc of 30°, and will probably
soon be banished entirely from the astronomical tables.
It is already confined to the tables of the planets. Thus,
to denote that the longitude of a planet is 276° 12', it is
usual to write 9s 6° 12'. Formerly it was usual to employ
the characteristic symbol, and to write vy 6° 12', meaning
that the planet was 12' in the 6th degree of Capricornus^
or the tenth sign. This inconvenient practice is now laid Theoretical
aside, and the signs, when they are employed, are simply Astronomy,
distinguished by the ordinal numbers. *
As the greater part of the celestial phenomena con¬
nected with the planetary system take place either in the
ecliptic or in planes not greatly inclined to it, it is found
to be most convenient to refer the positions of the planets,
and frequently those of the stars also, to that plane. The
first point of Aries, which is the technical expression for
the intersection of the ecliptic and equator, or the place of
the sun at the vernal equinox, is assumed as the origin from
which the degrees of the equator, as well as of the ecliptic,
are counted from west to east, or in the direction of the
sun's annual motion. The angular distance of the sun from
this point is called his Longitudei and the longitude of a
star is the arc intercepted on the ecliptic between the same
point and a great circle passing through the star perpendi¬
cular to the ecliptic. The arc of this circle intercepted be¬
tween the star and the ecliptic, or, which is the same thing,
the complement of the star's distance from the pole of the
ecliptic, is called the Latitude of the star; so that longitude
and latitude are with regard to the ecliptic what right ascen¬
sion and declination are with regard to the equator. Thus,
letO<Y,Q(fig. 12) be the equator, IqpL the ecliptic, P and Fig. 12.
E the north poles of these two circles respectively, and S B
the place of a star. Having drawn through the* pole of
the ecliptic and the star the great circle ESM perpendi¬
cular to the ecliptic in M, then is the longitude of S,
counted on the ecliptic from the vernal point towards
the east; and SM, the distance of the star from the eclip¬
tic, is its latitude ; and for this reason all great circles pass¬
ing through the poles of the ecliptic are called Circles of
Latitude. The place of a star is thus determined by its
longitude and its latitude SM, as well as by its right
ascension <y>R, and its declination SR; and when the an¬
gle L<Y>Qis known, it is easy to pass from the one system
of co-ordinates to the other by means of the formulae of
spherical trigonometry. These formulae are of constant
use, for it is the declinations and right ascensions only
which are directly observed.
The plane of the sun's orbit will be determined com- Obliquity
pletely when its inclination to the equator and the posi-of the
tion of the line of the nodes in space have been made echptic.
known by observation. The declination of the sun twice
a year, namely, at the summer and winter solstice, is
equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic; whence, if the sol¬
stice happened exactly at mid-day, the obliquity would
be given directly by an observation of his meridional alti¬
tude. This circumstance, however, can happen only
for one terrestrial meridian ; but as the declination of the
sun when he approaches the tropics varies little from one
day to another, his greatest observed declination will be
a very near approximation to the obliquity, at whatever
part of the earth the observation may have been made.
It is easy, however, to correct the error which results
from the observation being made on a meridian different
from the solstitial colure. Taking an example from
Woodhouse, let us suppose the sun’s declination to be ob¬
served on three successive days (the 20th, 21st, and 22d
of June), and found to be on these days respectively,
23° 27' 37", 23° 27' 41", 23° 27' 20";
then it is obvious, that if the middle observation gave the
greatest inclination exactly, the other two would differ
from it equally, which they do not. The maximum de¬
clination is therefore a quantity somewhat different from
23° 27'41”; and it is easy to conclude, from the inspection
of the numbers, that it is nearer to 23° 27' 41" than to
either of the other two. It is obvious, therefore, that that
observation must have been made within 12 hours of the
astronomy.
Plate
LXXVII.
Fig. 13.
Theoretical time when the sun was exactly in the solstitial point. In
Astronomy order to form an exact notion of the amount ot erro^
which may possibly arise from this circumstance, let b
13) be the place of the sun at the time of the obser¬
vation, and X the true but as yet unknown solstitial
point, and S s, Xx meridional arcs intersecting the equa¬
tor in s and x. The arc S X must be less than 30', for in
12 hours the variation of the sun’s longitude does not ex¬
ceed an arc of that magnitude. Suppose it 30': then,
by Napier’s rules,
sin. Ss = sin. •Y’ X sin. S cf',
and sin. Xx — sin. <¥ X sin. X cip ;
whence, on eliminating sin. nr, and observing that
sin. X cr = sin. 90° = 1, we shall have
_ sin. S s _ sin. S s
sin. x — • _ ^ vr*
sin. Snr cos. b A.
Bv taking, according to the observation, S s = 23° 2/'41",
and SX = 30', we shall find from the logarithmic tables
Xx = 23° 27' 44",5. It will be observed that SO7 is the
maximum error in longitude ; if instead of 30 it had
been supposed only 3', the corresponding error in declina¬
tion would have amounted only to O'^OSo. In the example
chosen, the error of longitude is about 20', whence the er¬
ror of declination is r-5 nearly, and consequently the re¬
sulting obliquity differs little from 23“ 27 42 -5. This
result is, however, to be understood of the apparent obli¬
quity, which is subject to slight variations, depending on
the longitudes of the moon’s nodes: the mean obliquity
13
deduced from the comparison of a great number of obser- Theoretical
vations, both of the summer and winter solstice, may be Astronomy
regarded as amounting to 23° 27' 41" at the commence-
ment of the year 1830. We shall see, when we come to
speak of the Nutation, in what the difference between the
apparent and mean obliquity consists. .
When the mean value of the obliquity of the ecliptic,
as determined by the delicate instruments of the present
day, is compared with that given by ancient observations,
it appears to have undergone a progressive diminution,
and is always greater as the observation is more remote.
The ancient observers were not, indeed, possessed of the
means of determining an element of this sort with great
precision; but as all the observations recorded in history
agree in making the obliquity greater in former times than
it is now, the probability is almost infinite that the angle
formed by the planes of the equator and ecliptic has
really diminished; for, had the differences of the values
assigned to it arisen solely from errors of observation,
they would have been in excess and defect indifferently,
instead of being, as they are, uniformly in excess. Ihe
various observations and traditions by which the progres¬
sive diminution of the obliquity is confirmed have been
collected by Bailly; in the following table we have in¬
serted those which appear to be the best authenticated,
and have added the results of some recent observations,
from which can be deduced the present value of the obli¬
quity, and the rate ot its diminution.
-• ’ • ’ -i-i;...—their totality
Secular
miDutioti. ““ according'to which the obliquity varies, their totality
greater number of astronomers, estimated the diminution
of 44" in a hundred years; a result to which he was led
chiefly by a comparison of his own observations with
those of Walther. Lalande, after comparing an immense
number of modern observations with those of the I/th,
16th, and 15th centuries, and also with those of the Ara¬
bians and Chinese, found the secular diminution to be oO
wiien tuctt win   ' ■ a ui * •
earth be deprived, in consequence, of the agreeable vicis¬
situde of the seasons. But the theory of universal gravi¬
tation, which has revealed the cause of the diminution,
has also shown that there are certain limits which the an¬
gle of the two planes can never exceed, and between
which it must continue for ever to oscillate. Geometers
have not yet ventured to assign the precise extent of these
’“i" "n,1 ‘■"“"f b® aeTC^ed the slcukr dirainu- each other during the last 2000 years, will, in the course
from the deter- of some thousands of years more, begin to recede.
tain, and comparing those
since the time of Bradley,
tion at 45"*7, which differs inconsiderably from the
mination of Lacaille. It cannot, yet be determined by
observation whether this diminution is uniform, or acce¬
lerated. or retarded; but so slow is the rate at which it
of years more, oegm ro reeeuc. Displace-
In what has yet been said respecting the diminution otent of
the obliquity of the ecliptic, no fact has been mentioned the eclip-
from which it can be inferred, whether the phenomenon is tic.
14
Precession
of the
Astronnmv occasio"e(1 by ^ displacement of the plane of the eclip-
^ fiat of the equator. This question may also be de¬
cided by a comparison of modern with ancient observa¬
tions ; for it is evident, that if the inclination of these two
planes becomes less, the stars which are situated between
them, particularly those near the solstitial colure, will ap¬
pear to approach to that plane which changes its posi¬
tion; so that if the ecliptic is displaced, the latitudes of
those stars will be diminished, or their declinations if the
displacement belongs to the equator. It was first ob¬
served by lycho, and the observation has been confirmed
by succeeding astronomers, that the latitudes of the south¬
ern stars situated near the solstitial colure, that is, of
those stars whose longitudes are nearly 90°, have dimi¬
nished upwards of 20' since the time of Hipparchus and
Ptolemy, while the latitudes of the northern stars have
undergone a corresponding augmentation. From this fact
it is proved that the diminution of the obliquity is occa¬
sioned by the displacement of the ecliptic; and theory
has shown that the cause of the displacement is the ac¬
tion of the planets, particularly of Jupiter and Venus, on
the earth, by virtue of which the plane of the earth’s or¬
bit is drawn nearer to the planes of the orbits of these two
planets. This, however, though by far the most consider¬
able, is not the sole cause of the phenomenon; for theory
also shows that a slight motion of the plane of the equa¬
tor is produced by the attraction of the sun and moon,
but so very minute that its effects will only become ap¬
preciable after a long series of ages.
After determining the inclination of the plane of the
ecliptic to that of the equator, the only element requisite
equinoxes. to gx p0Sit;0n absolutely in space, is the situation of
the straight line formed by its intersection with that plane,
that is to say, the line of the nodes. The longitudes of the
stars, as has already been mentioned, are counted on the
ecliptic from the vernal equinox; and therefore, if the line of
tFe equinoxes, which is the same as the line of the nodes,
is invariable, the longitude of any star will always be the
same, whatever interval of time may elapse between two
observations of that longitude. But on comparing the ac¬
tual state of the heavens with the observations recorded
by ancient astronomers, it is perceived that the longitudes
of all the stars are considerably increased; whence we must
infer, either that the whole firmament has advanced in
the order of the signs, or that the equinoctial points have
gone backwards, or retrograded. The latter supposition
is infinitely the more probable; for it is inconceivable
that the innumerable multitude of stars should have a
common motion relatively to points which depend solely
on the motion of the earth. The phenomenon is there¬
fore to be explained by attributing to the equinoctial
points a retrograde motion from east to west, in conse¬
quence of which, the sun, whose motion is direct, arrives
at them sooner than if they remained at rest; and there¬
fore the equinoxes, spring, autumn, and the other seasons,
happen before the sun has completed an entire circuit.
On this account the motion has been denominated the
Precession of the Equinoxes. As this motion is extremely
slow, its exact amount can be discovered only by a com¬
parison of observations separated from each other by lono-
intervals of time; but the imperfection of instruments
prior to the sixteenth century renders the ancient obser¬
vations of little authority where quantities so minute are
concerned, and therefore some discrepancies may be ex¬
pected in the different determinations of the amount of
the precession. The comparison of modern observations
with those of Hipparchus gives its annual amount equal
to 50f seconds, and with those of Ptolemy somewhat
greater. The mean result of the observations of Tycho,
ASTRONOMY.
compared with those of Lacaille, gives 50''i. On com- Theoretical
paring modern observations with one another, we find Astrononiy-
50 *06. Delambre, in his solar tables, supposes the an-^-^^^^
nual precession to be equal to 50"T. According to this
estimate the equinoctial points go backwards at the rate
of one degree in 71'6 years nearly, and therefore will make
a complete revolution of the heavens in about 25,868, or
nearly 26 thousand years.
The discovery of the precession of the equinoxes is ge¬
nerally attributed to Hipparchus, who, on comparing
his own observations with those of Timocharis, more an¬
cient by 160 years, perceived that in this interval the
longitudes of the stars had been augmented by about two
degrees. It would seem, however, from many proofs col¬
lected by Badly, that this motion, slow as it is, was known
to all the ancient nations who cultivated astronomy, lono-
before the time of Hipparchus. It is indeed easy to com
ceiye, from the great attention which they gave to the
heliacal risings of the remarkable stars, that they might ob¬
serve a gradual change of the seasons at the occurrence
of these phenomena, from which they would necessarily
be led to conclude a variation of the star’s longitude. In
consequence of this regression of the equinoctial points,
the sun’s place among the zodiacal constellations at any
given season of the year is now greatly different from
what it was in remote ages. Some time prior to Hippar¬
chus, the first points of Aries and Libra corresponded to
the vernal and autumnal equinoxes; those of Cancer and
Capricorn to the summer and winter solstices: at present
these constellations have separated 30 degrees from the
same points of the ecliptic. The vernal equinox now hap¬
pens in the constellation Pisces, the summer solstice in
Gemini, the autumnal equinox in Virgo, and the winter
solstice in Sagittarius. Astronomers, however, still count
the signs from the vernal equinox, which, therefore, always
corresponds to the first point of the Sign of Aries. On
this account it is necessary to distinguish carefully between
the Signs of the Zodiac, which are fixed with regard to
the equinoxes, and the Constellations, which are movable
with respect to those points.
The diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic arises Physical
from the displacement of the ecliptic itself; the precession causeofthe
of the equinoxes is, on the contrary, occasioned by the P£ecession
continual displacement of the plane of the terrestrial the
equator. This displacement results from the combinede(iU n0XeS'
action of the sun and moon (for the influence of the
planets amounts only to a fraction of a second, and is con¬
sequently scarcely sensible,) on the mass of protuberant
matter accumulated about the earth’s equator, or the
matter which forms the excess of the terrestrial spheroid
above its inscribed sphere. The attracting force of the
sun and moon on this shell of matter may be resolved
into two; one parallel to the plane of the equator, the
other perpendicular to it. The tendency of this last force
is to diminish the angle which the plane of the equator
makes with that of the ecliptic; and if the earth had no
motion of rotation, it would soon cause the two planes
to coincide. In consequence, however, of the rotatory
motion of the earth, the inclination of the two planes re¬
mains constant; but the effect produced by the action of
the force in question is, that the plane of the equator is
constantly shifting its place, in such a manner that the
line of the equinoxes advances in the direction of the
diurnal motion, or contrary to the order of the signs, its
pole having a slow angular motion about the pole of the
ecliptic, so slow indeed, that it requires nearly 26,000
years to complete its revolution.
If the sun and moon moved in the plane of the equator, Nutation,
there would evidently be no precession ; and the effect of
A S T R O N O M Y.
15
Theoretical their action in producing it varies with their distance from
Astronomy, that plane. Twice a year, therefore, the eitect o
sun in causing precession is nothing; and twice a year,
namely at the solstices, it is a maximum : on no two suc¬
cessive days of the year is it exactly the same, and
consequently the regression of the equinoctial points,
which results from the sun’s action, must be unequable.
On this account the obliquity of the ecliptic is subject to
a semi-annual variation; for the sun’s force, which tends to
produce a change in the obliquity, is variable, while the
diurnal motion of the earth, which prevents the change from
taking place, is constant. Hence the plane of the equator
is subject to an irregular motion, which is technically called
the Solar Nutation. The existence of the solar nutation is,
however, only a deduction from theory, for its amount is too
small to be perceptible to observation; but a similar eftect ot
the moon’s action is sufficiently appreciable, and was, in
fact, discovered by Dr Bradley before theory had indicated
its existence. Its period, however, is different, and depends
on the time of the revolution of the moon’s nodes, which
is performed in 18 years and about 7 months. During
this time the intersection of the lunar orbit with the ecliptic
has receded through a complete circumference; and the
inequality of the moon’s action will consequently, in the
sarne time, have passed through all its different degrees.
Bradley observed that the declinations of the stars con¬
tinued to augment during nine years, that they diminished
during the nine years following, and that the greatest
change of declination amounted to 18". He remarked fur¬
ther, that this motion was connected with an irregularity
of the precession of the equinoxes, which followed exactly
the same period ; whence he concluded that the motion of
the poles of the equator, occasioned by this vibration of
its plane, was not confined to the solstitial colure. A
series of observations on stars differently situated proved
that all the phenomena could be explained on the hypo¬
thesis that the pole of the equator describes in 18 years
a small circle of 18" diameter, contrary to the order of the
signs; or that the axis of the earth, following the circum¬
ference of this circle, describes the surface of a cone, the
. axis of which forms with its side an angle of 9". This ap¬
parent vibratory motion is significantly denominated the
Nutation of the EartK s Axis. _ .
Path de- In consequence of the two motions which occasion the
scribed in precession and the nutation, the true path of the pole of
space by the equator round that of the ecliptic is an epicycloidal
the pole ofcurvej which win be understood by referring to fig. 14.
Let E be the pole of the ecliptic, round which the pole of
the equator P describes, in virtue of the precession, and
in a direction contrary to the order of the sines, the circle
PQR, of which the radius EP is equal to the obliquity of
the ecliptic, or the mean distance of the two poles. W hile
P, the mean place of the pole, moves in the circle I QR*
with a velocity equal to the regression of the equinoctial
points, or at the rate of 50"-l a year, the frwe pole p de¬
scribes at the same time round P a small circle 18
diameter in the same direction pqr. The true path of
the pole is therefore along the circumference of a circle
pqr, the centre of which retrogrades on the circumference
of another circle, and consequently moves in an epicy¬
cloid ahcdefg, the curve which results from the composi¬
tion of the two motions. Suppose the mean pole at Q,
the true pole at a, and «Q=9". In the course of nine years
the mean pole will have retrograded from Q, to R, making
QR=9x59"'l> while the true pole will have accomplish¬
ed a semi-revolution in its circle. It will therefore be at
c (Rc being=9"), and have described the epicycloidal
arc abc, the greatest distance of which from the circle
PQR is at b, and equal to 9". At the end of the following
the equa¬
tor.
Fig. 14.
nine years the mean pole has retrograded from R to S, or Theoretical
9x50"*1> and the true pole has returned to the same^*^™^^
point a of its epicycle ; it will therefore be found at
Se being =9". In this interval it has necessarily been
within the circle PQR, its greatest distance from which
at d is 9", so that in 18 years it has traced the curve
abode. But ac — QR «Q -{- Rc — 9 X 50 T q- 18'
— 7'49", and ce— RS — Rc—Se = 9 X 50"-l —18' — ‘
From a to c the motion of the true pole in the epicycle is in
the same direction as that of the mean pole ; from c to e it
is in an opposite direction, but as it is always much
slower, being only about 3" in a year, while that of the
mean motion is 50"T, the true motion which results from
the combination of both will always be in the direction ce,
and at d its velocity will be equal to theii diffeience. At
b and d the difference between the latitudes of the true
and mean pole is a maximum, while the difference of
their longitudes is nothing; in other words, the correction
of the obliquity is greatest when that of the precession
vanishes : at a, c, and e the correction of the obliquity va¬
nishes, and that of the precession is a maximum.
Dr Bradley remarked that the effects of the nutation l ole rie-
would be represented still more accurately by supposing an
the curve described by the pole of the equator about its
mean place to be an ellipse instead ot a circle, the trans¬
verse and conjugate axes being 18" and 16" respectively.
This is also confirmed by theory, from which Laplace cal¬
culated the semi-axes of the ellipse at 9"‘63 and 7 T7. Ihe
semi-transverse axis of the ellipse described by the pole
in virtue of the sun’s action alone does not exceed halt a
second, and is consequently totally inappreciable. The
sensible part of the nutation, therefore, follows exactly the
period of the revolution of the nodes of the moon. By
603 observations of Polaris, observed at Dorpat between
1822 and 1838, M. Peters has determined the semi-axis
major of the ellipse to be Q'^SGl, and gives, for his defini¬
tive result, 9',,2231. .
It is now easy to see the reason of the distinction
drawn above between the mean and the true oi apparefnt
obliquity. The mean obliquity is represented by the ra¬
dius EP of the deferent circle PQR, along the circum¬
ference of which the centre of the small circle or ellipse
is carried, while the true obliquity is that quantity in¬
creased or diminished by the nutation. 4 he calculation
of the mean obliquity from the true is performed by the
aid of the astronomical tables.
The progressive diminution of the mean obliquity and
the nutation of the earth’s axis are inequalities distin¬
guished from each other, not only by their being derived
from different and distinct causes, but still more by the
very great difference of time required for their full de¬
velopment. Almost every other element of the planetary
system is affected in a similar manner by inequalities of
two kinds, which are distinguished by the terms secular
and periodic. The secular inequalities proceed with ex¬
treme slowness, and continue progressive in the same
sense during many centuries; while the periodic are much
more rapid in their march, and run through the whole
period of their changes in comparatively short intervals
of time. The inequalities of the first kind are also periodic ;
but their periods are vastly longer, and may be reckoned
by centuries instead of years ; and from this circumstance
they derive their name of secular inequalities.
Sect. II.— Of the Orbit of the Sun.
Having now considered the situation of the plane in
which the sun is observed to move relatively to the fixed
stars, and also the small secular and periodic variations
16 ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical to which it is subject, we proceed next to inquire into the
Astronomy. nature 0f his orbit,
or the curve which he describes on
that plane. The means which we have of determining
the solar orbit are the observed variations of the sun’s
angular velocity, and of his distance from the earth;
hence two kinds of observations are necessary,—the first,
of his daily meridional altitudes, from which, as the incli¬
nation of the orbit is known, his angular velocity is easily
found; and the second, of his apparent diameter, the va¬
riations of which follow the inverse ratio of his distance.
That the angular velocity of the sun’s motion in his or¬
bit is not uniform, is obvious from the fact that he re¬
mains 7| days longer in the northern than in the south¬
ern signs, or, which is the same thing, that the interval
between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes is 7-| days
longer than the interval between the autumnal and ver¬
nal. It is proved by numerous observations that the sun
moves with the greatest velocity when at a point situated
near the winter solstice ; while at the opposite point of the
orbit, or near the summer solstice, his velocity is the
least. At the first point the diurnal motion is lo#01943,
and at the second only 0o,95319. It is constantly varying
between these two points; and the variation is observed
to be nearly proportional to the sun’s angular distance
from the point of his orbit where his velocity is a maxi¬
mum or minimum. The mean velocity is 0o-98632, or
nearly 59' 11", which is the rate of the sun’s daily motion
about the beginning of April and October.
The point of the solar orbit, which is the most remote
from the earth, is called the apogee (clko yrig, away from
the earth) ; that which is nearest is called the perigee (moi
yr\g, near the earth). The same points are also called re¬
spectively the superior and inferior Apsis of the orbit, and
the straight line which joins them is called the Line of the
Apsides.
Diameter The exact determination of the sun’s diameter is a pro¬
of the sun. blem which engaged the earliest astronomers, but of
which, before the invention of the telescope and micro¬
meter, it was impossible to obtain a solution sufficiently
accurate to make known its variations. Archimedes, by
an extremely ingenious though imperfect method, de¬
monstrated that it must be included between the limits
2^0 and yLp of a right angle, that is, between 27' and 32'
55"*7. The Egyptians, by observing the time which the
sun takes to rise above the horizon, found it to be between
a 750th and a 700th part of a circumference, that is, be¬
tween 28' 48" and 30' 51"’5. Aristarchus of Samos sup¬
posed it to be 30'. The precision of modern observations
shows that the apparent diameter is greatest about the
time of the winter solstice, and least about the summer
solstice; but there is some discrepancy among the results
of different astronomers with respect to its actual magni¬
tude. According to the tables of Delambre, its greatest
value is 32' 35"-6, and its least 31' 31"; the mean apparent
diameter, or the diameter at the sun’s mean distance, is
equal to 32' 2",9. According to Bessel, the mean diameter
is 32' T'^SO, as derived from 1698 transits, and the result
from the Greenwich observations is l"-84 greater than this.
From these remarks it is obvious, that if the orbit of the
sun be a circle, the earth is not situated in the centre of
that circle, otherwise the distance of the sun from the
• earth would remain always the same, which is contrary to
fact. It is possible, however, that the variation in his angular
Fig. 15. velocity may not be real, but only apparent. Thus, in fig.
15, let AMEN be the orbit of the sun, C the centre of that
orbit, and E the position of the earth at some distance
from the centre. It is obvious that P is the sun’s perigee,
and A his apogee. Now, as the sun’s apparent orbit is a
circle having the earth in its centre, it is evident that this
orbit must be aM/?N, and that the angular motion of the Theoretical
sun will be measured upon that circle. Suppose now that As,ronomy-
the sun in his apogee moves from A to A', it is obvious
that his apparent or angular motion will be the segment
a a! of the apparent orbit, considerably smaller than AA';
so that at the apogee the angular motion of the sun will
be less than his real motion. Again, let the sun in his
perigee move from P to P', describing a segment precise¬
ly equal to the segment AA'. This segment, as seen from
the earth, will be referred to pp', which in that case will
be the sun’s angular motion, evidently considex-ably greater
than his real motion.
Hence it is obvious, that even on the supposition that
the sun moved equably in his orbit, his angular motion as
seen from the earth would still vary, that is, would be
smallest at the apogee and greatest at the perigee, and
that the angular and real motion would only coincide in
the points M and N, where the real and apparent orbits in¬
tersect each other. From the figure, it is obvious also that
the angular velocity would increase gradually from the
apogee to the perigee, and diminish gradually from the
perigee to the apogee, which likewise corresponds with
observation.
But if the variation in the angular motion of the sun Sun’s mo-
were owing alone to the eccentric position of the earth tionvaries,
within the solar orbit, it is easy to demonstrate that in
that case the diminution of his angular velocity would
follow the same ratio as the diminution of his diameter.
The fact however is, that the angular velocity diminishes
in a ratio twice as great as the diameter of the sun does.
The variation of the angular velocity cannot then be
owing to the eccentricity alone. Hence it follows that the
variation of the motion of the sun is not merely apparent,
but real, and that its velocity in its orbit actually dimi¬
nishes as his distance from the earth increases. Two
causes, then, combine to produce the variation in the sun’s
angular velocity; namely, 1. the increase and diminution
of his distance from the earth, and, 2. the real increase
and diminution of his velocity in proportion to this varia¬
tion of distance. These two causes combine in such a
manner that the daily angular motion of the sun dimi¬
nishes as the square of his distance increases, so that the
product of the angular velocity multiplied into the square
of the distance is a constant quantity.
The observation, that the sun’s angular motion in his
orbit is inversely proportional to the square of his distance
from the earth, is due to Kepler. The discovery was made
by a careful comparison of the sun’s diurnal motion with
his apparent diameter, which is inversely proportional to
his distance from the earth. Let ASB (fig. 16) be the Fig. 16.
sun’s orbit, E the earth, and S' the sun. Suppose a line
ES joining the centres of the earth and sun to move
round along with the sun. It is obvious that when S
moves to S', ES, moving along with it, is now in the situa¬
tion ES', having described the small sector SES'. In the
same time that S performs one revolution in its orbit, the
radius vector ES will describe the whole area ABS in¬
closed within the sun’s orbit. Let SS' be the sun’s angu¬
lar motion during one day. It is evident that the small
sector SES' is proportional to the square of ES, multiplied
by SS'; for the radius vector is the sun’s distance from
the earth, and SS' his angular motion. Hence this sector Describes
is a constant quantity, whatever the angular motion of the areas pro¬
sun be ; and the whole area SEA increases as the number Portional
of days which the sun takes in moving from S to A.*?^6
Hence results that remarkable law, first pointed out by
Kepler, that the areas described by the radius vector are
proportional to the times of description. Suppose the sun
to describe SS' in one day, and SA in twenty days; then
ASTRONOMY.
17
Theoretical the area SES' is to the area SEA as 1 to 20, or the area
Astronomy. SEA is 20 times greater than the area SES'.
The knowledge of these facts enables us to draw upon
paper, from day to day, lines proportional to the length
of the radius vector of the solar orbit, and having the
same relative position. If we join the extremity of these
lines, by making a curve pass through them, we shall per¬
ceive that this curve is not exactly circular. Let E
Fig. 17- (fig-17) represent the earth, and E a, E 6, E c, E rf, E e, &c.
the position and length of the radius vector during every
day of the year ; if we join together the points a, b, c, d, e,
f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, by drawing the curve aeim through
them, it is obvious that this curve is not a circle, but elon¬
gated towards a and i, the points which represent the
sun’s greatest and least distance from the earth. The
resemblance of this curve to the ellipse induced Kepler
to compare them together; and he ascertained their iden¬
tity, and thus proved that the orbit of the sun is an ellipse,
having the earth in one of its foci.
Having arrived at the knowledge of the true nature of
the sun’s orbit, it becomes necessary, in the next place, to
determine its position on the plane of the ecliptic, that is,
to assign the position of the transverse axis, or line of the
apsides, with reference to some other straight line given
by position on that plane. The line which it is most con¬
venient to assume for this purpose is the line of the equi¬
noxes ; and the position of the apsides may be determin¬
ed from observations of the time which the sun occupies
in performing a semi-revolution, counting from different
points of his orbit. Thus, if among the observations of
the sun’s longitude made daily during the course of a
year, we compare, two and two, all those which are dia¬
metrically opposite, or which differ by 180°, it will be
found that the interval between them will be somewhat
less than half a year, if the sun, during that interval, has
passed through his perigee, or longer if he has passed
through his apogee; and that the time between the two
observations will differ less from half the time of a whole
revolution, in proportion as the sun’s place, at the time of
the two observations, was nearer to the apsides. If the
difference of time between the two observations is exactly
half a year, then the place of the apsides would be obtain¬
ed at once, because the sun must have been in those points
when the observations were made. The probability is,
however, infinitely small, that this can ever happen exact¬
ly ; but as the position of the apsides is known very nearly
from the diurnal observations of the variation of the sun’s
angular velocity, the necesssary corrections can easily be
supplied by computation.
From the comparison of observations made in different
ages, it appears that the position of the apsides is not fixed
on the plane of the ecliptic, but that the greater axis of
the solar ellipse revolves in the direction of the sun’s an¬
nual motion. The observations of Hipparchus, compared
with those of the present times, show that the apsides
have a direct motion at the rate of 65" in a year. Ac¬
cording to the observations of Walther, the longitude of
the apogee in 1496 was 93° 57' 57"; and according to
Lacaille, the same element in 1750 was 98° 37' 28"; whence,
dividing the difference by 254, the interval between the
two epochs, the annual motion of the line of the apsides
amounts to 66". Delambre found, by the comparison of a
great number of modern observations, that the annual mo¬
tion is 61"*95 a year. The theory of attraction, which, in
respect of such slow and minute variations, must be con¬
sidered as giving more accurate results than can be obtain¬
ed directly by observation, gives 61"*9 for the yearly pro¬
gressive motion of the apsides.
In the above determination, the position of the ap-
VOL. ]V
sides is referred to the line of the equinoxes, and theirTheoretical
motion compared with the sun’s tropical revolution. But Astronomy
if we wish to determine their motion with reference to the
fixed stars, it is necessary to have regard to the retrograde
movement of the equinoctial points ; for it is obvious, that
if the line of the equinoxes is not fixed, the displacement
of the apsides with respect to the stars will be increased
or diminished by the whole amount of its motion, accord¬
ing as the two motions are in the same or opposite direc¬
tions. Now the motion of the line of the apsides is direct,
and has just been stated to amount to 61"*9 in a solar
year ; that of the equinoxes is, on the contrary, retrograde,
and amounts to 50"T in the same time. Hence the dis¬
placement of the apsides, with reference to a star or fixed
point in the ecliptic, is 61"-9 — 50"T = ll"-8 a year, in the
direction of the sun’s annual motion. The time, therefore,
in which the solar perigee completes a revolution in the
. 360°
heavens, or returns to the same star, is equal near¬
ly to 110,000 years.
Since the greater axis of the solar ellipse has a pro¬
gressive motion on the plane of the ecliptic, it forms a
variable angle with the line of the equinoxes, and at dis¬
tant epochs will coincide with that line, or be perpendicu¬
lar to it. The epochs at which these phenomena happen
maybe easily found by simple proportions, when the longi¬
tude of the perigee at any given time, and its annual mo¬
tion, are known. According to the observations of Lacaille,
already quoted, the longitude of the perigee in 1750 was
278° 37' 28"; but when the longitude of the perigee was
270°, the greater axis of the solar ellipse must have been
perpendicular to the line of the equinoxes. The difference
of these two longitudes is 8° 37' 28", and the number of
years requisite to describe that arc, at the rate of 61"'9
8° 37' 28"
annually,is—— = 500 years nearly; whence the
major axis was perpendicular to the line of the equinoxes
in the year 1250, when the perigee of the orbit coincided
with the winter solstice.
Suppose it were required to assign the epoch at which
the major axis coincided with the line of the equinoxes.
At the occurrence of this phenomenon the longitude of
the perigee was 180°, consequently from that time to 1750
the perigee had advanced 278° 37'28"—180° = 98° 37'28".
qeo 07/ oqw
Now   — 5735; therefore 5735 is the number
61"*9
of years intervening between the occurrence of the pheno¬
menon and 1750. Hence about 4000 years before the
commencement of our era, the transverse axis of the solar
orbit coincided with the line of the equinoxes ; and it is a
singular coincidence that this epoch is considered by
chronologists to be that of the beginning of the world, or,
to speak more correctly, of the first traces of the existence
of the human race ; for numerous physical circumstances
attest that the earth itself has existed during an infinitely
longer period. The same phenomenon will again occur
when the longitude of the perigee shall have reached 360°,
or become zero; and by calculating as above, this will be
found to take place in the year 6485 of our era. ’1 he
solar perigee will then coincide with the vernal equinox;
in the former case it coincided with that of autumn.
By reason of the progressive motion of the perigee, the Seasons
length of the seasons is continually varying. Let AP (figs. ^ar'V j*1
18, 19, 20) represent the line of the apsides, S and W ^ '
the summer and winter solstices, V and O the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes. When the greater axis was perpendi¬
cular to the line of the equinoxes, as happened in the
year 1250 of our era, the perigee P (fig. 18) coincidedFig. )8.
C
18
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical with W the winter solstice; and on that account the time
Astronomy, between the autumnal equinox O, and the winter solstice
W, was equal to the time between W and V, or between
the winter solstice and the vernal equinox. But in this
position the equator, which is here represented by VO,
divides the ellipse into two unequal portions, the smaller
of which must be described in less time than the greater,
because the times of description are proportional to the
spaces passed over. The summer was therefore, at that
time, longer than the winter, and both were divided into
equal parts by the solstices. In any other position the
seasons differ in length from each other. In the time of
Hipparchus, the longitude of the perigee was less than in
1750 by 32°-292, or was 246°-330. The position of the
ellipse with regard to the equinoxes was therefore such
Fig. If), as is represented in fig. 19, the angle PEW being 2/0°
 246°-33 = 23° 40' 12". The interval between V and S
was then 941 days, and that between S and O only 921
days. The spring was therefore at that time longer than
the summer, and the winter longer than the autumn. The
Fig. 20. position of the ellipse in 1800 is represented in fig. 20.
The angle PEW was then 9° 29', and the following were
nearly the lengths of the seasons:—
Days. Hours. Min.
from V to S  92 21 45
S to 0  93 13 35
O to W  89 16 47
W to V  89 1 42
length of the year, nearly 365 5 49
The spring is therefore at present shorter than the sum¬
mer, and the autumn longer than the winter.
F.ccentri- After describing the position of the transverse axis of
city of the tbe so}ar ellipSe on the plane of the ecliptic, we come
solar orbit. next to consider the species of that ellipse, or its eccen¬
tricity, on which depend the apparent inequalities of the
sun’s angular motion. It is evident that this element will
be made known if we can by any means determine the
ratio of the two segments into which the major axis is di¬
vided by the focus. This ratio might seem to be obtainable
without any difficulty by comparing the sun’s apparent
diameters at the perigee and apogee, to which the dis¬
tances are inversely proportional; but such observations,
on account of the irradiation and other difficulties, are
liable to considerable uncertainty: it is therefore neces¬
sary to have recourse to other methods of estimating the
eccentricity, and the variations to which it is subject.
These methods are derived from the fundamental law of
the elliptic motion, namely, the proportionality of the
areas described by the radius vector to the times of de¬
scription, by which the inequalities of motion and the
ellipticity of the orbit are connected with each other; so
that when the inequalities are made known by direct ob¬
servation, the species of the ellipse can be computed from
the principles of geometry. It will, however, be neces¬
sary to attend more closely than we have yet done to the
phenomena resulting from the eccentric position of the
earth in the sun’s orbit, and to explain some terms tech¬
nically employed by astronomers to abbreviate and sim¬
plify their descriptions.
The sun’s motion may be regarded as composed of two
distinct parts, namely, a circular uniform motion, which
constitutes the principal part of it; and a correction de¬
pending on the deviation of the orbit from a circle, which
modifies the first, and alternately accelerates and retards
the mean angular velocity. To illustrate this, let E
(fig. 21) be the earth, PSA the orbit of the sun, AP the
* ^ 23* line of the apsides, and w =£= the intersection of the plane
of the orbit with that of the equator. While the true sun
S moves round his elliptic orbit, describing areas proper- Theoretical
tional to the times, conceive a fictitious sun s to move Astronomy
round the earth in the circumference of a circle of which
the radius is equal to EP the sun’s distance at the peri¬
gee, and with a uniform motion such, that if the two suns
set out at the same instant from P, they may also return
to the same point together, after having completed each
a revolution. At the perigee the radius vector of the
real sun is a minimum; his velocity is consequently a
maximum, and he therefore advances before the fic¬
titious sun. But his motion relaxes in proportion as his
distance from P becomes greater; and at a certain point
S of the orbit it becomes equal to that of the fictitious
sun, which has then only reached the point s. After
passing the point S, the angular distance SEs continues
to diminish on account that the motion of the real sun
continues to relax, and it vanishes altogether when he
reaches his apogee at A, the fictitious sun arriving at a
in the same straight line with A and E at the same in¬
stant of time. From the apogee to the perigee the phe¬
nomena are reversed. The motion of the real sun being
then the slowest possible, he at first falls behind the ficti¬
tious sun; but his motion continuing to be gradually ac¬
celerated, he has again acquired the same velocity when
he reaches S', after which his motion is more rapid than
that of the fictitious sun, which he at last overtakes at P.
If, therefore, we conceive a radius vector to be drawn from
the earth to each of the two suns, those lines will form
with each other a variable angle, having its maximum
value when the velocities are equal, and vanishing at the
perigee and apogee. This angle, namely, SEs, is call¬
ed the Equation of the Centre, or Equation of the Orbit. Equation
It is the correction necessary to be made to the longitude t*16
of the sun deduced from his equable motibn, in order tocen ie'
have his real longitude. Those quantities which form the
difference between the true and mean results are, in as¬
tronomy, denominated equations. The ancients employed
the term Prosthaphceresis in the same sense.
From the perigee to the apogee, the true longitude of
the sun is found by adding the equation of the centre to
the mean longitude, and in the other half of the orbit by
taking the difference of the same quantities. The equa¬
tion of the centre is a maximum when the sun is at the
points S and S', or when the mean and true motions are
equal; and if its value can be obtained from observation
at those times, the eccentricity of the orbit may be de¬
duced by means of the geometrical properties of the el¬
lipse. Now the points S and S' may be found very nearly
by observing when the diurnal velocity of the sun is equal
to the mean motion, or to 0-985647 parts of a degree. By
these observations the angle SES', which is the difference
of the real longitudes of the sun, or of his distances from
<Y>, will be given. But s E s' is also given ; for it is the
angle which w'ould be described by the sun, in virtue of
his mean motion, during the interval between the two ob¬
servations. Hence the difference between sEs' and SES'
is given, being equal to twice SEs the maximum equa¬
tion of the centre, in consequence of the symmetrical
position of the points S and S', and also of s and s', in re¬
spect of the line of the apsides AP. The accuracy of a re¬
sult obtained in this manner may appear questionable, on
account of the impossibility of determining by observation
the exact moment at which the sun’s true motion in lon¬
gitude is equal to his mean motion ; but as the real motion
varies very little during a few days before and after that
epoch, the equation of the centre will be scarcely affected
by a slight error in the time. Besides, any error in the re¬
sult is corrected by taking the mean of a great number of
similar observations.
ASTRONOMY.
19
Theoretical By a comparison of numerous observations of this kind,
Astronomy. Delambre found that the greatest equation of the centre,
the year 1776, amounted to 10,9254, or 1° 55' 31""4.
In 1801 the same equation was 1° 55' 27"* 3. (See Baily’s
Astronomical Tables, p. 66.)
Having obtained the value of the greatest equation of
the centre, the eccentricity of the orbit may be computed
from the first two terms of the following series,
e = ^E-
11
E3.
687
— E5 — &c.
28-3" 216-3-5
in which e represents the eccentricity, and E the greatest
equation of the centre. By reversing the series the fol¬
lowing expression is found for the greatest equation in
terms of the eccentricity, viz.
11 „ 599
E~2e + 2^3e3 + 21o-5
e5 &c.
For an investigation of the above formulae the reader
may consult Biot, Astronomic Physique, tom. ii. p. 185.
Secular It has been discovered by observation, that the equation
diminu- of the centre of the sun’s orbit is subject to a nearly uni-
tion of theform secular diminution. This fact is confirmed by theory,
ck 6 of the from which also the secular diminution has been assigned,
solar°orbit ^ amounts to 8o-0047 in a century. This phenomenon im¬
plies a corresponding diminution of the eccentricity of the
solar orbit amounting to *000037495 in the same time,
the semiaxis major being unit. This will be conceived
more distinctly by converting the above fraction into some
familiar expression of linear magnitude. Supposing the
mean distance of the sun to be 96,000,000 of miles, the
fraction *000037495 will represent nearly 3700 miles, so
that the annual diminution of the eccentricity is nearly at
the rate of 37 miles,—a line which is considerable on the
surface of the earth, but which has scarcely an appreciable
ratio to the immense distance of the sun. If, however, this
diminution, small as it is, were to be continued indefinite¬
ly, the eccentricity would ultimately vanish, and the sun’s
orbit would be changed into a circle ; but the theory ot
universal gravitation proves that, like all the other varia¬
tions of the elements of the solar system, the variation of
the eccentricity is subject to periodic laws. After hav¬
ing continued during a certain time to diminish, the ec¬
centricity will again begin to increase, and will successive¬
ly pass through all its former values. Thus it will con¬
tinue to oscillate within certain limits, of which the ex¬
tent, though not precisely known, cannot be very great:
and the solar orbit will eternally preserve its elliptic form,
unless the application of some external force shall derange
the system of the world, or modify the laws by which it is
at present governed.
Determi- The true nature of the solar orbit being known, to-
nation of gether with its situation on the plane of the ecliptic, and
ilace ln his ^le arnount ^ts eccentricity, as also the time of a revo-
orbit. * lub°n> the sun’s longitude may be determined at any as¬
signed epoch. This determination is what is usually
Kepler’s termed Kepler s Problem, having been first proposed by
problem, that great astronomer on the hypothesis of an elliptic or¬
bit. Its solution, which is not susceptible of being ex¬
hibited under a finite form, is derived from the principle
of the equable description of areas. Let ASP (fig. 22)
represent the semi-orbit of the sun, C the centre of the
orbit, E the focus occupied by the earth, and let the time
and motion be counted from the perigee P. On AP de¬
scribe a semicircle, on the circumference of which let a
point M be supposed to move uniformly, and to describe
the semicircle PMA, in the same time in which the
sun describes the semi-ellipse PSA. Now, suppose that
at the end of a given time t, the sun has moved from P
to S; then, denoting by T the time of a complete revolu¬
tion, and putting <t for the semi-circumference, the place Theoretical
of M, at the end of the same time t, will be given by the Astronomy.
equation PM = A 2 it. Through S let a perpendicular Fig. 22.
be drawn to AP, meeting the semicircle in D and AP in
N, and join EM, ES, ED, CM, and CD. The different angles
of this figure have received certain technical names, which
it is necessary to explain. Then S being the true place
of sun, the angle PES is called the True Anomaly;
PEM is called the Mean Anomaly, and PCD is denomi¬
nated the Eccentric Anomaly. This last is measured by
the arc PMD, which is the perigean distance of a body
describing a circle circumscribed about the solar ellipse,
and having constantly the same absciss PN as the sun.
The word anomaly originally signified inequality; it now
simply designates the angular distance of a planet from its
perihelion, seen from the sun, or, as in the present case,
the angular distance of the sun from his perigee.
According to the law of the equable description of
areas, we have the sector PCM to PES as the surface of
the semicircle to the surface of the semi-ellipse; that is,
as the semi-transverse to the semi-conjugate axis, or as
ND to NS, according to a well-known property of the
ellipse. Hence PCM : PES : : PED : PES, and there¬
fore PCM = PED = PCD — ECD. Now, if we express
the arc PM by z, PD by x, the eccentricity EC by e, and
make the radius equal to unity, we shall have the sector
PCM = \z, the sector PCD = ^x, and the triangle ECD
= ^e. DN = ig sin. x. Substituting, therefore, these ex¬
pressions in the above equation, it will become, on multi¬
plying both sides of it by 2,
z = x — e sin. x (1.)
where z denotes the mean, and x the eccentric, anomaly.
If in this equation x and e were both known, it would
be easy to deduce from it the mean anomaly z; but the
data are z and e, and the value of a; can only be obtained
in a series, the equation being a transcendental one. Its
resolution gives the value of the eccentric in terms of
the mean anomaly; and if another equation can be found
in which the eccentric anomaly is expressed in terms of
the true, it will only remain to put these two expressions
equal to one another in order to have an equation be¬
tween the mean and true anomaly.
For this purpose it will be necessary to equate two
values of the radius vector ES, expressed in terms of the
eccentric and true anomalies respectively. Putting ES
= r, we shall have, in the first place,
r2 = EN2 + NS2;
but if the semiaxis minor is represented by b, the com¬
mon equation of the ellipse gives
NS2 = ~ (a2 — CN2) - iS — ^ CN2;
a2 ' y a2
and we have also
EN2 = EC2 + 2EC . CN + CN2
= e2 a?+ 2 ea . CN + CN2;
therefore, by addition,
NS2 + EN2 = b2 + e2a2 + 2ea . CN + ^1 CN2.
Now, b2 + e2 a2 = a2, and 1 - ^ = e2 ; therefore
a2
NS2 + EN2 = r2 = a2 + 2 ea . CN + e2CN2;
consequently
r = a + e. CN.
But CN = —acos.a?; therefore ultimately
r = a (1 — e cos.#)
(2.)
ASTRONOMY.
20
Theoretical To obtain a second value of r, let SF be drawn from S
Astronomy t}ie other focus of the ellipse, and let SF = r*. The
rectangular triangles ESN, FSN give SN2 = r2 — EN2,
and SN2 = r2 — (2 m —EN)2 ; therefore r-2 — EN2 = r'2
— (2m — EN)2, whence we derive t-2 — r'2 = 4 m • EN —
4 e2 a2. But by the property of the ellipse r + r =2 a, from
which it is easy to deduce r2 — r'2 = 4 a2 — 4 ar =^ar —
4 a2 ; and hence, by equating these two values of r2 - r'2,
m . EN - e2 <z2 = err — a2. Now, if we denote the angle
PES, which is the true anomaly, by v, then EN = -r cos.?’,
and consequently by substitution — ear cos. v — e2 a2 = ar — a2,
whence
r
a(\ — e2)
1 + e cos. v
(3.)
If we now compare the two values of r given by the
equations (2) and (3), we shall find
cos. x =
cos, v + e
1+e cos.
and therefore, 1 — cos. x = (1 —e) (1— cos. v)
1 + cos. a? = (1 + <?) (1 + cos. v) ;
DISTANCE OF THE SUN FROM THE EARTH.
In Perigee 
In Apogee 
At Mean Distance 
Greatest diameter of his orbit
Semidiameters
of the Earth.
23580
24388
23984
47969
English
Miles.
93280945
96478967
94879956
189759912
Theoretical
Agronomy.
When the sun’s parallax is known, we are enabled not Sun’s vo-
only to estimate his distance,but also to compare his diame- lume.
ter and magnitude with those of the earth. For example,
the mean parallax of the sun is 8"-56; his mean apparent
semidiameter, seen from the earth, is 96P’S; the semi¬
diameters of the sun and earth are therefore to each other in
the ratio of 96P8 : 8-56, or of 112 to unity nearly. Suppos¬
ing the sun and earth to be both spherical bodies, which
is a supposition sufficiently accurate for the present pur¬
pose, their volumes will be to one another as the cubes of
their radii; hence the volume of the sun is to that of the
earth as the cube of 112 to unity, or the sun’s volume is
about 1,405,000 times greater than that of the earth.
whence, by dividing,
1 — cos. v 1 + e 1 — cos. x >
1 + cos. v ~ l-e ’ 1 + cos. x ’
consequently, by the trigonometrical formulae,
tan. = ^L±-e^ 2 . tan. Ja? (4.)
The equations (1) and (2) were first given by Kepler,
the last is due to Lacaille. The problem of finding the
sun’s place after any given time is solved analytically by
(1) and (4).
To express v the true anomaly, in a series involving
the powers of x the mean anomaly, is a problem requir¬
ing the aid of the higher analysis, and which it is unneces¬
sary to investigate here. The following are a few of the first
terms of the series, in which nt is substituted for x, n be¬
ing the mean motion in the unit of time, and t the time
elapsed since the passage through the perihelion :—
v — nt-\- ^2e — 4e3^"96e5)’
sin. nt
+
11 , 17 „
'A e6
(p 24 ” T 192
+ (l|e3-l|cS) si"-3,!<
+ > &C.
^ sin.
2 nt
Sun’s pa- The form of the sun’s orbit is discovered from the va-
rallax and nations of his apparent diameter in passing from the pe-
distance. rjgee to the apogee; but in order to obtain a knowledge
of its real dimensions, or of the mean distance of the sun
from the earth, it is necessary to determine his parallax,
that is to say, the angle subtended by the earth’s semi¬
diameter as seen from the sun. This angle is too small
to be measured directly in the manner which was point¬
ed out when treating of parallax; it is most accurately
deduced from observations of the time occupied by an
inferior planet in passing over the sun’s disk, as will be
explained afterwards. From such observations it has
been found to be less than 9", an angle of which the sine
is to radius in the ratio of 1 to 23,000 nearly; whence
the distance of the sun is about 23,000 times the semi¬
diameter of the earth. The following table exhibits more
accurately the numerical results of calculation.
Sect. III.— Of the Motion of Translation of the Earth, and
the Aberration of Light.
Hitherto we have regarded the sun as being actually
in motion round the earth in an elliptic orbit, of which
the earth occupies one of the foci. This supposes the mo¬
tion which we observe to be real. But we have already^
seen that all the phenomena of the diurnal revolution of
the celestial bodies may be equally well explained by
supposing these motions to be only optical illusions, of the
same nature as those by which a person sailing rapidly
along a river, or the sea-shore, is almost irresistibly led to
ascribe the motion to the banks on the shore, even when
fully aware that the appearance is only occasioned by his
own motion in a contrary direction. In the same manner
all the phenomena of the annual motion are susceptible ot
an equally simple explanation, on the hypothesis that the
earth revolves in an elliptic orbit, and that the sun is at
rest in one of the foci of the ellipse. In fact, if there
were no other bodies in the universe than the earth and
the sun, it would be matter of absolute indifference which
of the two hypotheses we should adopt in order to ex¬
plain the appearances. Supposing, for example, the earth
to revolve in a circular orbit (the eccentricity, on account
of its smallness, being here neglected), and the sun to be
placed at the centre; a spectator at E (fig. 23) sees the I ig- 23*
sun S in the heavens at the point A, and corresponding
to the star a on the celestial sphere. If the earth now
take the place of the sun, and the sun be placed on the
curve at A, the spectator will still see the sun correspond to
the star a. Let the earth be transferred from E to E' ;
the spectator will then see the sun in A'. The sun there¬
fore appears to him to have moved from A to A', which
is exactly the same appearance as would be presented to
a spectator at the centre by a real translation of S from
A to A'; so that, in respect of the annual motion, the ap¬
pearances, when referred to the celestial sphere, are pre¬
cisely the same on either hypothesis.
If we now consider the phenomena with reference to
the earth, we shall find that they may be all equally well
explained on the hypothesis of the earth’s motion, and
the immobility of the sun. The most remarkable pheno¬
menon connected with the annual revolution is the vari¬
ation of the seasons; and in order to explain their cause,
it is only necessary to suppose that the earth, in describ¬
ing its oblique orbit, always preserves its axis parallel to
the same straight line. Let A, B, C, D (fig. 24) repre-Fig. 24.
ASTRONOMY. 21
Theoretical sent the earth in four different positions of its orbit, n s millions of miles distant from each other. Suppose the Theoretical
Astronomy, being its axis, and n and s its north and south poles re- sun to be at rest in S (fig. 26), the centre of the orbit ■Astronomy.
spectively. While the earth goes round the sun in the Ea6, and the earth to be at the point E. Suppose also A v'"'-'
order of the letters A, B, C, D, its axis ns preserves its to be the projection of S on the sphere of the fixed stars,
obliquity, and always continues parallel to its first direc- and the first point of the ecliptic. I he longitude of A.
tion. At A the north pole inclines towards the sun, and as seen from E, is the angle AE<y> ; but when seen from S,
brings all the northern places more into the light than at the longitude of the same point is AS<y>. Ibis last is the
any other season of the year. But when the earth is at true longitude of A ; AEty1 is the apparent longitude, and
C, the opposite point of the orbit, the north pole declines their difference is the angle SqpE. Now, in the first half
from the sun, and a less portion of the northern hemi- of the ecliptic, the apparent longitude will be less than
sphere enjoys the blessings of his light and heat. At the true, and in the second half greater; hence there
B and D the axis is perpendicular to the plane of the ought to result an apparent annual inequality in the
orbit, so that the poles are situated in the boundaries of sun’s longitude. But as such inequality is shown in very
the illuminated hemisphere, and the sun, being directly few cases, it becomes necessary either to abandon the
over the equator, makes the days and nights equal at all hypothesis of the earth s motion, or to suppose the dis-
Plate places. These phenomena are illustrated in fig. 25, which tance of the fixed stars to be so great, that, in comparison
LXXVTII. represents the situation of the north pole with regard to of it, the radius ES, which exceeds 90 millions of miles,
Fig. 25. the limits of illumination, in eight different positions of the is altogether insensible ; and that the whole orbit of the
orbit. In this figure, JE is the terrestrial equator, T the earth, or the ellipse Eab, is a mere point in comparison of
tropic of Cancer, the dotted circle the parallel of London, a great circle of the starry sphere.
U the arctic or north polar circle, and P the north pole, The most convincing proof of the earth s motion is not
where all the meridians or hour-circles meet. The spec- to be found in any circumstance of which the senses can
tator is supposed to be placed at the pole of the ecliptic, take immediate cognizance, but is afforded by the full de-
When the earth is at the beginning of Libra, about the velopment of the planetary system, and the mutual con-
20th of March, the sun, as seen from the earth, appears nection of all the truths of rational astronomy, by the
at the beginning of Aries in the opposite part of the hea- clearness, simplicity, and coherence which this hypothesis
vens, the north pole is just coming into light, and the sun gives to the most complicated phenomena,—and can there-
is vertical to the equator, which, with all its parallels, is fore only be fully appreciated after an attentive study of
divided into two equal parts b}^ the circle which forms the whole series of facts which astronomy makes known,
the boundary between the dark and illuminated hemi- There exists, however, one direct proof of the earth s an-
spheres, and therefore the days and nights are equal all nual motion, in a phenomenon discovered by the accurate
over the earth. As the earth moves in the ecliptic ac- observation and patient sagacity of Bradley, although it is
cording to the order of the letters A, B, C, D, &c., the one which, we are almost tempted to think, ought to have
north pole P comes more and more into the light, and been perceived a priori, after Roemer s discovery of the
the days increase in length at all places north of the equa- progressive motion of light. It is known by the name of
tor JE. When the earth comes to the position between the Aberration of Light, and is manifested in a small dif- Aberration
B and C, or the beginning of Capricorn, the sun, as seen ference between the apparent and true places of a star, £
from the earth, appears at the beginning of Cancer, about occasioned by the motion of light combined with that of
the 21st of June ; and the north pole of the earth inclines the earth in its orbit.
towards the sun, so as to bring into light all the north fri- To illustrate this effect, conceive a body to move in the
gid zone, and more of each of the northern parallels of la- direction EE' (fig. 27), and another to impinge on it inkig* 27-
titude in proportion as they are farther from the equator, the direction SE. To find the direction of the resulting
As the earth advances from Capricorn towards Aries, and motion, take EC and EA proportional to the two velo-
the sun appears to move from Cancer towards Libra, the cities respectively, and, having completed the parallel-
north pole recedes from the light, which causes the days ogram EABC, draw the diagonal EB. The combina-
to decrease and the nights to increase in length, till the tion of the two motions produces an impression on the
earth comes to the beginning of Aries, and then they are eye exactly similar to that which would have been pro¬
equal as before ; the boundary of light and darkness cut- duced if the eye had remained at rest in the point E, and
ting the equator and all its parallels equally. The north the molecule of light had come to it in the direction
pole then goes into the dark, and does not emerge till the ES'; the star, therefore, whose real place is at S, will ap-
earth has completed a semi-revolution of its orbit, or pear to the spectator at E to be situated at S'. The dif-
from the 23d of September till the 20th of March. All ference between its true and apparent place, that is, the
these phenomena will be readily understood from the bare angle SES', is the aberration, the magnitude of which
inspection of the figure; and it will be perceived that is obtained from the known ratio of EA to EB, or the
what has been said of the northern hemisphere is equally velocity of light to that of the earth in its orbit. Now,
true of the southern in a contrary sense, that is, at oppo- we know from the phenomena of the eclipses of Jupi-
site seasons of the year. ter’s satellites, that a ray of light describes a line equal
The only objection against the annual motion of the to the mean radius of the ecliptic in 8 min. 18 sec. or 498
earth, which at first sight creates some difficulty, is the seconds of time. But the arc described by the earth in that
enormous distance which, on account of the want of an- time is found from the proportion
nual parallax, that hypothesis makes it necessary to assign 365d'256 : 498s:: 360° : x,
to the fixed stars. Abstracting from the precession, which whence x = 20""45. It is evident, therefore, that when
in the region of the poles amounts only to about 20", the the directions of the two motions are at right angles, the
axis of the earth, in every part of its orbit, appears to be star S always appears in advance of its real place, in a di-
directed towards the same point of the starry sphere. It rection parallel to that of the motion of the earth, by a
is certain, however, that the radius of the terrestrial orbit quantity equal to 20' ,45. This quantity, 20"’45, is called
is upwards of 90 millions of miles ; and therefore, when the Constant of Aberration ; but as it has been obtained on
the earth is at opposite points of this immense circle, its the assumption that the earth moves uniformly in a circu-
pole ought to be directed to points in the heavens 180 ^ar orbit, it is evidently not altogether exact, and recourse
22 ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical must be had to observation to determine its precise
Astronomy amount. Bradley supposed it to be 20"; Dr Brinkley,
from the mean of 2633 comparisons of various stars has
deduced the value 20"‘37. From a series of observations
made by M. Struve the Russian astronomer, the constant
of aberration has been determined to be 20",445, which is
probably an exceedingly close approximation, and may be
considered as one of the most certain determinations of
astronomy. (Sur le coefficient de Caberration des etoiles
fixes. Petersburg Memoirs, vol. iii.)
It is easy to see that, on the same principles, there ought
also to be a diurnal aberration; but the diurnal rotation
of the earth being sixty-five times less rapid than the or¬
bital motion, its effect in producing aberration does not
amount to more than 09,0208, when reduced to seconds of
time. It is, however, taken into account in reducing transit
observations, and incorporated with the error of collima-
tion.
The magnitude of the angle of deviation SES' depends
on the relative directions of the earth and the visual ray,
and may have any value from 0 to 20"*4. Suppose, for
example, we observe a star situated in the plane of the
ecliptic. When the earth is at that point of its orbit, be¬
tween the sun and the star, where the tangent to the orbit
is perpendicular to the visual ray (which, on account that
the star has no sensible parallax, always maintains a pa¬
rallel direction), the apparent place of the star will be
20M to the eastward of its true place. When the earth
is in the opposite point of its orbit the same star will ap¬
pear to be 20"'4 to the westward of its true place; so that
it will appear to have an oscillatory motion on the ecliptic,
the range of which is 40"*8, and the period exactly a year.
Half-way between these two points the tangent of the or¬
bit is parallel to the direction of the ray of light, and con¬
sequently there is no aberration. When the star is not
situated in the ecliptic, it will suffer a displacement in
latitude as well as in longitude. To render this more in-
t’ig- 28. telligible, let EEE (fig. 28) be the ecliptic, E the earth,
and A the true place of a star situated at any altitude
above the ecliptic. In the direction EA take Ea to re¬
present the velocity of light, ah that of the earth, and in
a parallel direction, that is, parallel to the tangent to the
ecliptic at E ; the line E6 will now be the apparent visual
ray, and the star will seem to be situated at B. Suppose the
earth to be placed at different points of its orbit; the lines
Ea will be all parallel to each other on account of the in¬
finite distance of the star A; the lines ab will vary little
in magnitude, because they are very small in comparison
of Ea, but their directions will undergo every possible
change, being always parallel to the tangent at E. At the
two points of the orbit where the tangent is parallel to EA,
the two lines Ea and ab coincide, and consequently there is
no aberration. Let us next suppose the star to be situated
in the pole of the ecliptic. In this case the visual ray is
constantly perpendicular to the direction of the earth's
motion, so that the star will always appear at a distance
of 20"‘4 from its true place, or appear to describe a small
circle about the pole of the ecliptic. In all other situa¬
tions, out of the ecliptic, the star’s apparent path will be
an ellipse, the major axis of which, parallel to the plane
of the ecliptic, is always 40",8, while the minor axis varies
as the sine of the latitude.
The cause of the aberration being known, we have two
methods of measuring its quantity, or the extent of the
apparent oscillations, viz. by calculating the angle of de-
Fig. -27. viation SAS' (fig. 27), the tangent of which is to radius as
AB to AE, that is, as 1 to 10,313; or, by direct observa¬
tion, when the star is in opposition to the sun. The two
methods give sensibly the same result, and the dimensions
of the ellipse described by any star not situated in the Theoretical
ecliptic, in consequence of the aberration, are found to Astroriomy-
be the same when computed from theory or determined
by direct observation. The motion of translation of the
earth, therefore, receives a mathematical demonstration
from this agreement; and the phenomenon of the aber¬
ration, otherwise unimportant on account of its minute¬
ness, thus becomes one of the most interesting discoveries
■ever made in astronomy. The fact of the earth’s orbital
motion is, however, rendered so probable by other pheno¬
mena, that it must have been universally admitted, although
the direct proof had never been discovered.
Sect. IY.— Of the Measure of Time. Equation of Time.
The notion of time, or of succession, is generally said
to be acquired from the aspect of natural phenomena; but
from whatever source it may be derived, it is certain that
time itself can only be measured by comparing it with
something of which the senses can take cognizance. If
we have a series of events, such as the oscillations of a
pendulum, or the flux and reflux of the sea, uniformly suc¬
ceeding each other, then time may be measured by the
number of such events that have been observed. In like
manner, if a body move uniformly in a certain direction,
time may be measured by the spaces over which it suc¬
cessively passes. In strict language, motion and time, being
heterogeneous quantities, cannot measure one another;
but different times are compared with each other by
means of the motions that have taken place in those times
respectively; for the motions being supposed uniform,
equal spaces are passed over in equal times, or, which is
the same thing, the times are directly proportional to the
spaces described. If, therefore, we assume for unit the
time which is absolved while a certain uniform motion
takes place, we may obtain, by a simple proportion, the
corresponding time of any other similar motion. In this
manner we find the ratio of one portion of time to an¬
other, although we can form no idea whatever of its abso¬
lute quantity.
In order that motion may be employed as a measure of
time, it is indispensably requisite that it be perfectly uni¬
form. The only motions having this property, with which
we are acquainted, are those of the rotation of the celes¬
tial bodies about their own axes. The motion of the sun
and planets in their orbits is irregular from various causes :
even the successive returns of the fixed stars to the me¬
ridian are rendered unequal on account of the precession
and nutation; but the diurnal rotation of the earth ap¬
pears to be affected by no cause of irregularity whatever.
Time, therefore, may be properly measured by this uni¬
form motion ; and the method of proceeding is as follows.
The culmination of a star, or of a given point of the equa¬
tor, marks the instant at which the day commences, and
at any other instant its horary angle determines the por¬
tion of the day which has elapsed at the moment of the
observation. In order, therefore, to determine the time of
an observation, we must find the horary angle formed by
the meridian of the observed star with that which passes
through the given point where the motion is supposed to
begin; in other words, it is necessary to determine the
star’s right ascension. This, however, when attempted
by direct measurement, is a determination attended with
difficulty, and liable to considerable uncertainty. Hap¬
pily the invention of the pendulum has rendered it
unnecessary; and astronomers, instead of deducing the
time from the right ascensions, determine, on the con¬
trary, the right ascensions by means of the time indi¬
cated by the clock. The clock, of which the motion is
supposed to be perfectly regular, is adjusted in such a
ASTRONOMY.
23
Theoretical manner that its index describes 24 hours, while a point
Astronomy. 0f t]ie equator describes an arc of 360°, or makes a com-
plete revolution. This is called a sidereal day. The
sidereal hour is divided in the usual manner into mi¬
nutes, seconds, &c.; whence the corresponding arcs are
easily found at the rate of 15° to an hour. The point
whose culmination marks the origin of time is arbitrary;
but astronomers have agreed to choose for that purpose
the equinoctial point of Aries, from which the right as¬
censions are reckoned, so that the hours of the clock and
the degrees of the equator may commence at the same
instant. This point, it is true, is not, and cannot be, per¬
manently marked by any star; but the right ascension in
time of any star whatever being the hour of its transit
over the meridian, the star will be in the plane of the me¬
ridian at the instant denoted by its right ascension in
time. On this account sidereal time expresses the actual
right ascension of the zenith ; or, as it is frequently termed,
the right ascension of the mid-heaven.
We have already seen, that on account of the preces¬
sion of the equinoxes, a star employs somewhat more time
than the first point of Aries in returning to the meridian.
It is therefore not without some violation of language
that the interval between two successive transits of a given
point of the equator over the meridian is called a side¬
real day, which, in its strict acceptation, denotes the time
which elapses between two successive transits of the same
star; but in this case the difference is so small as to be
totally inappreciable. The annual precession in longitude
is = 50"T, and that in right ascension is nearly the same,
excepting in regard to the circumpolar stars, which, there¬
fore, are not employed in regulating the clocks. This
arc of 50"T, converted into time, gives 3-3 seconds as the
time in which a star will pass the meridian later than the
equinoctial point, at the end of the year; and this small
quantity being distributed over the whole year, is altoge¬
ther insensible in short intervals of two or three days.
The successive transits of a star, therefore, if we abstract
from the nutation and aberration, will mark the sidereal
day within the hundredth part of a second of time; and
the sidereal year, though not immediately ascertainable by
observation, becomes a quantity which may be easily com¬
puted. But the regularity of the motion of the stars is
deranged by the effects of aberration and nutation ; so that
in order to measure time with the precision required by
modern observers, it is necessary to be acquainted with
the minute displacements of the stars. If they seem to
return to the meridian after equal portions of absolute
time, it is only because our organs are unable to dis¬
tinguish the hundredths of a second.
The sidereal day is a measure of time which, on ac¬
count of its uniformity and the facility of observing it, is
excellently well adapted for astronomical purposes; but
relatively to the ordinary wants of life it is not sufficient¬
ly marked;—the culmination of the stars is an event
entirely unconnected with civil occupations, and which,
for any given star, is even invisible during a great part of
the year. The proper motion of the sun causes the si¬
dereal day to commence sometimes by day and sometimes
by night, so that great confusion and embarrassment
would arise from regulating time and civil affairs by the
motions of the stars. On this account the diurnal revo¬
lution of the sun has been universally adopted as the mea¬
sure of time. This is called the civil day, and denotes
the interval of time which elapses between two succes¬
sive transits of the sun over the same hour-circle. Most
nations have agreed in reckoning it from the inferior semi¬
circle of the meridian, so that the civil day commences
and terminates at midnight; but astronomers, in imita¬
tion of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, usually reckon the com-Theoretical
mencement of the day from the instant of the sun’s culmi- Astronomy
nation, that is, from noon ; and count through the 24 hours
from one noon to the following. Thus 9 o’clock in the
morning of February 14th is by astronomers called Fe¬
bruary the 13th at 21 hours. The day thus determined
is called the astronomical or solar day ; and being regu¬
lated by the true motion of the sun, the time which is
measured by it is called true or apparent time.
Astronomical or solar days are not equal. Two causes, Days vary
in particular, conspire to produce their inequality, namely, in length,
the unequal velocity of the sun in his orbit, and the obli¬
quity of the ecliptic. The effect of the first cause is suf¬
ficiently sensible. At the summer solstice, when the sun's
motion is slowest, the astronomical day approaches nearer
the sidereal than at the winter solstice, when his motion
is most rapid.
To conceive the effect of the second cause, it is neces¬
sary to have regard to the motion of the sun in reference
to the equator. The sun describes every day a small
arc of the ecliptic. Through the extremities of this arc
suppose two meridians to pass ; the arc of the equator,
which they intercept, is the sun’s motion for that day re¬
ferred to the equator, and the time which that arc takes
to pass the meridian is equal to the excess of the astrono¬
mical day above the sidereal. But it is obvious that at
the equinoxes the arc of the equator is smaller than the
corresponding arc of the ecliptic, in the proportion of the
cosine of the obliquity of the ecliptic to radius: at the
solstices, on the contrary, it is greater in the proportion
of radius to the cosine of the same obliquity. The astro¬
nomical day is diminished in the first case, and lengthen¬
ed in the second.
To have a mean astronomical day independent of these Mean
causes of inequality, astronomers have supposed a second astro,lomi-
sun to move uniformly on the ecliptic, and to pass overca^a^
the extremities of the axis of the sun’s orbit at the same
instant with the real sun. This removes the inequality
arising from the inequality of the sun’s motion. To re¬
move the inequality arising from the obliquity of the
ecliptic, conceive a third sun to pass through the equi¬
noxes at the same instant with the second sun, and to move
along the equator in such a manner that the angular
distances of the two suns at the vernal equinox shall be
always equal. The interval between two consecutive
returns of this third sun to the meridian forms the mean
astronomical day. Mean time is measured by the num¬
ber of the returns of this third sun to the meridian; and
true time is measured by the number of returns of the
real sun to the meridian. The arc of the equator, inter¬
cepted between two meridian circles drawn through the
centres of the true sun and the imaginary third sun, when
reduced to time, is what is called the Equation of Time.
I his will be rendered plainer by the following diagram.
Let Z^czrdz (fig. 29) be the earth; ZFRz its axis;Fig. 2a.
abcde, &c. the equator ; ABODE, &c. the northern half of
the ecliptic from ^ to on the side of the globe next
the eye; and MNOP, &c. the southern half on the oppo¬
site side from ^ to <y>. Let the points at A, B, C, D, E, F,
<S:c. mark off equal portions of the ecliptic, gone through
in equal times by the real sun, and those at a, b, c, d, e,
f &c. equal portions of the equator described in equal
times by the fictitious sun ; and let Z<y^z be the meridian.
As the real sun moves obliquely in the ecliptic, and the
fictitious sun directly in the equator, any point between
and F on the ecliptic must be nearer the meridian
Z <y> z, than the corresponding point on the equator from
<Y> to_/i that is to say, than the point whose distance from
(Y1 is expressed by the same number of degrees; and the
24
astronomy.
Theoretical more so, as the obliquity is greater; and therefore the
Astronomy, true sun comes sooner to the meridian every day w
v^V^he is in the quadrant ^F, than the fictitious sun does
in the quadrant /; for which reason the solar noon
precedes noon by the clock, until the real sun comes to
F, and the fictitious to f: which two points being equi-
<distant from the meridian, both suns will come to it pre¬
cisely at noon by the clock. f .1
Whilst the real sun describes the second quadrant ot t e
ecliptic FGHIKL from Cancer to =cb, he comes later to
the1 meridian every day than the fictitious sun moving
through the second quadrant of the equator from/ to =o=,
for the points at G, H, I, K, L, being farther from he
meridian, their corresponding points at#, n, i, «, I, mus
come to it later ; and as both suns come at the same mo¬
ment to the point W, they come to the meridian at the
moment of noon by the clock. . . ,
In departing from Libra through the third quadrant,
the real sun going through MNOPQ towards >y at R, and
the fictitious sun through mnopq towards r, the former
comes to the meridian every day sooner than the latter,
until the real sun comes to R, and the fictitious, to r, an
then they come both to the meridian at the same time.
Lastly, as the real sun moves equably through STUVW,
from R towards and the fictitious sun through stuvw,
from r towards the former comes later every day to
the meridian than the latter, until they both arrive at the
point <y>, and then they make it noon at the same time
'^'HaGng0 explained one cause of the difference between
true and mean time, we now proceed to explain the other
cause of this difference, namely, the inequality of the sun s
apparent motion, which is slowest in summer, when the
sun is farthest from the earth, and swiftest in winter, when
he is nearest to it. ,, . , ....
If the sun’s motion were equable in the ecliptic, the
whole difference between the equal time as shown by the
clock, and the unequal time as shown by the sun, would
arise from the obliquity of the ecliptic. But the sun s
motion sometimes exceeds a degree in 24 hours, thoug
generally it is less; and when his motion is slowest, any
particular meridian will revolve sooner to him than when
his motion is quickest; for it will overtake him in less
time when he advances a less space than when he moves
through a larger. . . , n
Now, if there were two suns moving in the plane ot
the ecliptic, so as to go round it in a year, the one de¬
scribing an equal arc every 24 hours, and the other de¬
scribing in the same time sometimes a less arc, and at
other times a larger, gaining at one time of the year what
it lost at the opposite; it is evident that one of these
suns would come sooner or later to the meridian than the
other, as it happened to be behind or before the other;
and when they were in conjunction, they would both
come to the meridian at the same moment.
As the real sun moves unequably in the ecliptic, let us
suppose a fictitious sun to move equably ^ a circle coin¬
cident with the plane of the ecliptic. Let ABCD (fig. 30)
be the ecliptic or orbit in which the real sun moves, and
the dotted circle abed the imaginary orbit of the fictitious
sun • each going round in a year according to the order of
letters, or from west to east. Let HIKL be the earth turn¬
ing round its axis in the same direction every 24 hours ; and
suppose the two suns to start from A and a, at the same
moment, A and a being in the same straight hne, and in
the plane of the meridian EH. Suppose also that the
real sun, when at A, is at his greatest distance from he
earth, where his motion is slowest. In the time that the
meridian revolves from H to H again, according to the
order of the letters HIKL, the real sun has moved from TWetical
A to F ; and the fictitious sun with a quicker motion from
a to /, through a larger arc: therefore the meridian LH
will revolve sooner from H to h under the real sun at r,
than from HE to k under the fictitious sun at/; and con¬
sequently it will then be noon by the sun-dial sooner than
by the clock. , ^
As the real sun moves from A towards C, the velocity
of his motion increases all the way to C, where it is at
its maximum. But notwithstanding this, the fictitious sun
gains so much upon the real, soon after his departing from
A, that the increasing velocity of the real sun aoes not
bring him up with the equally-moving fictitious sun till
the former comes to C and the latter to c, when each has
gone half round its respective orbit; and then being in
coniunction, the meridian EH, revolving to EK, comes to
both suns at the same time, and therefore it is noon by
them both at the same moment. .
But the increased velocity of the real sun now being a
its maximum, carries him before the fictitious one; and
therefore the same meridian will come to the fictitious
sun sooner than to the real; for whilst the fictitious sun
moves from c to #, the real sun moves through a greater
arc from C to G ; consequently the point K has its noon
by the clock when it comes to k, but not its noon by the
sun till it comes to l And although the velocity of the
real sun diminishes all the way from C to A, and the fic¬
titious sun by an equable motion is still coming nearer to
the real sun, yet they are not in conjunction till the one
comes to A and the other to a, and then it is noon by them
both at the same moment. . , . CnmnarL.
Mean solar time and sidereal time being both uniform,^
it is easy to compare the one with the other, anc assign mean an(j
the number of degrees, minutes, &c. which the sun and a sidereal
star will respectively describe in a given portion of side-time,
real or mean solar time. In a mean solar day the sun s
right ascension and mean longitude are increased by
59' 8"*33 ; consequently 360° 59' 8"-33 of the equator pass
the meridian in 24 mean solar hours. The sidereal time
corresponding to this period is 24 hours 3 min. 56-5od sec.,
therefore 24 mean solar hours are equal to 24 hours
3 min. 56-555 sec. of sidereal time; and 24 hours of side¬
real time are equal to 23 hours 56 min. 4-09()7 sec. of
mean solar time, or to 24 hours minus 3 min. 55-9093
sec. This difference of 3 min. 55-9093 sec. is called the
acceleration of the fixed stars in mean solar time ; and the
preceding excess of 3 min. 56-555 sec. is the retardation
of the sun in sidereal time. Hence the one species of
time may be easily converted into the other; and the arc
of the equator passed over by the meridian in a given
mean time may be calculated. Thus,
360° 59' 8"-33 _ ^ 27"-84708
Fig. 30.
24
is the arc described by a star in one hour of mean solar
But the process of converting sidereal or mean solar time
into true or apparent time, or of computing from the in¬
stants of apparent time the corresponding mean solar and
sidereal times, is attended with much greater difhcu v.
The reason is, that the interval between two successive
transits of the sun over the meridian, which, m apparent
time, measures the day, is a variable quantity; and hence
there cannot exist any constant ratio between true an
mean time, as there does between mean and sidereal
time. The correction or equation by which apparent
time is reduced to mean time, is technically called the
Equation of Time, and is composed of the aggregate of the
several variable terms which denote the inequalities of
the sun’s motion in longitude. Besides the eccentricity.
A S T R O N O M Y.
25
Theoretical
Astronomy.
Fig. 31.
the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the variations of that
obliquity occasioned by the nutation of the earth’s axis,
it is affected also by the small alterations of the sun’s right
ascension, which result from the effect of the planetary
perturbations on the earth ; and hence the equation of
time cannot be exactly computed without the aid of Phy¬
sical Astronomy.
It will be evident, from what has preceded, that the
equation of time expresses merely the difference between
the true and mean right ascensions of the sun, reduced to
time. Its different parts may be calculated numerically
in the following manner. Let NA (fig. 31) represent the
mean motion of the sun during a given interval, then N A
is the sun’s mean longitude, N being the first point of
Aries. Let NA = M, and from this mean longitude sub¬
tract the longitude of the apogee, the remainder will be
the sun’s mean anomaly. From the mean anomaly let
the equation of the centre be found and denoted by E.
Take AB = E, then NB = M + E is the longitude cor¬
rected for the eccentricity.
Let us next suppose BC to be the small quantity by
which the sun’s longitude is increased in consequence of
the perturbations of the planets, and let BC = P; then
NC = M + E + P is the true and exact longitude of the
sun. Through C let the arc CD be drawn perpendicular
to the equator; the point D will be that point of the
equator which passes the meridian at the same time with
the sun. Let R = NC — ND = the reduction to the
ecliptic; we have then the sun’s right ascension = M
, E + P—R.
Let NF = NA, and F will be the place which the sun
would occupy in the equator at the same instant that he
occupies the point A in the ecliptic, if he moved uni¬
formly in the former circle ; for NF as well as NA will
represent the mean diurnal motion of 59' 8"-33 multiplied
by the number of days elapsed in the interval between
the equinox N and the time of the observation. The
mean sun would therefore pass the meridian with the
point F, whereas the true sun passes it with the point D;
therefore, at the instant of true noon, when the sun C
and the corresponding point D are on the meridian, the
mean sun is at a distance from D expressed by the arc
FD=:M + E+P — R — M = E + P — R- Now, the arc
of the equator FD measures the horary angle between the
mean and the true sun, or the angle at the pole between
the meridian and the hour-circle passing through D; it
is therefore converted into time by the following propor¬
tion :—
360° : FD :: 24 mean solar hours : time from true noon ;
consequently the difference between mean and true noon,
or the equation of time,
FD X 24'‘ _ + P _ R) - cTT.
360° '
But this equation is not yet perfectly accurate: it re¬
quires to be corrected for the effects of nutation. Now
it is known that the variation of the mean longitude of
the sun, arising from the unequal precession of the equi¬
noxes in consequence of the nutation occasioned by the
inclination of the lunar orbit, is expressed by the formula
18" sin. (360° — moon’s node) = 18" sin. N. This vari¬
ation, reduced to the direction of the equator, will there¬
fore be 18" sin. N cos. e (e being the obliquity of the eclip¬
tic). The difference between the two expressions is
18" sin. N (1 — cos. e) = 36" sin.2 \e sin. N = 1" -4887
sin. N, which, reduced to time, becomes (M)9925 sec. X sin.
N. This small correction, amounting to less than a tenth
of a second, was long omitted in computing the equation
of time. When it is included, that equation becomes
dT = ^ (E + P — R) + 0*09925 sec. X sin. N.
VOL. IV.
The quantities E, P, R, and N, are to be computed se- Theoretical
parately from the astronomical tables; and it must be ob- Astronomy
served, that the result will be expressed in mean solar
time.
The cosine of the obliquity, that is, cos. 23° 28', is
equal to -9173 = very nearly. Hence, since the equa¬
tion of time is equal to the sun s true right ascension, di¬
minished by his mean longitude and the effects of nuta¬
tion in right ascension (= ND — NA =j= 18" sin. N cos. e),
it may, on denoting the true right ascension by A, be ex¬
pressed as follows:—
r dT = A — M 18" sin. N X -U-.
This is the form under which the equation of time was
expressed by Dr Maskelyne.
The equation of time is at its maximum about the 3d of
November, when it amounts to 16' 16"-7, and is subtrac¬
tive. At four different times of the year it vanishes,
namely, about the 25th of December, the 16th of April,
the 16th of June, and the 1st of September. These
epochs, however, do not remain constant; for, on account
of the change which the line of the apsides is constantly
undergoing in reference to the line of the equinoxes, the
difference between the true and mean right ascensions of
the sun—in other words, the equation of time varies
continually in different years.
gECTi Y.— Of the Spots of the Sun, his Rotation, and
Constitution.
The sun, the great source of light, heat, and animation,
when beheld with the naked eye, appears only as a lumi¬
nous mass of uniform splendour and brightness ; but when
examined with the telescope, his surface is frequently ob¬
served to be mottled over with a number of dark spots,
of irregular and ill-defined forms, and constantly varying
in appearance, situation, and magnitude. These spots
are occasionally of immense size, so as to be even visible
without the aid of the telescope; and their number is
frequently so great that they occupy a considerable portion
of the sun’s surface. Dr Herschel observed one in 1779,
the diameter of which exceeded 50,000 miles, more than
six times the diameter of the earth ; and Schemer affiims
that he has seen no less than 50 on the sun s disk at once.
Most of them have a deep black nucleus, surrounded by
a fainter shade, or umbra, of which the inner part, nearest
to the nucleus, is brighter than the exterior portion. 4 he
boundary between the nucleus and umbra is in general
tolerably well defined; and beyond the umbra a stripe of
light appears more vivid than the rest of the sun.
The discovery of the sun’s spots has been attributed to
different astronomers. They appear to have been first
taken notice of in a work of Fabricius, the friend of Kep¬
ler, which was published at Wittenberg in 1611, under
the title of Joh. Fabricii Phrysii de Maculis in Sole Ob-
servatis, et Apparente earum cum Sole Conversione Narra-
tio. It contains, however, nothing more than a few vague
conjectures respecting the spots, the phenomena of which
he could not have observed with any degree of accuracy,
inasmuch as he seems to have been unacquainted with any
method of protecting the eye by intercepting a portion of
the solar rays ; for he recommends to those who should
repeat his observations, to admit into the telescope only
a small portion of the sun at once, till the eye should by
degrees become able to support the full blaze of light.
About the same time the discovery was warmly disputed
by the illustrious Galileo, and Scheiner, a German Jesuit,
professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt. The whole cir¬
cumstances connected with this dispute are narrated at
great length by Galileo in his work entitled Istoria e l)i-
ASTRONOMY.
26
Theoretical mostrazioni intorno alle Macchie Solari, e loro Accidenti,
Astronomy from which it appears certain that he observed the spots
v—^ so early as April 1611. In a letter published by him in
1612, he remarks that the spots are situated on the sur¬
face of the sun, or that at least their distance from it is
imperceptible ; that the time of their continuance varies
from 2 or 3 to 30 or 40 days ; that their figures are irre¬
gular and variable; that some are seen to separate, and
others to unite, even on the middle of the disk; that be¬
sides these peculiar motions, they have also a common
motion, in virtue of which they traverse the disk in paral¬
lel lines. From this general motion he infers that the
sun turns on an axis from west to east; and he adds as a
curious remark, that the spots are confined within a zone
extending only about 28 or 29 degrees to the north and
south of the sun’s equator. Galileo illustrates all these
positions by mathematical reasoning, and by drawings of
the spots made on many successive days.
Scheiner’s observations were first announced in Janu¬
ary 1612, in three letters addressed to his friend Marc
Velser, a magistrate of Augsburg. In the first of these,
the date of which is November 1611, he says that he had
observed the spots seven months before, but that, having
a different object in view, he had given little attention to
them. He observed them again in the following October,
and at that time imagined the appearance was owing to
some imperfection of his telescope, till he was convinced by
repeated observations that it was necessary to refer it to
the sun. From these remarks it is pretty clear that Schei-
ner had formed no accurate notions respecting the spots
before October 1611, that is, six months after they had
been observed by Galileo. Scheiner made the observa¬
tion of the solar spots his whole occupation during the fol¬
lowing eighteen years, in the course of which he discover¬
ed the position of the solar equator, and formed a theory
much more complete than that of Galileo. The account
of his observations was published in 1630, under the title
of Rosa Ursina, sive Sol ex admirando Facularum et Ma-
cularum suarum Phcenomeno Varius, &c.
The discovery of the solar spots has also been claimed
for our countryman Harriot. Amidst these conflicting
pretensions it is perhaps impossible to arrive at the truth ;
but the matter is of little importance; the discovery is
one which followed inevitably that of the telescope, and
an accidental priority of observation can hardly be con¬
sidered as establishing any claim to merit.
The solar spots furnish an extensive subject of curious
speculation, but in an astronomical point of view they are
chiefly interesting on account of their establishing the
fact, and affording the means of determining the period,
of the rotation of the sun. In order to obtain a precise
idea of the position of a spot, and the path which it de¬
scribes, it is necessary to project that path on the plane
passing through the centre of the sun, and perpendicular
to the visual ray drawn from the earth to the sun’s centre.
Fig. 32. Suppose the diameter of a circle ASB (fig. 32) to be di¬
vided into as many parts of unity as there are seconds in
the apparent diameter of the sun. Let CP be taken
equal to the number of seconds contained in the differ¬
ence of the longitudes of the spot and the sun’s centre, and
the perpendicular PM equal to the number of seconds in
the latitude of the spot; then M will represent its posi¬
tion on the surface of the sun. By repeating the same
operation a number of days consecutively, a series of
points M M' M", &c. will be obtained in the apparent path
of the spot on the sun’s disk, or rather in the projection
of that path on the plane perpendicular to the visual ray.
This projection is in general an oval slightly differing from
an ellipse; and it is found that all the spots observed at
tne same time describe similar and parallel curves. They Theoretical
also return to the same relative positions in the same time, Astronomy,
and their period is about 27^- days.
The paths described by the spots undergo very consi¬
derable changes, according to the season of the year at
which they are observed. About the end of November
and beginning of December they appear simply as
straight lines Mm, M'm', M"m" (fig. 33), along which the Fig. 33.
spots move in the direction Mm, that is, they enter on
the eastern and disappear on the western edge of the
sun’s disk; and the points at which they disappear are
more elevated, or nearer the north pole of the ecliptic, than
those at which they enter. After a certain time the lines
Mm begin to assume a curved appearance, and form ovals,
as represented in fig. 34. During the winter and spring Fig. 34.
the convexity of the ovals is turned towards the north
pole of the ecliptic ; but their inclination, or rather the
inclination of the straight lines joining their extreme
points, to the plane of the ecliptic continues to diminish,
and about the beginning of March disappears ; so that
the points at which they seem to enter and leave the
sun’s disk are equally elevated, as in fig. 35. From this Fig. 33.
time the curvature of the ovals diminishes; they become
narrower and narrower till about the end of May or be¬
ginning of June, when they again appear under the form
of straight lines (fig. 36) ; but their inclinations to the Fig. 30.
ecliptic are now precisely in a contrary direction to what
they were six months before. After this they begin again pute
to expand, as in fig. 37, and their convexity is now turned LXNIX. .
towards the south pole. Their inclinations also vary at Fig-37-
the same time, and about the commencement of Septem¬
ber they are seen as represented in fig. 38 ; the points Fig. 38.
at which they enter and disappear being again equally
elevated. After this period the ovals begin to contract
and become inclined to the ecliptic, and by the begin¬
ning of December they have exactly the same direction
and inclination as they had the previous year.
These phenomena are renewed every year in the same
order, and the same phases are always exhibited at cor¬
responding seasons. Flence it is evident that they de¬
pend on a uniform and regular cause, which is common
to all of them, since the orbits described by the various
spots are exactly parallel, and subject in all respects to
the same variations. The simplest method of explaining
the phenomena is to suppose with Galileo that the spots
are adherent to the surface of the sun, and that the sun
uniformly revolves round an axis inclined to the axis of
the ecliptic. If the axis of revolution were perpendicu¬
lar to the plane of the ecliptic, the spots, supposing
them to adhere to the sun’s surface, would describe circles
parallel to that plane, which, seen from the earth, would
.appear as so many parallel straight lines; but by supposing
the axis to have a suitable inclination, all the phenomena
become explicable in a very simple manner. While the
sun is carried round in his orbit, his axis, constantly pre¬
serving its parallelism, will successively assume different
positions relatively to the earth; and the planes of the
circles described by the spots, which planes are always
perpendicular to the axis, will consequently be presented
to us under different inclinations ; hence the variations
of their apparent curvature. In two opposite points of
the orbit the visual ray drawn from the earth to the cen¬
tre of the sun is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
In these two positions the poles of the sun, or the points
in which the axis meets the surface, are both visible at
the same moment, and the spots appear to move in paral¬
lel straight lines. But as the axis retains this perpendicular
position only for an instant, and declines from it very sen¬
sibly while the spot traverses the sun’s disk, the path of
ASTRONOM Y.
27
Theoretical the spots over the entire disk is neither a straight line nor
Astronomy. an ellipse, one of which it would necessarily be it the
sun, while revolving about his axis, did not change his
place in his orbit. When the axis is not perpendicular to
the visual ray, the path of the spots will appear to be a
curve of which the concavity is turned towards that pole
which is visible from the earth. This inclination of the
solar axis to the plane of the ecliptic also explains the
reason why the points of the disk at which the spots ap¬
pear are more elevated during one half of the year, and
more depressed during the other half, than those at which
they disappear. It will also follow from the same hypothesis,
that the curvature of the ovals must be the greatest pos¬
sible when the straight lines joining their extremities are
parallel to the ecliptic ; and, on the contrary, least when
the same straight lines are most inclined to the ecliptic;
all which is exactly conformable to observation.
The various appearances which we have now described
may be accurately represented by means of a common ce¬
lestial or terrestrial globe. Let the wooden horizon of the
globe, which is here supposed to represent the sun, be
placed horizontally in the same plane with the eye of the
spectator, and the pole be inclined about /° from the zenith.
The wooden horizon will now represent the ecliptic ; and
if the spectator walk round the globe, always keeping
his eye in the plane of the wooden horizon, the circles of
latitude will appear to him as ellipses of different inclina¬
tions and eccentricities: in two opposite points they will
appear as straight lines, and, in short, exhibit in their va¬
rious positions all the phenomena of the oval paths de¬
scribed by the spots of the sun.
The consequences deduced from the hypothesis of the
rotatory motion of the sun are so perfectly conformable
with observation, as to render the inference inevitable,
that the sun revolves from west to east, on an axis inclined
about 93° to the plane of the ecliptic. The plane which
passes through the centre of the sun, perpendicular to
the axis of rotation, is the Equator of the sun ; the straight
line joining the points in which it intersects the ecliptic
is called the Line of the Nodes of the equator. Ihe IS odes
themselves are the two opposite points in which this
straight line, produced indefinitely, meets the celestial
sphere.
In order to determine the situation of the solar axis in
space, it is necessary to find its inclination to the ecliptic,
and the angle which the line of the nodes makes with
any given line on the plane of the ecliptic, for example,
with the line of the equinoxes. The requisite data for
the solution of this problem are three different positions
of the same spot, which must be obtained by observation.
Fig. 39. Let S (fig. 39) be the centre of the sun’s disk, AB a
parallel to the terrestrial equator, and M the place of a
spot, the co-ordinates of which, as referred to AB, are
SX and MX. In this figure the earth is supposed to be
situated in a straight line passing through S perpendi¬
cular to the plane of the paper, and it is to be recollected
that SX and MX are in fact arcs of the solar globe,
though so small when seen from the earth that they may
be regarded as straight lines. By comparing the times of
the transits of B, the border of the disk, and the spot M,
we shall find BX, from which, as SB the semidiameter of
the sun is known, we shall have SX the difference of the
right ascensions of the spot and sun’s centre. The line
CY, which is the difference of the declination of the border
of the disk and that of the spot, is measured by the mi¬
crometer. This will give MX the declination of the spot.
MX SX
Now, tan. MSXrr and SM = TVTc,'vr ; therefore
SX cos. MSX
SM is also a known quantity. Let EE be the ecliptic,
e— obliquity of the ecliptic, and © = the longitude of Theoretical
the sun. The angle BSE, which is technically called the Astronomy
Angle of Position, is the complement of the angle made by
the ecliptic with the circle of declination passing through
the sun, and is therefore given by the formula tan. BSE
zr tan. e cos. © : hence MSE (r=MSX — BSE) is also
given. On SE let fall the perpendicular Mm, then Mm
=; SM sin. MSE is the geocentric latitude of the spot,
and Sm = SM cos. MSE is the difference between its
geocentric longitude and that of the centre of the sun :
the object is now' to determine the angles subtended by
these lines at the centre of the sun, that is, to conveit the
geocentric into heliocentric latitudes and longitudes.
Suppose two straight lines to be drawn from the eaith,
one to the centre of the sun, and the other to the centre
of the spot M, and let 0 be their inclination, which is
measured by SM, and is consequently known, being the
geocentric distance of the spot from S, the centie of
the sun’s disk. Let R = distance of the sun’s centre
from the earth, r — semidiameter of the sun, <f> = the
angle made at the centre of the sun by the straight lines
drawn from it to the earth and the spot M, and let be
the remaining angle of the triangle formed by the lines
joining the earth, the centre of the sun, and the spot.
We have then r : R : : sin. 6 : sin. -vj/, whence sin. =
— sin. 6. But R : r as radius to the sine of half the sun’s
r
sin. 6
sin. ^ sun’s diameter’
true diameter ; therefore sin. -vj/ =
Now <p — 160° — 41 — ^ consequently we have the num¬
ber of degrees, minutes, and seconds in <p, the heliocentric
distance of the spot from the straight^ line which joins
the centres of the earth and sun. Having thus obtained
the hypothenuse SM in parts of a great circle of the solar
orb, the sides Sm and Mm will be obtained in similar
parts from the common trigonometrical formulae for the
resolution of a right-angled spherial triangle. These for¬
mulae give
tan. Sm tan. SM cos. MSE,
sin. Mm — sin. SM sin. MSE.
It will be remarked that Mm is the heliocentric lati¬
tude of the spot, Sm the difference of its longitude and
that of the earth; and as the longitude of the earth is
equal to 180° -f that of the sun, the heliocentric longi¬
tude of the spot will be 180° + © — Sm if the spot is
behind or to the east of the centre of the sun, and 180°
_|_ ©> _|_ Sm if it precedes the centre.
In this manner the heliocentric longitudes and latitudes Position of
of the spots are deduced from their observed right as. solar axis,
censions and declinations. The next step is to show how
they are employed in determining the position of the so¬
lar axis. This problem is in practice somewhat laborious,
although the principles on which its solution rests are
sufficiently simple. The planes of the circles described
by the spots are parallel to the sun’s equator: if, there¬
fore, the position of one of them can be found, the posi¬
tion of the equator, and consequently of the axis, will be
found at the same time. Now, the position of a plane is
determined by three given points through which it is re¬
quired to pass ; consequently, by three observations of the
same spot, we shall have three points in its plane, and
thence the plane itself. The problem is therefore one of
pure geometry, and may be solved in various ways. The
results of the most accurate observations make the in¬
clination of the solar equator to the ecliptic amount to
7° 19,23" or, 7°^ very nearly; and the heliocentric longi¬
tude of the ascending node, that is, the point in which the
equator of the sun intersects the ecliptic, in passing from
28
ASTRONOMY.
Fig. 4<X
Theoretical south to north, 80° T 4". The position of the node seems
Astronomy to undergo no variation, except such as may be supposed
to arise from the precession of the equinoxes.
It has already been mentioned that the mean time in
which a solar spot returns to the same position, relatively
to the earth, is 27-3 days. This, however, is not the time
in which the sun makes a revolution about his axis. In
the interval of 27‘3 days the sun describes in the ecliptic
an arc equal to 26°'91 (for 365d-25 : 27J-3 :: 360° : 260-91),
and by virtue of this motion alone he exhibits every day
different points of his surface, the whole of which would
be successively shown to the earth in the course of a
year, independently of the motion of rotation. Hence re¬
sults an apparent annual rotation round an axis perpendi¬
cular to the* ecliptic, and we must abstract the effects of
this optical illusion in order to arrive at the time of a real
rotation. This apparent rotatory motion will be easily
understood by referring to fig. 40, in which S is the sun,
E the earth, and C the point in which the visual ray ES
intersects the surface of the sun. Suppose the sun to
have advanced in his orbit from S to S', the visual ray
drawn from the sun’s centre to the earth will now meet
the surface in a different point C', and the angular distance
between C and C' will be found by drawing S'E' parallel
to SE ; for the point c in which S'E meets the surface will
correspond to C, and the arc C'c, or the angle E'S'E, will
be the apparent rotation, while the sun advances in his
orbit from S to S'. Now, the angle E'S'E is equal to
S'ES, or the apparent rotatory motion is equal to the an¬
gular motion of the sun in his orbit; hence, since the real
rotation is in a contrary direction, it is obvious that, if the
axis were perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, when
a spot appears to have made one revolution, it has in
reality passed over an arc equal to 360° + 26o,91, or
386*91 degrees. By a simple proportion, therefore,
386*91 : 360 : : 27*3 : 25*4;
and consequently 25*4 days is the real time of the sun’s
revolution. This result is, however, not quite accurate, on
account of its having been supposed that the axis of rota¬
tion is perpendicular to the ecliptic, whereas it differs
from a perpendicular to that plane by 7°^; but the cor¬
rection necessary on account of the difference is so small
as to fall far within the limits of the errors to which the
observations are liable ; it is therefore unnecessary to have
regard to it.
Observations of the spots, from which the elements of
tions liable the sun’s rotation are deduced, are attended with a very
to uncer- considerable degree of uncertainty. The semidiameter of
the sun, which at the surface of the earth subtends an angle
of only 16', or 960", is equivalent to 90° at the centre of
the sun. Hence the error of a single second (and it is
impossible to answer for one or two seconds in observa¬
tions of this sort) corresponds to about 338", or 5' 38", on
the surface of the solar globe. An observer may, there¬
fore, notwithstanding the greatest care, be mistaken to
the extent of 10' with regard to the length of a heliocen¬
tric arc ; and when to this we add, that the margins of the
spots are ill defined, and even changeable, so that their
centres, which it becomes necessary to observe, are not
always the same, it will not appear surprising that a con¬
siderable discordance exists among the results of different
observations. The uncertainty respecting the time of ro¬
tation amounts to no less than 10 or 12 hours. From a
careful discussion of a numerous set of observations, De-
lambre found the time of rotation to be only 25*01154
days, instead of 25*4 given above; and he remarks that,
in order to render the last-mentioned number admissible,
it is necessary to suppose either an error of 2° 22', which
is scarcely possible, or else that the spot has a proper mo-
Observa-
tainty.
tion in the same direction as the motion of rotation of the Theoretical
earth and all the planets. Astronomy.
From four different combinations of equations, derived
from eleven observations of the same spot, Delambre com¬
puted the following table of the elements of rotation.
Node.
80° 45' 7"
79 21 35
80 33 40
79 47 55
Inclination.
7° 19' 17"
7 12 37
7 16 33
7 29 4
Revolution.
25d 17,n
Synodic Itevol,
26d 4h 17m
80 7 4 7 19 23 Diurnal motion 14°*394
With regard to observations on the sun’s spots, Delambre
remarks that he attaches little value to them, first, because
it is impossible to make them well; and, secondly, because,
even if they were sure, they only lead to results of little
importance to astronomy. He discussed a hundred dif¬
ferent spots, each observed at least three times by Mes¬
sier, and deduced thirty different determinations of the
elements of rotation. The more he multiplied his calcu¬
lations, the more certain he became of the impossibility of
a good solution; of which, indeed, there is no other chance
than in a compensation of errors, little probable on account
of their enormous magnitudes. These discrepancies render
it probable that the spots, besides partaking of the general
motion of the solar globe, have also proper motions either
of displacement, or occasioned by a change of form, which
may long prevent this part of astronomy from reaching a
greater degree of exactness than it has already attained.
From the circumstance that the sun is incontestably
endowed with a rotatory motion, Lalande concluded that,
according to the rules of probability, he ought also to
have a motion of translation in space. This idea was
adopted by Herschel, and has since been sufficiently
proved. It explains some, though not all, of the proper
motions which have been supposed to be observed among
the stars. If, indeed, the stars are so many suns, revolv¬
ing like ours each on its own axis of rotation, it is ex¬
tremely probable that they have also motions of transla¬
tion ; and thus, there being no fixed points in the heavens,
the problem of their proper motions becomes so compli¬
cated as to be altogether insoluble.
The only interesting fact which has been deduced from
the observations of the solar spots is the rotation of the
sun. The curious appearances which they exhibit have,
however, attracted great attention, and given rise to nu¬
merous theories respecting the constitution of that im¬
mense body which governs and vivifies the planetary sys¬
tem. We will now proceed to give a brief account of the ap¬
pearances, and mention some of the theories that have been
founded on them; premising, that after all that has been
written on this subject, we are not yet, and probably never
will be, in possession of any definite knowledge. The
nature of the spots, and the physical constitution of the
sun, afford fruitful subjects of harmless conjecture and
speculation, but form no part of science.
The phenomena of the solar spots, as delivered by Appear-
Scheiner and Hevelius, may be summed up in the follow- ances of
ing particulars. 1. Every spot which has a nucleus, orthesPoLs*
comparatively dark part, has also an umbra, or fainter
shade surrounding it. 2. The boundary between the
nucleus and umbra is always distinct and well defined.
3. The increase of a spot is gradual, the breadth of the
nucleus and umbra dilating at the same time. 4. In
like manner the decrease of a spot is gradual, the breadth
of the nucleus and umbra contracting at the same time.
ASTRONOMY.
29
Theoretical 5. The exterior boundary of the umbra never consists of
Astronomy sharp angles, but is always curvilinear, how irregular so-
ever the outline of the nucleus may be. 6. The nucleus
of a spot, whilst on the decrease, often changes its figure
by the umbra encroaching irregularly upon it, insomuch
that in a small space of time new encroachments are dis¬
cernible, whereby the boundary between the nucleus and
umbra is perpetually varying. 7. It often happens, by
these encroachments, that the nucleus of a spot is divided
into two or more nuclei. 8. The nuclei of the spots vanish
sooner than the umbra. 9. Small umbrae are often seen
without nuclei. 10. An umbra of any considerable size
is seldom seen without a nucleus in the mid-tile of it. 11.
When a spot which consisted of a nucleus and umbra is
about to disappear, if it is not succeeded by a facula or
spot brighter than the rest of the disk, the place where it
was is soon after not distinguishable from the rest-
In the Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixiv. Dr Wilson,
late professor of astronomy at Glasgow, has given a dis¬
sertation on the nature of the solar spots, in which he
mentions the following appearances. 1. When the spot
is about to disappear on the western edge of the sun s
limb, the eastern part of the umbra first contracts, then
vanishes, the nucleus and western part of the umbra re¬
maining; then the nucleus gradually contracts and va¬
nishes, while the western part only of the umbra remains.
At last this disappears also; and if the spot remains long
enough to become again visible, the eastern pait of
the umbra first becomes visible, then the nucleus; and
when the spot approaches the middle of the disk, the nu¬
cleus appears environed by the umbra on all sides, as al¬
ready mentioned. 2. When two spots lie veiy neai to
one another, the umbra is deficient on that side which lies
next to the other spot; and this will be the case, though
a large spot should be contiguous to one much smaller;
the umbra of the large spot will be totally wanting on that
side next the small one. If there are little spots on each
side of the large one, the umbra does not totally vanish,
but appears flattened or pressed in towards the nucleus
on each side. When the little spots disappear, the umbra
of the large one extends itself as usual. Ibis circum¬
stance, he observes, may sometimes prevent the disap¬
pearance of the umbra in the manner above mentioned,
so that the western umbra may disappear before the nu¬
cleus, if a small spot happens to break out on that side.
In the same volume, p. 337, the Rev. Dr ’Wollaston ob¬
serves that the appearances mentioned by Dr W ilson are
not uniform. He positively affirms that the faculas or
bright spots on the sun are often converted into dark
ones. “ I have many times,” says he, “ observed near the
eastern limb a bright facula just come on, which has the
next day shown itself as a spot, though I do not recollect
to have seen such a facula near the western one after a
spot’s disappearance. Yet, I believe, both these circum¬
stances have been observed by others, and peihaps not
only near the limbs. The circumstance of the faculse be¬
ing converted into spots, I think I may be sure of. That
there is generally, perhaps always, a mottled appearance
over the face of the sun, when carefully attended to, I
think I may be as certain. It is most visible towards the
limbs, but I have undoubtedly seen it in the centre ; yet
I do not recollect to have observed this appearance, or
indeed anv spots, towards the poles. Once I saw, with a
twelve-inch reflector, a spot burst to pieces while I was
looking at it. I could not expect such an event, and
therefore cannot be certain of the exact particulars ; but
the appearance, as it struck me at the time, was like that
of a piece of ice when dashed on a frozen pond, which
breaks to pieces and slides in various directions. He also
observes, that the nuclei of the spots are not always in the Theoretical
middle of the umbrae, and gives the figure of one seen 0n Astronomy,
the 13th of November 1773, which is a remarkable instance
to the contrary.
The faculae, or bright spots, were observed with parti¬
cular attention by Messier, who frequently saw them en¬
ter on the eastern limb of the sun, disappear as they ap¬
proached the centre of the disk, re-appear on the oppo¬
site limb, and continue visible, as they had done at the
time of their first appearance, for about three days, fill
they were carried off the disk by the rotation of the
sun. Spots frequently broke out in these faculae, and
when this did not happen, they were succeeded by spots
which generally became visible on the following day; and
from the regularity of this occurrence, he was enabled to
predict the appearance of a spot 24 hours before it en¬
tered on the sun’s disk. He observed, also, that the
magnitude of the spots was proportional to the brightness
of the antecedent faculae. Like the spots, the faculae are
generally confined to the equatorial regions of the sun ;
but they have been occasionally observed by Schroeter on
every part of the disk.
To explain these singular appearances, numerous the-Theories
ories, more or less plausible, have been proposed, but ah regarding
resting on many gratuitous assumptions, and subject to
great difficulties. Scheiner imagined that the spots do not
belong to the sun, but supposed them to be inferior pla¬
nets revolving at no great distance from the central lumi¬
nary. Galileo, Hevelius, and others, have supposed them
to be scoriae floating in the inflammable liquid matter of
which they imagined the sun to be composed. I his opi¬
nion, although it accounts for the appearance of the spots
in the equatorial regions of the sun, to which such scoriae
would be carried by the centrifugal force resulting from
his rotation, cannot be reconciled with the regularity with
which the spots frequently re-appear on the eastern limb
of the sun. Dr Wilson, having observed that the spots
situated near the edge of the disk are narrow, and without
a penumbra on the side next the centre, and that only
the central spots are completely surrounded by a penum¬
bra (appearances which would be exactly represented by
a conical gulf or cavity presented to us under different
aspects by the revolution of the sun), was led to adopt
the opinion, that the appearances of the spots are occa¬
sioned by real excavations in the solar globe. He sup¬
posed the sun to consist of a dark nucleus, covered only
to a certain depth by a luminous matter, not fluid, through
which openings are occasionally made by volcanic or other
energies, permitting the solid nucleus of the sun to be
seen; and that the umbra which surrounds the spot is
occasioned by a partial admission of the light upon the
shelving sides of the precipice opposite to the observer.
It is evident that, in proportion as these excavations are
seen obliquely, their apparent dimensions will be dimi¬
nished ; one of the edges will disappear as it approaches
the sun’s limb, or come more into view as it advances to¬
wards the middle of the disk; when the spot is about to
leave the disk, the bottom of the excavation, 01 the nucleus
seen through it, will first disappear, but a sort of faint 01
obscure spot will remain visible as long as the visual ray
penetrates the cavity. These appearances are all con¬
formable to the laws of perspective; but Dr Wilson,
wishing to give a still more palpable demonstration of
the accuracy of his theory, fitted up a large globe, into
which holes of the proper dimensions were inserted; and
this machine being placed at a distance, and made to
revolve, was found, when examined through a telescope,
to exhibit in the course of its revolution all the phenomena
of the solar spots.
30
ASTRONOMY.
Ilerschel’s
observa¬
tions.
Theoretical Dr Wilson’s theory was keenly combated by Lalande,
Astronomy. wh0 adduced several observations of his own, and some
by Cassini, that could not be explained by means of it;
and urged with reason, that an hypothesis, founded on the
uniformity of appearances which in reality are exceed¬
ingly variable, was entitled to little consideration. La¬
lande himself supposed the spots to be scoriae which have
settled or fixed themselves on the summits of the solar
mountains; an opinion which he grounded on this cir¬
cumstance, that some large spots which had disappeared
for several years were observed to form themselves again
at the identical points at which they had vanished.
The late Sir William Herschel, with a view to ascer¬
tain more accurately the nature of the sun, made frequent
observations upon it from the year 1779 to the year 1794.
He imagined the dark spots on the sun to be mountains,
which, considering the great attraction exerted by the
sun upon bodies placed at its surface, and the slow revo¬
lution it has upon its axis, he thought might be more than
300 miles high, and yet stand very firmly. He says that
in August 1792 he examined the sun with several powers
from 90 to 500, when it evidently appeared that the dark
spots are the opaque ground or body of the sun, and that
the luminous part is an atmosphere, through which, when
interrupted or broken, we obtain a view of the sun it¬
self. Hence he concluded that the sun has a very ex¬
tensive atmosphere, consisting of elastic fluids that are
more or less lucid and transparent, and of which the lucid
ones furnish us with light. This atmosphere, he thought,
cannot be less than 1843, nor more than 2765 miles in
height; and he supposed that the density of the lumi¬
nous solar clouds needs not be much more than that of
our aurora borealis, in order to produce the effects with
which we are acquainted. The sun, then, if this hypo¬
thesis be admitted, is similar to the other globes of the
solar system with regard to its solidity, its atmosphere,
its surface'diversified with mountains and valleys, its ro¬
tation on its axis, and the fall of heavy bodies on its sur¬
face ; it therefore appears to be a very eminent, large,
and lucid planet, the primary one in our system, disse¬
minating its light and heat to all the bodies with which it
is connected.
Herschel supposed that there are two regions or strata
of solar clouds; that the inferior stratum is opaque, and
probably not unlike our own atmosphere, while the supe¬
rior is the repository of light, which it darts forth in vast
quantities in all directions. The inferior clouds act as a
curtain to screen the body of the sun from the intense
brilliancy and heat of the superior regions, and, by re¬
flecting back nearly one half of the rays which they
receive from the luminous clouds, contribute also great¬
ly to increase the quantity of light which the latter
send forth into space, and thereby perform an important
function in the economy of the solar system. The lumi¬
nous clouds prevent us in general from seeing the solid
nucleus of the sun ; but in order to account for the spots,
be supposes an empyreal elastic gas to be constantly form¬
ing at the surface, which, carried upwards by reason of
its inferior density, forces its way through the planetary
or lower clouds, and mixing itself with the gases which
have their residence in the superior stratum, causes de¬
compositions of the luminous matter, and gives rise to
those appearances which he describes under the name of
corrugations. Through the openings made by this acci¬
dental removal of the luminous clouds, the solid body of
the sun becomes visible, which, not being lucid, gives the
appearance of the dark spots or nuclei seen through the
telescope. The length of the time during which the spots
continue visible renders it evident that the luminous mat¬
ter of the sun cannot be of a liquid or gaseous nature; Theoretical
for, in either case, the vacuity made by its accidental re- Astronomy
moval would instantly be filled up, and the uniformity of
appearance invariably maintained. Herschel supposed
the luminous clouds to be phosphorescent.
It would be a needless waste of time to enter into any Uncertain-
discussion of a theory so entirely vague and fanciful, ty respect-
and so destitute of all solid foundation. Till we are bet-'nff t^ie
ter acquainted with the nature of light, fire, and heat,
and have attained to the knowledge of every possible mode sun
in which these elements can be produced and propagated,
all hypotheses respecting the construction of the sun can
only be gratuitous and conjectural. Some interesting
questions, however, arise out of this subject. Whether
the inferior stratum of solar clouds is sufficiently dense,
as Herschel imagined, to protect the body of the sun from
the scorching effects of the surrounding regions of light
and heat, and render it a fit habitation for human beings,
is a question of no importance to man, or to any thing
pertaining to his planet; but it is interesting for him to
know whether the light and heat dispensed by the sun are
liable to any variation or secular diminution, either con¬
nected with the spots, or resulting from a decrease of the
sun’s volume.
Those philosophers who adopt the hypothesis of the Mass of
production of light and heat by the vibrations of an ethe-tl1681111 un-
real fluid, consider the mass of the sun to be invariable.
Those, on the contrary, who attribute these effects to an minut;on> *
emanation from the sun, think his mass and volume must
be diminished by the incessant discharge of torrents of
luminous particles from his surface. During the two thou¬
sand years which have elapsed since the first astronomical
observations, no diminution of the sun’s volume has been
perceived; but it must be remarked that such an effect
may have taken place, though not yet sensible to our
instruments. The sun’s diameter is nearly 2000"; and at
the distance of 95,000,000 miles a second corresponds
to 460 miles. Now, supposing the solar diameter to suffer
a daily diminution of two feet, which may be considered
as enormous, considering the vast magnitude of the sun,
and the excessive rarity of light, the diminution would
amount to 800 feet in a year, and to 460 miles, or 1", in
3000 years. Thus, after thirty centuries, the diminution
would still be imperceptible, inasmuch as our instruments
are not sufficiently accurate to enable us to appreciate, in
an observation of this sort, so small a variation as one
second.
Some astronomers, after Herschel, have imagined that Connection
the existence of the solar spots has an influence on theot the solar
temperature of the seasons. In 1823 the summer was®P°t^lte_
cold and wet; the thermometer at Paris rose only to 23°-7 rature $ '
of Reaumur, and the sun exhibited no spots ; whereas in the sea-
the summer of 1807 the heat was excessive, and the spots sons,
of vast magnitude. The relation, however, between the
temperature and the appearance of the solar spots is not
so uniform as to give much weight to this opinion. Warm
summers, and winters of excessive rigour, have happened
in the presence or absence of the spots. The year 1783
was remarkable for its fertility and the magnitude of the
solar spots; a dry fog enveloped the greater part of Eu¬
rope, and was followed by the earthquake of Calabria.
Another opinion entertained by Herschel was, that one
hemisphere of the sun emits less light than the other, so
that when viewed at a great distance he will resemble
some stars of which the brilliancy is subject to periodical
variations. ^
By reason of the globular figure of the sun, his sur-®^dslT'
face towards the border of the disk is seen obliquely, {iave an at.
and therefore a much greater portion of it is comprehend-m0sphere.
ASTRONOMY.
31
Theoretical
Astronomy
Zodiacal
littht.
lig. 41.
Fig. 42.
Different
opinions
regarding
the zodia-
cal light.
ed under a given visual angle, than when the ray pro¬
ceeds from his centre. Now, as every point of the sun s
surface is supposed to emit an equal quantity of light in all
directions, it follows that the light ought to be much more
intense near the circumference of the disk, because a
greater number of rays will proceed from the larger sur¬
face, which forms the oblique base of the luminous cone.
Bouguer, deceived by some imperfect experiments, thought
the light more intense at the centre of the disk than to¬
wards the limb; a circumstance which could only be ex¬
plained by supposing the light to be diminished by some
cause which acts most powerfully with regard to the bor¬
ders of the disk. Such would be the effect of a dense
atmosphere surrounding the sun ; for in this case the rays
which proceed from the border must traverse a much
greater extent of the solar atmosphere, and consequently
be absorbed in greater proportion than those which pro¬
ceed from the central parts and traverse it directly; just
as the atmosphere of the earth renders the light of the
stars at the horizon much feebler than at the zenith. It
has been thought, however, that Bouguer’s experiments
were inaccurate, and that the light is equally intense at
the border and the centre. The existence of a solar at¬
mosphere cannot therefore be demonstrated in this man¬
ner ; but it is clearly indicated by the faint light which is
observable round the sun’s limb during a total eclipse.
Another very curious phenomenon connected with the
sun, is the faint nebulous aurora which accompanies him,
known by the name of the Zodiacal Light. This pheno¬
menon was first observed by Kepler, who described its
appearance with sufficient accuracy, and supposed it to
be the atmosphere of the sun. Dominic Cassini, how¬
ever, to whom its discovery has been generally but er¬
roneously attributed, was the first who observed it atten¬
tively, and gave it the name which it now bears. It is
visible immediately before sunrise, or after sunset, in the
place where the sun is about to appear, or has just quit¬
ted, in the horizon. In total eclipses it is seen surround¬
ing the sun’s disk, and resembling the beard of a comet.
It has a flat lenticular form, and is placed obliquely on
the horizon, as represented in fig. 41, the apex extending
to a great distance in the heavens. Its direction is al¬
ways in the plane of the sun’s equator, and for this reason
it is scarcely visible in our latitudes, excepting at particu¬
lar seasons, when that plane is nearly perpendicular to
the horizon. When its inclination is great, it is either
concealed altogether under the horizon, or at least rises
so little above it, that its splendour is effaced by the at¬
mosphere of the earth. The most favourable time for
observing it is about the beginning of March, or towards
the vernal equinox. The line of the equinoxes is then
situated in the horizon, and the arc of the ecliptic SS' S"
(fig. 42) is more elevated than the equator SEQ by an
angle of 23^ degrees; so that the solar equator, which is
slightly inefined to the ecliptic, approaches nearer to the
perpendicular to the horizon, and the pyramid of the zo¬
diacal light is consequently directed to a point nearer the
zenith, than at any other season of the year. For ex¬
ample, at the summer solstice, S"T, a tangent to the
ecliptic, is parallel to EQ the tangent to the equator, and
the luminous pyramid is in a plane less elevated by 23°^-
than at the time of the vernal equinox.
Numerous opinions have been entertained respecting
the nature and cause of this singular phenomenon. Cas¬
sini thought it might be occasioned by the confused light
of an innumerable multitude of little planets circulating
round the sun, in the same manner as the milky way owes
its appearance to the light of agglomerated myriads of
stars. Its resemblance to the tails of comets has been
noticed by Cassini, Fatio Duillier, and others; and Euler Theoretical
endeavoured to prove that they are both owing to similar Astronomy
causes. Mairan, like Kepler, ascribed it to the atmo-
sphere of the sun; and this hypothesis was generally
adopted, till it was shown by Laplace to be untenable for
the following reasons. The atmosphere of any planet, en¬
dowed with a motion of rotation, cannot extend to an in¬
definite distance: it can only reach to such a height that
the centrifugal force is exactly balanced by the force of
o-ravity. Beyond this height the atmosphere would be
dissipated by the superior energy of the centrifugal force.
Now the height above the sun at which the two forces are
equal is that at which a planet, if placed there, would re¬
volve about the sun in the same time in which the sun
performs a revolution on his axis. But the orbit of such
a planet would be greatly inferior to the orbit of Mercury;
for the time in which Mercury makes a revolution in his
orbit is eighty-eight days, while the sun revolves about
his axis in twenty-five; it is therefore certain that the at¬
mosphere of the sun cannot extend to the orbit of Mer¬
cury. Now, the greatest elongation of Mercury does not
exceed 28°, and the zodiacal light has been observed to
extend to above 100°, reckoning from the sun to the apex
of the luminous pyramid. Hence the phenomenon cannot
proceed from the sun’s atmosphere. Laplace further re¬
marks, that the ratio of the equatorial and polar axes of
the solar atmospherical spheroid cannot exceed that of
three to two; whence its form would not correspond with
the lenticular appearance of the zodiacal light. But to
whatever cause this luminous matter is to be attributed, it
is certain that it is of extreme rarity, inasmuch as it does
not intercept the light of the smallest stars which are seen
through it without any diminution of splendour.
On the subject of the solar spots and zodiacal light the
following works may be consulted:—Galileo, Istoria e
Dimostrazioni intorno alle Macchie Solari, Rome, 1613;
Scheiner, Rosa Ursina, Bracciani, 1630; Hevelius, Sele-
nographia, Gedani, 1647; Reutschius, De Maculis et Facu-
lis Solarihus, Wittemb. 1661, 4to , Cassini, Nouv. Observ.
des Taches du Soldi; Hooke, Tractatus de Maculis Solari
bus, et Lumine Zodiacali, in Oper. Posth. Lond. 1705;
Weidler, De Coloribus Mac. Sol. in his Observ. Meteorol.
1728-9, Wittemb. 1729; Boscovich, De Mac. Sol. Rom.
1736, 4to ; De Lisle, Memoires pour servir d VHistoire de
I'Astr. Petersb. 1738; Bernoulli, Lettres Astronomiques,
1771; Wilson, Phil. Trans. 1774, vol. Ixiv.; Ibid. 1783;
Wollaston, Phil. Trans. 1774; Lalande, Phil. Trans. 1976,
Mem. Acad. 1776, and Astronomic, tom. iii. p. 277; Her-
schel, Phil. Trans. 1795 and 1801; Woodward on the
Substance of the Sun, Washington, 1801; Biot, Trade de
VAstronomic Physique, tom. ii.; Bohn, Disput. Astrom. de
Fascia Zodiacali; Cassini,Mem.Acad.Par. tom. vii. p. 119,
and viii. p. 193; Mairan, Trade Physique et Historique
de VAurore Poreale, 1731; Lalande, Astronomic, tom. i.
p. 276; Laplace, Exposition du Systeme du Monde; De-
lambre, Hist, de l'Astronomic Moderne, tom. ii. p. 742.
CHAP. III.
OF THE MOON.
Next to the sun, the moon is to mankind the most im¬
portant and interesting of all the celestial bodies. Her
conspicuous appearance in the heavens, the variety of her
phases, and the rapidity with which she changes her place
among the fixed stars, have rendered her at all times an
object of admiration to the vulgar; while her proximity to
the earth, her physical effects on the ocean, the intricacy
of the theory of her motions, and the vast importance of
that theory to navigation and geography, have equally
32
astronomy.
Theoretical claimed the attention of the observer and mathematician ;
Astronomy. nor is there any other department of astronomy in which
their researches have been crowned with more triumphant
success, or been rewarded with more brilliant discoveries.
Sect. I.— Of the Phases, Parallax, and Magnitude
of the Moon.
The different appearances or phases of the moon were
probably the first celestial phenomena observed with any
degree of attention. When the moon, after having been
for some days invisible, is again seen on the eastern side
of the sun, and at a distance of 20 or 30 degrees from him,
she appears as a curved thread of silvery light; and her
form is that of a crescent, the horns of which are turned
towards the east. The breadth of the crescent increases
continually in proportion as she separates herself from the
sun, till, having obtained a distance of 90°, she appears
under the form of a semicircle. At this point she is said
to be in her first quarter. Continuing her motion to the
eastward, the line which terminates the eastern side of
her disk assumes the curvature of an elliptic arc, and her
visible portion continues to increase till she has attained
the distance of 180° from the sun, when she appears per¬
fectly round. She is then full, and is said to be in oppo¬
sition, rising as the sun sets, and consoling us by her pale
light for the absence of the great luminary. Having pass¬
ed this point, she begins to approach the sun ; her western
side now takes the form of the elliptic arc, and her lumi¬
nous portion diminishes exactly in the same proportion as
it increased through the first half of her orbit. About
seven days after the full she again appears as a semicircle,
the diameter of which is turned towards the west, and she
is now at her third quarter, and at a distance of 90° from
the sun. The semicircle after this changes into a crescent,
and she continues to approach the sun, till, having advan¬
ced to within 20° or 30° from him, she again disappears,
being lost in the splendour of his rays. These phases
regularly succeed each other, and the time in which they
run through all their changes is about 29^ days. When
the moon passes the meridian at the same time with the
sun, she is said to be in Conjunction. The two points of
her orbit in which she is situated when in opposition or
conjunction are called the Syzygies ; those which are 90°
distant from the sun are called the Quadratures ; and the
intermediate points between the syzygies and quadratures
are called the Octants.
A slight attention to the lunar phases during a single
revolution will be sufficient to prove that they are occa¬
sioned by the reflection of the sun’s light from the opaque
spherical surface of the moon. This fact, which was re¬
cognised in the earliest ages, will be made obvious by the
help of a diagram. If the moon is an opaque body we can
only see that portion of her enlightened side which is to¬
wards the earth. Therefore, when she arrives at that point
Fig. 43. of her orbit A (fig. 43) where she is in conjunction with
the sun S, her dark half is towards the earth, and she dis¬
appears, as at a, there being no light on that half to render
it visible. WThen she comes to her first octant, at B, or
has gone an eighth part of her orbit from her conjunction,
a quarter of her enlightened side is towards the earth,
and she appears horned, as at b. When she has gone a
quarter* of her orbit from her conjunction, to C, she
shows us one half of her enlightened side, as at c, and we
say she is a quarter old. At D she is in her second
octant, and by showing us more of her enlightened side
she appears gibbous, as at c?. At E her whole enlighten¬
ed side is towards the earth, and therefore she appears
round, as at e, when we say it is full moon. In her third
octant, at F, part of her dark side being towards the earth,
she again appears gibbous, and is on the decrease, as at/. Theoretical
At G we see just one half of her enlightened side, and^^^^
she appears as a semicircle, as at g. At H we only see a |
quarter of her enlightened side, being in her fourth octant,
when she appears horned, as at h. And at A, having
completed her course from the sun to the sun again, she
disappears, and we say it is new moon. Thus, in going
from A to E, the moon seems continually to increase ; and
in going from E to A, to decrease in the same proportion,
exhibiting like phases at equal distances from A and E,.
The magnitude of the visible portion of the moon’s disk
thus depends on the situation of the moon relatively to
the sun and the earth, and is easily determined geome¬
trically from her elongation or angular distance from the
sun. ’ Let ADBC (fig. 44) be the projection of the lunar Fig. 44.
orb on the plane which passes through the centres of the
sun, moon, and earth; let S be the place of the sun, E
that of the earth, M the centre of the projection, and AB,
CD two diameters perpendicular to SM and EM respec¬
tively, and let EM meet the circumference in G. It is
evident that AGDB represents the hemisphere illumi¬
nated bv the sun, and CAGD that which is visible from
the earth ; the whole portion of the visible disk, therefore,
is represented bv AGD, or by AG and DG. h*ow, if we
conceive the moon’s surface to be projected on the plane
which passes through her centre perpendicular to the vi¬
sual ray, the illuminated portion of the disk DG will ap¬
pear as a semicircle, while the part GA will appear as
a semi-ellipse, the minor axis of which is to its major as
ME to MC, AF being perpendicular to MC. The eye at
E will therefore see the semicircle DMG, together with
the semi-ellipse GMA, and the visible part will be to the
entire disk as DF : DC, that is, as 1 -p sin. AME : 2,
or, as 1 + cos. <p : 2; <p being equal to EMS the elonga¬
tion of the earth from the sun as seen from the moon.
The geocentric elongation of the moon from the sun,
or the angle MES = -v}/, may be substituted instead
of p, when we know the ratio of the distances ES ~ r
and MS = R; for sin. p = -n sin. whence cos. p =
/1 —^ sin.2 -v}/, and the above proportion becomes
^ 1L"
DF:DC::1+
V 1 P2
—2 sin.2 4: 2.
When the moon is in opposition the angle p — 0, whence
1 _|_ cos. p = 2, and the whole disk is visible. At the
conjunction p ~ 180°, and 1 -j- cos, p ^ 0; the moon is
consequently invisible.
The triangle EMS likewise furnishes the means of find¬
ing the distance of the moon when that of the sun is
known; or reciprocally, the distance of the sun from that
of the moon : but for this purpose it is necessary to ob¬
serve accurately the limit of illumination, which is not
easily done. Let ADBE (fig. 45) be the illuminated part Fig- 45.
of the moon ACBE. The distance between the cusps
A and B, measured bv the micrometer, gives the major
axis of the ellipse A^DB, and the semi-minor axis DM
is found by measuring in the same manner the distance
ED, and subtracting EM, half the semi-minor AB. This
givcs^^ = cos. EMS (fig. 44), and therefore the angle EMS
or M • and from SEM, which is given by observation, we
have ESM or S = 180° — E — M; whence M and S are
given angles; and from the property of the triangle we
have EM = ES or ES = EM Thecal-
culation would be greatly facilitated if the observation
ASTRONOMY.
33
Theoretical were made at the exact instant when the moon is dicho-
istronomy. tomized, or in her first or third quarter, for the elliptic arc
then becomes a straight line and the angle EMSz=90°; so
that sin. M l. In this case therefore we have EM r= ES
EM
sin. S = ES cos. E, and ES = —^ which gives the
cos. E
ratio of the distances of the sun and moon. In this man¬
ner Aristarchus of Samos attempted to compare the dis¬
tance of the two luminaries ; and although his result was
extremely erroneous, inasmuch as he found the distance
of the sun to be only between eighteen and twenty times
greater than that of the moon, whereas it is actually 380
times greater, yet the idea was an ingenious one, and
the method perfectly accurate in theory. The error arose
from the inaccuracy of the ancient instruments, and the
impossibility of observing to within a few minutes the
exact time of the dichotomy. Besides, as the angle at
the sun is extremely small, a very slight error either with
regard to the time or the angle has a great influence on
the result.
Parallax of The moon’s absolute distance from the earth is obtain-
tbe moon. e(j ^ means of her parallax, which, on account of her
* proximity, is very considerable, and can therefore be de¬
termined by the methods which were explained in chap. i.
sect. 2. On comparing her parallaxes observed at dif¬
ferent times, they are found to differ considerably in
value. Thus, according to Lalande, the greatest hori¬
zontal parallax at Paris is 61' 29'', the smallest 53' 51";
and it assumes every possible value between these two
extremes. The horizontal parallax being the angle which
the earth's radius subtends at the moon, and conse¬
quently equal to the radius of the earth divided by the
moon’s distance, the perigean and apogean distances cor¬
responding to the extreme parallaxes are respectively
55*916 and 63*842 semidiameters of the earth. The ratio
of these two numbers, or of the extreme values of the pa¬
rallax, is 1*1417, and denotes the greatest variations of
the moon’s distance from the earth. The ratio of the
corresponding quantities in the case of the sun is only
1*034; hence the moon’s distance is subject to much
I greater variations than that of the sun.
These differences in the value of the parallax arise from
the variations of the moon’s distance from the earth ; but
it is also observed to differ sensibly at different points of
the earth’s surface, even at the same instant of time. If
the earth were spherical, the horizontal parallax of the
moon, supposing her distance to be invariable, would be
the same at whatever part of the earth it might be ob¬
served. The case is, however, different; for, on account
of the spheroidal figure of the earth, the section made by
every vertical plane gives a different ellipse, no one of
which even passes through the centre of the earth, except¬
ing indeed the cases in which the place of the observer is
on the equator or under the pole; for in all other cases
the perpendicular to the surface of the earth does not pass
through its centre. Hence it is necessary, in speaking of
the horizontal parallax, to specify the place of the obser¬
vation.
Since the parallax of the moon is subject to incessant
variation, it is necessary to assume a certain mean value
of it, about which the true and apparent values may be
conceived to oscillate. This is denominated the constant
parallax. It is evident that it cannot be found by taking
the arithmetical mean of the extreme values ; for by rea¬
son of the disturbing force of the sun, the eccentricity of
the lunar orbit, and consequently the perigean and apo¬
gean distances, are constantly varying; and as the quan¬
tity by which one of these distances is increased is not
equal to that by which the other is diminished, it follows
vol. rv.
that the mean of the perigean and apogean parallaxes Theoretical
will not be a constant quantity, but different in succes-AstroIloniy-
sive revolutions of the moon. If we abstract from all the
inequalities of the lunar orbit, and suppose the moon to
be at her mean distance and mean place, the constant pa¬
rallax will be the angle under which a given semidiame¬
ter of the earth is seen by a spectator at the moon in
such circumstances. According to Lalande, the following
are the values of the constant parallax :—
Under the equator  57' 5"
Under the pole  56 53*2
For the latitude of Paris  56 58*3
For the radius of a sphere equal in 1 ^ ^
volume to the earth j
The mean equatorial parallax being 57' 5", its double is Magni-
1° 54' 10", which expresses the angle subtended by the tudeofthe
diameter of the earth at the distance of the moon. Thelunar orb*
angle subtended by the moon at the same distance is 31'
26"; whence the diameter of the moon is to that of the
earth as 31' 26" is to 1° 54' 10"; that is, as *524 to 1*903,
or as 3 to 11 nearly. According to the tables of Burg,
the accurate expression of the above ratio is 1 : 0*2/293;
hence the true diameter of the moon is 0*2/293 diameters
of the terrestrial equator. The surface of the moon is con¬
sequently (0*27293)2= 0*0744908 = of that of the
earth, and its volume (0-27293)3 = 0*0203308 =
or, in round numbers, ^th of the volume of the earth.
Sect. II.— Of the Elements of the Lunar Orbit.
1. Nodes and Inclination of the Lunar Orbit.—A few sim¬
ple observations of the right ascensions and declinations of
the moon suflice to show that her path is confined nearly
to a plane, having only a small inclination to the plane of
the ecliptic. If her path were rigorously confined to this
plane, a single revolution would be sufficient to determine
its inclination ; but as numerous disturbing causes exist,
which produce inequalities in all the elements of the lunar
motion, it is only by taking the mean value of a great num¬
ber of observations that these elements can be astronomi¬
cally determined. In fixing the position of the plane of
the orbit, the first object is to determine the straight line
formed by its intersection with the plane of the ecliptic;
that is to say, to determine the line of the Nodes. This
would be at once accomplished if it were possible to ob¬
serve the instant at which the moon’s latitude is nothing;
for at this instant her centre is in the plane of the ecliptic,
and consequently her longitude is the same as the longi¬
tude of the node. But as the accuracy of modern prac¬
tice requires that all important observations be made in the
plane of the meridian, and as it could only happen by a
very rare coincidence that the latitude deduced from the
meridional right ascensions and declinations would be ex¬
actly zero, it is necessary to have recourse to a process of
calculation to find the precise place of the node.
Let LNL' (fig. 46) be a portion of the ecliptic, MNM'Fig. 46.
of the lunar orbit, N the place of the node, and ML r= X,
M'L' =X'be two latitudes on opposite sides of the eclip¬
tic. The two right-angled triangles give, according to
Napier’s Rules,
tan. N =
sin. NL'
sin. NL
sin. NL
e,
sin. NL - sin. NL
tan. X tan. X'
-ihTNL5
tan. X
tan. X ’
tan. X - tan. X'
sin. NL + sin. NL tan. X + tan. X
E
34 ASTRO
Theoretical that is, by the trigonometrical formulae,
Astronomy tan.-|(NL - NLQ = sin. (A-A)
tan. ^ (NL + NL ~ sin. (A+A)’
or tan. i(NL - NL') = tan. £LL'.
?v J 2 sm. (A + A')
Having therefore obtained an expression for the differ¬
ence of NL and NL', and knowing also their sum LL,
which is the difference of the longitudes of the moon at
the time of the two observations, it is easy to deduce NL
or NL ; consequently the longitude of the node is deter¬
mined.
The Ascending Node of the lunar orbit is that point of
the ecliptic through which the moon passes when she
rises above the ecliptic towards the north pole : it is dis¬
tinguished by the character Q. The Descending Node,
25, is the opposite point of the ecliptic, through which
she passes when she descends below that plane towards
the south, pole. The nodes of the lunar orbit were an¬
ciently called the head and tail of the Dragon.
The position of the nodes is not fixed in the heavens.
They move in a retrograde direction, or contrary to the
order of the signs ; and their motion is so rapid that its
effects become very apparent after one or two revolutions.
Regulus, a star of the first magnitude, is sometimes
eclipsed by the moon; and as the latitude of this star is
only about 27' or 28', it is certain that when that pheno¬
menon occurs the moon is very near her node. Suppose
it to be the ascending node : the month following it will
be observed that the moon passes to the north of Regu¬
lus; and every succeeding month she will pass farther to
the north of the same star, till at the end of four or five
years, when her meridional altitude will be about 5°
greater than that of Regulus. Her latitude on passing Re
gulus now begins to diminish; and, after a period of about
nine years, Regulus is again eclipsed by the moon in her
descent to the southern side of the ecliptic. The moon
after this passes to the south of the star for the following
nine years; and at the end of 18^ years the nodes have
returned to their first position, after accomplishing a com¬
plete revolution. The same result is found from the ob¬
servation of eclipses, the magnitude of which depends on
the moon’s latitude; and therefore, if the nodes remained
fixed, the eclipses would always be of the same magnitude
in the same quarter of the heavens. This, however, is not
the case; and it is only after about 18|- years that they be¬
gin to return in the same order.
The mean retrograde motion of the nodes is found, by
the comparison of observations made at distant epochs, to
amount to 19° 19' 42"-316 in a mean solar year, and the
time in which they make a tropical revolution is conse¬
quently 6798T79 mean solar days. The longitude of the
ascending node on the 1st of January 1801 was 13° 53' 17 "'7;
hence its position at any other epoch is easily deduced, since
we know the rate of its mean motion.
The inclination of the lunar orbit may be determined
either by observing the moon’s greatest latitudes, or it may
be computed from the formula, tan. N = tan when
sm. NL
her latitude and longitude are known. The angle N, or
the inclination, is observed to vary between 5° and 5° 17'
35". The mean inclination may therefore be taken at
5° 8' 48".
The retrograde motion of the moon’s nodes, as well as
all the other inequalities of the lunar motion, is occasioned
by the attracting power of the sun, which varies in intensity
according to the positions of the earth and moon in their
orbits. The principal inequality to which the inclination
of the lunar orbit is subject, is proportional to the cosine
N O M Y.
of double the sun’s distance from the moon’s ascending Theoretical
node. In fact, the sun and earth being always in the plane Astronomy,
of the ecliptic, when the moon is also in that plane the'^’v"'v'/
action of the sun will have no tendency to increase or
diminish her latitude ; it will only affect her radius vector,
or distance from the earth. But if the moon is not in the
plane of the ecliptic, the sun’s attracting force will not
only affect her distance from the earth, but also tend to
bring her nearer to the ecliptic; and this action will be
greater in proportion to her deviation from that plane.
When the nodes are in quadratures, and the limits of
latitude in the syzygies, the inclination is 5°, as was found
by Ptolemy ; but when the nodes are in the syzygies, and
the limits in quadratures, the inclination is 5° 17' 35". It
has therefore a mean value of 5° 8' 48", when the nodes
and limits coincide with the octants. Denoting therefore
the greatest deviation from the mean values by x, this
deviation will pass through all its values between x and
— x while the sun’s distance from the ascending node
varies from 0° to 90°. It may therefore be represented
by a function which varies as the cosine of twice that dis¬
tance, for the cosine of an angle runs through all its
changes from -f- l to — l between 0 and 180°. Hence
the equation which expresses the principal inequality of
the moon’s latitude is
(8' 47") cos. 2 ©’s distance from D’s &.
The co-efficient 8' 47" is called, in astronomy, the Co-effi¬
cient of the Argument, the argument itself being the func¬
tion by which the inequality is represented.
This periodic inequality of the moon’s latitude was dis¬
covered by Tycho Brahe, from a comparison of the greatest
latitudes at different epochs with the correponding posi¬
tions of the moon with reference to her nodes. He ob¬
served that these latitudes oscillate about the mean value
of 5° 8' 48"; and as the greatest latitudes give immediate¬
ly the inclination of the moon’s orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic, it necessarily followed that the inclination is sub¬
ject to similar variations. The motion of the node of the
lunar orbit is also subject to an inequality, depending on
the same angle as the preceding, but proportional to its
sine. Tycho explained these two inequalities by a very
simple hypothesis, similar to that by which we have ex¬
plained the oscillations of the terrestrial equator, namely,
a slight nutation of the earth’s axis. In the present case
it is only necessary to place the mean pole of the lunar
orbit at the distance of 5° 8' 48" from the pole of the eclip¬
tic, and to suppose the true pole to describe a small ellipse
about the mean pole in the same time that the sun occu¬
pies in making a semi-revolution with regard to the nodes
of the moon’s orbit, that is, in 173*309 days.
There are various other inequalities which affect the
latitude of the moon and the inclination of her orbit, to
correct which, a large number of equations are given in the
recent and most accurate tables. The greater part of them
are, however, only known from theory, and are so small
that even their accumulated effects are scarcely perceptible
to observation.
The inclination of the lunar orbit to the plane of the ter- Phenome-
restrial equator occasions considerable differences in the in- non ot tne
tervals between the moon’s rising or setting on successive lmrvest•'
days, and gives rise to the phenomenon of the Harvest
Moon. As the daily motion of the moon is about 13
degrees from west to east, it follows that if she moved in
a plane parallel to the equator, she would rise 50 minutes
later every successive evening, because her orbit would
then make the same angle with the horizon at all seasons
of the year, and the intervals between her consecutive
risings would be constant. For the sake of explanation,
we may here suppose the moon to move in the plane of
ASTRONOMY.
35
Theoretical the ecliptic. Now, the time in which a given arc of the
Astronomy ecliptic rises above the horizon depends on its inclina-
tion to the horizon. In our latitudes the inclination of
the ecliptic at different points to the horizon varies so
much, that at the first point of Aries an arc of 13° be¬
comes visible in the short space of 17 minutes, while
at the 23d of Leo the same arc will only rise above the
horizon in one hour and 17 minutes. Hence, when the
moon is near the first point of Aries, the difference of the
times of her rising on two successive evenings will be only
about 17 minutes; and as this happens in the course of
every revolution, she will rise for two or three nights
every month at nearly the same hour. But the rising of
the moon is a phenomenon which attracts no attention, ex¬
cepting about the time when she is full, that is, when she
rises at sunset. In this case she is in opposition to the
sun, and consequently, if she is in Aries, the sun must be
in Libra, which happens during the autumnal months. At
this season of the year, therefore, the moon, when near
the full, rises for some evenings at nearly the same hour.
This circumstance affords important advantages to the
husbandman, on which account the phenomenon attracts
particular attention.
It is obvious, that as this phenomenon is occasioned by
the oblique position of the lunar orbit with regard to the
equator, the effect will be greater than what has just
been described if the plane of that orbit makes a greater
angle with the equator than the plane of the ecliptic
does. But we have seen that the plane of the moon’s
orbit is inclined to the ecliptic in an angle exceeding 5°;
consequently, when her ascending node is in Aries, the
angle which her orbit makes with the horizon will be 5°
less than that which the ecliptic makes with the horizon;
and the difference of time between her risings on two
successive evenings will be less than 17 minutes, as would
have been the case had her orbit coincided with the eclip¬
tic. On the contrary, when the descending node comes
to Aries, the angle which her orbit makes with the hori¬
zon will be greater by 5°, and consequently the difference
of the times of her successive risings will be greater than
if she moved in the plane of the ecliptic. If when the
full moon is in Pisces or Aries the ascending node of her
orbit is also in one of those signs, the difference of the
times of her rising will not exceed one hour and forty
minutes during a whole week; but when her nodes are
differently situated, the difference in the time of her ris¬
ing in the same signs may amount to 3^ hours in the
space of a week. In the former case the harvest-moons
are the most beneficial, in the latter the least beneficial,
to the husbandman. All the variations in the intervals
between the consecutive risings or settings take place
within the period in which the line of the nodes makes a
complete revolution.
2. Dimensions, Eccentricity, and Apsides of the Lunar
Orbit; and the Inequalities of the Moons motion.—Since
the moon moves in a plane orbit, the projection of her
path on the surface of the celestial sphere will be a great
circle. But the variations observable in the magnitude of
her apparent diameter, and in the velocity of her motion,
prove that if her orbit is a circle, the earth is at least not
placed at its centre. The numerous perturbing causes
which affect her motion render the exact determination of
her orbit a matter of great difficulty; but observation
shows that it deviates very little from an ellipse, of which
the centre of the earth occupies one of the foci. It has also
been found that the spaces passed over by the radius vec¬
tor of the moon are very nearly proportional to the times
of description; which is the distinctive character of the
elliptic motion.
In order to obtain a correct idea of the figure and posi- Theoretical
tion of the orbit, it is necessary to know its major axis, its Astronomy
eccentricity, and the position of its apsides. The major
axis is equal to the sum of the greatest and least distances,
and these have already been stated to be respectively 63’842
and 55’916 semidiameters of the earth; whence, suppos¬
ing the earth’s radius to be 4000 miles, the major axis of
the lunar orbit will amount in round numbers to 480,000
miles. It may be here remarked that the moon’s distance
is an element which may be practically determined with
great exactness. A variation of 1" in the parallax would
occasion an error of only about 67 miles in the determi¬
nation of the distance ; therefore, since the parallax is
certainly known to within 4", the greatest error in the
distance deduced from it cannot exceed 280 miles out of
about 240,000 miles.
An approximation to the eccentricity of the orbit of
the moon is easily obtained from the variations of her ap¬
parent diameter. The moon’s apparent diameter is observ¬
ed to vary between 29' 30" and 33' 30" very nearly. Now,
let D denote the mean, D' the apogean, D" the perigean
diameter, and e the eccentricity. We shall then have
D' —— 29' 30",
l-H
D"=-^- = 33' 30",
D' 1—e 29'30"
D"-l + e~33' 30" ;
whence we deduce
33' 30" — 29' 30" 4
e~ 33' 30" -f 29' 30" ~ 63 ’°635'
This eccentricity corresponds to an equation of the
centre amounting to 7° 16', and is much more consider¬
able than that of the solar orbit, which, as we have before
seen, amounts only to 0o*0168. The result just given is,
however, only to be considered as approximative, and is,
in fact, considerably too large. In the best and most re¬
cent tables the value assigned to the eccentricity of the
lunar orbit is 0*0548442, and the corresponding equation
of the centre 6° 17' 12"*7. (See Astronomical Tables and
Formulae, by Francis Baily, Esq. London, 1827.)
The place of the apsides is likewise found from obser¬
vations of the moon’s apparent diameter, because at these
points of the orbit the apparent magnitude has its maxi¬
mum and minimum values. But as the apparent magni¬
tude varies very slowly at the apsides, it is preferable, as
Lalande remarks, to choose the points of mean distance
where its variations are most rapid. Having selected two
observations which give the same apparent diameter at
two opposite points of the orbit, we shall have two points
evidently at equal distances from the perigee, the longi¬
tude of which will therefore be given at the middle time
between the two observations. In comparing the posi¬
tions of the apsides thus determined at different epochs,
it is found that they have a rapid progressive motion,
that is, according to the order of the signs. In Mr Bai-
ly’s tables the motion of the perigee is stated to be
4069°*046278, or 11 revolutions + 109° 2' 46"*6, in 36525
mean solar days. Its mean motion in a mean solar
day is consequently 6' 41"; and in 365 mean solar days,
40° 39r 45"*36. Hence the time in which it completes a
sidereal revolution is 3232*575343 mean solar days. The
period of a tropical revolution of the apsides is 3231*4751
mean solar days = 3231 days, 11 hours, 24 minutes, 0*8
seconds, or nearly 9 years. This mean motion of the lu¬
nar apsides is, however, subject to periodic inequalities of
considerable magnitude, and therefore can only be deter¬
mined accurately by means of observations separated from
36 ASTRO
Theoretical each other by a long interval of time. In the tables just
Astronomy quoted, the epoch is the commencement of the present
century, when the longitude of the perigee was in
266° 10' 7"*5. From this and the rate of the mean mo¬
tion, the mean longitude of the perigee at any other epoch
may be easily computed.
Inequali- If the moon’s place in her orbit were not subject to the
ties of the influence of any disturbing force, her true longitude, or
lunar orbit, (hgbumg from the apsis, would be found at any instant
from the theory of the elliptic motion, supposing her mean
motion, or the time of a return to the same perigee or
apogee, to be accurately known. Thus, supposing E to
denote the maximum elliptic equation, which, as we have
already stated, amounts to 6° 17' 12"*7, we should have the
true longitude = mean longitude E sin. A, A being the
moon’s mean anomaly, and the longitudes counted from
Equation the perigee. This first equation or correction of the mean
of the motion results solely from the circumstance that the moon
centre. moves in an elliptic orbit, according to the laws of Kep¬
ler, in the same manner as the sun and all the planets.
Its argument is the mean anomaly A, and its period the
anomalistic month. But the moon’s longitudes, as deter¬
mined in this manner, are far from agreeing with observa¬
tion ; and several other corrections must be applied, the
accurate determination of which forms the principal ob¬
ject of the lunar theory.
Evection. After the equation of the centre, the most considerable
of the inequalities of the moon’s longitude is that to which
Boulliaud gave the name of the Evection. It was noticed
by Hipparchus; but it was Ptolemy who discovered its
law, and gave a construction which represents its general
effects with great accuracy. These effects are to dimi¬
nish the equation of the centre when the line of the ap¬
sides lies in syzygy, and to augment it when the same
line lies in quadratures. Thus, supposing the apsides to lie
in syzygy, and that it is sought to compute the moon’s true
longitude about seven days after she has left the perigee,
by adding the equation of the centre to the mean ano¬
maly, the resulting longitude will be found to be above
SCK less than that which is given by observation. But if
the line of the apsides lies in quadratures, the place of
the moon at about the same distance, that is, 90° from the
perigee, computed in the same manner, will be found to
be before the observed place by above 80'; that is, the
computed will be greater than the observed longitude, by
more than 80 minutes. After a long series of observa¬
tions, astronomers have found that the inequality in ques¬
tion is represented with great exactness, by supposing it
proportional to the sine of twice the mean angular dis¬
tance of the moon from the sun, minus the mean anomaly
of the moon. In Baily’s tables, its maximum value is
stated to be 1° 20' 29"-9 ; whence, representing the angular
distance of the sun and moon by ]) — O, and the mean
anomaly as before by A, the correction due to the evec¬
tion will be
(1° 20' 29"*9) sin. [2( D — 0) — A].
Variation. A third inequality of the lunar motion, called the Va¬
riation, was discovered by Tycho Brahe, who found that
the moon’s place, calculated from her mean motion, the
equation of the centre, and the evection, does not always
agree with the true place, and that the variations are
greatest in the octants, or when the line of the apsides
makes an angle of 45° with that of the syzygies and qua¬
dratures. Having observed the moon at different points
of her orbit, he found that this correction has no depend¬
ence on the position of the apsides, but only on the moon’s
elongation from the sun. Its maximum value is additive
in the octants which come immediately after the syzygies,
where the elongation is 45°, or 180° + 45°, and subtrac-
N o M Y.
tive in the octants which precede the syzygies, where the Theoretical
elongation is 360° — 45°, and 180° — 45°. It vanishes al- Astronomy,
together in the syzygies and quadratures where the elonga¬
tion is 0°, 180°, 90°, or 270° ; and on this account it was not
perceived by the ancient astronomers, who only observed
the moon in those positions. It will be readily perceived,
from the limits between which it varies, that it is propor¬
tional to the sine of twice the angular distance between
the sun and moon. Its maximum value, or the co-effi¬
cient of its argument, is 35' 41"*9; hence the correction
necessary on account of it is represented by the formula
(35'4I"-9) sin. 2 ( D — o).
When this equation is added to the two preceding Annual
ones, the differences between the computed and observed equation,
places of the moon are brought within narrower limits; but
they do not yet disappear altogether except in the months
of June and December, and about the time of the equi¬
noxes they are found to amount to eleven or twelve mi¬
nutes. This inequality was observed by Tycho and Kep¬
ler, though neither of them determined its magnitude.
They supposed it to be an equation of time peculiar to
the moon; and under this form Horrox inserted it in his
tables, assigning its maximum value at 11' 16", which dif¬
fers only by four seconds from that which is obtained
from the most accurate modern observations. On account
that it is regulated by the seasons, and depends not on
the lunar orbit, but the anomaly of the sun, Kepler gave
it the name of the Annual Equation. By reason of this
inequality the motion of the moon is slower than the
mean motion during the winter months, when the mo¬
tion of the sun is most rapid; and, on the contrary, is
most rapid in summer, when the sun’s motion is slowest.
Hence its argument is the same as that of the equation of
the centre of the sun, but with a contrary sign. It is
therefore proportional to the sine of the sun s mean ano¬
maly ; its period is the anomalistic year, and its maximum
value is found by observation to be 11' 11"*9; hence it is
expressed by the formula
(11' ll"-9) sin. 0’s mean anomaly.
If we now collect these equations we shall obtain the
following corrected expression of the moon s true place :
])’s true longitude = J’s mean longitude,
+ (6° 17' 12"*7) sin. A
+ (1° 20' 29"-9) sin.[2(])—O)—A]
—( 35' 41"-9) sin. 2 ( D — ©)
—( 11'11"*9) sin. O’s mean anomaly.
For the physical cause of the three last-mentioned ine¬
qualities, viz. the evection, the variation, and the annual
equation, see Physical Astronomy, sect. ii. par. 37, 38,
and 39. They are the principal but not the only perio¬
dic inequalities which affect the longitude of the moon;
for the profound investigations of modern science have
detected many others, which, by reason of their small va¬
lues, and the manner in which they are blended with one
another, would have eluded all attempts to discover their
period or their law by observation alone. Observation can
make known only the joint effect of the independent equa¬
tions, and thereby indicate their existence. In order to
separate them and determine their respective values, it is
indispensable to have recourse to the physical theory, from
which alone the various circumstances of the lunar motion
can be properly determined. Newton was the first who
attempted to compute a priori the inequalities of the
moon’s motion, and thereby led the way in a research
which was prosecuted with infinite ingenuity and pro¬
found analytical skill by D’Alembert, Clairaut, Euler, and
other illustrious mathematicians of the last century, and
which was only brought to a successful termination by the
labours of Laplace. The formulae given in the seventh
astronomy.
37
Theoretical book of the MecanujW COesU, for a great number of new
Astronomy inequalities derived from the theory of attraction, i°rm
' v ' the basis of the lunar tables of Burg and Burckhardt.
It is to these theoretical researches that we are indebted
for the precision with which the moon’s motion is ac¬
tually known, and the great advantages which thence
result to geography and navigation. The recent ta¬
bles contain no fewer than twenty-eight equations ot lon¬
gitude, all which may be regarded as corrections ot the
mean values of the four which we have explained, and
which are themselves corrections of the mean motion. It
is thus that astronomy approaches nearer and nearer, by
every successive step, to the last term of a series which
would represent the orbits and motions of the celestial
bodies with absolute accuracy. ,
Accelera- The lunar inequalities which we have as yet considered
tion of the are all of aperiodic nature, are compensated in the course
mean mo- 0f a comparatively small number of years, and have passe
tion of the tiiroUgh many complete revolutions since the commence-
moon• ment of the history of astronomical observations. But
there are, as in the case of the sun, others of a different
kind, the periods of which are so long that, with reference
to the duration of human life, they may be considered as
permanently affecting the elements of the lunar orbit.
These are the Secular Inequalities, the most remarkable ot
which is the acceleration of the moon’s mean motion.
On comparing the lunar observations made within the
last two centuries with one another, there results a
mean secular motion greater than that which is given by
comparing them with those made by Ebn-Jounis, near
Cairo, towards the end of the 10th century, and greater
still than that which is given by comparing them with
observations of eclipses made at Babylon in the years
719, 720, and 721 before our era, and preserved by Pto¬
lemy in the Almage&t. These comparisons, which have
been made by different astronomers with the utmost care,
prove incontestably the acceleration of the motion of the
moon from the Chaldeans to the Arabians, and from the
Arabians to the present times.
The acceleration of the moon’s mean motion was first
remarked by Dr Halley, and mentioned in his Notes on
the observations of Albategnius, inserted in the
sophical Transactions for 1693. It was fully confirmed
by Dunthorne, who was led by the discussion of a gieat
number of ancient observations of eclipses, to suppose
that it proceeded uniformly at the rate of 10" in a hun¬
dred years; a supposition which consequently gave him
a correction for the mean longitude of the moon propoi-
tional to the square of the time, or of 10" multiplied by
the square of the number of years elapsed between 1700 and
the epoch of the calculation. This was the first attempt
to estimate the value of the secular equation, which had
hitherto been confounded with the mean secular motion.
By a similar discussion of ancient observations, Mayer was
likewise led to a secular equation proportional to the
square of the time, which, in his first Lunar Tables, pub¬
lished in 1753, he valued at 7" for the first century, count¬
ing from the year 1700, but which he advanced to 9" in
his last tables, published in 1770. Lalande found it to
amount to 9"-886, and therefore agreed with Dunthorne
in estimating the acceleration at 10" for the first century
after 1700. Delambre subsequently undertook to deter¬
mine accurately the actual motion of the moon in a cen¬
tury, from a comparison of the best modern observations.
He found it to amount to 307° 53' 9" (rejecting the cir¬
cumferences), while the most ancient observations agree
in making it less by 3 or 4 minutes. The equation,
which, in consequence of these comparisons, was empiri¬
cally introduced into the tables, has been confirmed by
the theory of gravitation; and the discovery of the
gical cause, and of the law of the acceleration, due to La-
forms one of the most brilliant triumphs of mo¬
dern science. In 1786 Laplace demonstrated that the
acceleration is one of the effects of the attraction of
the sun, and connected with the variations of the eccen¬
tricity of the earth’s orbit in such a manner that the
moon will continue to be accelerated while the eccentri-
citv diminishes, but that it will disappear when the ec¬
centricity has reached its maximum value ; and when that
element begins to increase, the mean motion of the moon
will be retarded. „ ^ c ^ ,
In order to take into account the effects of the fede¬
ration in the determination of the mean longitude, M. Da-
moiseau has given the following formula for the secular
variation ; 10"-7232 w2 + 0"-019361 w3, where n is the num¬
ber of centuries from 1801; so that if L is the mean longi¬
tude of the moon on the 1st of January 1801, and m is the
secular motion at that epoch, the mean longitude will be
-L + mn+ 10"*7232 n2 + 0"*019361 n3 after n centuries.
By means of this equation the tables satisfy the most an¬
cient observations, and may be extended to at least a
thousand years from the present epoch. It is only ne¬
cessary to observe, that, in applying the formula, w must
be taken negatively, if the epoch is anterior to 1“01.
The same cause which gives rise to the acceleration of Secular m.
the mean motion, namely, the diminution of the eccei3‘0f the pen_
tricity of the earth’s orbit, also occasions secular inequai- and
ities in the motion of the perigee and nodes of the orbit of nocies.
the moon. These two inequalities are, however, affected
with opposite signs to that of the former; that is, while
the mean motion of the moon is acceleiated, the motion
of her perigee and that of her nodes are retarded. They
were deduced by Laplace from theory, and the equations
by which they are expressed are connected with one an¬
other by a very simple proportion. If we take A to represent
the secular acceleration of the mean motion, the secular
variation of the perigee found by Laplace is — 4*00052 A,
and that of the nodes — 0*735452 A. From this Laplace
concluded that the three motions of the moon, with re¬
spect to the sun, to her perigee, and to her nodes, are
accelerated, and that their secular equations are in the ratio
of the above numbers. By pushing the approximations to
a great length, MM. Plana and Carlini, and M. Damoiseau,
in Memoirs which obtained the prize of the Academy of
Sciences for 1820, have found different numbers; those
of Damoiseau are 1, 4*702, and 0*612. These important
results of theory are all confirmed by observation.
The three secular inequalities which have been pointed
out will obviously occasion others; for all quantities depend¬
ing on the mean motion, the motion of the perigee, or ot
the nodes, must be in some degree modified by them. 1 bus
the mean anomaly, which is the difference of the mean longi¬
tude of the moon and the mean longitude of the perigee, is
subject to a secular equation equal to the difference of the
secular equations affecting the longitudes of the moon and
the perigee. The radius vector, the eccentricity and in¬
clination of the orbit, are affected by the secular inequa¬
lity of the mean motion, which, although too minute to
have been hitherto appreciable, will acquire sensible values
in the course of ages. The major axis of the ellipse is
the only element exempted from inequalities of this
sort. It is not probable, however, that the utmost efforts
of science will ever make us acquainted with all the irre¬
gularities to which the moon’s motion is subject. They
can only be developed by the complete integration of the
differential equations of motion; an integration which is
laboriously performed term by term, and which, when
attempted to be carried beyond a certain point, transcends
38
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical the limits of human patience and industry. What is most
essential is to select, among the multitude of terms,
such as may possibly acquire considerable co-efficients by
integration.
The following table (extracted from Baily) exhibits in
one view the different elements of the lunar orbit. The
epoch is the commencement of the present century.
Mean inclination to the plane of the
ecliptic  5° 8' 47',,9
Longitude of ascending node  11 53 17*7
Motion of node in 365 mean solar days 19 19 42 *316
Longitude of perigee  266 10 7 *5
Mean motion of perigee in 365 mean
solar days  40 39 45 *36
Mean longitude  118 17 8 *3
Greatest equation of the centre  6 17 12 *7
Eccentricity  0‘0548442
Mean distance from the earth in dia¬
meters of the terrestrial equator  29-982175
Sect. III.— Of the different Species of Lunar Months.
In treating of the sun, we took notice of three different
species of revolutions or years, namely, the mean solar
year, or the interval of time which the sun employs
in performing a complete revolution with regard to the
equinoxes; the sidereal year, or the time in which he re¬
turns to the same fixed star; and the anomalistic year, or
the time in which he returns to the same point of his ellipse.
In like manner, if we understand by the term month the
time which the moon employs to make an entire revolu¬
tion relatively to any given point, moveable or fixed, we
shall have as many different species of months as there
are different motions with which that of the moon can be
compared. For example, if we estimate her revolution rela¬
tively to the sun, the month will be the time wdiich elapses
between two consecutive conjunctions or oppositions.
This is called the synodic month, lunar month, or lunation.
If we consider her revolution as completed wdien she has
gone through 360° of longitude counted from the moveable
equinox, we shall have the tropical or periodic month.
The interval between two successive conjunctions with
the same fixed star is the sidereal month. A revolution
with regard to the apsides of her orbit, that is to say, the
time in which she returns to her perigee or apogee, gives
the anomalistic month: and, finally, the revolution with
regard to the nodes is the nodical or draconitic month.
Of these different periods the most important to man¬
kind is the synodic month. It is also that which, by rea¬
son of the striking manner in which it is marked out by
the phases of the moon, would first offer itself to the at¬
tention of the observer; and when its period is accu¬
rately determined, the other months may be deduced
from it without difficulty, when the relative motions
of the sun and moon are known with sufficient preci¬
sion. The eclipses furnish a simple means of deter¬
mining the synodic revolution with a great degree of
accuracy. A few rude observations suffice to show that
the period of a lunation is very nearly 291 days; and
with this knowledge we are in a condition to compare two
distant eclipses without running any risk of mistaking the
number of revolutions that have taken place in the inter¬
val. One of the oldest observations recorded by Ptolemy
is an eclipse of the moon, which happened 720 years b. c.,
on the 19th of March, at 6 hours 48 minutes mean time
at Paris, according to Lalande. In order to make use of
this observation directly for the purpose of determining
the synodic revolution, it is necessary to compare it with
another of the same kind in which the moon occupied the
same point of her ellipse, or the same position relatively Theoretical
to her apsides; for as it is the tmie place of the moon Astronomy,
which is observed, and the mean motion which w'e are in
quest of, the equation of the centre ought to be the same
in both observations. Now, a similar observation is furnish¬
ed by an eclipse which happened in 1717, on the 9th of
September, at 6 hours 2 minutes, the moon’s anomaly
being very nearly the same as in the Babylonian observa¬
tion. In the interval between the twm observations the
moon had therefore completed a whole number of revolu¬
tions, with regard to her mean as well as her true mo¬
tion. The interval between the eclipses is 2437 years
and 174 days minus 46 minutes, which expressed in days
is 890287'968055o days. In this interval it is found,
from the approximate value of 29^ days, that 30148 syno¬
dic revolutions had happened; hence the mean length of
.u j- . . 890287-968055 _ ,
the synodic month is =  30148 ~ 29 dayS 12
hours 44 min. 2-8497 sec.
To deduce the other revolutions, let N = the number
of days in a synodic month, n the number of synodic re¬
volutions in the interval between the two observations,
m the mean motion of the sun, and T the time of a tro¬
pical revolution. We shall then have the proportion
T : N :: 360' : n x 360' + m ; whence
T_ N x 360°
n x 360° + m
Nj 1 _ m
n ( ?i x 360° +
s _ (f)
171 1 I m
" + 360° + m x 360°
Let S = the time of a sidereal revolution. The value
of S is immediately found from T; for let p = the pre¬
cession of the equinoxes in the time T, we shall have
S : T :: 360° : 360° — p; whence
s .T x 360° T
~ 360° ~p~ P
360°
“T l1 +3^+ (3^) +&c'\-
In like manner, if we represent by ti the motion of the
apside, and by r that of the node, in the time T, the
times of the anomalistic and nodical revolutions will be
respectively obtained by the substitution of and — v
(the motion of the node being retrograde) in the last for¬
mula in place of p. Instead, however, of proceeding in
this manner, it is better to assume as the basis of the
calculation the mean motion of the moon in longitude,
which is accurately known by the observations of 2000
years, and thence to deduce the time of the mean tropical
revolution.
The mean motion of the moon in 100 Julian years, or
36525 days, is found to be 1336 circumferences -j- 307°
52' 43,'-5 ; or, by reducing the degrees, &c. to the fraction
of a circumference, 1336-85521875 circumferences. The
periodic month is therefore 3591375’ da^s* In or^er
to reduce the denominator of this fraction to a smaller
number of digits, we may divide its terms by 3, multiply
them by 32, then divide them by 900, and there will re¬
sult
432-888...
15-84421 ’
the denominator of which contains only 7
digits in place of 12. On performing the division, we
shall find the periodic month or tropical revolution =
27-321582388 days = 27 days 7 hours 43 min. 4-7183 sec.
ASTRONOMY.
39
Theoretical The mean motion of the moon in 36525 days
Astronomy is 1336c30/ 5- 43 0
^ that of the sun 100 0 45 45
hence the relative motion is 1236c 30 < 6 58 ‘5
= 445267-11625 degrees. The time of a synodic revolu¬
tion is therefore 4459(3-. 1 ] 595 » or> multiplying nume-
10519200000 ,
• rator and denominator by 800, = 355213693 ’ wnence
the synodic month is 29*5305885391 days = 29 days 12
hours 44 min. 2*849778 sec.
In order to obtain the sidereal revolution, we subtract the
secular motion of the equinoctial points — 5010 = 1 23 30
from the moon’s tropical revolution; the remainder, which
gives the sidereal motion of the moon in 36525 days, is
1336c 3062 29' IS'-d = 481266*4870833 degrees. Hence
, . . 360x36525 ,
the time of a sidereal revolution lS 481266*4870833 yS‘
On multiplying the terms of this fraction by 2400, it is re¬
duced to Which giveS the sidereal m°nth =:
27 days 7 hours 43 min. 11*5443(5 sec.
In like manner, by subtracting the motion of the perigee
in 100 years from the secular motion of the moon, we shall
find the anomalistic revolution to be 2 ( days 13 hours 18
min. 34*9488 sec.; and by adding the retrograde secular
motion of the node to the secular motion of the moon, the
revolution in respect of the nodes is found to be performed
in 27 davs 5 hours 5 min. 35*60769 sec.
The following table exhibits the different kinds of lunar
periods and motions :—
Days. Ho. Min. Sec. Days.
Synodic revolution....~29 12 44 2*84 = 29*5305887
Tropical   ...27 7 43 4*(1 — 2/*3215824
Sidereal 27 7 43 11*54= 27*3216614
Anomalistic .27 13 18 3/*40= 27*5545995
Nodical 27 5 5 35*60= 27*2122176
Tropical revolu- > 6798 4 n 43.18 = 6798*1789720
tion of node i
Sidereal .6793 6 59 15*34 = 6793*2911498
([’s mean tropical daily motion 13 10 35 *027
(£’s mean sidereal daily motion 13^ 10 34'889
({’s daily motion in respect of node 13 13 45 *534
According to Ptolemy, the synodic month is 29 days 12
hours 44 min. 3} sec., which differs from the above only by
half a second. The same great astronomer made the tro¬
pical month to consist of 27 days 7 hours 43 min. 1 ^ sec.,
which exceeds the true time by 2^ seconds; an error into
which he was led by assigning too great a value to the mean
motion of the sun.
The ancient astronomers paid great attention to these
different revolutions, for the purpose of regulating their luni-
solar calendar, and of avoiding the calculation of eclipses,
which is attended with difficulties that to them must have
proved almost insuperable. Their object was therefore to
assign composite periods, after the revolution of which the
eclipses would again return in the same order. Now, it is
easy to see that a period ■which will bring back eclipses of
the same magnitude and duration, on the same day of the
year and at the same longitude, must be an exact multiple
of the different lunar months. The return of the moon to
the same distance from her node will give an eclipse of the
same magnitude ; if she returns at the same time to the same
point of her orbit, the eclipse will also be of the same dura¬
tion ; and if, in addition to these circumstances, she has also
returned to the same longitude, the eclipse will take place
on the same day of the year. But the numbers in the above
table being incommensurable, it is impossible to find any
period, however long, that will embrace all these condi- Theoretical
tions; the ancients therefore formed periods of different ABtronoray
lengths, according as they aimed at satisfying the different
conditions with a greater or less degree of precision. For
an account of some of the most remarkable of the ancient
lunisolar periods, see Calendar.
On account of the acceleration of the mean motion of the
moon, the ratios of the different species of months are con¬
stantly undergoing alterations, and therefore the different
cycles, supposing them exact at the time of their formation,
cannot continue so for an indefinite length of time. This
circumstance is, however, little to be regretted; for, in the
present state of astronomical science, they are not of any
great use, inasmuch as we are in possession of surer methods
of predicting eclipses, the calculation of which, from the
ephemerides, is now a matter of comparative facility. They
are, however, interesting in an historical point of view, and
their formation was a principal object of the labours of the
early astronomers. (On this subject, see Lalande, Astro¬
nomic, tome ii. p. 185; Delambre, Astronomic Thcorique
et Pratique, tome ii. p. 319; Schubert, Traite cCAstrono¬
mic Theorique, tome ii.; Woodhouse’s Astronomy, p. 665.)
Sect. IV.—Of the Rotation and Libration of the Moon.
On account of the proximity of the moon to the earth,
the surface of that body is far better known to us than that
of any other of the solar system, and in proportion to the
increase of optical power which is brought to bear upon
it, delineations of the mountains and volcanic craters that
occupy the greater portion of it become more minute and
accurate. As seen through a good telescope, the dark
patches visible with the naked eye assume the appearance of
mountainous inequalities, prodigiously increased in number,
and with every possible variety of outline. These present no
changes of foi’m like those of the sun, but permanently ex¬
hibit the same uniform appearances, and retain their relative
situations with regard to each other, and also, with some
slight variations, to the apparent centre of the moon. The
moon, therefore, at all times presents very nearly the same
face to the earth. But if this were rigorously the case, it would
follow that the moon revolves about an axis, perpendicular
to the plane of her orbit, in the same time in which she com¬
pletes a sidereal revolution about the earth, and that the an¬
gular velocities of the two motions are exactly equal. It is,
however, proved by observation, that there are some varia¬
tions in the apparent position of the spots on the lunar disk.
Those which are situated very near the border of the disk
alternately disappear and become visible, making stated pe¬
riodical oscillations. But as they suffer no sensible changes
in their relative positions, and always re-appear under the
same form and magnitude when they return to the same po¬
sition, it is inferred that they are permanently fixed to the
surface of the moon; and their oscillations consequently
seem to indicate a sort of vibratory motion of the lunar globe,
which is known by the appellation of its libration. This
motion has, however, no real existence. The phenomenon
is the complicated result of several optical illusions, and does
not depend in any degree on the rotation of the moon, which,
relatively to us, is perfectly equable; or at least, if it be
subject to irregularities, they are too minute to be appre¬
ciated.
In order to form a precise idea of the phenomenon of
the libration, we must consider that the disk of the moon,
seen from the centre of the earth, is terminated by the
circumference of a great circle of the moon, the plane of
which is perpendicular to a line drawn from the earth s cen¬
tre to that of the moon. The lunar hemisphere is projected
on the plane of this circle turned towards the earth ; and if
the moon did not revolve round her axis, the projection
would incessantly present different appearances to us, inas-
40 ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical much as the radius vector drawn from the centre of the earth
Astronomy, by which the plane of projection is determined, would inter-
'“^v-x“>,sect the surface of the moon in a different point, at every
new position in her orbit. But in consequence of her ro¬
tation, the radius vector is always directed to nearly the
same point of the lunar surface, and would be always di¬
rected exactly to the same point if the angular velocity
of rotation corresponded exactly with the angular velocity
in the orbit. But the rotation of the moon is sensibly uni¬
form ; while the motion of revolution, being affected by the
periodic inequalities, is sometimes slower and sometimes
more rapid. The apparent rotation occasioned by the
revolution of the moon round the earth is consequently in
such cases not exactly counterbalanced by the real ro¬
tation, which remains constantly the same. Hence the
different points of the lunar globe must appear to turn
about her centre, sometimes in one direction, and some¬
times in the contrary, and the same appearances be pro¬
duced as would result from a small oscillation of the moon,
in the plane of her orbit, about the radius vector drawn
from her centre to the earth. The spots near the eastern
or western edge of her disk disappear according as her
motion in her orbit is more or less rapid than her mean
motion. This is called the Librarian in Longitude.
Further; the axis of rotation of the moon is not exactly
perpendicular to the plane of her orbit. If we suppose
the position of this axis fixed, during a revolution of the
moon it inclines more or less to the radius vector, so that
the angle formed by these two lines is acute during one
part of her revolution, and obtuse during another part of
it; hence the two poles of rotation and those parts of
her surface which are near these poles are alternately visi¬
ble from the earth. This is the Librarian in Latitude.
Besides all this, the observer is not placed at the centre
of the earth, but at its surface. It is the radius drawn
from his eye to the centre of the moon which determines
the middle point of her visible hemisphere. But, in con¬
sequence of the lunar parallax, it is obvious that this radius
must cut the surface of the moon in points sensibly dif¬
ferent according to the height of that luminary above the
horizon. An observer at the surface of the earth per¬
ceives points on the upper part of the moon’s disk, at the
time of her rising, which could not be seen from the
centre. In proportion as the moon acquires a greater
elevation, these points approach the border of the disk, and
finally disappear, while new ones become visible on the
eastern part of the disk, which increase in number as the
moon descends towards the horizon ; so that in the course
of a day she appears to oscillate about her radius vector
in the direction of the earth’s rotation. This phenomenon
constitutes what is called the Diurnal Librarian., and is
evidently the effect of the lunar parallax.
The libration in latitude and the diurnal libration were
discovered by Galileo soon after the invention of the tele¬
scope. It was Hevelius who discovered the libration in
longitude, and explained it by the hypothesis of the equable
rotatory motion of the moon combined with her unequal
velocity in her orbit.
To the inhabitants of the moon, if such there be, the
earth will appear as a species of moon, much larger than
the moon appears to us, but visible only to that hemi¬
sphere which is turned towards the earth. At those places
which are situated near the border of her visible disk,
the earth will sometimes rise a few degrees above the
horizon; and an inhabitant of the moon placed near
the middle of the hemisphere presented to the earth will
always see the earth near his zenith, making oscillations
of only a few degrees in consequence of the libration.
But an inhabitant of the other hemisphere will never see
the earth at all; so that while one hemisphere of the moon Theoretical
is constantly enlightened, during her long night, by the Astronomy*
light reflected from the earth, the other remains in con-
stant darkness. In regard, therefore, to the distribution
of light, one of the lunar hemispheres enjoys very great
advantages over the other.
The elements of the rotation of the moon, that is to
say, the position of her equator, the place of its nodes, and
its inclination to the plane of the ecliptic, are found by the
same methods which have been explained for determining
the corresponding elements relatively to the sun. The
geocentric positions of the spots are observed in the same
manner ; and in converting them into selenocentric lati¬
tudes and longitudes, the same formulae may be employed,
with a slight modification rendered necessary by the in¬
clination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic. One circum¬
stance, not less remarkable than the coincidence which
obtains between the times of rotation and sidereal revolu¬
tion, is, that the nodes of the lunar equator coincide with
those of the moon’s orbit, if not exactly, at least so near¬
ly, that the differences are so small as to fall within the
probable errors of observation and calculation. All the
observations since the time of Hevelius agree in showing
that the longitude of the descending node of the equator
is very nearly equal to the mean longitude of the ascending
node of the orbit; whence it follows that the nodes of the
equator have a retrograde motion equal to that of the nodes
of the orbit. With regard to the inclination of the lunar
equator to the ecliptic, Mayer states it to be 1° 29', and
Lalande 1° 43'. According to the latest computations
made from the observations of Bouvard, the mean inclina¬
tion of the lunar equator to the ecliptic is 1° 28' 42". Mr
Baily makes it 1° SCK lO'^S. Since the descending node
of the equator coincides with the ascending node of the
orbit, it is evident that its plane must be situated between
the planes of the ecliptic and orbit, making an angle of
about 1° 30' with the first, and of 3° 39' with the second.
Suppose three planes to pass through the centre of the
moon, one of which represents her equator, the second the
mean plane of her orbit, and the third parallel to the
ecliptic. It is evident, from what precedes, that these
three planes have a common section; that the first falls
between the other two, making with them respectively
the angles 3° 39' and 1° 30'. In the space of 6793 days,
the time of a revolution of the nodes of the lunar orbit,
the poles of the first two planes describe about the pole
of the ecliptic, in a direction contrary to the order of the
signs, two small circles parallel to the ecliptic, and of
which the semidiameters are respectively the arcs 1° 30'
and 5° 9'. Hence the difference between the longitudes
of these two poles is constantly 180°, and the three poles
are situated on the same great circle, that of the ecliptic
being between the two others.
These results, which rank among the most curious dis¬
coveries of modern astronomy, were first obtained by
Dominic Cassini: they were shown by Lagrange to be
necessary consequences of the attraction which the earth
exercises on the lunar spheroid.
The positions of the spots on the moon’s surface are
determined by their distance from the lunar equator, and
from a conventional meridian, that is, by their selenocen¬
tric latitudes and longitudes, after the manner in which
the position of places is determined on the surface of the
earth. The first meridian is assumed to be that which
passes through the pole of the visible hemisphere when
the true place of the moon in her orbit is equal to her
mean place ; hence the first meridian is always very near
the middle of the face which the moon turns towards the
earth, never deviating from it farther than by a quantity
ASTRONOMY. 41
Theoretical equal to the equation of the moon, or her libration in
Astronomy. longitude. The rotatory motion being equal to that of
revolution, the selenocentric longitude of the first meri¬
dian, at any epoch, is found by adding 180° to the mean
longitude of the moon; and this gives also the distance
of the first meridian from the ascending node of the lunar
equator. The position of the equator and first meridian
being determined, the co-ordinates of a spot are com¬
puted without difficulty; and in this manner catalogues
of the spots have been formed, and arranged according to
their latitudes and longitudes.
Sect. V.— Of the Nature and Constitution of the Lunar
Substance.
It has already been observed, that a slight attention to
the different phases of the moon is sufficient to prove that
she is an opaque spherical body, shining only by virtue of
the light which she receives from the sun. The line
bounding the visible part of her surface has exactly the
form which would be produced by an illuminated hemi¬
sphere brought into different positions with respect to the
eye; and the circular contour of the obscured portion of
the sun during a solar eclipse could only be caused by
the interposition of a spherical body. Besides, the parts
of her hemisphere turned towards the earth, which the
sun’s rays do not reach, are in some circumstances suffi¬
ciently discernible, and she has then the same circular
appearance which she exhibits when at the full.
But if the light which comes to us from the moon is
only that which she receives from the sun and reflects
back to the earth, how does it happen, it may be asked,
that the portion of her disk not directly exposed to the
solar rays is distinctly visible for some days after the new
moon? This phenomenon was ascribed by the ancients
to the native light of the moon, to which, on account of
its pale ashy hue, they gave the name of lumen incinero-
sum. The explanation which is now generally given was
first suggested by a celebrated painter, Leonard da Vinci.
It consists in supposing that a portion of the light which
is reflected from the illuminated hemisphere of the earth
to the moon undergoes a second reflection at the lunar
surface, and is transmitted back to the earth. The an¬
cients were confirmed in their opinion respecting the na¬
tive light of the moon, by observing that she is not alto¬
gether invisible in her eclipses. Plutarch, indeed, inge¬
niously ascribes her appearance under these circumstances
to the light of the stars reflected from the moon ; a cause,
however, totally inadequate to produce the effect. This
phenomenon is now generally ascribed to the scattered
beams of the sun bent into the earth’s shadow by the re¬
fraction of its atmosphere.
The opinion that the moon’s light is chiefly, if not
wholly, caused by the reflection of the sun’s rays at the
lunar surface, has prevailed in all ages; and indeed no
other explanation seems to have been thought of till it
was suggested by Licetus, professor of philosophy at Bo¬
logna, as being more probable that the moon possesses a
phosphorescent quality, and that the sun’s influence is
only wanted to occasion the propulsion of the light which
lies absorbed in her substance. This idea has been adopt¬
ed by Professor Leslie, whose arguments in its support
are at least extremely plausible and ingenious. So far as
the appearances, and the explanation of the phases, are
concerned, it is evidently matter of indifference whether
we suppose that the solar rays are reflected from the sur¬
face of the moon, or that they exert an action in virtue of
which the moon emits rays of her own. In either case it
is that part of her surface only which is exposed to the
VOL. IV.
impact of the solar rays that sends forth light to the Theoretical
earth. Astronomy.
The principal argument in favour of the phosphorescent
nature of the moon is founded on the quantity of light
which proceeds from her surface. It is evident that the
moon does not act as a polished speculum, and reflect the
whole of the incident rays; for in that case, as is known
from the laws of Catoptrics, she would merely reflect an
image of the sun, equally bright, varying in size according
to her different positions relatively to the sun and the earth,
and increasing till she arrives at her opposition, when her
diameter would appear equal to about the 458th part of
its real dimensions. Her phases could never be distin¬
guished, and she would only appear to approach to or re¬
cede from the earth, in proportion as her diameter in¬
creased or diminished. It follows, therefore, that the
moon’s surface must be irregular, or what is termed a mat
surface, that is, of such a nature, that from every point of
it the rays of light are reflected in all directions indiffer¬
ently. According to the experiments of Bouguer, a white
surface of this sort, for instance paper, or plaster of Paris,
reflects only about the 150th part of the rays which fall
upon it in a perpendicular direction ; and the proportion is
less as the angle of incidence becomes more oblique.
Making allowance for the irregular surface and obscure
spots of the moon, Mr Leslie computes that the solar
light which she remits to the earth must be attenuated
at least 105 million times; but Bouguer’s experiments
show that the moon’s light is between the 250,000th and
300,000th part of the direct light of the sun, or about 350
times greater than the computed amount of reflected
light. If every part of the moon’s surface reflected the
light in the most perfect manner, it may be shown that
only the 210,000th part of the rays which she receives
from the sun would be thrown off in the direction of the
earth ; a quantity not much exceeding that which, ac¬
cording to Bouguer’s estimate, we actually receive from
her. Mr Leslie states that he found the intensity of the
moon’s light to approach the 150,000th part of the direct
light of the sun; a result which, if admitted, must be en¬
tirely decisive of the question; for as the utmost possible
quantity of reflected light cannot exceed the 210,000th
part, it follows that the excess must be owing to the
spontaneous light of the moon. Hence this ingenious
philosopher concludes that the body of the moon is a
phosphorescent substance, like the Bolognian Stone, which
possesses the property of shining for some time when
carried into a dark room, after having been exposed to
the light of the sun. A fact first observed by the cele¬
brated Arago seems to increase the probability of this
opinion. All rays reflected from a surface not metallic
acquire a peculiar modification, or become polarized ; but
as the rays of the moon are not so modified, it is inferred
that they have not undergone a reflection at her surface.
The secondary light of the moon, of which we have al¬
ready made mention, affords arguments in favour of her
native light precisely similar to the above. If the earth
reflected, like a mirror, the whole of the incident rays,
the illumination produced by the reflection would amount
to about a 16,000th part of that which is caused by the sun ;
but as the sea reflects only about a 55th part of those
rays, and the land a still smaller proportion, we may sup¬
pose that the reflected light of the earth does not exceed
a millionth part of the direct light of the sun. It is ex¬
tremely doubtful whether a light so greatly attenuated
would suffice to render the moon visible. The lucid bow,
or silvery thread of light, which, proceeding from the ex¬
tremities of the lunar crescent, seems to embrace her un¬
enlightened orb, is easily explicable on this hypothesis;
F
42
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical whereas it can hardly be satisfactorily accounted for hy
Astronomy. ascribing it to the secondary illumination from the earth.
“ I should rather refer it,” says Mr Leslie, “ to the spon¬
taneous light which the moon may continue to emit for
some time after the phosphorescent substance has been
excited by the action of the solar beams. The lunar disk
is visible although completely covered by the shadow of
the earth : nor can this fact be explained by the inflec¬
tion of the sun’s rays in passing through our atmosphere;
for why does the rim appear so brilliant ? Any such in¬
flection could only produce a diffuse light, obscurely
tinging the boundaries of the lunar orb ; and, in this case,
the earth, presenting its dark side to the moon, would
have no power to heighten the effect by reflection. But
even when this reflection is greatest about the time^ of
conjunction, its influence seems extremely feeble. The
lucid bounding arc is occasioned by the narrow lunula,
which, having recently felt the solar impression, still con¬
tinues to shine; and‘from its extreme obliquity, glows
with concentrated effect.” {Inquiry into the Nature and
Propagation of Heat.)
Pig. 48. Although these arguments go far to support the ancient
opinion of the native light of the moon, they are not en¬
tirely conclusive; and indeed cannot be easily reconciled
with some of the phenomena. If the moon shines in vir¬
tue of her native light, rays will be emitted in all direc¬
tions from every point of her surface ; whence, since a
visual angle of a given magnitude includes a much larger
portion of a spherical surface near the extremities of its
apparent disk than towards the centre, and as the number
of rays is proportional to the surface from which they
proceed, it follows that the intensity of the moon s light
ought to be greater near the border than at the centre of
her disk. The reason why this is not the case with re¬
gard to the sun is, that a greater proportion of the rays
are absorbed in passing through a greater extent of the
solar atmosphere; but the moon, having no atmosphere,
ought to be sensibly most brilliant near the circumference
of her orb. The contrary is, however, the case ; her light
is greatest at the centre, and less intense towards the
circumference, exactly as it ought to be on the supposi¬
tion of its being occasioned by the reflection of the solar
rays. With regard to the ingenious argument of Arago,
it cannot be held to be conclusive till we become more
certainly acquainted with the nature of the lunar sub¬
stance. The only property which we can safely ascribe to
it as yet is density : whether in its physical properties it
resembles the substances with which we are acquainted,
is a question hardly within the bounds of legitimate in¬
vestigation.
The spots of the moon, affording grounds for conjectures
relative to her physical constitution and the nature of her
surface, have been observed with great interest since the
discovery of the telescope; and as they are of some
service in the observation of eclipses, astronomers have
been at much pains to determine their selenographic
positions. On account of their number, it has been found
necessary to distinguish them by particular names, llic-
cioli designated the most conspicuous of them by the
names of astronomers, and other eminent men. Hevelius
gave them the names belonging to countries, islands, seas,
and regions on the earth, without reference to situation
or figure. The nomenclature of Riccioli has, however,
been deservedly preferred by Schroeter and others who
have particularly observed the phenomena of the lunar
surface, and is now universally followed. Mayer gave
a catalogue of 89 of the most remarkable of the spots,
with their selenographic latitudes and longitudes referred
to a first meridian, namely, that which passes through the
centre of the moon’s apparent disk, perpendicular to the Theoretical
lunar equator, accompanied by an accurate map of her sur-
face. Delineations of the lunar disk have also been given by
Hevelius in his Selenographia; by Cassini, Russel, Schroeter,
Lohrmann, and others. The engraving (fig. 4-7) which ac- Fig. 47-
companies this article gives a pretty accurate view of the
appearance of the moon in her mean libration.
The following table contains the selenographic positions
of some of the principal spots. The sign indicates a
northern, and — a southern latitude.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Riccioli’s Names.
Long.
Zoroaster
Mercurius
Petavius
Langrenus
Endymion
Cleomedes
Atlas
Hercules
Censorinus
Fracastorius
Possidonius
Theophilus
Cyrillus
St Catharina
Menelaus
Aristoteles
Ptolomaeus
Arzachel
Archimedes
Tycho
Plato
Pitatus
Eratosthenes
Clavius
Copernicus
Bullialdus
Blancanus
Heraclides
Keplerus
Gassendus
Aristarchus
Hevelius
Schickardus
Grimaldus
West 72°
67
64
62
60
55
48
42
32
32
32
27
25
24
15
West 15
East 2
3
5
10
10
12
12
16
19
21
25
38
38
39
48
t 67
68
East 68
Eat.
+ 58°
-1- 40
— 24
— 8
+ 53
+ 26
+ 47
+ 48
0
— 22
+ 31
— 12
— 13
— 18
+ 16
+ 50
— 10
— 20
+ 28
— 43
+ 52
— 29
+ 14
— 60
+ 9
— 21
— 65
+ 41
+ 7
— 19
+ 24
— 1
— 49
— 5
That there are prodigious inequalities on the surface Great ine.
of the moon, is proved by looking at her through a tele- qualities
scope at any other time than when she is full; for then
there is no regular line bounding the dark and illuminated moon
parts, but the confines of these parts appear as it were
toothed and cut with innumerable notches and breaks ; and
even in the dark part, near the borders of the enlightened
surface, there are seen some small spaces enlightened by
the sun’s beams. Upon the fourth day after new moon
there may be perceived some shining points, like rocks or
small islands, within the dark body of the moon; but not
far from the confines of light and darkness there are ob¬
served other little spaces which join to the enlightened
surface, but run out into the dark side, which by degrees
change their figure, till at last they come wholly within
the illuminated face, and have no dark parts round them
at all. Afterwards many more shining spaces are ob¬
served to arise by degrees, and to appear within the dark
side of the moon, which, before they drew near to the il¬
lumined portion of the disk, were invisible, being totally
immersed in the shadow. The contrary is observed in
the decreasing phases, where the lucid spaces which
ASTRONOMY.
43
Theoretical joined the illuminated surface recede gradually from it,
iistronomy. and remain for some time visible after they are quite sc-
parated from the confines of light and darkness. Now it
is impossible that this should be the case, unless these
shining points were higher than the rest of the surface,
so that the rays of the sun may illumine their summits
before they reach their bases. Portions of considerable
extent are" also perceived on the lunar surface, which are
never brilliant like the other parts, but remain constantly
obscure. These are supposed to be deep valleys or cavi¬
ties : they were formerly supposed to be seas, but, for
reasons about to be given, this idea has been abandoned.
These phenomena render it certain that the surface of
the moon is covered with mountains of a great height,
with rocks or masses of unknown matter, but possessing^
the property of reflecting the suns light.. I he height of
the lunar mountains may be determined in the following
manner. . , , . . „
Let ABO (fig. 48) be the illuminated hemisphere ot
the moon, SO the tangential solar ray, and consequently
O one of the points of the circle which separates the en¬
lightened from the obscure hemisphere. All the part
OD will be in darkness; but if this part contain a moun¬
tain so elevated that its summit M reaches the solar
ray SO, the point M will be enlightened. Now, if the
line OM can be determined by observation, it will be
easy to deduce the arc Oa, and thence the height of the
mountain aM, in terms of the moon s radius. Let E be
the place of an observer on the earth ; draw the lines EM,
EO, EC (C being the centre of the lunar orb), and Om
perpendicular to EM. The distance of the moon from
the earth being known, we have the distance EO : the
angle OEm is measured by the micrometer; therefore
Om, which is the projected distance of OM, is a given
quantity. Now OM = —; and since OEm is a
Fig. 4(5.
cos. MOm ’
very small angle, EOm may be considered a right angle,
consequently MOm = MOE — 90° ; therefore OM
0m °m 0m that is,
_ cos.(MOE —90°) ~ sin.xMOE sin. EOS
the distance between the summit of the mountain and
the illuminated part of the moon’s disk is equal to the
projected distance measured by the micrometer, divided
by the sine of the moon’s elongation from the sun. Sup¬
pose this distance OM = wXCO; we shall then have
CM = CO V'l + n2, and the height of the mountain
2
<zM = CO(\/rT^2 — 1) = YC0 (neglecting in the
development of the radical the powers of n which are
higher than the square). According to the observations
of Hevelius, the greatest value of n is y1^, which gives the
height of the mountain equal to yyy of the semidiameter
of the moon. Schroeter, who estimated the heights of
the lunar mountains by measuring the projections of their
shadows at the time the sun was near their horizon,
makes it in some cases ^yy. The highest mountains
on the earth do not reach an elevation greater than
of the terrestrial radius; the lunar mountains,
therefore, in proportion to the diameters of the earth
and moon, are nearly five times higher than those of
our globe. Their absolute height is above five English
miles. It is easy to see that these determinations are sus¬
ceptible of very little accuracy.
Not only is the moon’s surface rendered irregular by
high and precipitous mountains, but numerous cavities ap¬
pear in every part of her surface, some of which, accord¬
ing to Schroeter, are upwards of four English miles in
depth, and forty in circumference at the orifice. An in- Theoretical
sulated mountain is frequently observed to rise in the^^o^T;
centre of these enormous pits or caverns; and they are
surrounded by high annular ridges, the masses of which
would exactly fill the inclosed cavities. From this cir
cumstance, it is probable that the elevations and hollows
which abound on the surface of the moon have been pro¬
duced by volcanic eruptions. Herschel imagined that
he even observed volcanoes in activity. At the time of
the new moon he perceived on different parts of her ob¬
scure disk three luminous points, resembling pieces of
burnin0- charcoal, covered with a thin coat of white ashes,
one of which, by a comparison with the third satellite of
Jupiter, appeared to be upwards of three miles in diame¬
ter. Their brilliancy continued during several davs. m-
dergoing variations altogether independent of the increase
of die moon’s apparent magnitude, and at the end of that
time they appeared to become extinct.
The existence of a lunar atmosphere has been a fertile
subject of controversy among astronomers. It has been
urged that, as the brightness of the moon is sensibly equal
at all times when she is not obscured by clouds in the ter¬
restrial atmosphere, she cannot be surrounded by an at¬
mosphere similar to that of our earth, so variable in its Lunar av.
density, and so liable to be obscured by clouds and va- mosphere.
pours. The assumption of an equable brightness in the
appearance of the moon has not, however, been allowed
to pass uncontroverted. Hevelius relates that he has se¬
veral times found in skies perfectly clear, when even stars
of the sixth and seventh magnitude were visible, that, at
the same altitude of the moon, at the same elongation
from the earth, and with the same telescope, the moon
and her maculae do not appear equally lucid and clear at
all times, but are much brighter and more distinct at some
times than at others. Several other observers have no¬
ticed that the moon is not always equally conspicuous du¬
ring total eclipses ; a fact which is held to be indicative of
accidental variations in the state of the lunar atmosphere.
Another objection against the existence of a lunar at¬
mosphere is derived from the circumstance that, if it ex¬
isted, its influence would be perceptible in the occultations
of the planets, or fixed stars, by the moon. W hen the
moon approaches so near to a star that part of her atmo¬
sphere (supposing she has one) is interposed between the
star and the eye of the observer, the star, it is contended,
ought to suffer a change in its colour in consequence of the
absorption of some of its light in traversing the denser
parts of the moon’s atmosphere. But when we consider
that the region of the vapours and clouds in the terrestrial
atmosphere does not exceed the height of four miles, or
the 1980th part of the earth’s diameter, and that conse¬
quently the obscure part of the lunar atmosphere, sup¬
posing it to be similarly constituted, would not subtend an
angle of one second (the mean apparent diameter of the
moon being 1889 seconds), and that this space is passed
over by the moon in less than two seconds of time, it will
scarcely be expected that observation will be able to de¬
cide whether the supposed obscuration takes place or not.
Some observers have, however, remarked instances of
stars, when about to be occulted, presenting an evident
diminution of light. (See a Paper by Mr Ramage of
Aberdeen, in the 2d vol. of the Memoirs of the Astronomi¬
cal Society.)
The existence of a lunar atmosphere cannot increase or
diminish the apparent diameter of the moon, because its ef¬
fect on the rays of light when they enter it will be exactly
counteracted at the time of their emergence. It mightseem,
therefore, that in order to determine whether the light of
a star or planet is inflected when it passes very near the
44 ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical border of the lunar disk, it would be sufficient to compare
Astronomy. t]ie observed duration of the occultations of the stars, or
eclipses of the sun, with the time, calculated Irom the
theory of the moon’s motion, which she consumes in
passing through a space equal to her apparent diameter.
But if, as is generally supposed, a certain irradiation
is produced around luminous objects, by which their
image is dilated, the apparent diameter of the moon
will thereby be augmented when she is projected on the
dark sky. On the contrary, when the disk of the moon
is projected on that of the sun in annular eclipses, the
irradiation, by dilating the luminous ring which seems to
surround the moon, will cause her apparent diameter to
appear smaller than it actually is. On this account it
becomes very difficult to ascertain by direct measurement
the amount of the inflection of light at the border of the
lunar disk, or even to be certain ot its existence. An in¬
direct method of arriving at the desired object was, how¬
ever, imagined by Dionis du Sejour, who regarded the ir¬
radiation and inflection as two unknown quantities to be
determined simultaneously from the observations of the
phases of eclipses, upon which their effects are different.
The observations best adapted for this purpose are those
of the magnitude of the luminous crescent, and its suc¬
cessive increase in annular eclipses. Du Sejour calcu¬
lated with great care the annular eclipse of the sun which
took place in the year 1764, and was visible over all
Europe; and which, by reason ot the extent and variety
of its phases, presented a great many points of compari¬
son. He particularly employed the observations made
in different places of the instants of the formation and rup¬
ture of the ring. He likewise confirmed these observa¬
tions by measurements made by Mr Short, at London, of
the distance between the horns of the crescent at divers
instants. It resulted, from the comparison of an immense
number of observations, that the measurements could
not be reconciled without supposing an irradiation of 3"
on the semidiameter of the sun, and an inflection of near¬
ly the same amount round the disk of the moon, produced
by her atmosphere. According to this x'esult, the hori¬
zontal refraction at the surface of the moon amounts to
l"-5. The mean horizontal refraction observed at the
surface of the earth is 0°-585, and consequently about
1400 times greater than that at the moon. Hence, sup¬
posing the moon’s atmosphere of the same nature as that
of the earth, its density must be 1400 times less, and con¬
sequently rarer than the most perfect vacuum which can
be produced by the best pneumatic machines.
The existence of a lunar atmosphere, though of small
extent, is indicated with considerable probability by the
observations of Schroeter, who perceived that some ranges
of lunar mountains, when in the dark hemisphere, are
illuminated more feebly in proportion as they recede
from the boundary of light and darkness; an effect which
would be produced by the partial absorption of the rays
of light which pass near the moon’s surface. He also
remarked the same circumstance with regard to the
cusps, and perceived other indications of an atmosphere
in some changes of tint, which induced him to think
that a twilight might be discernible towards the cusps.
With a view to prove the accuracy of this conjecture,
he examined the moon with great care under the most
favourable circumstances, and at length descried a faint
glimmering which he took to be crepuscular light, ex¬
tending from the cusps into the dark body of the moon. Theoretical
Its greatest breadth was 2"; and it extended 1' 20" from^™^^
the cusps, along the circumference of the lunar disk.
From these data he computed that the height of the lunar
atmosphere, to the limit where it ceases to inflect the
rays of light or diminish the brightness of a star, does
not exceed 5742 English feet. A ring of this breadth, at
the distance of the moon, will subtend an angle of only
0"‘94; hence the almost imperceptible influence of the
lunar atmosphere.
Some observations, related by Mr Ramage of Aberdeen,
in a memoir already alluded to, of occultations of Jupiter
and his satellites, with an excellent reflecting instrument,
also tend to confirm the existence of a small lunar at¬
mosphere. On the approach of the satellites no diminu¬
tion of their light was perceptible. On coming into con¬
tact with the moon’s limb they did not disappear instant¬
ly, like fixed stars, but formed an indentation or notch
in the limb, as if imbedded in it, but at the same time se¬
parated from it by a fine line of light. The indentation
continued visible till about half their diameters were im¬
mersed, when it disappeared. (Memoirs of the Astronomi¬
cal Society of London, vol. ii. p. 87.)
The dark spots on the moon’s surface were formerly
supposed to be water; but as elevations and cavities are
distinctly perceptible in them, that hypothesis is evident¬
ly erroneous. Besides, the extreme tenuity of her atmo¬
sphere is inconsistent with the existence of water at her
surface. It is only by the weight of the terrestrial atmo¬
sphere that the liquids at the surface of the earth are
prevented from being dissipated in vapours. If the pre¬
sent atmosphere were removed, every liquid would con¬
tinue to be dissipated in this manner till a new atmo¬
sphere was formed, to which each would contribute in
proportion to its elastic force ; and the evaporation would
only cease when the tension of the vapour of each liquid
was equal to its elastic force in a vacuum at the same
temperature. But if the vapours were removed as they
arose, by any absorbing cause, the evaporation would con¬
tinue till the liquids entirely disappeared. Now we may
suppose this to have been the case with respect to the
moon, and that at one time she may have had an atmo¬
sphere, which the attractive force of the earth, aided by
some accidental circumstance, may have swept away and
united with our own. (Biot, Astr. Phys. tome ii. p. 413.)
Under these circumstances it is evident, that no animal,
similarly constituted to those which inhabit the earth, could
respire at the surface of the moon.1 Every thing there ap¬
pears solid, desolate, and unfit for the production and sup¬
port of organized substances; and the excessive cold which
certainly prevails must be sufficient to destroy every
source of animal or vegetable life. May it not then be sup¬
posed that the moon is a planet which has not yet reached
a state of maturity—a maturity to be prepared by suc¬
cessive volcanic eruptions; or that, having fulfilled its
destiny, it is now in a state of decay ?
On the subject of this section, see Hevelius, Selenogra-
pjhia; Schroeter, SelenotopographischeFragmente; Hooke’s
Micrographia, 1665 ; Lemonnier, Selenographie ; Mayer,
Cosmographische Nachrichten, 1748; Boscovich, De Lunce
Atmosphcera, 1753 ; Dunn, Phil. Trans., 1762 ; Herschel,
Phil. Trans., 1780 and 1787, p. 229 ; Ferguson’s Astro¬
nomy, by Brewster; ¥>\ot, Astronomic, tome ii. p. 413; Schu¬
bert, Traite d'Astronomic Theorique, tome ii. p. 364.
1 It has alwavs been a favourite opinion with mankind, that the celestial bodies, resembling the earth in some respects, are also, like
it, peopled with rational beings. The author of the verses attributed to Orpheus ascribes to the moon many mountains, and cities,
and palaces:
it -jTovf woaX 'arricc, •xoXka
1
ASTRONOMY.
45
Theoretical
Astronomy.
Sect. VI.— Of Eclipses and Occultations.
_ ,   In describing these interesting phenomena, we will first
consider the eclipses of the moon, which, for any given place
on the earth, are much more frequent than those of the
sun, and, by reason of certain circumstances about to be ex¬
plained, can also be computed with much greater facility.
1.—Eclipses of the Moon.
The earth being an opaque, round body, much smaller
than the sun, must project behind it in space a conical
shadow, limited by straight lines drawn from the extre¬
mities of the sun’s disk to touch the surface of the earth.
When the moon enters this shadow, and a portion of her
disk is still enlightened by the sun, the enlightened part
will necessarily have the form of a luminous crescent,
the concavity of which is turned to the conical shadow
of the earth; and this appearance will likewise be exhi¬
bited when the moon begins to emerge from the shadow.
As she approaches towards the shadow, her light is not
suddenly eclipsed, but passes insensibly through all
the successive gradations of obscurity, till the darkness
attains its greatest intensity. The reason of this will be
easily comprehended by considering that when an opaque
body is placed between an object and the sun, so as to
conceal only a part of his disk, the object is then less en¬
lightened than when none of the solar rays are intercept¬
ed ; and this in proportion as more or less of the sun is
concealed. Between full illumination and total obscurity
there are consequently intermediate tints and gradations
of light, which are denominated the Penumbra, in contra-
distmction to the Umbra which covers those places to which
the sun’s rays are completely intercepted. Let S and E
(fig. 49) be the centres of the sun and earth, and ABB'A'
any plane whatever passing through the axis SE, in which,
let AB, A'B' be tangents to the sun and earth on opposite
sides of the axis SE ; these tangents will meet the pro¬
longation of the axis in a point C. Let also AB', A'B
touch the sun and earth on opposite sides of SE, and
let C' be their intersection. If we now suppose the plane
to turn round the axis SC, a conical shadow or umbra, of
which the apex is C, will be formed behind BB'; and
if the moon is situated within any part of the cone BCB',
no light whatever can fall on her. As soon as the moon
emerges trom this cone, a part at least of the sun’s rays
will fall upon her, and she will be in the penumbra. If
situated, for example, at M, and MN be drawn to touch
the earth and meet the solar disk in N, then the part of
that disk between A and N will be visible at M. The ex¬
tent of the penumbra is therefore determined by the an¬
gle DBG. When M is situated in the straight line BD,
the whole of the sun’s disk is visible; when M is in BC
the sun entirely vanishes, and his visible portion diminishes
from the instant M passes BD till it reaches BC. The
intensity of the penumbra, therefore, goes on increasing
from the first of these limits to the second, where it is
confounded with the total darkness. This explains the
progressive obscuration of the moon’s disk in her eclipses.
If we now attempt to determine the circumstances under
which an eclipse of the moon can take place, it is obviously
necessary to inquire, in the first place, into the length of
the conical shadow BCB'; for an eclipse can only happen
on the supposition of its extending beyond the orbit of
P[ate the moon. For this purpose let EF (fig. 50) be drawn
LXXXIII.parallel to AB, and meeting SA in F. We have then sin.
• O T- T' SF SA—EB . p
ECB = sin. SEE = ^ ^ = sin. R — sin. p, R
o-ti oJh
being the apparent semidiameter of the sun, and p his hori¬
zontal parallax. By reason of the smallness of these angles
the arcs may be substituted for the sines ; hence the angle Theoretical
pg Astronomy.
ECB = R — ». But CE zz therefore making'
1 sin. ECB °
EB, the radius of the earth, — a, CE =
FE. 5l).
sin. (R—pf
From this expression it is evident that the value of CE
depends on the horizontal parallax, and therefore varies
with the sun’s distance from the earth. On calculating,
by means of the values of R, a, and p, given in the preced¬
ing sections, the values of CE at the perigean, mean, and
apogean distances, the following results will be obtained:—
Lengths of CE.
Sun in perigee   212-896 terrestrial radii.
at mean distance 216-531
in apogee 220-238
Now the greatest distance of the moon from the earth
is less than 64 terrestrial radii (sect, ii.), consequently
the shadow of the earth is projected into space between
three and four times farther than the distance of the moon.
Hence it appears, that if the moon moved in the ecliptic
she would traverse the earth’s shadow and be eclipsed
every revolution. On account of the inclination of her
orbit to that plane, the eclipses can only happen when she
is in or near her nodes. The greatest distances from the
nodes at which they can take place are called the Lunar
Ecliptic Limits.
In order to determine these limits, it is necessary first
of all to know the apparent diameter of a section of the
earth’s shadow, at the place where it is traversed by the
orbit of the moon. Let ZM/' (fig. 50) be a part of the
moon’s orbit, intersecting the lines AC and A'C in m and
m!} then mml is the geocentric diameter of the shadow,
the half of which is measured by the angle m EC. Now
the angle niEC is the difference between the angles EraA
and ECA, the first of which, namely, EmA, is the ap¬
parent semidiameter of the earth seen from the moon, or,
in other words, the moon’s horizontal parallax. Let this
angle, therefore, be denoted by P. It has already been
shown that ECA = R —p; consequently we have »iEC
— ¥ p — R in all cases; that is to say, the semi¬
diameter of the shadow is equal to the sum of the horizontal
parallaxes of the sun and moon, diminished by the apparent
semidiameter of the sun. On calculating the amount of
this expression from the values of P and p given above,
the following table will be obtained, exhibiting the magni¬
tude of the apparent diameters of the earth’s shadow for
different distances of the sun and moon.
Apparent diameters
of earth’s shadow.
f ]) in apogee 1° 15' 24"-30
at mean distance 1 23 2-31
( in perigee 1 30 40 *31
( ]) in apogee 1 15 56 -86
Sun at mean distance, < at mean distance 1 23 34 -87
[ in perigee... 1 31 12 *87
f ]) in apogee 1 16 28 -29
Sun in apogee, -< at mean distance 1 24 6 -30
( in perigee 1 31 44*30
The greatest apparent diameter of the moon being
only 33'31"-07, which is about a third part of the diame¬
ter of the earth’s shadow, it follows that the moon may
not only be completely enveloped in the shadow, but,
since she passes over a space nearly equal to her own
breadth in an hour, that she may continue to be totally
eclipsed during a space of about two hours.
The above determination refers only to the umbra or
cone of total darkness ; but the diameter of the penumbra
is obtained in a manner exactly similar. In the same
Sun in perigee,
ASTRONOMY.
46
Theoretical diagram the semidiameter of the penumbra is measured
Astronomy.by tile visual angle /EC; but /EC = E/C'+ EC'/, and
EC'/ = EC'/' = C'EA + C'AE; therefore /EC = E/C' +
C'EA -(- C'AE; or, retaining the same denominations as
above, /EC P-[-/>+ R. Hence, the semidiameter of the
penumbra is equal to the horizontal parallaxes of the moon
and sun, augmented by the apparent semidiameter of the sun.
All the different numerical values of the semidiameter
of the penumbra corresponding to particular positions of
the sun and moon may be computed exactly in the same
manner as in the case of the umbra.
The two expressions for the semidiameters of the um¬
bra and penumbra, viz. P + /> —11, and P-f-jo -p R, give
immediately the distance of the moon’s centre from the
axis of the cone when her disk comes into contact with
the shadow. Representing the apparent semidiameter
of the moon by r, her disk will just touch the umbra
when the distance of her centre from the axis SE is
equal to P + p—R-f-r; and it will touch the penumbra
when the distance is P-f-/>-{-R-j-r. But on account of
the very feeble obscurity of the penumbra towards its ex¬
treme border, it is impossible to observe with any degree
of precision the time at which the moon enters it. In
computing the ecliptic limits, therefore, it is only neces¬
sary to have regard to the umbra.
In the table given above, the extreme values of
P +/? — R, the apparent semidiameter of the earth’s
shadow, are £ (1° 15' 24"-30) = 37' 42"*15, and 1(1° 31'
44",30) — 45' 52"T5; and the least and greatest values of
r, the apparent semidiameter of the moon, are respectively
14' 45" and 16' 45" (sect, ii.); therefore the least distance of
the moon’s centre from the axis of the shadow at the time
of her immergence or emergence is 37' 42"T5 -f- 14' 45"zr
52' 27"*15, and the greatest 45' 52"T5 -j- 16' 45" = 62'
37"*15. The first is the limit within which an eclipse
must necessarily happen; the last that beyond which it
cannot happen.
It is now easy to ascertain the limits of the moon’s dis¬
tance from her node, within which the eclipses take place.
Let NC (fig. 51) be a portion of the ecliptic, NM part of
the moon’s orbit, N its node, C the centre of a section of
the earth’s shadow, M the centre of the moon; the verge
of the lunar disk touching, but not penetrating, the sha¬
dow at a. It is evident that, if the moon be at a greater
distance than CM from NC, there can be no eclipse. The
greatest value of CM, as we have just seen, is 62' 37"T5,
from which the corresponding ecliptic limit NC is easily
computed by means of the formula
sin. CM = sin. NC X sin. CNM.
Supposing the angle CNM, that is, the inclination of the
moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, to be 5°, which is its minimum
value, the value of NC is found from the logarithmic ta¬
bles to be 12° 2' nearly. Hence an eclipse of the moon
can only happen when she is within about 12° 2' of her node.
Under the most favourable circumstances, however, the
limits may extend to 13° 21'. A lunar eclipse will certainly
take place if the moon’s distance from her node, at the
time of her mean opposition, is not greater than 7° 4'.
When the moon’s disk only comes into contact with the
shadow, as in fig. 51, the phenomenon is called an appulse;
when the disk only enters into the shadow in part, the
eclipse is said to be partial; it is called total if the moon
entirely disappears, and central when her centre coincides
with the axis of the cone, or if at the time of the eclipse
the moon is exactly in her node.
In the preceding determinations the shadow has been
supposed to be conical, whereas, on account of the com¬
pression of the earth at the poles, it is not exactly a cone,
but a conoid on an elliptic base; and it varies at every in¬
stant by reason of the earth’s rotation. To determine ri- Theoretical
gorously the figure of the cone at every instant, and the'/^strononay-
diameter of its section where the moon enters and leaves
it, would require calculations of great complication and
prolixity. Such precision is, however, unnecessary; and
indeed it is impossible to attain to absolute accuracy so
long as the figure of the earth is not exactly known. It
is usual and natural to employ the largest diameter which
the shadow can have at the distance of the moon.
It has also been supposed that the shadow is terminated
by tangents to the sun and the earth; that is to say, that
all the rays of light which are not obstructed by the globe
of the earth pass in straight lines from the sun to the
moon. But the earth being surrounded by an atmosphere
which near the surface exerts a powerful action on the
solar rays, it is to be presumed that those rays which, if
unobstructed, would glance by the surface of the earth,
are absorbed by the lower strata of the atmosphere. The
effect of this will be to enlarge the diameter of the shadow;
and the requisite correction may be regarded as an aug¬
mentation of the earth’s radius, by adding to it a part of
the atmosphere; or, which amounts to the same thing, an
augmentation of the lunar parallax. Now, it is found by
experience that such a correction is necessary; and, ac¬
cording to Mayer, the lunar parallax must be augmented
by a 60th part in order to satisfy the observations.
Another effect of the action of the earth’s atmosphere
on the solar rays is to render the moon dimly visible even
when she is totally eclipsed,—a circumstance to which al¬
lusion was made in the preceding section. Let the circle
f g h i (fig. 52) concentric to the earth include that
part of the atmosphere which is sufficiently dense to pro¬
duce a sensible refraction of the rays of light. All those
rays which do not fall within that circle, such as Wfw,
Yiv, proceed in their direct course without suffering any
refraction ; but those which enter the atmosphere between
f and k, and between i and /, on opposite sides of the
earth, are gradually more bent inward as they go through
a greater portion of the atmosphere, until the rays Wk and
V/, touching the earth at m and n, are bent so much as to
meet at q, a little short of the moon; and therefore the
dark shadow of the earth is contained in the space mopqm,
where none of the sun’s rays can enter ; all the rest, R, R,
being mixed by the scattered rays which are refracted as
above, is in some measure enlightened by them ; and some
of those rays falling on the moon, give her the colour of
tarnished copper, or of iron almost red-hot; so that if the
earth had no atmosphere, the moon would be as invisible
in total eclipses as she is when new. If the moon were so
near the earth as to go into its dark shadow, suppose
about/* or q, she would be invisible during her stay in it,
but visible before and after in the fainter shadow R R.
After having pointed out the general phenomena of the
lunar eclipses, and the limits within which they take place,
it only remains to show in what manner the time of their
commencement, end, and duration, and also their magni¬
tude, may be determined by computation.
Let the line NE (fig. 53) represent the ecliptic, NO Plato
the orbit of the moon, C the centre of the terrestrial LXXXJ
shadow, and M the centre of the moon at the instant of*'*S-
the opposition; then CM will be the circle of latitude on
which the opposition takes place. The centre of the
shadow C being always in opposition with the sun, moves
along the ecliptic from west to east, or from N towards
E, with the same velocity as the sun. The moon also,
at the same time, moves in her orbit from west to east, or
from N towards O. Now the velocities of these two mo¬
tions are given by the astronomical tables, and the ques¬
tion is to determine the instant of time at which the circles
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical representing sections of the moon and the earth’s shadow
Astronomy, meet each other either before or after the opposition.
At the time of an eclipse the apparent distance of the
centre of the shadow from the moon is very small, conse¬
quently CM, and also the differences of the respective
longitudes and latitudes of C and M, may be regarded as
straight lines. During the short interval between the
commencement and end of an eclipse, the motion of the
sun, and consequently that of the centre of the shadow,
may likewise be regarded as uniform. By these supposi¬
tions, sufficiently accurate for our present purpose, the
problem is considerably simplified.
Suppose now that C' and M' are two simultaneous po¬
sitions of the shadow and moon at any instant before or
after the opposition. Let M' P be perpendicular, and
MQ parallel, to NE. The velocities of the moon and ter¬
restrial shadow being known from the tables, the lines
C' P and Q M', which represent the motions of the centre
of the moon relatively to that of the shadow in longitude
and latitude, are known also; whence C' P and P M' are
given, and consequently C' M' the distance of the centres.
Let us assume
X = CM or 5’s latitude when in opposition,
s = 0’s motion in longitude,
m= ])’s horary motion in longitude,
« = ])’s motion in latitude,
t = time from M to M',
c zz C'M' the distance of the centres.
Now, since we suppose that CP and QM' are the })’s mo¬
tion in longitude and latitude respectively in the time t,
it is evident that CP = m t, and QM' = n t. But CC' is
the sun’s motion, or the motion of the terrestrial shadow
in longitude during the same time ; therefore CC' = st.
We have then C'P zzmt — s t, and PM' = \-\-nt; conse¬
quently
c2 zz (mt — s t)2.
In this quadratic equation, if t is regarded as the unknown
quantity, the only arbitrary quantity contained in it will
be c, the distance of the centres, the others being all de¬
termined from the tables. On assigning, therefore, any
arbitrary value to c, the resolution of the equation will give
the corresponding value of t, and consequently the cir¬
cumstances or different phases of the eclipse which we
may wish to determine.
On arranging the terms of the above equation so as to
obtain the resolution relatively to t, we have
[(m_s)2+n2] ^2_f_2 X nt — c2 — X2,
which may be still simplified by introducing an auxiliary
Tl
angle 6, such that tan. 6 zz  ; for by this substitution
m — s J
there will result
ri1 f -\-2 X n sin.2 6 . t = (c2—X2) sin.2 6,
which gives the two following values of t:
t zz ^— X sin.2 6 z±z sin. 0 Vd2 — X2 cos.2 0 j.
The first of these denotes the time at which the moon
enters, and the second that at which she quits, the um¬
bra or penumbra.
The time at which the different phases of the eclipse
happen, are calculated directly from this equation. If,
for example, we wish to determine the time at which the
moon’s disk begins to enter the shadow, we make c zz P
+ p—ll + r (neglecting the small augmentation of the
shadow occasioned by the refraction of the atmosphere).
In the case of the penumbra we must take c zz P-j-y?-}-
R + r ; and it is evident that, if in either case X is of such
a magnitude that c is less than X cos. 6, the value of t will
be impossible ; in other words, no eclipse can take place.
47
If we suppose P-\-p — R -fr = X cos. 6, the two values Theoretical
of t will be equal, and the duration of the phase will only Astronon)y-
be for an instant, as in the case of the appulse, in which the^'^"v’'^‘'/
moon’s limb just touches the shadow without entering it.
In general, the portion of the diameter of the eclipsed
part is P-f/J—R-fr — X cos. 6-, and consequently the
diameter of the part not eclipsed is equal to the diameter
of the moon, or 2r, minus this quantity, that is, equal to
X cos. 6 — P —jo-t-R-j-r. When this expression is equal
to nothing the eclipse is just a total one; when negative,
the upper boundary of the moon’s limb will be under the
upper boundary of the section of the shadow, and the
total eclipse will continue for some time.
The instant at which the middle of the eclipse happens
will evidently be that at which the two values of t are
equal, or when the radical disappears, that is, when c zz
X cos. 6. In this case tzz — - X sin.2 6, and the instant is
n
called that of the greatest phase. It is usual to express
the quantity of the eclipse in digits, or twelfths of the
lunar diameter; so that the eclipsed part is represented
12
by27^P+^~R+/'—^ cos. 6). Thus, taking the
moon’s apparent diameter at 33' 18", and supposing the
eclipsed part to be 24' 52", this part expressed in digits
24' 52"
will be ^ X 12 = 8*96 digits.
The obscurity of the penumbra renders observations
of the commencement and termination of the lunar eclipses
extremely uncertain. To obviate in some degree this in¬
convenience, care is taken to observe as accurately as
possible the instants at which the shadow arrives at or
passes different known spots on the moon’s disk; so that
the same eclipse offers in fact a great number of different
observations, the mean of which may be regarded as more
certain than any individual one. But after all the pre¬
cautions that can be taken, the eclipses of the moon are far
from affording results equally precise and certain as those
of the sun. They were formerly of much greater import¬
ance than they are in the present state of astronomy; for
the ancients had no other means of determining the geo¬
graphical longitudes of places on the earth. In fact, as
the eclipse is occasioned by the moon’s being deprived of
her light, the different phases of the eclipse happen at
exactly the same physical instant of time to all observers
to whom the moon is visible. The difference of the time
reckoned by two observers at the instant of the pheno¬
menon will therefore give the difference of the horary
angles, or of their meridians; but supposing each to have
made a mistake of 4 minutes of time in an opposite sense
(and the ancients could scarcely guarantee a greater de¬
gree of accuracy), the resulting error in the difference of
longitude would amount to 2°. The geographical tables
of Ptolemy contain errors of still greater magnitude.
2.—Eclipses of the Sun.
The eclipses of the sun are caused by the interposition
of the moon between the sun and the earth, and their ge¬
neral phenomena may be explained in the same manner
as those of the moon. When the conical shadow which
the moon projects behind her in space reaches the earth,
those points of the earth’s surface on which it falls are
completely deprived of the light of the sun, and involved
in total darkness. Those parts of the earth which are •
covered by the penumbra are only partially deprived of
the sun’s light, because the moon does not conceal the
whole, but only a part of the solar disk.
48
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical In order to appreciate the different circumstances of
Astronomy. a soiar eclipse, the procedure to be adopted is in many
respects the same as that which has been explained in
regard to the eclipses of the moon. The length of the
moon’s shadow, the first object of inquiry, is found exact¬
ly in the same manner as that of the earth ; and it is only
necessary to substitute in the formulm already given the
values of the apparent diameter and parallax of the sun
which they would have at the surface of the moon. Now,
these values are easily found, for the diameter of the sun
as seen from the moon is equal to his diameter as seen
from the earth, increased in the ratio of the distances of
the moon and earth from the sun. In the same manner
the parallax of the sun relatively to the moon is equal to
his parallax relatively to the earth, augmented in the
ratio of the distances, and diminished in the ratio of the
diameters, of the moon and earth. Thus, let D represent
the distance of the earth from the sun, c? the moon’s distance
from the sun, m the moon’s true semidiameter, and a the
semidiameter of the earth; the sun’s apparent semidiameter
as seen from the moon will be R • —j- (R being his apparent
semidiameter as seen from the earth), and his horizontal
X) YfL .
parallax will hep ‘ ^ — • The formula then which expresses
the length of the terrestrial shadow CE (fig. 50), namely,
adapted to the case of the moon, becomes
sin. (R — jo)’
... , , „ m D Theoretical
taking into account the sun’s parallax, r -j-  Astronomy.
R--^. The ratio of the distances in this and the pre-
a a
ceding formula, may be expressed in terms of the paral¬
laxes ; for since p =. and P — therefore —r
and expresses the distance be-
D — d'
d
the nature
— — . Since also — — —, according to
P—p « P
of parallax, we have likewise r p - _ ,
CL CL Jl p
therefore, by substituting these values, the expression for
the semidiameter of the lunar shadow becomes
Sm. { (it-p •’?)£}
tween the centre of the moon and the apex of her shadow.
By means of this formula the following results, which refer
to the extreme cases in which the length of the shadow
is a maximum and minimum comparatively with the
moon’s distance from the earth, may be computed.
Length of Moon’s
shadow. distance.
Sun in apogee, Moon in perigee, 59‘730 55*902
Sun in perigee, Moon in apogee, 57*760 63*862
In the first case the shadow of the moon will reach
beyond the centre of the earth; in the second it will not
reach even to the surface. It follows, therefore, that
even if the orbit of the moon coincided with the ecliptic,
she would not produce a total obscurity every time she
comes between the sun and the earth. At her greatest
distances, where the shadow does not reach the earth,
the effect of her interposition would be to conceal only a
part of the sun’s disk.
By introducing into the other formulae modifications
similar to the above, we shall find the apparent diameter
of the shadow and the solar ecliptic limits. The appa¬
rent semidiameter of the earth’s shadow has been shown
to be equal to P -f- jo — R ; consequently the semidiameter
of the lunar shadow at the distance of the earth, as seen by
an observer placed on the moon, is equal to the parallax of
the earth, plus the parallax of the sun relatively to the moon,
minus the apparent semidiameter of the sun seen from the
moon. The parallax of the earth means simply the appa¬
rent semidiameter of the moon seen from the earth ; and if
we neglect the parallax of the sun, which cannot influence
the result to the extent of half a second, we shall have the
following theorem : The semidiameter of the lunar shadow is
equal to the excess of the apparent semidiameter of the moon
above the apparent semidiameter of the sun. Hence, denoting
the moon’s apparent semidiameter by r, the semidiameter
D
of the lunar shadow will be expressed by r — R * — ; or,
(r_R)._
P
If to the apparent semidiameter of the shadow at the
point where it is touched by the earth, we add the appa¬
rent semidiameter of the earth as seen from the moon, that
is to say, the moon’s horizontal parallax (P), the distance
between the centres of the moon’s shadow and of the
earth will be
p + <v - it)
p—p
from which expression the solar ecliptic limits may be
readily computed. The result of the computation is, that
a solar eclipse may take place if the moon’s distance from
her node, at the time of her mean conjunction with the
sun, does not exceed 19° 44'. If her distance from the
node is less than 13° 33', the sun will certainly be eclipsed
in some part of the world.
The solar eclipses present a great variety of appearances,
depending on the relative positions of the sun, the moon,
and the spectator. If the apparent diameter of the moon
happens to surpass that of the sun, the eclipse will be total;
but if the moon’s diameter be the smaller, the observer
will see a luminous ring, formed by that part of the sun’s
disk which exceeds that of the moon, and the eclipse will
in that case be annidar. If the centre of the moon is not
in the same straight line which joins the observer and the
centre of the sun, the eclipse can only be partial, as the
moon can only conceal apart of the sun’s disk. When
the moon merely touches without penetrating the solar
disk, the phenomenon is called an appulse ; and the eclipse
is central if the observer is placed at the centre of the
shadow, on the straight line joining the centres of the sun
and moon.
When the change happens within 17 degrees of the node,
and the moon is at her mean distance from the earth, the
point of her shadow just touches the earth, and she eclipses
the sun totally to that small spot whereon her shadow
falls ; but the darkness is not of a moment’s continuance.
The moon’s apparent diameter, when largest, exceeds
the sun’s, when least, only two minutes of a degree ; so that
in the greatest eclipse of the sun that can happen at any
time and place, the total darkness continues no longer than
whilst the moon passes over two minutes in her orbit, that
is, about 3 minutes and 56 seconds of an hour.
The moon’s shadow covers only a spot on the earth’s Extent of
surface about 180 English miles broad, when her diameter the moon’s
appears largest, and the sun’s least; and the total darkness shadow and
can extend no farther than the limits of the dark shadow. PenuInbra■
Yet the partial shadow or penumbra may then cover a
circular space 4900 miles in diameter, within all which the
sun is more or less eclipsed, as the places are less or more
distant from the centre of the penumbra. When the moon
changes exactly in the node, the penumbra is circular on
the earth at the middle of the general eclipse, because at
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical that time it falls perpendicularly on the earth’s surface;
Astronomy. but at every other moment it falls obliquely, and will there-
fore be elliptical; and the more so as the time is longer be¬
fore or after the middle of the general eclipse; and then
much greater portions of the earth’s surface are involved
in the penumbra.
To make several of the above and other phenomena
plainer, let S (fig. 52) be the sun, E the earth, M the
moon, and AMP the moon’s orbit. Draw the straight line
W e from the western side of the sun at W, touching the
western side of the moon at c, and the earth at e: draw
also the straight line Vd from the eastern side of the sun
at V, touching the eastern side of the moon at d, and the
earth at e: the dark space ced included between these
lines is the moon’s shadow, ending in a point at e, on the
surface of the earth, because in this figure the moon is
supposed to be at her mean distance from the earth.
Had the moon been in her perigee, the shadow would
have covered a space on the surface of the earth of about
180 miles in diameter, to all places within which space
the eclipse would have been total. Had she been in her
apogee, the shadow would have terminated in a point
above e, and to an observer at e the sun would have been
eclipsed annularly. Draw the straight lines WX and
VXcff, touching the contrary sides of the sun and moon,
and ending on the earth at a and b ; draw also the straight
line SXM from the centre of the sun’s disk, through the
moon’s centre to the earth, and suppose the two former
lines WXdh and VXc^ to revolve on the line SXM as
an axis, and the points a and b will describe the limits
of the penumbra TT on the earth’s surface, including the
large space aba, within which the sun appears more or
less eclipsed, according as the places are more or less
distant from the verge of the penumbra a b.
Draw the right line y 12 across the sun’s disk, perpen¬
dicular to SXM the axis of the penumbra; then divide
the line y 12 into twelve equal parts, as in the figure, for
the twelve digits or equal parts of the sun’s diameter;
and at equal distances from the centre of the penumbra
at e (on the earth’s surface YY) to its edge a b, draw
twelve concentric circles.
To an observer on the earth at b, the eastern limb of
the moon at d seems to touch the western limb of the sun
at W when the moon is at M, and the sun’s eclipse be¬
gins at b; but at the same moment of absolute time, to
an observer at a, the western edge of the moon at c leaves
the eastern edge of the sun at Y, and the eclipse ends.
At the very same instant, to all those who live on the
circle next to ab, the moon cuts off or darkens a twelfth
part of the sun, and eclipses him one digit; to those who
live on the next interior circle, the moon cuts off two
twelfth parts of the sun ; to those on the following circle,
three parts; and so on to the centre at e, where the sun
is centrally eclipsed. The different appearances of the
eclipse, as seen by spectators in these different situations,
with regard to the centre of the shadow, are represented
in fig. 54, under which figure there is a scale of hours
and minutes, to show at a mean state how long it is from
the beginning to the end of a central eclipse of the sun
on the parallel of London, and how many digits are
eclipsed at any particular time from the beginning at A
to the middle at B or the end at C. Thus, in 16 minutes
from the beginning, the sun is two digits eclipsed ; in an
hour and five minutes, eight digits; and in an hour and
37 minutes, 12 digits.
Having determined the diameter of the moon’s shadow
at the earth, and the limits within which eclipses of the
sun can take place, the next object is to determine the
time of their commencement and termination. If the
VOL. rv.
49
position of the observer were on the moon instead of the Theoretical
surface of the earth, our solar eclipses would appear to Astronom-v‘
him as eclipses of the earth, and they would commence
at the instant when the earth’s disk began to penetrate
the lunar shadow. A spectator so situated might there¬
fore compute all the circumstances of a terrestrial eclipse
in exactly the same manner in which we compute those of
the moon ; the same formulae would suffice, with the slight
modifications which have already been made. But rela¬
tively to an observer placed on the earth the case is alto¬
gether different. To him the eclipse does not begin when
the moon’s shadow comes into contact with the earth’s
disk, but when it begins to obscure his station. This,
therefore, is one circumstance which renders the compu¬
tation of solar more complicated and difficult than that of
lunar eclipses ; for it is necessary not only to determine
generally what portion of the terrestrial disk is covered
by the shadow, but also its position relatively to the equa¬
tor and to a given meridian, and likewise the path de¬
scribed by the centre and contour of the umbra and pen¬
umbra on the surface of the earth. There is another cir¬
cumstance which still further augments the difficulty of
the computation, namely, the position of the observer, on
account of which it is necessary to introduce the parti¬
cular conditions which depend on the parallax. In the
case of a lunar eclipse, it is only necessary that the moon’s
disk enter the earth’s shadow in order that the eclipse
may be visible to any part of the terrestrial hemisphere
opposite to the moon; but a solar eclipse may happen in
some parts of the earth without being visible at others—a
circumstance which is occasioned entirely by parallax.
When we abstract from the effects of parallax, or sup¬
pose the observer to be placed at the centre of the earth,
the problem of determining the different circumstances of
a solar eclipse is exactly the same as that relative to an
eclipse of the moon. But when the spectator is supposed
to be placed at the surface, the latitudes and longitudes
corresponding to his situation are different from the geo¬
centric latitudes and longitudes; and in order to adapt
the formula from which the time is given to these new
circumstances, it is necessary, as a preliminary step, to
compute the corrections which must be applied in conse¬
quence of the effects of parallax in longitude and lati¬
tude. The chief circumstance, therefore, in which the
calculation of solar eclipses differs from that of lunar, con¬
sists in its being necessary to compute the effect of
parallax in the direction of the angular distances which
form the data of the problem, in order to apply the re¬
quisite correction to the values of those distances fur¬
nished by the tables. The development of these compu¬
tations belongs to Practical Astronomy.
The sun’s ecliptic limits exceeding 17° 2P, while those
of the moon are only 11° 26', it follows that the eclipses
of the sun must be much more frequent than those of the
moon. Yet the lunar eclipses being visible to every
part of the terrestrial hemisphere opposite to the sun, and
those of the sun visible only to the small portion of the
hemisphere on which the moon’s shadow falls, it happens
that for any particular place on the earth the lunar eclipses
are much more frequently' visible.
In any year the number of eclipses of both luminaries Number of
cannot be less than two, nor more than seven: the mostet‘ki,se8 in
usual number is four, and it is very rare to have more thana >'ear-
six; for the sun passes through both the nodes but once
a year, unless he passes through one of them in the begin¬
ning of the year; and if he does, he will pass through the
same node again a little before theyear is finished; because,
as these points move 19^ degrees backwards ever} year, the
sun will come to either of them 173 days after the other;
(i
50
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical and when either node is within 17 degrees of the sun
Astronomy. at the time of new moon, the sun will be eclipsed. At
Vs>^v^^the subsequent opposition, the moon will be eclipsed in
the other node, and come round to the next conjunction
again ere the former node be 17 degrees past the sun, and
will therefore eclipse him a second time. When three eclip¬
ses take place about either node, the like number generally
happens about the opposite, as the sun comes to it in 173
days afterwards; and six lunations contain but four days
more. Thus, there may be two eclipses of the sun and one
of the moon about each of her nodes. But when the moon
changes in one of the nodes, she cannot be near enough
the other node at the next full to be eclipsed; and in six
lunar months afterwards she will change nearer the other
node: in these cases there can be but two eclipses in a
year, and they are both of the sun.
The eclipses of the sun being of great importance for
the determination of geographical longitudes, it is of con¬
sequence to be in possession of some easy method of as¬
signing the time at which they may be expected to occur,
in order to avoid the necessity of long and tedious calcula¬
tions. This may be done in a very simple manner, by con¬
sidering that if a time can be assigned after which the sun
and moon occupy exactly or nearly the same positions with
regard to the nodes of the lunar orbit, their motions after
that interval will recommence under the same circumstances,
and the eclipses be reproduced in the same order. Now,
it has been shown (chap. iii. sect. 2) that the nodes of the
lunar orbit retrograde at the rate of 19°-3286 in a year,
consequently the time in which the sun returns to the
moon’s node is that which he requires to describe an arc
of 360° — 19°'3286, or, as is found by a simple propor¬
tion, 346*619851 days. On comparing this with 29*5305887
days, the time of a lunation, it will be observed that these
numbers are nearly in the ratio of 223 to 19, so that after
223 synodic revolutions the moon has returned 19 times
to the same position relatively to the sun. But 223 sy¬
nodic revolutions are completed in 18 mean solar years
and 10 or 11 days, consequently after that interval all the
eclipses, whether of the sun or the moon, return again in
nearly the same order; which gives a very simple means of
predicting them, since only 18 years of observation are re¬
quired. This period was known to the astronomers of
the remotest ages, and is generally supposed to be that
which the Chaldeans distinguished by the name of Saros.
(See Part I. of this article.)
But the ratio of 223 to 19 is not exact, and it is besides
subject to variation from the secular inequalities of the
sun and moon, by reason of which the rates of their mean
motions are sensibly changed. Discordancies will hence
arise; and in the course of time the order of eclipses ob¬
served in one of these periods will require correction.
But the variations are slow and gradual; the lunisolar
periods may, therefore, continue to be employed when
approximative results only are required. When rigorous
accuracy is wanted, recourse must be had to computation
from the astronomical tables.
Occultations of planets and stars by the moon are phe¬
nomena of which the calculation depends on exactly the
same principles, and is even made by the help of the
same formulae, as the eclipses of the sun. Let E (fig. 55)
denote the centre of the earth, M that of the moon, and
S a star or planet concealed by the moon; the straight
line SM will represent the axis of the lunar shadow, that
is to say, the portion of space which the rays proceeding
from the star cannot reach in consequence of their being
intercepted by the moon; and the angle EMO (EO being
perpendicular to SM) will be the apparent distance of
the centre of the shadow from the centre of the earth.
The expression for this angle in a function of the time is Theoretka
obtained in exactly the same manner as in solar eclipses ;Astronom3'
and by equating it with the different values of the angle
which correspond to the different phases of the occulta-
tion, and regarding the time as the unknown quantity,
the epochs will be obtained at which the phases take
place. There is only one circumstance which renders a
slight modification of the formulae necessary. In comput¬
ing the angle SEM, or the apparent distance of the centres
of the star and moon seen from the centre of the earth,
that distance may be regarded in solar eclipses as the
hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, the sides of which
are respectively the latitude of the moon, and the differ¬
ence between the longitudes of the moon and sun. But
in occultations of the planets or stars, the star may be
out of the ecliptic, and consequently its latitude not zero ;
so that the sides of the right-angled triangle, of which
the apparent distance of the centres is the hypothenuse,
are the difference of latitude of the star and moon, and
the difference of longitude reduced to the moon s place,
that is to say, multiplied by the cosine of the moon’s lati¬
tude. It is evident that any of the planets may suffer an
occultation by the moon; but with regard to the fixed stars,
it is only those which are situated at a distance from the
ecliptic not greater than the moon’s extreme latitude, that
can ever be hid by the interposition of the lunar disk.
The following is a list of all the solar eclipses that will
be visible in this country during the present century.
The time of the commencement of the eclipse, and the
number of digits eclipsed, are computed for the middle of
England. (See Baily’s Tables, &c. p. 52.)
Occulta¬
tions.
LIST OF SOLAR ECLIPSES.
Year.
1858
1860
1861
1863
1865
1866
1867
1868
1870
1873
1874
1875
1879
1880
1882
1887
1890
1891
1895
1896
1899
1900
Day and Hour.
March
July
December
May
October
October
March
February
December
May
October
September
July
December
May
August
June
June
March
August
June
May
I5d* llh
18 2
31
17
19
8
6
23
22
26
10
29
19
30
17
19
17
6
26
9
8
28
A. M.
P. M.
P. M.
P. M.
P. M.
P. M.
A. M.
P. M.
A. M.
A. M.
A. M.
noon
A. M.
P. M.
A. M.
A. M.
A. M.
P. M.
A. M.
sunrise
5 A. M.
3 P. M.
2
6
4
5
8
3
11
8
9
7
2
6
3
8
5
9
Digits
Eclipsed.
11° 30'
9 12
0
46
36
3
8 42
contact
9 36
43
18
0 33
4 0
24
18
11 58
39
0
0
contact
3 13
8 0
CHAP. IV.
ASTRONOMY.
51
Theoretical
Astronomy
OF THE PLANETS.
Sect. I.— General Phenomena of the Planetary Motions.
Having now described the motions and explained the
phenomena of the sun and moon, our attention will be
next occupied by the planets, those no less interesting
bodies, whose remarkable peculiarities of apparent motion
have attracted the curiosity, and formed a principal ob¬
ject of the labours, of astronomers in all ages. The sun
and moon move among the stars always in the same di¬
rection, and with velocities nearly uniform; but the pla¬
nets, though their apparent motions are most frequently
from west to east, sometimes appear to have no proper
motions, or to remain stationary among the fixed stars;
at other times they appear to move in a contrary direc¬
tion, or to retrograde; and hence the earth cannot be the
centre of the planetary orbits. The determination of that
centre, and the order of distance in which the orbits of
the different planets are placed around it, is comparative¬
ly an easy task since the telescope and micrometer have
made us acquainted with the phases and variations of the
apparent diameters of the planets; but the ancients, who
were guided by the apparent motions alone, found greater
difficulty in extricating the elements of their theories from
observations, and in framing hypotheses by which the phe¬
nomena could be represented with tolerable accuracy. The
different hypotheses which have been proposed for this
purpose are called, with sufficient impropriety, Systems of
the World.
In order to obtain a general notion of the path traced
by a planet in the heavens, it is necessary to attend close¬
ly to the various phenomena which it exhibits. As an
example, we may take Venus, the most brilliant and re¬
markable of all the planets.
A slight attention to the position of Venus, continued
a few days, suffices to show that she changes her place
with considerable rapidity among the fixed stars. If we
observe her in the evening, we shall soon find that her
greatest distance from the sun never exceeds an arc of
about 47°; that after attaining this distance she begins
again to approach the sun, the time which she continues
above the horizon after sunset gradually diminishing, till
at last she sets simultaneously with the sun, and is lost in
the effulgence of his rays. From the circumstance of her
appearing in the evening, and not remaining visible more
than about three hours after the sun has descended be¬
low the horizon, Venus has obtained the name of 'E<m§o£,
Hesperus, or the evening star; sometimes also she is called
the shepherd’s star.
A few days after the evening star has disappeared, a
brilliant star is observed in the morning preceding the
sun in the east, which was not seen while Venus followed
him in the west. At first it rises only a few minutes be¬
fore the sun, but every succeeding morning somewhat
earlier, till its distance from him is between 45 and 47
degrees. It then begins gradually to fall back; its elonga¬
tion or distance from the sun becomes less and less, till it
approaches so near to him as to be again lost in his
rays. This has been called <I>w<Tpo£0£, Lucifer, or the morn¬
ing star.
Hesperus and Lucifer were long regarded as different
stars. It could not fail, however, to be remarked, that
during the time the first continues to shine in the even¬
ing, the other is invisible in the morning, and as soon
as the bright harbinger of day makes its appearance, the
evening star ceases to be visible. It was, besides, ob¬
served that the one star disappears within a very short
distance from the sun, and that the other, when first seen Theoretical
after its periodical disappearance, is equally near to him Astronomy,
on the opposite side. The distance which each recedes
from the sun was likewise remarked to be the same; and
the times during which they are alternately visible were
found to be equal. These phenomena led some bolder
genius to affirm that Hesperus and Lucifer are the same
star, which is alternately visible in the morning and even¬
ing, according as it precedes or falls behind the sun.
Obvious as this conclusion is, it was not arrived at till
after many ages of reflection and experience.
Since Venus never appears at a greater distance from the
sun than about 47°, it is evident that the earth is neither
the centre of her orbit, nor included within it; for in
either case she would sometimes, like the moon, be seen
in opposition to the sun. From the appearances which
have as yet been described, it can only be inferred that
Venus is a satellite of the sun, and that her orbit is car¬
ried along with him in his annual revolution in the eclip¬
tic ; but the phenomena which she presents when seen
through the telescope afford the means of deducing more
definite conclusions.
When Venus, after having been for some time visible
in the evening, begins to approach the sun, she appears
through the telescope as a fine luminous crescent, the
horns of which are turned towards the east, and which
becomes narrower as her distance from the sun diminishes.
After she has passed the sun, and begins to appear in the
morning, the horns of the crescent are turned towards
the west, and its breadth gradually enlarges in proportion
as the planet recedes from the sun, till she has gained
her greatest elongation, when her disk becomes a semi¬
circle. After this she begins to approach the sun
with an accelerated motion, and her disk becomes gib¬
bous, the illuminated or visible part being greater than a
semicircle; and when she overtakes the sun, her disk has
attained the dimensions of a full orb. Having passed the
sun, the orb begins again to contract, and passes through
the same gradation of changes on the eastern side of the
sun, till the planet comes again into conjunction, when it
vanishes entirely. All these phases, which nearly resem¬
ble those of the moon, are illustrated by fig. 56. When Plate
Venus is in the superior conjunction at A, or in the same LXXXII.
straight line with the sun, she presents the full orb, be- 56-
cause the hemisphere enlightened by the sun is turned
directly towards the earth at E. Arrived at B, the illu¬
minated hemisphere is not turned exactly towards the
earth, and consequently one side of her orb must appear
elliptical, the major axis being to the minor as radius to
the cosine of the inclination of the planes of illumination
and vision, as was shown in explaining the phases of the
moon. (Chap. iii. sect. 1.) At C, where the straight
lines drawn from the planet to the earth and sun form a
right angle, the minor axis of the ellipse vanishes, and we
have the half-illuminated orb. At D only a small portion
of the enlightened hemisphere is visible from E; and when
the planet arrives at F, the inferior conjunction, her dark
side is wholly turned towards the earth, and she is invisible.
Mercury exhibits phenomena exactly analogous to those
of Venus. Like Venus, he oscillates on opposite sides of
the sun; but his oscillations are much quicker, and per¬
formed in a much smaller arc. His greatest elongation
or distance from the sun does not exceed 28° 20'; so that
he never appears above the horizon longer than an hour
and 50 minutes after sunset or before sunrise. He emits
a very vivid white light; but, by reason of his proximity
to the sun, he is seldom visible to the naked eye. His
phases resemble those of Venus, and he is frequently seen
as a dark spot passing over the sun’s disk.
52
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical
Astronomy.
From these phenomena several important conclusions venient to have recourse to observations of their apparent Theoretical
maybe drawn. In the first place, Mercury and Venus diameters, which, if their orbits are circular, and have Astron°my.
are opaque bodies, which are only visible in consequence the earth in their centre, will always be of the same
of the sun’s rays reflected from their surfaces. In the se- magnitude. But the apparent diameter of Mars gradu-
cond place, their orbits are described about the sun, and ally increases from his conjunction to his opposition; and
do not embrace the earth, because both planets pass be- therefore, since the distance of the planet is directly pro-
tween the sun and the earth, and their digression from portional to the magnitude of its apparent diameter, Mars
the sun never exceeds a certain limit. For this rea- is nearer to the earth at his opposition than at his con-
son they are called Inferior Planets. In the third place, junction. The variations of the apparent diameter of
since the digressions of Venus are much more consi- this planet are very considerable, the limits being 18"-28
derable than those of Mercury, it is obvious that her and 3"-G ; so that Mars is five times farther from the earth
orbit includes that of Mercury. This last fact is esta- at his greatest distance than at his least. His orbit, there-
blished by other phenomena. Their angular velocities fore, cannot be a circle described about the earth. We
may be compared by means of the times which they re- might indeed suppose it to be an ellipse, or other elon-
speclively employ in returning to their conjunctions; and gated curve ; but the enormous eccentricity which it
in this way it is found that the angular velocity of Mer- would be necessary to assign to it renders this supposition
cury is nearly three times greater than that of Venus—a extremely improbable. The analogy of Venus and Mer-
circumstance of itself sufficiently indicative of his greater cury will rather lead us to infer that the sun is the centre
proximity to the sun. But the occultation of one of these of his motion ; and of this we have a geometrical proof in
planets by the other furnishes a decisive evidence of the the circumstance that the difference of his greatest and
disposition of their orbits. On the 17th of May 1737 least distances is equal to the diameter of the earth’s or-
Mercury was observed to be occulted by Venus near their bit. Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, present exactly similar
inferior conjunction ; whence it follows that Venus is near- phenomena. We therefore conclude in the same manner
er the earth, and consequently at a greater distance from that they are superior planets, circulating about the sun.
the sun. This fact was known to the Egyptians, and The order of distance in which the superior planets are
the name of the Egyptian System given to that theory disposed about the sun and the earth may be inferred
according to which Mercury and Venus were regarded as either from the rate of their motion when they are in op-
satellites’of the sun ; but as the ancient astronomers were position with the sun (it being natural to suppose that
unacquainted with one of its strongest proofs, namely, the their velocities will diminish in proportion to their dis-
transits over the sun, and could only form inferences from tances or the magnitude of the orbit which they describe),
the digressions, it was not generally adopted by them. or it may be determined from the variation of their appa-
The revolution of Venus and Mercury about the sun rent diameters. Now, the apparent diameters at the con-
may also be inferred from the variations of their apparent junctions and oppositions are nearly in the following ratio:
diameters, although, on account of the unequal distances those of Mars as 1 to 5, of Jupiter as 10 to 15, of Saturn as
of the sun from the earth, these variations are subject to 1 to 1*23; hence the diameter of the terrestrial orbit is
considerable irregularities. When Venus approaches near- to the diameters of the orbits of Mars, Jupiter, and Sa-
est to the earth, her apparent diameter subtends an angle turn, as the difference of the preceding numbers is to
of about 61", while it does not amount to 10" when she is at their sum, or as unity to the numbers 1A, 5, and 91. In
her greatest distance. The apparent diameter of Mercury this manner we find that Jupiter is at a much greater dis-
varies from 12" to 5", indicating corresponding variations of tance from the earth than Mars, and Saturn than Jupiter,
distance. These variations of his apparent diameter are It has already been remarked that the apparent mo-
not sensible to the naked eye, on account of the irradiation tions of the planets are not always in the same direction,
which surrounds the disks of the planets, and which ren- Through the most considerable part of their orbits they
ders it impossible to form any correct judgment respecting move from west to east, according to the order of the
the magnitudes of small luminous objects seen from so signs; and their motion is most rapid when they are at
great a distance. the greatest distance from the earth. It gradually relaxes
The phenomena of the other planets differ in some re- until the planet has reached its greatest eastern digres-
spects from those of Mercury and Venus. Instead of re- sion if it is an inferior planet, or its eastern quadrature if
maining constantly within a certain distance from the a superior one ; after which its proper motion is slower than
sun, their angles of elongation assume all possible values, the sun’s motion in the ecliptic. In the course of a short
and they are frequently seen in opposition, and conse- time the planet seems stationary among the stars for some
quently more distant from him than the earth is. Their days, its right ascension undergoing scarcely any variation,
orbits, therefore, embrace the earth ; and as they are never In the course of a few days more, however, it begins again
observed in their conjunctions to pass, like the inferior sensibly to change its place, and now moves in an opposite
planets, over the sun’s disk, even when the direction of direction, or retrogrades. This retrograde motion conti-
their motion traverses the sun, it follows that the sun is nues to be accelerated as the planet approaches its infe-
also included within their orbits. This fact is rendered rior conjunction, or its opposition, at which point it at-
certain by the appearance of their disks at the time when tains its maximum. After this it begins to be retarded ;
they are in conjunction. If they were then placed be- the planet becomes a second time stationary, and then
tween the sun and the earth, their disks would appear assumes its direct motion, to pass through another series
cornicular, like those of Mercury and Venus; but they of similar changes. The arc and time of retrogradation
uniformly present a full orb at the time of their conjunc- are different for each of the planets, being greatest in the
tion, and consequently the same hemisphere is presented case of those which are nearest the earth, and least for
to the earth and the sun, at least if, as is certain, they those which are at the greatest distance,
derive their light from him. They must therefore be si- These phenomena, which are called the Stations and
tuated beyond the sun. From the circumstance that their Retrogradations of the planets, were observed with great
orbits include both the earth and the sun, they are called attention by the ancients and the astronomers of the
Superior Planets. In order to determine whether the sun middle ages, to whom their explanation gave much em-
or the earth is the centre of their motions, it will be con- barrassment on account of their being incompatible with
ASTRONOMY.
53
Theoretical
Astronomy.
Plate
LXXXI.
Fig. 57.
System of
epicycles.
Plate
NXXXII.
Pig. 59.
the supposition that the earth is the centre of the celestial
motions. In fact, if the earth is supposed immovable, the
path described by the planets is a curve so extremely
complicated and irregular, that Aristotle, and even Ric-
cioli, who lived in an age when the celestial motions were
much better known, w'ere reduced to the necessity of
supposing a genius or angel to reside in each of the
planets, directing its motions as the mind of man directs
the motions of his body. Suppose the earth to be at rest
in E (fig. 57), the orbit of a superior planet will resemble
the curve abcdef, &c. When the planet arrives at b, be¬
fore it comes into opposition with the sun at A it becomes
stationary. From b to c it retrogrades, and is again sta¬
tionary at c. Its motion then becomes direct, and its dis¬
tance from the earth continues to increase while it runs
through the arc defgh, and till it arrives at h, and is in
conjunction with the sun at B. It is then at its greatest
distance, and in passing through the arc Mm continues to
approach the earth till it arrives at m, in opposition with
the sun at C. Here it exhibits the same phenomena as at
the former opposition, becoming stationary, retrograding,
&c.; and at every succeeding opposition describes a sort of
node or loop, similar to Imn. Its path is thus made up of
an infinity of nodes, and presents a sufficiently striking
resemblance to an epicycloid. Fig. 58, which has been
copied from Cassini into most of the elementary treatises
of astronomy, represents the apparent motions of Saturn,
Jupiter, and Mars, in respect of the earth.
Such are the general phenomena presented by the mo¬
tions of the planets. We must next endeavour to deter¬
mine the nature of the curve described by each of them,
and the law according to which it is described, in order
to arrive at the solution of the principal problem of astro¬
nomy, viz. to express the position of the heavenly bodies
in terms of the time reckoned from a given instant.
The first successful attempt to frame a system by means
of which the motions of the planets might be numerically
calculated, was made by Apollonius of Perga. Apollonius
supposed that a planet, instead of describing a circle about
the earth, moves in the circumference of a second circle,
the centre of which is carried round the circumference of
the first. Let us suppose two unequal circles, situated in
the same plane, the greater of which ACB (fig. 59), which
is called the deferent, carries on its circumference the
centre of the smaller PRP'S, which is called the epicycle ;
and let us also suppose that each of these circles turns
uniformly about its centre, according to the order of the
signs, that is, from west to east. The earth is situated at
E the centre of the deferent, and the planet whose mo¬
tions we consider is placed on the circumference of the
epicycle. The phenomena resulting from this disposition
will be different according to the ratio of the velocities of
the two circles. In the first place, suppose the velocities
to be equal, and that at the first instant the planet is
placed at P, the extremity of the straight line which joins
the centres of the deferent and epicycle : the planet is
then at its apogee, and it is evident that its apparent velo¬
city is the greatest possible, being the sum of the veloci¬
ties in the two circles. It is evident also that the appa¬
rent velocity of the planet will diminish as it approaches
the lower extremity P' of its epicycle, or its perigee, and
that in this point it will vanish altogether, because the
perigee is carried backwards in the direction RP'S by the
motion of the epicycle with a velocity equal to that by
which it is carried forward by the motion of the deferent.
From this point the apparent motion will receive a gradual
augmentation of velocity, till the planet arrives again at
its apogee, where it will recommence a course perfectly
similar to the preceding. In this case, therefore, the
apparent motion of the planet, though alternately accele- Theoretical
rated and retarded, will always be direct. Astronomy.
Let us next suppose that the velocity of the epicycle is'^^'^^
greater than that of the deferent, which is the hypothesis
adopted by Apollonius and Ptolemy. From P to R the
motion of the planet is direct. At the point R its path
coincides with the tangent RE, and it would be stationary
if the epicycle were immovable; but as the epicycle ad¬
vances according to the order of the signs, the planet
will continue to move directly till it arrives at the point it,
where its retrograde motion in the epicycle, in the direc¬
tion cr P', is equal to the direct motion in the deferent.
At the perigee P the planet will retrograde, because the
directions of the two motions are diametrically opposite,
and the retrograde motion in the epicycle is greater than
the direct motion in the deferent. At or' it becomes a
second time stationary, after which it resumes its direct
motion, precisely according to the actual phenomena.
Lastly, if we suppose the velocity of the deferent to be Ptolemaic
greater than that of the epicycle, there will be neither system,
station nor retrogradation, and the planet will always
advance in the same direction, but contrary to that of the
motion of the deferent. This, in the Copernican system,
would be the motion of the moon with reference to a
spectator placed on the sun, and regarding the orbit of
the earth about the sun as the deferent, and that of the
moon about the earth as the epicycle ; for then the velo¬
city of the earth about the sun would be about thirty
times greater than that of the moon about the earth.
This method of representing the geocentric motions of
the planets was adopted and fully developed by Ptolemy,
who assigned the ratios of the radii of the epicycles and
deferents of each of the planets, and disposed the orbits
in the manner most conformable to the apparent motions.
It may be remarked that the absolute lengths of the radii
are immaterial; it is only their relative lengths to which
it is necessary to have regard. As observations were
multiplied, and new inequalities in the motions of the
planets detected, the system of simple epicycles was in
most instances found insufficient to explain the phenome¬
na. Double and triple systems were therefore introduced,
in which the first epicycle was regarded as a second de¬
ferent carrying its own epicycle, the second epicycle as
a third deferent, and so on, till every irregularity of mo¬
tion was explained. It is easy to conceive all this me¬
chanism, and even to reduce it to general formulae ; but
although it affords considerable facility for calculation, it
is much too complicated to have place in nature. It is
now well known that the orbits of the planets are not epicy¬
cloids, but ellipses : nevertheless, at a time when the circle
and straight line alone were admitted in the solution of
geometrical problems, it was extremely natural to inquire
whether any construction could be found, without em¬
ploying other curves, to represent the planetary motions;
and the system of epicycles which resulted from this in¬
quiry will remain a perpetual monument of the ingenuity
of its authors, Apollonius and Ptolemy.
In arranging the planetary system, Ptolemy placed the
earth at the centre of the universe, and nearest to it the
moon, whose synodic revolution is the shortest of all,
being performed in 29^ days. Next to the moon he
placed Mercury, who returns to his conjunctions in 116
days. After Mercury followed Venus, whose periodic time
is 584 days. Beyond Venus he placed the sun, then
Mars, next Jupiter, and lastly Saturn, beyond which is
the sphere of the fixed stars. (See fig. 60.) Plato and
some other philosophers had placed the orbit of the sun
immediately after that of the moon, and Mercury and
Venus beyond the sun, on account that these planets
54 ASTRO
Theoretical were never seen on the solar disk. Ptolemy, however,
Astronomy, remarked that this reason was inconclusive, because the
planets might easily be supposed to pass between the
sun and the earth, without appearing exactly on the
sun’s disk, in the same manner as the new moons do
not always cause a solar eclipse. In the system of
Ptolemy, it is, however, a matter of absolute indiffer¬
ence whether the orbits of these planets are placed above
or below that of the sun, inasmuch as the phenomena are
exactly the same in both dispositions. Ihis fact doubtless
furnishes a strong objection to his system, and might have
led him, we are apt to suppose, to adopt the system of
the ancient Egyptians with regard to Mercury and Venus,
and place the sun at the common centre of their orbits.
But it must be recollected that Ptolemy had no means of
measuring the diameters of the planets, or of foiming any
accurate notions of their distances ; he was unacquainted
with the phases of Venus, which demonstrate the revolu¬
tion of that planet about the sun ; and, in short, knew' of
no phenomenon which could not be reconciled with his
system. His object w'as solely to represent the apparent
motions by a geometrical construction, and by such means
as geometry at that time could legitimately employ; and
this object he fully accomplished. He never regarded his
system in any other light than as a mere hypothesis, by
means of which the celestial phenomena could be re¬
duced to calculation.
But while thus much must be conceded in favour of the
system of Ptolemy, it must be confessed that scaicely any
thing could well be imagined more complicated and
cumbersome ; more at variance with the simplicity wbich
pervades the economy of nature, or, in a physical point
of view, more absurd, llet so prone is the human mind to
cling to the ideas which have been first presented to it,
and with so much difficulty are errors which have once
obtained a firm footing eradicated, that, till the beginning
of the 16th century, it was implicitly followed by astro¬
nomers of all countries. Ihe glory of bursting the fet¬
ters of prejudice and authority, and of building the
true system of the world on the ruins of a fabiic w hich
had been erected with so much address and labour,
System of was reserved for Copernicus. Phis great man was led,
Coperni- by a profound meditation on the different hypotheses
cus which had been imagined to account for the apparent
motions of the heavenly bodies, to adopt the ideas of some
of the ancients, and remove the earth from the centre, of
the world, ascribing to it a double motion of rotation
about its owm axis and of revolution about the sun. From
some scattered hints contained in the writings of the an¬
cient philosophers, Copernicus composed the system which
retains his name ; a system of the truth of which the com¬
plete development of the planetary theory has furnished
the most convincing and satisfactory proofs. According
to this system the sun is the common centre of the or¬
bits of all the planets, which revolve around him in the
following order:—Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ju¬
piter, and Saturn. Far beyond the orbit of Saturn he sup¬
posed the fixed stars to be placed, which formed the
boundaries of the visible creation.
Although the great simplicity and beauty of the Coper-
nican system soon recommended it to the adoption of the
most philosophical of the astronomers of that period, yet
for a lono- time it met with considerable opposition. The
Tychonic most emfnent 0f its opponents was the celebrated Tycho
system. who coul(1 never bring himself to adopt the sup¬
position of the motion of the earth. The principal objec¬
tions which he urged against it were the immense distance
at which it is necessary to suppose the fixed stars to be
placed, in order to account for the smallness, or rather
N O M Y.
the entire absence, of the annual parallax ; the improbabi- Theoretical
lity that a heavy mass like the earth should have so rapid
a motion; and some passages of Scripture which seem
to suppose the motion of the sun and the immobility of
the earth. Tycho, therefore, proposed another system, in
which he endeavoured to retain the most essential ad¬
vantages of the Copernican theory, and at the same time
preserve the earth’s stability. In the system of Tycho
the earth is supposed to be the centre of the solar and
lunar orbits, and the sun to be the centre of all the pla¬
netary orbits, the orbits of the two inferior planets being
smaller, and those of the superior larger, than the orbit
of the sun; a distinction which is necessary for the ex¬
planation of the conjunctions and oppositions. Phis dis¬
position of the orbits will be understood by referring to
fig. 61. The svstem of Tycho is far less philosophical than
that of Copernicus, and he has therefore exposed himself
to the charge of having made a retrograde movement in
science ; but it must be confessed that it affords a satis¬
factory explanation of all the phenomena, and that the
objections which can be urged against it are not of an as¬
tronomical, but of a physical or mechanical nature. In
fact, if the planets are supposed to revolve about the sun,
it is absolutely indifferent, so far as regards the pheno¬
mena, whether the annual motion is ascribed to the sun
or the earth; but it is a physical absurdity to suppose
that the sun, with its whole train of attendant planets,
revolves about the earth, which, in comparison of them,
is a mere atom.
Taking the truth of the Copernican theory for granted, Effects of
let us consider what effect the motion of the earth has the earth’s
upon the apparent motions of the other planets. W ere motion on
the earth to stand still in any part of its orbit, the places “e appear-
of conjunction both in the superior and inferior semi"pianets>
circle, as also of the greatest elongation, and consequently
the places of direct and retrograde motion, and of the
stations of an inferior planet, wrould always be in the same
part of the heavens ; whereas, on account of the earth s
motion, the places where these appearances happen are
continually advancing forward in the ecliptic, according to
the order of the signs. In fig. 62 let ABCD be the orbit
of the earth ; efgh that of Mercury; O the sun; GFKI
an arc of the ecliptic extended to the fixed stars. When
the earth is at A, the sun’s geocentric place is at F; and
Mercury, in order to be in conjunction, must be in the line
AF; that is, in his orbit he must be at / or h. Suppose
him to be at/in his inferior semicircle : if the earth stood
still at A, his next conjunction w'ould be when he is in
his superior semicircle at h; the places of his greatest
elongation also would be at e and g, and in the eclip¬
tic at E and G. But supposing the earth to go on in
its orbit from A to B; the sun’s geocentric place is now
at K; and Mercury, in order to be in conjunction,
ought to be in the line BK at m. As by the motion
of the earth the places of Mercury’s conjunctions are thus
continually carried round in the ecliptic according to the
order of the signs, so the places of his greatest elongations
must also be carried forward in the same direction. Thus,
when the earth is at A, the places of his greatest elonga¬
tion from the sun are in the ecliptic E and G ; the motion
of the earth from A to B advances them forward from G to
L and from E to I. But the geocentric motion of Mer¬
cury will best be seen in fig. 63. Here we have part ofplate
the extended ecliptic marked tyo, « , n, &c., in the centreLxxXIII.
of which S represents the sun, and round him are the or-Fig. 63.
bits of Mercury and the Earth. The orbit of Mercury is
divided into 11 equal parts, such as he goes through once
in ei<rht days; and the divisions are marked by numeral
figures, 1, 2, 3, &c. Part of the orbit of the earth is like-
ASTRONOMY.
55
Theoretical wise divided into 22 equal arcs, each arc being as much
Astronomy.as the earth goes through in eight days. The points of
division are marked with the letters a, b, c, d, e,f, &c.and
show as many several stations from whence Mercury may
be viewed from the earth. Suppose then the planet to be
at 1 and the earth at a ; draw a line from a to 1, and it
shows Mercury’s geocentric place at A. In eight days he
will have advanced to 2, and the earth to b ; draw a line
from 2 to b, and it shows his geocentric place at B. In
other eight days he will have proceeded to 3, and the earth
to c; a line drawn from 3 to c will show his geocentric
place at C. In this manner, going through the figure, and
drawing lines from the earth at d, e, f, g, &c. through 4, 5, 6,
7, &c. we shall find his geocentric places successively at
the points D, E, F, G, &c. where we may observe, that
from A to B, and from B to C, the motion is direct;
from C to D, and from D to E, retrograde. In this figure
22 stations are marked in the earth’s orbit from whence
the planet may be viewed, corresponding to which there
ought to be as many in the orbit of Mercury; but as
the periodic time of that planet does not include so many
intervals of eight days, his place is marked at the end
of every eight days for two of his periodical revolutions;
and to denote this, two numeral figures are placed at each
division.
The geocentric motion of Venus may be explained in
a similar manner; only, as the motion of Venus is much
slower than that of Mercury, her conjunctions, oppositions,
elongations, and stations, all return much less frequently
than those of Mercury.
To explain the stationary appearances of the planets,
it must be remembered, that the diameter of the earth’s
orbit, and even that of Saturn, are but mere points in
comparison of the distance of the fixed stars ; and therefore
any two lines, though absolutely parallel, drawn at the dis¬
tance of the diameter of Saturn’s orbit from each other,
would, if continued to the fixed stars, appear to us to
terminate in the same point. Let, then, the two circles
fig. 64 represent the orbits of Venus and of the Earth;
let the lines AE, BE, CG, DH, be parallel to SP, w-e may
nevertheless affirm, that if continued to the distance of
the fixed stars, they would all terminate in the same point
with the line SP. Suppose, then, Venus at E while the
earth is at A, the visual ray by which she is seen is the
line AE. Suppose again, that while Venus goes from E
to F, the earth goes from A to B, the visual ray by which
Venus is now seen is BE parallel to AE ; and therefore Ve¬
nus will be all that time stationary, appearing in that point
of the heaven where SP, if extended, would terminate:
this station is at her changing from direct to retrograde.
Again, suppose, when the earth is at C, Venus is at G,
and the visual line CG; if, while the earth goes from C
to D, Venus goes from G to H, so that she is seen in the
line DH parallel to CG, she will be all that time station¬
ary, appearing in the point of the celestial sphere deter¬
mined by the prolongation of SP. This station is at her
changing from retrograde to direct; and both are in her
inferior semicircle.
As the superior planets move in larger orbits than the
earth, they can only be in conjunction with the sun when
they are on the side opposite to the earth; as, on the
other hand, they are in opposition to him when the earth
is between the sun and them. They are in quadrature
when their geocentric places are 90° distant from that
of the sun. In order to understand their apparent mo¬
tions, we shall suppose them to stand still in some part
of their orbit while the earth makes a complete revolu¬
tion; in which case any superior planet would have the
following appearances:—1 While the earth is in its
Plate
LXXXII.
most distant semicircle, the motion of the planet will be Theoretical
direct. 2. While the earth is in its nearest semicircle, Astf°n°my;
the planet will be retrograde. 3. While the earth is near'
those places of its orbit where a line drawn from the
planet would be a tangent, it would appear to be station¬
ary. Thus, in fig. 65, let abed represent the orbit of the Plate
earth, S the Sun, EFG an arc of the orbit of Jupiter, LXXXIII.
ABC an arc of the ecliptic projected on the sphere of the
fixed stars. Suppose Jupiter to continue at E, while the
earth goes round in its orbit according to the order of the
letters abed. While the earth is in the semicircle most
distant from Jupiter, going from a to 5 and from b to c, his
motion in the heavens w ould appear direct, or from A to B
and from B to C; but while the earth is in its nearest
semicircle ede, the motion of Jupiter would appear retro¬
grade from C to B and from B to A; for a, b, c, d, may be
considered as so many different stations from whence an
inhabitant of the earth would view Jupiter at different
seasons of the year; and a straight line drawn from each
of these stations through F, the place of Jupiter, and con¬
tinued to the ecliptic, would show his apparent place there
to be successively at A, B, C, B, A. While the earth is
near the points of contact a and c, Jupiter would appear
stationary, because the visual ray drawn through both
planets does not sensibly differ from the tangent Fa or
Fc. When the earth is at b, a line drawn from b through
S and F to the ecliptic shows Jupiter to be in conjunction
with the sun at B. When the earth is at d, a line drawn
from d through S, continued to the ecliptic, would termi¬
nate in a point opposite to B; which show's Jupiter then
to be in opposition to the sun ; and thus it appears that
his motion is direct when he is in conjunction, but retro¬
grade when he is in opposition with the sun.
The direct motion of a superior planet is more rapid the
nearer it is to a conjunction, and slower as it approaches
to a quadrature with the sun. Thus, in fig. 66, let O Plate^
be the sun, the little circle round it the orbit of the LXXXII.
earth, of which abedefg is the most distant semicircle,
OPQ an arc of the orbit of Jupiter, and ABCDEFG an
arc of the ecliptic in the sphere of the fixed stars. If we
suppose Jupiter to stand still at P, by the earth’s motion
from a to <7 he would appear to move directly from A to
G, describing the unequal arcs AB, BC, CD, DE, EF,
FG, in equal times. When the earth is ate?, Jupiter is in
conjunction with the sun at D, and there his direct motion
is swiftest. When the earth is in that part of its orbit
where a line drawn from Jupiter would touch it, as in the
points e or g, Jupiter is nearly in quadrature with the sun ;
and the nearer the earth is to any of these points, the
slower is the geocentric motion of Jupiter; for the arcs
CD and DE are greater than BC or EF, and the arcs BC
and EF are greater than AB or FG.
The retrograde motion of a superior planet is more rapid
the nearer it is to an opposition, and slower as it ap¬
proaches to a quadrature with the sun. Thus, let 0,fig.
67, be the sun, the little circle round it the orbit of the p]ate
earth, whereof ghihlmn is the nearest semicircle, OPQ LXXXIII.
an arc of the orbit of Jupiter, NKG an arc of the ecliptic.
If we suppose Jupiter to stand still at P, by the earth’s
motion from g to n he would appear to move from G
to N, describing the unequal arcs GH, HI, IK, KL, LM,
MN, in equal times. When the earth is at k, Jupiter
appears at K in opposition with the sun, and there his re¬
trograde motion is swiftest. When the earth is either
at g or n (the points of contact of the tangents Yg and
Yn), Jupiter is nearly in quadrature with the sun: and
the nearer he is to either of these points the slower is his
retrogradation ; for the arcs IK and KL are greater than
HI or LM, and the arcs HI and LM are greater than GH
56
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical or MN. Since the direct motion is swiftest when the
Astronomy earth is at d (fig. 66), and continues diminishing till it
changes to retrograde, it must be insensible near the time
Plate of change; and, in like manner, the retrograde motion
LXXX1I. being swiftest when the earth is in k (fig. 67), and dimi-
LXXXIII n^s^ng gradually till it changes to direct, must also at
' the time of that change be insensible; for any motion
gradually decreasing till it changes into a contrary one
gradually increasing, must at the time of the change be
altogether insensible.
The same changes in the apparent motions of this pla¬
net will also take place if we suppose him to advance slowly
in his orbit; only they will happen successively when the
earth is in different parts of its orbit, and consequently
at different times of the year. Thus (fig. 65), let us sup¬
pose that while the earth goes round its orbit, Jupiter
goes from F to G; the points of the earth’s orbit from
which Jupiter will now appear to be stationary will be sc
and y; and consequently his stations must be at a time
of the year different from the former. Moreover, the
conjunction of Jupiter with the sun will now be when the
earth is at/| and his opposition when it is at e; for which
reason these also will happen at times of the year different
from those of the preceding opposition and conjunction.
The motion of Saturn is so slow, that it occasions but little
alteration either in the times or places of his conjunction
or opposition; and the same will take place in a more
eminent degree in Uranus; but the motion of Mars is so
much swifter even than that of Jupiter, that both the
times and places of his conjunctions and oppositions are
thereby very much altered.
Fig. 68 exemplifies the geocentric motion of Jupiter in
a very intelligible manner. In this figure O represents the
sun; the circle 1, 2, 3, 4, the orbit of the earth, divided
into twelve equal arcs for the twelve months of the year;
PQ an arc of the orbit of Jupiter, equal to that which he
describes in a year, and divided in like manner into twelve
equal parts, each representing the arc he describes in a
month. Now suppose the earth to be at 1 when Jupiter
is at a, a line drawn through 1 and a shows Jupiter’s place
in the celestial ecliptic to be at A. In a month’s time the
earth will have moved from 1 to 2, Jupiter from a to b;
and a line drawn from 2 to Z» will show his geocentric
place to be in B. In another month the earth will be in
3, and Jupiter at c, and consequently his geocentric place
will be at C; and in like manner his place may be found
for the other months at D, E, F, &c. It is likewise easy
to observe that his geocentric motion is direct in the arcs
AB, BC, CD, DE; retrograde in EF, FG, GH, HI; and
direct again in IK, KL, LM, MN. The inequality of his
geocentric motion is likewise apparent from the figure.
Supposing the orbits of the planets to be circular, the
points of station, and the extent and duration of the retro-
gradations, may be geometrically determined with great
facility; but if we attempt to take into consideration all
the inequalities of the orbits, the problem becomes one of
extreme complication and difficulty. This, however, is the
less to be regretted, on account that it is more a problem of
curiosity than of any real importance, and the mean values
which result from the supposition of circular orbits are
more than sufficiently accurate for all the uses which are
now made of these phenomena.
Let S, fig. 69, be the sun, E and V two planets (which
we may suppose to be the Earth and Venus) revolving in
their respective orbits in the times T and t: the problem
is, to determine those points at which one of them, as
seen from the other, will become stationary, and the ex¬
tent of the arc through which it will appear to retrograde.
Suppose the spectator to be placed at E, and V to be the
point at which Venus is stationary. Also let the semidiame- Theoretics!
ters of their orbits SE and SV be R and r respectively, the Astronomy,
angle of digression SEVrrp, and the angle SVE=-v^. Du-'^~v'>^'
ring a short time, at the station, the lines EV and ev (Ee
and Vw being very small arcs) may be considered as paral¬
lel; therefore p=:Suv=: Se?;-t-ESe:=p-j- +ESe, whence
— ESe. In like manner Sa;e=:Swe—VSw—-^-f-
—VSv; whence 6-v]>=VS?;. But as the orbits are de¬
scribed uniformly, T : £ : : VSv : ESe, and consequently
T : : dp. Now, the triangle SEV gives the equa-
R
tion sin. — sin. p,from which, by differentiating, we get
d-v]/ cos. -v)/ —
R
R cos. <p ; r cos.
tion, we have T : £ :
cos. p, and consequently d-4z : dp : :
Comparing this with the above propor-
—”^tR cos. p
R cos. p: r cos. -v}/, whence r cos.
Taking the squares, and adding r2 sin.2^
= R2 sin.2 p, there results
r2T2=R2(<2 cos.2p-|-T2 sin.*p),
whence we derive
1 /^T2—R2A1
sm' R \ T2—t* ) 5
• V t
or, if we suppose -jy"/, and
R
_ |(r'+Q(r'— 01 j
l(i+m—0)
1(1+00-0
From this formula, all the circumstances connected with
the stations and retrogradations are easily computed, when
the diameter of the orbit and the periodic time of the planet
are known. Thus, relatively to Venus, the quantity /, that
is, the ratio of the diameter of her orbit to that of the earth,
is, as will be shown in next section, equal to 0723, and
224*7 , . /T338X-108
— 0*6152, whence sin. p =
365*25
0*48208; and p
:28° 49'.
the equation sin. 41=
sin. p
615 X*385
The angle -vjz is obtained from
which gives 4'= 138° IF.
The angle VSE at the sun, or the heliocentric distance of
Venus and the Earth, which we shall designate by is
180° — (p + 4)—1J°* From this angle we likewise obtain
the time from the station to the conjunction ; for since
the mean daily motion of Venus is 1° 36' 7"*8, and that of
the earth 59' 8"*3, the relative daily motion is 36' 59"*5,
13°
therefore the time from conjunction will be 3^ or
about 21 days, and consequently the retrograde motion of
Venus will continue about 42 days.
, . . 1 /r2T2 —‘ R2A
If in the equation sin. p ^ 1 we suppose
rT = R£, the angle p vanishes; consequently there will
be no regression, and the station will only be momentary
at the inferior conjunction. In this case r : R :: £ : T, or
the distances of the planets are proportional to their pe¬
riodic times. If Rt were greater than rT, p would be¬
come imaginary, and the motion of the planet would
always be direct. The stations and retrogradations are
therefore consequences of that law of the system accord¬
ing to which the distances are to one another in a greater
ratio than the periodic times.
The following table, given by Delambre (Astronomic,
tome iii. p. 9), exhibits the elements of the stations and
retrogradations of the planets, calculated from formula;
equivalent to the above.
1
astronomy.
57
theoretical
\stronomy
9
%
Mercury.
Mean Arc
Limits
Duration
Limits
18° 12'
126 14
35 34
13° 24'
9°...16°
22d-9
211 ..231
Venus.
28° 51'
138 9
13 0
15° 22'
14°...17°
42d,16
41...431
Mars.
136° 12'
27 1
16 47
14° 41'
10o...20°
72d*76
61...814
Ceres.
126° 7'
18 6
35 47
10° 30'
97d-45
Jupiter.
115° 35'
9 59
54 26
9° 55'
9°-8...10c
120d-7
117...1221
Saturn.
Uranus.
108° 47'
5 42
65 31
6° 47'
60-7...6°-9
137d-6
135...139
103° 15'
2 55
73 52
3° 45'
3°l...40
151d-7
150...153
Theoretical
Astronomy.
Sect. II.— Of the Orbits of the Planets.
In determining the elements of the orbits of the sun
and moon, the labour of the astronomer is facilitated by
the circumstance that the earth, at which his obseiva-
tions are made, either is, or may be regarded as, the
centre of motion. But in the case of the planets, the sun,
and not the earth, is situated in the centre of their orbits,
and consequently the elements ot those orbits must be
determined from the measurement of certain linear and
angular distances from the sun: it is therefore necessary,
as a preliminary step, to convert the geocentric into helio¬
centric observations, that is, to deduce the true place oi
a planet as seen from the sun, from its apparent place, as
seen from the earth. On this account the determination
of the planetary orbits is attended with somewhat greater
difficulties than those which present themselves in the
cases of the sun and moon.
1. Nodes and Inclinations of the Planetary Orbits.—
Conformably with the plan which has been followed in
the two preceding chapters, we will first consider those
elements which determine the position of the plane of the
orbit of a planet; and then those which regard the orbit
itself, that is to say, the elements and position of the el¬
lipse which the planet describes. When these are known,
and the astronomer is also acquainted with the mean mo¬
tion, or the time of the periodic revolution of the planet,
and the instant at which it occupied any given point of its
orbit, he is in a condition to assign the epoch at which it
will again occupy the same or any other given point;
and this comprehends the complete solution of the pro¬
blem which he proposes to himself. It is propei, how¬
ever, to remark here, that although this method of con¬
sidering the elements separately is extremely convenient,
perhaps indispensable, for the purpose of illustration, it is
neither that which the practical astronomer follows, nor
that by which the various truths which compose the ac¬
tual system of theoretical astronomy were discovered.
No discovery in astronomy has perhaps ever been made
by a direct process. The elements first obtained from
the observations are imperfect and inexact, and it is only
by successive and frequently laborious approximations
that they are advanced to accuracy. Hypotheses are
first framed to account for or classify the phenomena; the
results of these arbitrary suppositions are computed and
compared with new observations; and the differences
which are found to exist between the computed and ob¬
served quantities serve to verify or correct the assumption,
or suggest other approximations still nearer the truth. In
astronomy, as Woodhouse remarks, scarcely one element
is presented simple and unmixed with others. Its value,
when first disengaged, must partake of the uncertainty to
which the other elements are subject, and can be sup¬
posed to be settled to a tolerable degree of exactness
only after multiplied observations and many revisions.
There are no simple theorems for determining at once
VOL. IV.
the parallax of the sun, or the heliocentric latitude of a
planet.
To give a general idea of the method of reducing geo¬
centric to heliocentric longitudes and latitudes, let S
(fig. 70) be the sun, E the earth, P the place of a planet
in its orbit NP, NA the ecliptic, and N the ascending
node, or that point of the ecliptic through which the
planet passes when it comes to the north of that plane.
Let Svj EfY1, be drawn from S and E to the first point
of Aries; these lines being parallel, and representing the
direction of one of the axes of co-ordinates to which the
places of the planet are referred. Let also PL be drawn
perpendicular to the ecliptic, and the other lines as in
the figure. It is easy to see that as NPC, NLA are re¬
garded as the intersections of the planes of the orbits of
the earth and the planet with the celestial sphere, the
centre of which is occupied by the sun, they are portions
of great circles; and consequently every question rela¬
tive to the position of the planet may be resolved by the
formulas of spherical trigonometry. In fact, PL being a
circle of latitude, the arc T NL is the Heliocentric Longi¬
tude of the planet, TN the longitude of the ascending
node, and the spherical angle PNL the inclination of the
orbit! In order that the longitude of the planet in its orbit
may not differ greatly from its longitude referred to the
ecliptic, the former is not reckoned from the node N, but
from another point equally distant from the node with the
vernal point T ; so that the longitude of the planet is ob¬
tained by adding NP to the longitude of the node. The
magnitude of the planet thus reckoned is usually called the
longitude in the orbit. The latitude also depends imme¬
diately on the distance NP of the planet from the ascend¬
ing node; hence NP is called the Argument of the Lati¬
tude; and the difference between the longitudes in the
orbit and ecliptic, that is, NP—NL, is called the Reduction
to the Ecliptic. The angle PEL, or the planet’s apparent
distance from the ecliptic to an observer at E, is the Geo¬
centric Latitude ; PSL, its distance from the ecliptic when
viewed from the sun, is its Heliocentric Latitude. It is evi¬
dent from the mere inspection of the diagram, that v EL
and v SL are the geocentric and heliocentric longitudes
respectively. The angles of the triangle ESL, from which
the reductions are computed, being of very frequent use
in practical astronomy, have received certain technical
denominations with which it is convenient to be acquaint¬
ed. The angle LES, which is the difference between
cy1 EL and <Y' ES, the geocentric longitudes of the planet
and the sun, is called the angle of Elongation ; ESL, the
angle at the sun, is called the angle of Commutation ; and
SLE, which is the difference between the heliocentric
and geocentric longitudes, is called the Annual Parallax,
or the Prosthaphceresis of the Orbit. In the case of an in¬
ferior planet, the annual parallax SLE may have any
value between zero and 360° ; but if the planet be a su¬
perior one, the greatest value of the annual parallax has
place when the straight line drawn from the planet to the
ASTRONOMY.
58
Theoretical earth is a tangent to the earth’s orbit. In any other si-
Astronomy. tuation of the planet the sine of the annual parallax will
^ ^ ^ be to the sine of the elongation as SE to SL.
In order to determine the position of the orbit of a
planet relatively to the ecliptic, it is necessary to discover
in the first place the position of the nodes. The longitude
of the node is the heliocentric longitude of the planet at
the instant when it is in the ecliptic, and its geocentric
and heliocentric latitudes are consequently both equal to
zero. If then, at the same instant, the planet should
happen to be in opposition with the sun, or (if an inferior
one) in its inferior conjunction, its geocentric longitude,
which is equal to the longitude of the sun 180°, would
be the heliocentric longitude of the node. But it can
happen very rarely that the latitude of a planet is zero
at the time of its opposition or conjunction, especially
with regard to those of which the periodic times are
considerable. Mercury and Venus, indeed, by passing
oftener through their nodes within a given time, afford
more chances of the occurrence of the phenomenon; and it
does occur occasionally under very favourable circumstan¬
ces when those planets pass over the disk of the sun, for
at such times the latitude must be very small, that is,
the planet must be very near its node. But this simple
method of determining the heliocentric longitude of the
node, although it may frequently be had recourse to in
the case of Mercury, can seldom be practised with regard
to Venus, and is of no use whatever in the cases of the
other planets, because, on account of the greater length of
their times of revolution, the oppositions and passages
through the node take place simultaneously only after
very long intervals.
Leaving, therefore, out of consideration the circum¬
stance of opposition, let us inquire what other means are
in our possession for determining the longitude of the
node. It would be by an extraordinary chance that a
planet should happen to be observed at the precise in¬
stant of its passage through its node ; but if observed when
very near it, the diurnal variations of latitude afford data
for determining that instant by interpolation. Suppose,
then, the planet to be in its node at N: the angle or EN
is obtained from observation, being the geocentric longi¬
tude of the node; and ^ES, the longitude of the sun, is
known from the solar tables. Hence, in the triangle
ENS the angle SEN =: ty'EN — -yES is known, as is
also the side SE, which is the sun’s distance from the
earth. If, therefore, the angle at the planet, that is
ENS, can be found, every part of the triangle will be de¬
termined, and we shall then have the heliocentric longi¬
tude ySN (equal to 180°—ESN-f-yES), and also the
radius vector SN, or the distance of the planet from the
sun. Now, the sides of a triangle being proportional to
. SN sin. SEN
angies, gg _ gin> 1gNS
bining which with the former, the values of both those Theoretical
quantities may be determined. By repeating the same
observation, it will be seen whether the place of the node
is fixed, or is subject to any other variation than that
which arises from the precession of the equinoxes. Its
variation, if it does vary, can only be determined by ob¬
servations made at distant epochs.
When the longitude of the node has been determined
in this manner, it will be easy to deduce the inclination
of the orbit. For this purpose the planet may be ob¬
served at the time when the sun’s longitude is equal to
that of the node, and the earth is consequently situated in
the line of the nodes. By this observation the elongation piate
of the planet, which is then PEN (fig. H), is given, asLXXXIII.
also its geocentric latitude PEL. Now, by reason of the
right-angled triangles PEL and PSL, we have PL = EL
tan. PEL = SL tan. PSL, consequently tan. PSL
_ Hi tan. PEL; but EL : SL : : sin. LSN : sin. LES,
bJ-i
therefore tan. PSL z= —T tan. PEL. Now, by Na-
sin. LES
pier’s rules for circular parts, the right-angled spherical
triangle PNL gives also sin. NL = cot. PNL tan. PL;
whence tan. PI/ = sin. NL tan. PNL; or, since tan. PL
— tan. PSL, and sin. NL = sin. LSN, therefore tan. PSL
— sin. LSN tan. PNL. By equating these two values of
tan. PSL, we have
sin. LSN
sin. LSN tan. PNL = ——T tan. PEL;
sin. LES
therefore, ultimately,
tan. PEL
tan. PNL .—T ;
sin. EES
that is, the inclination of the orbit is given in terms of the
geocentric latitude and the longitude of the node.
The instant at which the sun is in the node of a planet’s
orbit cannot be easily seized ; but the sun’s mean motion
being known, if his longitude is observed when it is nearly
equal to that of the node, the time at which he passes
through it may be determined with all the necessary ac¬
curacy by a simple proportion. It requires also to be re¬
marked that the above method of determining the incli¬
nation takes it for granted that the position of the node is
exactly known ; but even should some uncertainty remain
regarding this element, the resulting inclination would
scarcely be affected in any sensible degree by a slight er¬
ror, especially if at the time of the observation the planet
is not very distant from its quadratures. In fact, if we
make PNL = I, PEL = X, and LES = <p, the above
equation becomes tan. I = which being differentiated
the sines of their opposite
— s;n- ^ ^ . but from this equation nothing
sin. (ty’SN—ooEN)
can be deduced, inasmuch as it contains two unknown
quantities, SN and op SN. Suppose, however, that the planet
is observed a second time in its passage through the same
node, and that the earth is then in another part of its
orbit at e: this second observation will furnish another
. SN sin. SeN sin. (qpeN — T’eS)
equation, viz. -^-= gin> eNg- gin.^ SN—veN)’ C
ly similar to the former, and in which Se is equal to
SE. If, then, we suppose the place of the node has not
sensibly changed in the interval between the two observa¬
tions, this last equation will furnish a second relation be¬
tween the two unknown quantities SN and op SN, by com-
T . 7 T efocos.ptan.A.
with respect to I and <p, gives d tan. I =  •
But d tan. I = and from the equation itself we
cos. I
derive cos.2I = . a 7—5-; therefore, by substituting
sin.2 <p + tan.2X
d\— cos* 9 tan- *•
sin.2 <p + tan.2X
From this it is evident that the error of inclination re¬
sulting from an erroneous position of the node will be
smaller in proportion as <p is greater, and will disappear
altogether when <p (that is, LES or the geocentric dis¬
tance of the planet from its node) is 90°, that is to say, at
the quadratures.
The process now explained for determining the posi¬
tion of the nodes gives at the same time the length of
ASTRONOMY.
59
Theoretical the radius vector SN; and, in consequence of certain rela-
Astronomy. tions which will be pointed out in the present section, all
the other elements of the orbit may be deduced from
simple observations of the passages of a planet through its
nodes. But when approximate values of these elements
are known, the heliocentric longitudes and latitudes may
be found from geocentric observations of various kinds.
If, therefore, the planet is observed several times before
and after its passage through the node, the diurnal varia¬
tions of longitude and latitude (which we at present sup¬
pose to be known very nearly) will give by interpolation
the instant at which the latitude was nothing, and the
heliocentric longitude, computed for that instant, will give
the place of the node. By means of this more accurate
determination the other elements may be corrected; and
on repeating the same process with the corrected values,
the longitude of the node will be obtained with still
greater precision. These indirect methods of correcting
the elements by one another were first employed by
Kepler, and are of extensive application in every depart¬
ment of astronomy. They lead to more exact values of
the elements of the planetary orbits than could be obtain¬
ed from any direct method whatever.
As the passage of a planet through either of its nodes
takes place only once during each periodic revolution, a
remote planet, like Uranus, which moves very slowly, can
very seldom be observed in those positions. Astronomers
have therefore sedulously employed themselves in de¬
vising other methods by which all the elements of a pla¬
net’s orbit may be discovered when a very small portion
of it has been made known by observation. But these
methods are the results of profound mathematical theory,
based on the principle of Universal Gravitation, and could
not therefore be properly explained in this place. Their Theoretical
application belongs to Practical Astronomy. Astronomy
When the longitudes of the nodes of the planetary orb-
its are deduced by the methods explained above from an¬
cient and modern observations, it is found that the nodes are
not altogether fixed, but that, in respect of the fixed stars,
they retrograde, or move from east to west; but their motion
is so slow, that, although it is in reality, like every motion of
the system, alternately accelerated and retarded, it may
be regarded as uniform during a very long period of time.
The inclinations of the orbits also undergo small vari¬
ations, scarcely sensible to observation. The retrograde
motion of the nodes of the planets, exactly analogous to
that of the nodes of the moon, is a necessary consequence
of the mutual gravitation of all the planetary bodies.
The same is the case with the variations of inclination, of
which the period and limits can only be calculated from
the same theory to which we owe the knowledge of their
existence. It is only indeed by the aid of the theories of
Physical Astronomy that the greater part of these small
secular variations can be disengaged from the periodic
inequalities.
The following table exhibits the inclinations of the orbits
of the planets, the positions of their nodes, and the varia¬
tions of those elements. For the old planets the epoch
is the commencement of the present century, that is to
say, midnight preceding the 1st of January 1801. For
Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, the epoch is 1820. The
annual increment of the longitude of the node is referred
of course to the equinoctial point of Aries: to find its
motion in respect of the fixed stars, it is only necessary
to subtract the precession of the equinoxes, or fiO"*!, from
the numbers given in the table.
Names.
Mercury.
Venus....
Mars 
Vesta....,
Juno  
Ceres 
Pallas....
Jupiter...,
Saturn...,
Uranus...
Inclination.
7°
3
1
7
13
10
34
1
2
0
51
8
4
0' 9"T
23 28*5
6 -2
9 -0
9 *7
37 26 -2
34 55-0
18 51 3
29 35-7
46 28-4
Secular Variation
of Inclination.
+ 18"T828
— 4-5522
— 0-1523
»— 22 -6087
— 15-5131
+ 3-1331
Longitude of
Ascending Node.
45° 57'
74 54
48 0
103 13
171 7
80 41
172 39
98 26
111 56
72 59
30"-9
12 -9
3 -5
18 -2
40 -4
24 -0
26 -8
18 -9
37 -4
35 -3
Annual Variation of
Longitude of Node.
+ 42"*3
+ 32 -5
+ 26 -8
-F 15 -6
+ 1 -5
+ 34
+ 30
+ 14
2. Of the Figures of the Orbits.—After the position of
the plane of a planet’s orbit in space has been determined,
it remains to trace its path on that plane, or to determine
the figure and elements of the orbit itself. This, it is
evident, may be accomplished, if we are in possession of
the means of assigning, at any instant, the planet’s dis¬
tance from a fixed point in the plane of its orbit, and like¬
wise the angle formed by the radius vector with a straight
line given by position on the same plane. With these
data a series of points may be laid down, representing the
positions successively occupied by the planet; and the
curve formed by joining them together will represent the
orbit. Now, when the place of the nodes and the incli¬
nation are known, the radius vector and elongation may
be computed by the rules of spherical trigonometry from
a single observation of the planet’s geocentric latitude and
longitude at any epoch whatever; but by making the ob¬
servations when the planet occupies certain situations
of its orbit with respect to the earth, the difficulties at¬
tending the computation may be in a great measure
eluded. If a planet, for example, is observed at the time
of its opposition or conjunction, there will be no occasion
for a previous deduction of the heliocentric from the geo¬
centric longitude; because, in either of those cases, the
radius vector of the planet, and the straight line EP
(fig. 72) drawn from it to the observer, are projected on Plate
the plane of the ecliptic in the same straight line ESL;^NXXIV.
and consequently the planet, whether seen from the earth
or the sun, is referred to the same point of the ecliptic,
excepting indeed the inferior planets, which in their in¬
ferior conjunctions are referred to points diametrically
opposite. Let P, therefore, be the place of a planet in
opposition; then, in the spherical triangle PNL, right-
angled at L, the side NL, being the longitude of the pla¬
net minus that of the node, is given by observation (the
longitude of the node being supposed to be previously de¬
termined) ; the inclination PNL is also known; therefore,
by Napier’s rules,
tan. PN =
tan. NL
cos. PNL ’
that is, the elongation of the planet is given in terms of
its longitude and the inclination of its orbit. The same
60
astronomy.
Theoretical triangle PNL also affords data for determining the radius
Astronomy. vector; for tan. PL = tan. PNL sin. NL; but PL 18 ttie
measure of the angle PSL, and consequently PSL, t ie
heliocentric latitude, also becomes known. Now, in the
triangle PES the angle PES is given by observation,
therefore EPS (= PSL — PES) is also given; but
PS : SE :: sin. PES : sin. EPS, whence PS - SE ^ Epy’
or the radius vector is found in terms of the sun’s dis¬
tance from the earth and given angles.
In consequence of the incommensurable relation sub¬
sisting between the times of the periodic revolutions ot
the planets and that of the earth, the successive oppo¬
sitions and conjunctions never take place at the same
points of the orbits; therefore, by making a number ot
similar observations, as many different angles of elonga¬
tion and radii vectores will be found, which, unless the
orbits are circular, will all have different values. By com¬
puting, therefore, the values of these radii vectores in
terms of the greater axis of the earth s orbit, and laying
them down in their true positions round the sim, we shall
obtain an approximation to the curve described by t e
planet on the plane of its orbit. A few observations _ of
this sort will suffice to show that the orbit is eccentric ;
and as we have already seen that the solar orbit is an el¬
lipse, analogy will immediately suggest the probability
that that of the planet is also an ellipse, having the sun
in one of its foci. It is easy to determine whether this be
the case or otherwise. Three points given by position
on a plane completely determine an ellipse ot which a
focus is known: having therefore computed an ellipse
which satisfies three observations of a planet, its peri¬
phery, if the hypothesis of elliptic motion is correct, will
comprehend all the places of the same planet computed
from any other observations. Now, it is found that this
is what takes place with regard to every one of the pla¬
nets; hence results the first of the three laws discovered
bv Kepler which form the basis of the whole system ot
First law modern astronomy, namely, that the orbits of the planets
of Kepler, are ellipses, of which the sun occupies one of the pci.
By a comparison of the sectors formed by two conti¬
guous radii vectores and the arcs included between them,
with the time consumed by the planet in describing those
increase in a much greater ratio than those representing Theoretical
their mean distances from the sun. Jupiter, for example,
is five times more distant from the sun than the earth is ;
but his period is twelve times greater than that of the
earth. Kepler then tried the various powers of the dis¬
tances and periods. Unfortunately an error of computa¬
tion for some time concealed the discovery from him; but
having resumed the subject, he at length found, on the
15th of May 1618 (and few days, as Mr Playfair has re¬
marked, are more memorable in the annals of science),
with all the delight which a great and important disco-
very gives rise to, that the squares of the numbers Tlurd law
express the times of revolution are to one another as the cubes P CT-
of those which express the mean distances of the planets pom
the sun*
These three general laws, which are necessary conse¬
quences of the law of force varying directly as the masses
and inversely as the squares of the distances, greatly faci¬
litate the investigation of the orbit of a newly discoverer
planet, and may even be regarded as more accurate than
the results obtained from any moderate number of obser¬
vations, however exact. Thus, instead of having recourse
to observation for the determination of the radius vector,
which cannot be found by direct observation but with
considerable difficulty, it is preferable to deduce it by
means of the third law from the planet s periodic time,
which can always be determined with great precision, anti
with much greater facility. They also afford a strong ana¬
logical proof of the annual motion of the earth. In fact, it
we compute from the third law the periodic time of a
body placed at the same distance from the sun as the
earth is known to be, the result will give exactly the si¬
dereal year. It is therefore certain that the earth obeys
the same laws as the planets; and, when classed among
them, the most perfect analogy pervades the whole system.
The periodic time of a planet may be determined by
observing the interval which elapses between two conse¬
cutive passages through the same node. The retrograde
movement of the nodes being, as we have seen, inconsi¬
derable, the planet, in returning to its node, also returns
to the same position very nearly with reference to the
fixed stars, and therefore has in the interval completed a
sidereal revolution. Hence the mean sidereal motion is
known, and consequently, from the third law of Kepler,
arcs, Kepler was led to th^ discovery of the second great -~nu the double of
Second law law of the planetary motions, namely, that the areas described 1 ^ ^ transverse axis 0f the orbit. But the obser-
of Kepler. h the radius vector of a planet are proportional to the times ^ ^ through the nodes not only gives
employed in describing them. The data from which t ns tjme of a sidereal revolution, but also approximate
important conclusion was deduced were not rigorously , of the eccentricity and the position of the line of the
exact; but the fact itself has been confirmed by an in - ‘ f unless the orbit is circular, or the line of the
nity of observations since the time of Kepler; and r ew- ^ s’coincides with that of the nodes, the time the
ton, by the application of geometry to dynamics, demon- ap in passing from the ascending to the de-
. S . A : fvno nf nil motions rep-ulated piaiiet cuuaui i a ™ -n from
tOiij uy tiic n  d 1 t
strated that it is necessarily true of all motions regulated
by" a central force, whatever the nature of that force
m Keffier having, by means of the most laborious compu¬
tations, established the existence of these two laws with
regard to each of the planets separately, next undertook
to discover whether any analogy could be found regulat¬
ing their mean distances from the sun. As there were
only six planets known in his time, he commenced his
investigation by comparing the intervals between their
respective orbits with the five regular geometrical solids.
Having failed in this speculation, and in various others
suggested by a mind equally fertile and persevering, he
at length, by a happy inspiration of genius, thought of
comparing the mean distances of the planets with their
respective periods of revolution, and soon perceived that
the numbers which represent the periodic times of the
planets, beginning with Mercury and ending with Saturn,
planet consumes in passing from _ -
scending node, or from S to 23, will be different from
that in which it passes from 23 to & ; and, by a compari¬
son of this difference with the theory of elliptic motion,
it is easy to deduce the greatest difference between the
true and mean anomalies, that is, the greatest equation o
the centre, and thence the eccentricity. The method is
exactly similar to that which has already been described in
chap. ii> sect. 2. , „ .
But as these methods lead to results of no great accu¬
racy, and as the passages through the nodes in the case
of the distant planets occur only after considerable inter¬
vals of time, the astronomer requires some more accurate
and expeditious means of determining the elements of an
orbit • and three geocentric observations o, the planet in
any part of its orbit whatever are sufficient to determine
these elements, when the nodes and i-chnation mean
motion and mean distance, are known. By the known
61
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical positions of the sun and planet relatively to the earth,
Astronomy the position of the planet with respect to the sun can De
v V ' computed. Let then ®, r, v, represent three heliocentric
longitudes of a planet, and tt the longitude of the perihe¬
lion, all reduced to the plane of the orbit. The true ano¬
malies corresponding to the three observations will con¬
sequently be V — 7T, V—7T, v" — TT. Now, if, as in the
series given in chapter ii. section 2, for the true anoma y
in terms of the mean, we express the mean motion by
n, and the time elapsed since the passage through the
perihelion by t, the three corresponding mean anoma¬
lies will be respectively n t, n i,n t ; and it will be o -
served, that although t is unknown, yet as t— t and
{'— t (the intervals between the first and the other two
observations) are known, i and C are both given in terms
Omitting the square, and all the higher powers, of the
eccentricity e, the series just referred to gives the three
following equations,
nt —V —t—2esin. (v —*)
n t —'d — t: — 2e sin. (?/ —it)
n f— v"— it — 2 e sin. (v"— Tt)
from which we must deduce the three unknown quanti¬
ties t, e, Tt, that is to say, the epoch of the planet’s passage
through the perihelion, the eccentricity, and the longi¬
tude of the perihelion. By subtracting the first of these
equations from each of the other two, we obtain
n(tf — t)=iJ — v — 2 e [sin. (v’ — it) — sin. (v — Tt)~\
n(tf — t)—if — v — 2 e [sin. (V — Tt) — sin. \v — tt)] ;
and if we assume
2e =
sin. (t/ — Tt) — sin. (y — Tt) ’
a formula which may be rendered better adapted for lo¬
garithmic calculation by being put under the form
a
e = r; 
Theoretical
Astronomy*
4 sin.
/v’ v V
(—2 *)
—t) — ^ —v)—a
n{f — t) — (y!' — v)—b
(a and b being thus known quantities), these two equa¬
tions give us the two following,
a— — 2e [sin. — tt) — sin. (v — t)]
b= — 2 e [sin. (v" — Tt) — sin. (v — Ttjj ;
whence, by division,
a sin. (1/ — tt) — sin. (v — tt)
b ~~ sin. (v" — tt) — sin. (v — Tt)
Now, the numerator of this fraction
. , N f sin. (t/—Tt)
= sin. (v — Tt) v -—7 r — 1 \
v y Ism.(v — Tt) )
. . . f sin. t/cos. 7r—cos.t/sin.-r 1
= sin. (v — Tt)  ; 1 f
v ism. v cos. tt—cos. v sm. Tt J
. . N fsin. ?/ — sin. v — tan. or (cos. —cos. a)l
= sm.(v—Tt) i     | 5
v 7 l sm. v — cos. v tan. or )
and, similarly, the denominator
. , . fsin.^—sin.v—tan. or (cos. —cos.v)l
= sin.(tJ—Tt) 1 ; -u-  ( ;
N 7 t sin. v — cos. v tan. or J
therefore
a sin. v1 — sin. v — tan. or (cos. — cos. v)
b ~~ sin. v" — sin. v — tan. or (cos. v" — cos. v) ’
whence
tan v _ a(sin* v" — sin- v) — ^(sin. v' — sin. v)
' ~ a(cos. v" — cos. v)—A(cos. t/ — cos. v) ’
an equation which gives Tt, the longitude of the perihelion
reduced to the orbit, the angles v, v', v", being given by
observation.
Having thus found or, and consequently?;' — or, v" — or,
it is easy to determine the eccentricity e. From the equa¬
tion
« = — 2 e [sin. (yf — t) — sin. (y — or)]
we obtain
2 V 2
By means of the values of e and v — or, which have now
been found, we obtain t, the epoch of the passage of the
planet through its perihelion, immediately from the equa¬
tion
n t ■=. v — or — 2e sin. (y — or).
The only element which now remains undetermined is
the radius vector, and this is given by the polar equation
of the ellipse, viz.
r- ct(\—<?)
1 + e cos. (y — or)’
in which « represents the semi-axis major, or mean distance
found by the third law of Kepler.
In this manner approximate values of the different
elements are obtained, but no method can be proposed
which will give them, without repeated corrections, so
accurately as to accord with the precise observations of the
present day; and the great object of the practical astrono¬
mer is to advance them gradually nearer and nearer to the
truth. From the laws of Kepler applied to a few observa¬
tions, formulae are constructed which represent the mean
values of the elliptic elements nearly; every successive
observation gives a geocentric latitude and longitude ; and
by comparing these with the corresponding latitude and
longitude computed from the formulae, equations of con¬
dition are obtained, by means of which the formulae are
corrected and rendered still more exact. New observa¬
tions give new equations of condition, to be joined with
the former; and after a great number of such equations
have been obtained, geometry teaches us how to combine
them so that each may have its just influence in the de¬
termination of the final result. Thus the tables are gra¬
dually approximated to perfection, or to such a state that
they differ only insensibly from the mean of a great num¬
ber of observations.
But the great difficulty of obtaining an exact confor¬
mity between observation and the results of computation
arises from the circumstance that the different elements
of the orbits have no fixed values, but are incessantly
though slowly varying, in consequence of the mutual dis¬
turbances which the planets occasion to the motions of
each other. If the planets had no mutual attraction, and
obeyed only the central force of the sun, the problem of
determining the different circumstances of their motion
would be one of easy solution, and each of them would
accurately describe an ellipse on the plane of its orbit, ac¬
cording to the laws of Kepler. In consequence, however,
of their mutual attraction, every planet is compelled to
deviate more or less from its ellipse; so that when the
matter is viewed with mathematical precision, the laws of
Kepler belong only to an ideal system, and have no actual
existence in nature. It is in the determination of the
amount of these effects of perturbation, and the secular
variations they give rise to, that the most profound and
intricate theories of physical astronomy find their appli¬
cation ; for it is from theory alone that we can derive any
knowledge of the laws and periods of changes which are
completed only after many hundreds or thousands of
years. The planets whose motions are most disturbed
by their mutual attractions are Jupiter and Saturn ; and
even with respect to them, observation, although it makes
62
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical known the existence of inequalities, can neither detect ing. The perihelia are also gradually shifting their places Theoretical
Astronomy, their iaws nor assign their periods. The only elements on the planes of the orbits. These motions are direct in Astronomy-
which are exempted from secular changes occasioned by the the case of all the planets excepting Venus, the perihelion
perturbing forces are the greater axes of the orbits, and the of whose orbit, when referred to the fixed stars, moves in
mean motions depending on them according to the third a direction contrary to that of the signs,
law of Kepler. The eccentricities of the orbits vary slowly. The following table exhibits the mean motions of the
With regard to Mercury, Mars, and Jupiter, those ele- planets, and the elements and positions of their ellipses
ments are at the present time increasing; in the cases of on the planes of their orbits, at the commencement of the
Venus, the Earth, Saturn, and Uranus, they are diminish- year 1801. For the four new planets the epoch is 1820.
Planet.
Mercury
Venus...
Earth....
Mars 
Vesta....
Juno 
Ceres....
Pallas....
Jupiter...
Saturn
Uranus...
Mean Sidereal
Itevolution.
87d
224'
365
686
1325
1592
1681
1686
4332
10759
30686
969258
700786
256361
979645
■743100
•660800
•393100
■538800
■584821
■219817
•820829
Mean Distance.
0-387098
0-723331
1-000000
1- 523692
2- 367870
2-669009
2-767245
2-772886
5-202776
9-583786
19-182390
Eccentricity.
0-20551494
0-00686074
0-01678356
0-09330700
0-08913000
0-25784800
0-07843900
0-24164800
0-04816210
0-05615050
0-04667938
Secular Varia¬
tion of
Eccentricity.
+ 0-00000386
— 0-00006271
— 0-00004163
4- 0-00009017
+ 0-00000401
— 0-00000583
+ 0-00015935
— 0-00031240
Longitude of
Perihelion.
74°
128
99
332
249
53
147
121
11
89
167
2P 46"-9
43 53
30 5
23 56
33 24
33 46 -0
7 31 -5
7 4-3
8 34 -6
9 29 -8
31 16 -1
Ann. Var. of
Longitude of
Perihelion.
+
+
+
+
+
55"-9
47 -4
61 -8
65 -9
94 -2
+ 121-3
+
+
+
57-1
69 -5
52 -5
MeanLongitude
of Planet.
166° O'
11 33
100 39
64 22
278 30
200 16
123 16
108 24
112 15
135 20
177 48
48"-6
3 -0
10
55
0
19
11
57 -9
23 -0
6 -5
23 -0
3. Of the real Dimensions of the Planetary Orbits, and
the Transits of Venus and Mercury over the Suns Disk.
—In what has hitherto been said respecting the mean
distances of the planets from the sun, those distances have
been estimated in parts of the semi-axis major of the
earth’s orbit; a convenient scale, which enables us to form
a very precise idea of the relative dimensions of the se¬
veral orbits, and likewise serves to express their absolute
dimensions, provided we can determine the distance be¬
tween the sun and the earth in terms of any measure
with which we are familiar. It is evident, indeed, in con¬
sequence of the relation that subsists between the mean
distances and mean motions, that it is only necessary to
determine the mean distance of any one of the planets
from the sun, in order to determine the mean distances of
all the others, and assign the dimensions of the whole so¬
lar system. Now there are various ways of determining
the sun’s distance from the earth in terms of the earth’s
semidiameter. The distance of a planet from the sun
may likewise be obtained if we can find the means of
measuring its distance from the earth at any epoch; for
the geocentric positions of the sun and the planet being
known from the theory of their motions, the radius vec¬
tor of the orbit, or planet’s distance from the sun at that
epoch, may be found by a simple trigonometrical compu¬
tation. To determine the distance of a planet from the
earth, it might seem only necessary to determine its ho¬
rizontal parallax ; but in general the parallaxes of the
planets are quantities by far too small to be directly ob¬
served. That of Mars, however, becomes very appreci¬
able in particular circumstances, that is to say, when
Mars is in opposition with the sun, and at the same time
near the perihelion of his orbit. Thus, in the year 1751,
on the 6th of October, that planet, being near his opposi¬
tion, was observed at the same instant of time by Lacaille
at the Cape of Good Hope, and by Wargentin at Stock¬
holm ; and the horizontal parallax deduced from the two
observations, in the manner explained in chap. i. sect. 2,
was found to amount to 24"-6. Now the distance of
the planet being equal to unity divided by the sine of
the horizontal parallax, the distance of Mars from the
earth at the time of the observation was consequently
, 24"-6X 3-1416 648000 0C,01 . ,
1 —r— , . > at. = ■ ^ „„ = 8381 terrestrial radii.
180° X 60X60
77-28
But the distance of Mars from the earth at that time, as
computed from the theory of his elliptic motion,, was
0-435 parts of the radius of the earth’s orbit; consequent-
8381
ly the whole length of that radius is —^ „ = 19226
J ° 0-435
semidiameters of the earth. Hence the distance of Mars
from the sun r= 19226 4- 8381 zz 27607 semidiameters of
the earth. It will be remarked that these numbers are
only approximative, our present object being to explain
the method, and not to determine the exact quantities.
But besides the inconvenience attending the determi¬
nation of a planet’s distance by this method, which re¬
quires observations to be made simultaneously on opposite
sides of the earth, the method is in itself liable to great
uncertainty. The error of a result is always in a certain
proportion to the error of observation, and in the present
case a very large quantity is to be determined from a very
small one; hence a very slight error of observation will
occasion a very erroneous result in the computation of the
mean distance. It would be difficult in a single observa¬
tion of this nature to answer for an error of 2"; but here
2" is a twelfth part of the whole parallax; consequently
an uncertainty amounting to a twelfth part affects the
mean distance.
A much more accurate method of determining the
sun’s distance, and thence the dimensions of the plane¬
tary orbits, is afforded, though rarely, by the transits of
Venus over the sun’s disk. When Venus is at her infe¬
rior conjunction, and at the same time very near her node,
her body will be projected on the disk of the sun; and
through the effect of her proper motion, combined with
that of the earth, she will appear as a dark spot passing
over the disk, and describing a chord which will be seen
under different aspects by spectators placed at different
points on the earth, because, by reason of the parallax,
they refer the planet to different points on the solar disk.
The position of the spectator not only occasions a differ¬
ence in the apparent path described by the planet, but
has also a very sensible influence on the duration of the
transit, in consequence of which the parallaxes both of
Venus and the sun can be determined with great exact¬
ness. In order to illustrate this, let E (fig. 73) represent
the earth, V Venus, and S the sun. An observer placed
at E, the centre of the earth, would see Venus in the di-
ASTRONOMY.
63
Theoretical rection of the visual ray EV: she would consequently
appear to him projected on the sun’s disk at S, and in her
successive positions would appear to describe the line DS.
Other observers placed at O' and O" on the earth’s sur¬
face would see the planet at V' and V": to the first she
would appear to describe the chord D'V', and to the se¬
cond D"V". This is a necessary result of the difference
of the parallaxes of Venus and the sun ; and as the chords
D'V', D’'V" differ in length according as they are more
or less remote from the centre of the disk, the duration
of the transit will be longer or shorter according to the
situation of the observer and the geocentric latitude of
the planet. If by reason of the relative parallax the
time of a transit is longer than the true time in one he¬
misphere, it will be shorter in the opposite; and hence
the difference of the times (which may be observed with
great accuracy) at places having very different latitudes
may serve to determine the relative parallax, or the dif¬
ference between the parallax of Venus and that of the
sun. But the parallaxes are reciprocally proportional to
the distances; and the ratio of the distances being known,
therefore the ratio of the parallaxes is also known; and
having thus the ratio and the difference of the two paral¬
laxes, it is easy to compute the separate amount of each.
This particular application of the transits of Venus to
the determination of the sun’s distance was first pointed
out by Dr Halley, when he announced the transits of 1761
and 1769. Kepler had before announced the occurrence
of a transit, but he regarded it only as a curious, and till
that time unobserved, phenomenon.
The transit of Venus which occurred in 1769 was anx¬
iously expected by astronomers, and observed in man}'
different parts of the world. The result of the whole of
the observations renders it extremely probable that the
parallax of the sun is included within the limits of 8"*5
and 8"-7. The mean 8"-6 has been adopted by Delambre
and Lalande. From the following table, computed from
the different observations, and published by Delambre in
the second volume of his Astronomic, p. 505, an idea may
be formed of its probable accuracy. Delambre, indeed,
remarks that the sun’s parallax is now sufficiently well
known for all the practical purposes of astronomy.
Places of Observation.
Otaheite, Wardhus 
Otaheite, Kola 
Otaheite, Cajaneburg 
Otaheite, Hudson’s Bay  
Otaheite, Paris and Petersburg.
California, Wardhus 
California, Kola 
California, Cajaneburg 
California, Hudson’s Bay 
California, Paris and Petersburg.
Deduced
Difference Sun’s
of | Parallax
Parallaxes.
21 "*561
21 *166
20 -762
21 -066
21 -730
Hudson’s Bay, Wardhus 
Hudson’s Bay, Kola 
Hudson’s Bay, Cajaneburg 
Hudson’s Bay, Paris and Petersburg
21 -330
20 *765
20 -208
20 -284
21 -576
22 -592
20 -941
20 *233
22 *897
7094
5503
3865
5036
7780
6160
3880
1630
1521
7155
1260
4589
1730
2491
Here the mean of the first 5 results is nearly...8"*59
of the next 5 8 *41
of the next 4 8 *75
of all 8 *57
Having once obtained the value of the solar parallax, it is
easy to deduce the sun’s distance, and consequently the
dimensions of all the planetary orbits. For this purpose Theoretical
we have Astronomy.
sin. 8"-6 : I:: radius of earth : sun’s distance ;
that is, on reducing the radius of a circle to seconds,
, . earth’s radius
sun s distance rz^^—p =23984 terrestrial radii. Now,
if we assume the semidiameter of the earth to be 4000 miles
in round numbers, the distance of the sun, or radius of the
earth’s orbit, will consequently be 23984x4000=95936000
miles approximately.
By means of this value the mean distances of the
planets from the sun, which in the table given above were
expressed in terms of the mean distance of the earth, may
be converted into miles. The following are the results in
round numbers.
Planet.
Mean Distance from the
Sun in Miles.
Mercury.
Venus....
Earth 
Mars 
Ceres 
Jupiter...
Saturn....
Uranus...
37,000,000
68,000,000
95,000,000
142,000,000
262,000,000
485,000,000
890,000,000
1,800,000,000
The transits of Venus being phenomena of great im- Periodic
portance, in consequence of their practical application torecurreilc<?
the problem of the sun’s distance, it becomes interestingofth<:
to determine the periods at which they successively oc-transits-
cur. It is evident that, by reason of the inclination of
the orbit, they can only take place when Venus is very
near one of her nodes. Two conditions must therefore be
satisfied: Venus must be within a short distance of her
node, and at the same time in her inferior conjunction.
Now, the interval between two successive conjunctions,
that is, the period of a synodic revolution, is easily de¬
duced from the sidereal revolutions of the planet and the
earth. Thus, generally, let A and B be two planets, T
and t the times of their sidereal revolutions respectively,
and suppose T to be greater than t. In the time T, A
describes a complete circumference, therefore T: : 1: A
= part of a circumference described by A in the time t.
But during the same time t, B describes a whole circum¬
ference; therefore 1—Ais w]lat 3 gajns on A in the
time t. But the successive conjunctions will always take
place when B has gained a whole circumference; there¬
fore, denoting by S the interval between two successive
• t Tt
conjunctions, we have 1 — : 1:: £: S, whence S =7=—.
1 r—t
From this simple formula the synodic revolution of any
of the planets is found by substituting for T and t the
times of the sidereal revolutions of the earth and planet.
Suppose, for example, we wish to find the time of a syno¬
dic revolution of Mercury. In this case T=365-256 days,
and t = 87-969 days ; consequently T—t = 277-287, and
c 365-256 X 87-969
^ ~ 277-287  ~ days, which, therefore,
is the time of a synodic revolution of Mercury.
In the case of Venus we have t = 224-700, whence
T — £= 365-256 — 224-700 = 140-556, and consequently
365-256X224-700 OQ ^ ,
^ = 140556 ~ i>y':{,93 days; which is the period
of her synodic revolution.
astronomy.
f>4 . ■ m 2247008 Tiieorelicsl
Theoretical Let us next attend to the other condition which must 305.2568—224-7008 = 140-5555; therefore — = ^405555- Astronomy.
Astronomy.^ satisfied before a transit can take place, namely, a • u •
the planet has returned to its node as well as to its inte- The serjes 0f fractions approximating to this ratio, obtain-
rior coniunction. If we represent by w the number or re- or] ?ri mflnnpr indicated above, is
volutions of the earth in the required period, and by w the
number of synodic revolutions of the planet in t re same
ri^t
1 2
1’ 1
3 8 227 235 243
2’ 5’ 142’ 147’ 152’
time, it is evident that we shall have tyiY. — rp ^whence numerators of which, as before, express the years,
m and the denominators the synodic periods. Taking the
In the case of Mercury, therefore, — fourth fraction of the series, it appears that after eig t
years, in which there are five synodic periods, Venus will
m __ t
n T—t
87969
..... oftev ft7Qfi9 vpars in the course of again occupy nearly the same position with respect to the
; that is to say, after 87969 years, aga^ ^ py^ ^ her 0^bit> This wm take place
which Mercury will have been 277287 times in conjunc- more near]y after 227 years, and more nearly still after
tion the earth and Mercury will be again in conjunction, 235 •, consequently, 235 years after a transit has taken
occupying the same points of their orbits as at the com“ place, the occurrence of another may be expected with
vnpnppment of the period, supposing the nodes fixed. But at probability. The alteration, however, which takes
mencement of the period, supposing me iiuuco great probability, ine alteration, nuwcvci, v.inwx.
periods of such enormous length are of no practical use : jace jn position of the line of the nodes, which in the
it is necessary to find an approximating ratio expressed by prece(jing computations we have regarded as fixed, ren-
smaller numbers. For this purpose it is convenient to derg tbe numbers a little uncertain. _
have recourse to the method of continued fractions, trom Since Venus returns to her conjunction at nearly the
same point of her orbit after eight years, it may happen,
* . •it . n _ j of o fran-
nave recourse tu tuc
which the following series is obtained:
87969
277287
=!+!- 1
6 +
l
1+1
fl 4-r- . 1998
and sometimes indeed actually does happen, that a tran-
sit will take place in about eight years after the occur¬
rence of a former one. But in that time the latitude o
vAtrr» Venus, in consequence of the inclination of her orbit, un-
. , • , , dergoes a variation amounting to 20' or 24'; in sixteen
Here the first approximating fraction is which de- s the change of latitude increases to 40' or 48, which
notes that in one year, during which there will happen considerabiy greater than the diameter ol the sun. It
three synodic periods, Mercury will not be very far from cannot happen, therefore, that three transits will take
his conjunction, nor from the same point of his orbit in 1&ce within sixteen years. From the above series of
which he was at the commencement of that time. Ihe fractions we might infer that another could not take
1 4 0 . place before 227 years; but that series was obtained on
next approximation is 3 + 7:= ^ showing that after six the suppoSition that the transits only happen when Venus
1 ^ 6 ty . tn thp node • and it is evident that they
years, during which there will have been 19 conjunctions, occur when ’the planet is near the other
Mercury will be again nearly m conjunction at the same Y 9^ Jn uentl after an interval of half the length
point of his orbit. By continuing the process we obtain ^^ ^ ^ yearg> Ifj at the occurrence of
the following series of fractions, each approaching nea e ^ firgt transit, Venus has passed her node, the next will
87969
to
-, namely,
6 7
13 33 46
&c.
OI blit; luiiiici, j , , , *11
the first transit, Venus has passed her node, the next will
happen eight years sooner; or, if she has not reached the
node, eight years later. Hence, after two transits have
occurred within eight years, another cannot be expected
before 105, 113, or 121 years, that is, 113 ±8 years
But these periods sometimes fail: that ol 23o brings
277287
1 
3’ 19’ 22’ 41’ 104’ 145’
~&£=svg,'css»?&
'^Approximative fraction, might be found in the same period, of 235 and 251 - *at of d =hed
manner to express the ratio of the number of revolut.ons or^ugmented V 8.^ whole ^Icua g
of Mercury to those of the earth, or of 7p ; hut it is un- j t transits took place in 1761 and 1769; the next vu
^ • • i. not happen till the years 1874 and 1882; and thus the
necessary to have recourse again to division, inasmuch PP 0f these phenomena adds to the interest they
as they are easily obtained from the above. For example, mirequency m i v _—
since the fraction £ denotes that Mercury has gamed
three revolutions on the earth in one year, it is evident
that he must have completed 3+1=4 revolutions. In
the same way, in six years Mercury gains 19 on the earth,
or completes 19 + 6 = 25. Hence, in the series required
the numerators of the fractions will continue the same
as in the series above, while the denominators will be
the sums of the terms of the corresponding fractions. Ihe
new series will therefore be
1 6 13 ^ 46^ &
4’ 25’ 29’ 54’ 137’ 191 ’
the numerators being the number of years, and the deno¬
minators the corresponding periods of Mercury.
Applying to the case of Venus and the earth the for-
mu}a !H.= —, we shall have t = 224-7008, T t =
n 1—t
derive from their real importance. .
Delambre has given a list of all the transits ot Venus
for a period of 2000 years, from which the following is
extracted. (Astronomic, tome ii. p. 473.)
Year.
Month.
1631
1639
1761
1769
1874
1882
2004
Dec. 6.
Dec. 4.
June 5.
June 3.
Dec. 8.
Dec. 6.
June 7.
Mean Time
(at Paris)
of Conjunction.
17h 28m 40s
6 9 40
17 44 34
10 7 54
16 17 44
4 25 44
21 0 44
Node.
9>
Q>
V
W
Q
&
&
ASTRONOM Y.
65
TheoreticalSECT.III.— Of the Physical Constitution of the Planets,
Astronomy, Magnitude, Potation, and other remarkable objects.
Mercury.
Mercury is a small body, but emits a very bright white
light, though, by reason of his always keeping near the
sun, he is seldom to be seen ; and when he does make his
appearance, his return to the sun is so rapid, that he can
only be discerned for a short space of time. Delambre
was able to observe him only twice with the naked eye.
Mercury is about 3140 English miles in diameter, and
his mean distance from the sun about 37 millions of miles.
On account of his smallness and brilliancy it is extremely
difficult to find any spot on his disk so distinctly marked
as to afford the means of determining his rotation. Be¬
sides, by reason of his proximity to the sun, an observa¬
tion of a spot, if made in the evening, can scarcely be
well begun before the planet sets; or, if in the morning,
before the increasing twilight renders the spot invisible.
Hence it is only possible to observe daily a very small
arc of a small circle; and if the spot re-appears on the
succeeding day, it is doubtful whether the arc which it
has passed over exhibits the whole motion, or if one or
more circumferences ought to be added. By an at¬
tentive observation of the variations of the phases of
Mercury, Schroeter has, however, remarked that he re¬
volves about his axis in the space of 24 hours 5 minutes
30 seconds. M. Harding discovered in 1801 an obscure
streak on the southern hemisphere of the planet, the ob¬
servations of which, together with those of a spot disco¬
vered by Schroeter, gave the same period of rotation.
The results of Schroeter’s researches on Mercury may be
summed up as follows: ls£, The apparent diameter of
Mercury at his mean distance is 6"'02; 2rf, His form is
spherical, exhibiting no sensible compression; 3c?, His
equator is very considerably inclined to his orbit, and the
differences of his days and seasons must consequently be
very great; kth, There are mountains on his surface which
cast very long shadows, and of which the height bears a
greater proportion to the diameter of the planet than
those of the Earth, the Moon, or even of Venus. The
height of Chimboraqo is you t^ie radius of the earth ;
one of the mountains in the moon has been estimated at
of her radius; the highest in Venus at ; and one
in Mercury at The highest mountains are in the
southern hemisphere, which is also the case in respect of
the Earth and Venus. There are no observations to
prove decisively whether Mercury is surrounded by an
atmosphere.
Venus.
Venus, the most beautiful object in the heavens, is about
7700 English miles in diameter, and placed at the distance
of 68 millions of miles from the sun. Although the oscil¬
lations of this planet are considerably greater than those
of Mercury, and she is seldom invisible, yet on account
of the uniform brilliancy of her disk, it is extremely dif¬
ficult to ascertain the period of her rotation. Dominic
Cassini, after having long fruitlessly attempted to discover
any object on her surface so well defined as to enable him
to follow its motions, at length, in 1667, perceived a bright
part, distant from the southern horn a little more than a
fourth part of the diameter of the disk, and near the
eastern edge. By continuing his observations on this spot,
Cassini concluded the rotation of Venus to be performed
in about 23 hours; but he does not seem to have consider¬
ed this conclusion as deserving of much confidence. In
the year 1726 Bianchini, an Italian astronomer, made a
number of similar observations for the same purpose,
yol. rv.
from which he inferred that the rotation of the planet is Theoretical
performed in 24 days 8 hours. The younger Cassini has Astronomy
shown, however, that the observations of Bianchini, as
well as those of his father, could be explained by a rota¬
tion of 23 hours and 21 or 22 minutes, whereas the rotation
of 24 days 8 hours cannot be reconciled with the appear¬
ances observed by the elder Cassini. The determination
of Cassini was regarded by astronomers as the more pro¬
bable of the two, particularly as Bianchini was not able
to make his observations in a connected manner, on ac¬
count that a neighbouring building intercepted his view
of the planet, and obliged him to transport his telescope to
a different situation. The question of the rotation of
Venus was finally settled by Schroeter, who found it to
be performed in 23 hours 21 minutes 19 seconds. Each
of the three observers found the inclination of the axis of
rotation to the axis of the ecliptic to be about 75°. Some
doubt, however, still exists with respect to the value of
this element.
Schroeter’s observations on this planet were principally
directed to a mountain situated near the southern hoim.
The line which joins the extremities of the horns is always
a diameter; and the horns of the crescent of a perfect
sphere ought to be sharp and pointed. Schroeter re¬
marked that this was not always the case with regard to
the horns of Mercury and Venus. The northern horn of
the latter always preserved the pointed form, but the
southern occasionally appeared rounded or obtuse,—a cir¬
cumstance which indicated that the shadow of a moun¬
tain covered the part Bo (fig. 74), so that the line join¬
ing the extremities of the horns appeared to be Ao, and
not AB (the diameter of the circular disk); but at d,
beyond oB, he remarked a luminous point, which he sup¬
posed to be the summit of another mountain, illuminated
by the sun after he had ceased to be visible to the rest
of that hemisphere. Now, in order that the horn of
the crescent may appear obtuse in consequence of the
shadow of a mountain falling upon it, and another moun¬
tain d present a luminous point, the two mountains must
be at the same time both at the edge of the disk and on
the line separating the dark from the enlightened part of
the planet. But this position cannot be of long conti¬
nuance ; for the rotation will cause d to rise into the en¬
lightened part, or sink into the dark hemisphere, and in
either case the mountain will cease to be visible. If, how¬
ever, the rotation is completed in 23 hours 21 min., the
mountain d will appear 39 min. sooner than it did on the
previous day ; for in the course of a day the boundary of
light and darkness will hardly have shifted its position
on the surface of the planet through the effects of the
orbital motion. Hence it is possible to obtain several
consecutive observations, from which an approximate
value of the period may be found; and this being
once obtained, it may be rendered still more exact by
observations separated from each other by a longer
interval. Thus Schroeter found that an interval of
20 days 11 hours 15 min. between two apparitions of
the mountain being divided by 23 hours 21 min., gave
2T04 revolutions. That intervals of 121 days 14 hours
25 min., 142 days 1 hour 40 min., 155 days 18 hours 11
min., divided each by 23 hours 21 min., gave 125*01,
146*02, 160*09 revolutions respectively. All these com¬
parisons prove that the revolution of 23 hours 21 min. is
somewhat too short. They ought to have given 21, 125,
146, and 160 revolutions exactly, supposing the observa¬
tions to have been perfectly accurate. On dividing the
intervals by 21, 125, 146, and 160 respectively, the quo¬
tients will be each the time of a revolution very nearly;
and by taking a mean among the whole, the most pro-
l
66
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical bable result at least will be obtained. In this manner
Astronomy. Schroeter found the period of rotation aheady sta tu,
' 'namely, 23 hours 21 min. 19 sec.
Since the time of rotation of Mercury and Venus is
nearly equal to that of the earth, the compression of these
planets at the poles, which results from the centrifugal
force, ought also to be nearly in the same proportion.
But at the distance of the earth the compression must be
imperceptible even in the case of Venus ; for, supposing
it to amount to the difference between the iadlus 0
her poles and that of her equator would only amount to a
tenth of a second as seen from the earth. ,
During the transits of Venus over the suns dis
of 1761 and 1769 7^ of penu^a. light was observed
Venus. round the planet by several astronomers, which w as occa¬
sioned, without doubt, by the refractive powers of her
atmosphere. Wargentin remarked that the limb of Venus
which had gone off the sun showed itself with a faint
light during almost the whole time of emersion. Beig-
man, who observed the transit of 1761 at Upsal, says that
at the ingress the part which had not come upon the sun
was visible, though dark, and surrounded by a crescent of
faint light, as in fig. 75; but this appearance was much
more remarkable at the egress ; for as soon as any part of
the planet had disengaged itself from the sun s disk, that
part was visible with a like crescent, but brighter (fig. '6)
As more of the planet’s disk disengaged itself from that of
the sun, the part of the crescent farthest from the sun grew
fainter, and vanished, until at last only the horns could be
seen asinfio-.77. The total immersion and emersion were
not instantaneous ; but as two drops of water, when about
to separate, form a ligament between them, so there was a
dark shade stretched out between Venus and the sun, as
in fig. 78 : and when this ligament broke, the planet seem¬
ed to have got about an eighth part of her diameter from
the limb of the sun (fig. 79). The numerous accounts
of the two transits which have been published abound
with analogous observations, indicating the existence of
an atmosphere of considerable height and density. Schroe-
ter calculated that its horizontal refraction must amount
to 30' 34'', differing little from that of the terrestrial at¬
mosphere. A twilight which he perceived on the cusps
afforded him the data from which he deduced this con-
ClCassini and Montaigne imagined that they had observed
a satellite accompanying Venus; but this appears to have
been an optical illusion arising from the strong light
of the planet reflected back from the convex surface of
the eye upon the eye-glass of the telescope, and thence
reflected a second time back to the eye. This hypothe¬
sis at least will explain the appearances which they have
described; and although astronomers have sought for this
pretended satellite with great care, they have neither ob¬
served it on the sun during the transits of Venus in 1/61
and 1769, nor in any other part of her orbit.
Mars.
After Venus, Mars is the planet whose orbit is nearest
to the earth. His diameter is about one half, and his vo¬
lume only about one sixth part of that of our globe. He
is of a dusky reddish colour, by reason of which he is
easily recognised in the heavens. His mean distance from
the sun is about 142 millions of miles.
The rotation of Mars was suspected before the year
1643 by Fontana, a Neapolitan astronomer; but it was
reserved for Cassini to demonstrate its existence and assign
its period. Cassini began to observe the spots on the
surface of Mars at Bologna in 1666; and after having
continued his observations for a month, he found they re¬
turned to the same situation in 24 hours and 40 min. The
planet was observed by some astronomers at Home with v ^ ^
longer telescopes; but they assigned^to it a rotation of
13 hours only. This, however, was afterwards shown by
Cassini to have arisen from their not distinguishing be¬
tween the opposite sides of the planet, which, it seems,
have spots pretty much alike. He made furtlier ?b‘
servations on the spots of this planet in 1670; which
confirmed his former conclusion respecting the time of
rotation. The spots were again observed in subsequent
oppositions, particularly for several days in 1/04 by
Maraldi, who took notice that they were not always well
defined, and that they not only changed their shape fre¬
quently in the interval between two oppositions, but even in
the soace of a month. Some of them, however, continued
of the same form long enough to allow the time of the
planet’s rotation to be determined. Among these there
appeared that year an oblong spot, resembling one of the
belts of Jupiter when broken. It did not reach quite
round the body of the planet; but had, not far from the
middle of it, a small protuberance towards the north, so
well defined that Maraldi was thereby enabled to fix the
period of its revolution at 24 hours 39 min., only one
minute less than what Cassini had determined it to be.
The near approach of Mars to the earth in 1719
afforded an excellent opportunity of observing him, as
he was then within of his perihelion, and at the
same time in opposition to the sun. His apparent mag¬
nitude and brightness were thus so much increased,
that he was by the vulgar taken for a new star. His
appearance at that time, as seen by Maraldi through a
telescope of 34 feet long, is represented m fig. 80. 1 here
was then a long belt that reached half-way round, to the
end of which another shorter belt was joined, forming an
obtuse angle with the former, as in fig. 81. This angular
point was observed on the 19th and 20th of August, a
little to the east of the middle of the disk; and 37 days
after, on the 25th and 26th of September, it returned to
the same situation. This interval, divided by 36, the
number of revolutions contained in it, gives 24 hours 40
minutes for the period of one revolution ; a result which
was verified by another spot of a triangular shape, one
angle whereof was towards the north pole, and the base to¬
wards the south, and which on the 5th and 6th of August
appeared as in fig. 82. After 72 revolutions >t returned
to the same situation on the 16th and 17 th of October.
Some of the belts of this planet are said to be parallel to
his equator; but that seen by Maraldi was very much m-
d Besides these dark spots on the surface of Mars, a®tr0‘®riSht ,
nomers had noticed that a segment of his globe about spots about
the south pole exceeded the rest of his disk so much m Ma^&
brightness, that it appeared to project as it it were the
segment of a larger globe. Maraldi informs us that this
bright spot had been taken notice of for 60 years, and
was more permanent than the other spots on the planet.
One part of it is brighter than the rest, and the least
bright part is subject to great changes, and has sometimes
A similar though less remarkable brightness about the
north pole of Mars was also sometimes observed, the ex¬
istence of which has been confirmed by Sir W. Herschel,
who examined the planet with telescopes of much greater
power than any former astronomer ever was in pos-
ion of. A very full account of Herschel’s observa-HerscheD
lions on this planet is given in the 74th volume of ‘heaccount ^
Philosophical Transactions. Some of the remarkable ap¬
pearances there described are represented in fig.
The magnifying powers he used were sometimes as high
ASTRONOMY. 67
Theoretical as 932; and with this the south polar spot was found to
Astronomy.be 41'" in diameter. Fig. 96 shows the connection of
the other figures marked 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, which
complete the whole equatorial succession of spots on the
disk of the planet. “ The centre of the circle,” Herschel
observes, “ marked 90, is placed on the circumference of
the inner circle, by making its distance from the circle,
marked 92, answer to the interval of time between the
two observations, properly calculated and reduced to
sidereal measure. The same is done with regard to the
circles marked 91, 92, &c.; and it will be found by pla¬
cing any one of these connected circles in such a manner
as to have its contents in a similar situation with the
figures in the single representation, which are marked
with the same number, that there is a sufficient resem¬
blance between them; though some allowance must be
made for the distortions occasioned by this kind of pro¬
jection.”
From these observations Herschel concluded that the
diurnal rotation of Mars is accomplished in 24 hours
39 minutes 21§ seconds; that his equator is inclined to
his orbit in an angle of 28° 42', and his axis of rotation to
the axis of the ecliptic in an angle of 30° 18'. Hence the
time of rotation and the seasons of this planet are little
different from those of the earth.
The bright appearance so remarkable about the poles
of Mars is ascribed by Herschel to the reflection of light
from mountains of ice and snow accumulated in those
regions. “ The analogy between Mars and the earth,”
says he, “ is perhaps by far the greatest in the whole
solar system. Their diurnal motion is nearly the same,
the obliquity of their respective ecliptics not very differ¬
ent; of all the superior planets, the distance of Mars from
the sun is by far the nearest alike to that of the earth;
nor will the length of the Martial year appear very dif¬
ferent from what we enjoy, when compared to the sur¬
prising duration of the years of Jupiter, Saturn, and the
Georgium Sidus. If we then find that the globe we in¬
habit has its polar region frozen and covered with moun¬
tains of ice and snow, that only partly melt when alternate¬
ly exposed to the sun, I may well be permitted to surmise,
that the same causes may probably have the same effect
on the globe of Mars; that the bright polar spots are
owing to the vivid reflection of light from frozen regions;
and that the reduction of those spots is to be ascribed to
their being exposed to the sun.”
Since the discovery of the flattened form of the earth,
it was to be presumed that the rotation of the other planets
would produce a similar effect on their figures, and this
supposition has been fully confirmed by observation. The
time of the rotation of Mars is nearly equal to that of
the earth, but his diameter being only about half that of
the earth, the velocity of a point on his equator is conse¬
quently only half as great as that of a point on the earth’s
equator: hence we might expect that the deviation of his
figure from a perfect sphere would be much less consider¬
able. The contrary, however, appears to be the case ; and
his compression seems to be much greater than that of
the earth. According to Herschel, the ratio of his equa¬
torial and polar axes is 103 to 98. Schroeter estimates
the same ratio to be that of 81 to 80. This remarkable
compression at the poles of Mars arises in all probability
from considerable variations of density in the different
parts of his globe.
Atmo- It has been commonly related by astronomers, that the
Mar*-6 a*;mosP^ere °f this planet is possessed of such strong re-
i ars- fractive powers as to render invisible the small fixed stars
near which it passes. Dr Smith relates an observation
of Cassini, in which a star in the water of Aquarius, at
the distance of six minutes from the disk of Mars, became Theoretical
so faint before its occultation, that it could not be seen by AstronorrTi
the naked eye, nor even with a three feet telescope. This
would indicate an atmosphere of a very extraordinary size
and density ; but the following observations of Herschel
seem to show that it is of much smaller dimensions.
“ 1783, Oct. 26th. There are two small stars preceding
Mars, of different sizes ; with 460 they appear both dusky
red, and are pretty unequal; with 218 they appear con¬
siderably unequal. The distance from Mars of the
nearest, which is also the largest, with 227, measured
3' 26" 20"'. Some time after, the same evening, the dis¬
tance was 3' 8" 55"', Mars being retrograde. Both of
them were seen very distinctly. They were viewed with
a new 20 feet reflector, and appeared very bright. Oc¬
tober 27th : the small star is not quite so bright in propor¬
tion to the large one as it was last night, being a good
deal nearer to Mars, which is now on the side of the
small star; but when the planet was drawn aside, or out
of view, it appeared as plainly as usual. The distance of
the small star was 2' 5" 25'". The largest of the two stars,”
adds he, “ on which the above observations were made,
cannot exceed the 12th, and the smallest the 13th or 14th
magnitude ; and I have no reason to suppose that they
were any otherwise affected by the approach of Mars, than
what the brightness of its superior light may account for.
From other phenomena it appears, however, that this
planet is not without a considerable atmosphere; for, be¬
sides the permanent spots on its surface, I have often
noticed occasional changes of partial bright belts, and also
once a darkish one in a pretty high latitude; and these
alterations we can hardly ascribe to any other cause than
the variable disposition of clouds and vapours floating in
the atmosphere of the planet.”
Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta.
The commencement of the present century was render¬
ed remarkable in the annals of astronomy by the discovery
of four new planets circulating between Mars and Jupiter.
Kepler, from some analogy which he found to subsist
among the distances of the planets from the sun, had long
before suspected the existence of one at this distance ; and
his conjecture was rendered more probable by the disco¬
very of Uranus, with regard to which the analogy of the
other planets is observed. So strongly, indeed, were as¬
tronomers impressed with the idea that a planet would
be found between Mars and Jupiter, that, in the hope of
discovering it, Baron Zach formed an association of 24
observers, who divided the sky into as many zones, and
undertook each to explore one carefully. A fortunate
accident anticipated a discovery which might have re¬
quired years of toil. An error in the catalogue of Wol¬
laston, who had laid down a star in a position in which it
is not to be found, engaged Piazzi, the superintendent of
the observatory at Palermo, to observe for several suc¬
cessive days all the small stars in the neighbourhood of
the place indicated. On the first day of the present cen¬
tury, the 1st of January 1801, he observed a small star in
Taurus, which, on the day following, appeared to have
changed its place. On the 3d he repeated his observa¬
tion, and was then satisfied that it had a diurnal motion
of about 4' in right ascension, and 3'^ in declination to¬
wards the north pole. He continued to observe it till
the 23d, when he communicated his discovery to MM.
Bode and Oriani, giving them the positions of the star on
the 1st and 23d, and only adding, that between the 11th
and 13th its motion had changed from retrograde to di¬
rect. Before the communication reached them, however,
the planet was lost in the sun’s rays; and, owing to its ex-
68
ASTRONOMY.
Discovery
of Pallas.
Theoretical treme smallness, the difficulty of finding it after its emer-
Astronomy. rrgnce was so great, that it was not again seen i
v list of the following December, when it was detected by
Zach. In this was recognised the planet which Kepler
had suspected to circulate between Mars and Jupiter.
Piazzi, in honour of Sicily, gave it the name of the tute¬
lary goddess of that country, Ceres; and her emblem,
the sickle, ^ , has been adopted as its appropriate symb .
Ceres is of a reddish colour, and appears to be about
the size of a star of the eighth magnitude. bhe eccent -
city of her orbit is somewhat greater than that of 1
cury • and its inclination to the ecliptic greater than that
Tiny of the old planets. The distance of Ceres from
the sun is about 3-2 times that of the earth, or near y
millions of miles. Schroeter found her apparent diameter
to be 2", corresponding to about 1624 miles; but Hersche
reduced this measurement to 0-5, which would indicate
a diameter of about 160 miles The nebul°s‘ty which
surrounds the planet renders it almost impossible to d
tinguish the true disk; and hence arises the great dis¬
crepancy between the above estimates of its magnitude.
From a great number of observations, Schroeter inferred
that Ceres has a dense atmosphere, rising to the hel|
of no less than 675 English miles above the P^net, and
subject to numerous changes. On this account he co
ceives that there is little chance of discovering the period
^The^difficuity of finding Ceres induced Dr Olbers of
Bremen to examine with particular care the configma-
tions of all the small stars situated near her geocentnc
path. On the 28th of March 1802 he observed a star of
the seventh magnitude, which formed an equilateral tri¬
angle with the stars 20 and 191 of Virgo in Bode s cata¬
logue. He was certain that he had never seen a stai in
that place before, and at first imagined it might be one of
those which are subject to periodical changes of br 1-
liancy ; but after examining it for two hours, he remark¬
ed that its right ascension was diminishing, while its
northern declination continued to augment nearly in the
same manner as had been the case with Ceres when
that planet was first seen by him m a^°?t ^ Sa™e
position. On the following day he found its light as¬
cension had diminished 10', while its northern decimation
had increased 20'. From observations continued dunn0
a month, M. Gauss calculated an elliptic orbit, the eccen¬
tricity of which amounted to *24764, much greater than
that of any of the other planets. He also found its in¬
clination to be 34° 39', exceeding the aggregate incli¬
nations of all the other planetary orbits; and its mean
distance 2*770552, almost the same as that of Ceres, un
account of these three circumstances, the new planet,
otherwise of little importance, became the most singular
in the whole system. One planet had been suspected to
exist between Mars and Jupiter, and two were now dis¬
covered. The great inclination of the last rendered it
necessary to enlarge the boundaries of the zodiac ; but
the extent of the zodiac is entirely arbitrary, and ha
been limited by the extreme latitudes of Venus. There
is no reason, as Delambre remarks, why it may not be ex¬
tended even to the poles. Dr Olbers gave the new planet
the name of Pallas, choosing for its symbol the lance, $ ,
the attribute of Minerva.
The most surprising circumstance connected with the
discovery of Pallas was the existence of two planets at
nearly the same distance from the sun, and apparently
having a common node. On account of this singularity
Dr Olbers was led to conjecture that Ceres and Pallas
are only fragments of a larger planet, which had former¬
ly circulated at the same distance, and been shattered by
some internal convulsion. Lagrange made ‘his hypothesis Th^
the subject of an ingenious memoir, in which he
mined the explosive force necessary to detach a fragment
from a planet with a velocity that would cause it to de¬
scribe the orbit of a comet. He found that a fragment
detached from the earth in this manner, with a vemcity
equal to 121 times that of a cannon-ball, would become a
direct comet; and if with a velocity equal to 156 times
that of a cannon-ball, its motion would be retrograde. 4or
121 or 156 ^
other planets the velocity must be -====, an
consequently less as the mean distance of the planet from
the sun is greater. A smaller velocity would be required
to cause the detached fragment to move m an elliptic orbit;
and with regard to the four small planets we are now con¬
sidering, an explosive force less than twenty times that o
a cannon-ball would have sufficed to detach them from a
primitive planet, and cause them to describe ellipses si¬
milar to their actual orbits. This hypothesis served also
to explain the great eccentricities and inclinations by
which these planets are distinguished from the others be¬
longing to the system ; for it is evident that the explosive
force must have projected the different fragments in all
directions, and with different velocities. It Showed also,
that other fragments of the original planet mig P
bly exist, revolving in orbits which, however they mig
differ in respect of inclination and eccentricity, would
still intersect each other in the same points, or have com¬
mon nodes, in which the several fragments would neces¬
sarily be found at each revolution. Dr Olbers therefore
proposed to examine carefully every month the two op¬
posite parts of the heavens in which the orbits ot Ceres
and Pallas intersect each other, with a view to the disco¬
very of other planets, which might be sought for m those
parts with greater chance of success than m a wider zone
embracing the whole limits of their orbits, ^ubsequent
discoveries scarcely support his conjecture, though it has
nS^rHeStSameter of Pal,a, iS o„,v
about 80 English miles, or about one half of that which
he assigned to Ceres, while Schroeter estimates it at 2099
miles ^ Schroeter also found the atmosphere of Pallas to
be about two thirds of the height of that of Ceres, or about
450 miles. The light of the planet undergoes consider¬
able variations, the cause of which is uncertain. Discoverv
While M. Harding, of the observatory of LihenthalD^ j
near Bremen, was engaged in forming complete charts of
the small telescopic stars near the orbits of Ceres and
Pallas with which these planets were likely to be con¬
founded, he determined, on the 2d of September ,
the position of a small star, by comparing it with the two
stars^ marked 93 and 98 of Pisces m Bode s catalogue.
These two stars are situated very near the equator, and
at a small distance from one of the nodes of Ceres an
Pallas and exactly in that sort of defile where, according
to Dr Gibers, an observer would be certain of detecting
in their passage the other fragments of the orlS'nal Pla
net of which Ceres and Pallas are parts. On the 4th the
star was no longer in the same position, but had moved a
Ihtle to the south-west. On the 5th and 6th M. Hard¬
ing, by means of a circular micrometer, determined the
rate of its motion to be 12' 42" in declination to the
south and 7' 30" in right ascension, retrograde, the inte
val between the observations being 24 hours 14 min. 12 sec.
From this it was evident that the body belonged to the
nlanetary system. It had then the appearance of a star
betwee/the eighth and ninth magnitudes. It was with¬
out any nebulosity, and of a whitish colour. A few days
ASTRONOMY.
(59
Theoretical
Astronomy.
Discovery
of V esta.
afterwards the elements of its orbit were computed by
Gauss. This planet has received the name of Juno, and
for its symbol the starry sceptre of the queen of
Olympus.
Juno is distinguished from the other planets by the
great eccentricity of her orbit, which is so considerable,
that she describes that half of it which is bisected by the
perihelion in about half the time which she employs to
describe the other half. This planet is somewhat smaller
than Ceres and Pallas, and, though free from nebulosity,
must have, according to Schroeter’s observations, an at¬
mosphere of greater density than that of any of the old
planets.
The success of M. Harding encouraged Dr Olbers to
renew the plan of research which he had pointed out on
the discovery of Pallas; and on the 29th of March 1807
he perceived, in the constellation of Virgo, a star of the
fifth or sixth magnitude, which he suspected from the first
observation to be a new planet. A few subsequent ob¬
servations rendered this conjecture certain. Dr Olbers
left to Gauss the care of giving a name to the new pla¬
net, and of determining the elements of its orbit. Gauss
named it Vesta, and chose for its symbol j§;, an altar sur¬
mounted with a censer holding the sacred fire. Vesta is
the smallest of all the celestial bodies known to us. Her
volume is only about a fifteen thousandth part of that of
the earth, and her surface is about equal to that of the
kingdom of Spain. She is distinguished by the vivacity
of her light, and the luminous atmosphere with which she
is surrounded.
Belts of
Jupiter.
Plate
LXXXV.
Jupiter.
Jupiter is by far the largest planet in the system. His
diameter is about 11 times, and his volume 1281 times,
greater than that of the earth. His distance from the
sun is times the radius of the ecliptic, or nearly
125,000 terrestrial semidiameters, and consequently above
490 millions of miles. His apparent diameter, which, at his
mean distance, is 36"-7, and varies between 45"*8 and 30",
would subtend an angle of 3' 17" if seen at the same dis¬
tance as the sun. From Jupiter the sun will appear un¬
der an angle of at most; the sun s disk will appear to
be 27 times smaller than when seen from the earth, con¬
sequently the light and heat which Jupiter receives from
the sun will be only the 27th part of what is received by
our globe. His density is "99239, that of the sun being
considered as unity, or is about one fourth of the density
of the earth ; and a body which weighs one pound at the
equator of the earth, would weigh 2*444 pounds if re¬
moved to the equator of Jupiter.
Jupiter has the same general appearance with Mars,
only the belts on his surface are much larger and more
permanent. Their usual appearance, as described by Dr
Long, is represented fig. 97-100; but they are not to be
seen but by an excellent telescope. They are said t<
have been first discovered by Fontana and two other Ita¬
lians, but Cassini was the first who gave a good account
of them. Their number is very variable, as sometimes
only one, but seldom more than three, may be perceived.
Messier at one time saw so great a number that the whole
disk seemed to be covered by them. 4 hey are generally
parallel to one another, but not always so; and their
breadth is likewise variable, one belt having been observed
to grow narrow, while another in its neighbourhood has
increased in breadth, as if the one had flowed into the
other: and in this case a part of an oblique belt lay be¬
tween them, as if to form a communication for this pur¬
pose. The time of their continuance is very uncertain:
sometimes they remain unchanged for three months, at
other times new belts have been formed in an hour or two. Theoretical
In some of these belts large black spots have appeared,
which moved swiftly over the disk from east to west,
and returned in a short time to the same place; wlience
the rotation of this planet about its axis has been deter¬
mined. On the 9th of May 1664, Dr Hooke, with a twelve
feet telescope, observed a small spot in the broadest of
the three obscure belts of Jupiter; and observing it fiom
time to time, found that in two hours it had moved from
east to west about half the visible diameter of the planet.
In 1665 Cassini observed a spot near the largest belt of
Jupiter, which is most frequently seen. It appeared
round, and moved with the greatest velocity when in the
middle, but appeared narrower, and moved slower, the
nearer it was to the circumference ; showing that the spot
adhered to the body of Jupiter, and was carried round
upon it. This principal, or ancient spot as it is called,
is the largest and the most permanent of any hitherto
known; it appeared and vanished no fewer than eight
times between the years 1665 and 1708: from the year
last mentioned it was invisible till 1713. The longest
time of its continuing to be visible was three years,
and the longest time of its disappearing was from 1708
to 1713. It seems to have some connection with the prin¬
cipal southern belt; for the spot has never been seen
when that disappeared, though the belt itself has often
been visible without the spot. Besides this ancient spot,
Cassini, in the year 1699, saw one of less stability, that did
not continue of the same shape or dimensions, but broke
into several small ones, whereof the revolution was but
9 hours 51 min.; and two other spots that revolved in
9 hours 521 min. The changes in the appearance of the
spots, and the difference in the time of their rotation,
make it probable that they do not adhere to Jupiter, but
are clouds transported by the winds, with different velo¬
cities, in an atmosphere subject to violent agitations.
By means of the spots, which can be easily observed,
the rotation of Jupiter has been determined with consider¬
able precision. The time of rotation, according to Cassini,
Maraldi, and others, is 9 hours and between 55 and 56
minutes: Schroeter makes it 9 hours 55 min. 33 sec.
The inclination of his equator to his orbit is only 3° 5' 30",
so that the variations of his seasons must be almost insen-
siblc*
The radius of Jupiter being nearly 11 times (10-86)
that of our earth, and his rotation being 2*4 times more
rapid, it follows that the space passed over by a point
on his equator is 26 times greater than that passed over
by a point of the terrestrial equator in the same time.^
Hence the centrifugal force is 26 times greater; and if
the spheroidal form of the earth is occasioned by the
diurnal motion, we may expect to find the same effects
on a much larger scale exhibited in the form of Jupiter.
And this is in fact observed to be the case; for according
to Struve the compression of Jupiter is about -jVth of his
radius, the diameter of his equator being to that of his poles
as 14 to 13 nearly, while that of the earth is only ^foth.
The equatorial diameter at the mean distance subtends an
angle of 38""327, the polar 35""538; and the ellipticity is
0-0728=, 1
'13-71 ‘
The annual parallax of Jupiter is less than 12°, conse¬
quently the earth, as seen from Jupiter, will never appear
at a greater distance than 11° or 12° from the sun. I ie
digressions of Mars would be 17° 2', those of Venus ,
and those of Mercury only 4° 16'. An inhabitant of Ju¬
piter must therefore be probably ignorant of the existence
of Mercury, which will be almost constantly plunged in
TO
Theoretical
Astronomy
Satellites
of Jupiter,
A S T It O N O M Y.
Occulta-
tions and
eclipses of
the satel¬
lites.
the sun’s rays, and likewise greatly diminished in splen¬
dour, on account of his great distance. From this we
may infer the possibility of the existence of planets infe¬
rior to Mercury, and invisible to us, for similar reasons.
On observing Jupiter through the telescope, he is seen
accompanied by four little stars, which oscillate on hot i
sides of him, and follow him in his orbit as the moon ro -
lows the earth. On this account they are called satellites
or attendants. They were first noticed by Galileo within
a year after the discovery of the telescope; and it was
soon perceived that they revolve around Jupiter in nar¬
row circles, the planes of which deviate little from that
of the equator of the planet. They are distinguished
from one another by the denomination ot first, second,
third, and fourth, according to their relative distances
from Jupiter, the first being that which is nearest to
him. Their apparent motion is oscillatory, like that ot
a pendulum, going alternately from their greatest elon¬
gation on one side to their greatest elongation on the
other, sometimes in a straight line and sometimes in an
elliptic curve, according to the different points of view in
which we observe them from the earth. "Ihey have also
their stations and retrogradations, and exhibit in minia¬
ture all the phenomena of the planetary system.
Since the satellites revolve in orbits about the huge oib
of Jupiter, it is evident that occultations of them must fre¬
quently happen, by their going behind their primary, or
by coming in between us and it; in the former case when
they proceed towards the middle of their upper semicircle,
and in the latter when they pass through the same part
of their inferior semicircle. Occultations of the former
kind happen to the first and second satellites at every re¬
volution ; the third very rarely escapes an occultation; but
the fourth more frequently, by reason of its greater dis¬
tance. It is seldom that a satellite can be discovered
upon the disk of Jupiter, even by the best telescopes, ex¬
cepting at its first entrance, when, by reason of its being
more directly illuminated by the rays of the sun than the
planet itself, it appears like a lucid spot upon it. Some¬
times, however, a satellite in passing over the disk ap¬
pears like a dark spot, and can be easily distinguished.
This is supposed to be owing to spots on the body of these
secondary planets; and it is remarkable that the same sa¬
tellite has been known to pass over the disk at one time as
a dark spot, and at another appearing so luminous that it
could not be distinguished from Jupiter himself, except at
its coming on and going off. To account for this diversity of
appearance, we must suppose either that the spots are sub¬
ject to change, or, if they be permanent, like those of our
moon, that the different portions of the surfaces of the satel¬
lites are not equally luminous, and that at different times
they turn different parts of their globes towards us. Possi¬
bly both these causes may contribute to produce the phe¬
nomena just mentioned. By reason of the spots, also, both
the light and apparent magnitude of the satellites are vari¬
able ; for the fewer spots there are upon that side which is
turned towards us, the brighter it will appear; and as the
bright parts only can be seen, a satellite must appear larger
the more of its bright side it turns towards the earth, and
smaller the more it happens to be covered with spots. The
fourth satellite, though generally the smallest, sometimes
appears larger than any of the rest. The third sometimes
seems least, though usually the largest; nay, a satellite
may be so covered with spots as to appear less than its
shadow passing over the disk of the primary, though we
are certain that the shadow must be smaller than the
body from which it is projected. To a spectator placed
on the surface of Jupiter, each of these satellites would
put on the phases of the moon ; but as the distance ot any
of them from Jupiter is but small when compared with Theoretical
the distance of that planet from the sun, the satellites v ^ j
are illuminated by the sun very nearly in the same man-
ner with the primary itself; hence they appear to us al¬
ways round, having constantly the greater part of their
enlightened half turned towards the earth; and, indeed,
on account of their small size, their phases can scarcely
be discerned even through the best telescopes. Their
spots, or rather the observed variations of their brilliancy
at different times, have afforded the means of determining
the fact and the period of their rotation; and it is a very
remarkable circumstance that they all, like the moon, con¬
stantly turn the same face towards their primary, or com¬
plete a rotation about their respective axes in the same time
in which they perform a revolution in their orbits.
When the satellites pass through their inferior semi¬
circles, they may cast a shadow upon their primary, and
thus cause an eclipse of the sun; and in some situations
this shadow may be observed going before or following
the satellite. On the other hand, in passing through their
superior semicircles, the satellites may be eclipsed in the
same manner as our moon, by passing through the shadow
of Jupiter. And this is actually the case with the first,
second, and third of these bodies; but the fourth, by reason
of the greater magnitude and inclination oHts orbit, passes
sometimes above or below the shadow, as is the case with
the moon. The beginnings and endings of these eclipses are
easily seen through the telescope, when Jupiter is at a suffi¬
cient distance from the sun. Ihe same satellite disappears
at different distances from the planet, according to the
relative situations of Jupiter, the sun, and the earth ; but
always on that side of the disk where the shadow of the
planet is known from computation to be. With regard to
the first and second satellites, the immersions only are vi¬
sible while Jupiter is passing from his conjunction to Ins
opposition with the sun, and the emersions while he passes
from his opposition to his conjunction. The third and
fourth sometimes disappear, and again appear on the same
side of the disk; and the time during which the satellite
continues invisible is exactly that in which, according to
computation, it would pass through the planet’s shadow.
When Jupiter is near his opposition, the eclipses take
place when the satellites are close to his disk; because
the eye of the spectator is then nearly in the axis of the
dark cone formed by his shadow.
These various phenomena will be better understood by
referring to fig. 101, where A, B, C, D, represent the
earth in different parts of its orbit; J Jupiter in his orbit
MN, surrounded by his four satellites, the orbits of which
are marked 1, 2, 3, 4. At a the first satellite enters the
shadow of the planet; at 6 it emerges from it, and ad¬
vances to its greatest eastern elongation at c. It appears
to pass over the disk of Jupiter like a dark spot at d, and
attains its greatest western elongation at e. Similar phe¬
nomena take place with respect to the other satellites.
Now, since the shadow of Jupiter is always directed away
from the sun, the immersions only will be visible to the
earth when the earth passes from the position C to the
position A; for the eastern limit of Jupiter conceal^ the
satellite at the time of emersion, as is evident by drawing
f g in the direction of the visual ray. For the same rea¬
son the emersions only are visible while the earth is pass¬
ing from A to C, or when Jupiter advances from his op¬
position to his conjunction. This, however, is only strictly
true of the first satellite; for the third and fourth, as we
have already remarked, and sometimes even the second,
owin" to their greater distances from Jupiter, occasionally
disappear and re-appear on the same side of the disk.
The disks of the satellites having no sensible magni-
ASTRONOM Y.
Theoretical tude except in the very best telescopes, their diameters
Astronomy. ]iave 0nly recently been determined by direct measure-
v. nient> Schroeter and Harding attempted to measure
™men{thethem ^7 observing the time which the satellite takes to
satellites. Pass over Jupiterl ^ut such observations are
liable to great uncertainty, by reason of differences in the
magnifying power of the telescopes, the sight of the ob¬
server, the state of the atmosphere, the distance of the
satellites from the primary, their altitude above the hori¬
zon, and even on account that, by reason of their rota¬
tion, they do not always present to us the same hemisphere.
Schroeter estimates their diameters relatively to Jupiter
as follows:—That of the first = of the second =-^,
of the third =-§■%, of the fourth = Jj. The following are
the results of a series of micrometrical measurements
made by Professor Struve at the Dorpat observatory, with
the great refractor of Fraunhofer :—
Diameter of the first 1"-015
Diameter of the second 0 •911
Diameter of the third 1 "488
Diameter of the fourth 1 *273
These dimensions are adapted to the mean distance of
Jupiter, namely 5*20279. Compared with the earth, the
diameters of the satellites are approximately as follows :—
I. — II. zr III. = IV. = 4. As seen from Jupiter,
the apparent magnitude of the first will be nearly equal
to that of our moon seen from the earth; the second and
third somewhat greater than half; and the fourth nearly
equal to a quarter of that of the moon. These four moons
must present to the inhabitants of Jupiter a spectacle of
endless variety, on account of the rapid rotation of the
planet, the short period of their revolutions, and their
eclipses, which happen almost daily.
Saturn.
Saturn, the remotest of the planets known to the ancient
astronomers, circulates round the sun at a distance equal
to about 9i times the semidiameter of the terrestrial orbit,
or nearly 900 millions of miles. His apparent diameter at
his mean distance is only about 16"*2, yet his true diameter
is nearly 10 times, and his volume about 995 times, that
of our globe. The area of the sun’s disk, as seen from
Saturn, is only -^y of its apparent magnitude as seen from
the earth ; consequently the light and heat which any point
on his surface receives from the great luminary is 80 times
less than that which we enjoy. His density, compared
with that of the sun considered as unity, is supposed to
be *55, or about ^ of the density of the earth ; and a body
which weighs one pound at the equator of the earth,
would weigh about T01 pound if transferred to the equator
of Saturn.
Ring of This planet, in consequence of a luminous double ring
Saturn. with which he is surrounded, presents one of the most
curious phenomena in the heavens. This singular ap¬
pendage was first noticed by Galileo, to whom the planet
presented a triple appearance, the large orb being situated
between two small bodies or ansce. Sometimes the ansae
are so enlarged as to present the appearance of a continu¬
ous ring; at other times they entirely disappear, and Sa¬
turn appears round like the rest of the planets. After a
certain time they again become visible, and gradually in¬
crease in magnitude ; and they evidently do not adhere to
the surface of the planet, inasmuch as a vacant space be¬
tween them is distinctly perceived even in ordinary tele¬
scopes.
These curious appearances were shown by Huygens to
be occasioned by an opaque, thin, circular ring, surround¬
ing the equator of Saturn, and at a considerable distance
from the planet. Saturn moving in the plane of his orbit
71
carries the ring along with him, which, presenting itself Tt>eorel'ical
to the earth under different inclinations, occasions all the Astronomy
phenomena which have been described. The ring being
only luminous in consequence of its reflecting the solar
light, it is evident that it can be visible only when the
sun and the earth are both on the same side of it: if they
are on opposite sides it will be invisible. It will likewise
be invisible in two other cases, namely, ls£, when its plane
produced passes through the centre of the earth, for then
none of the light reflected from it can reach us; and, 2c?,
when its plane passes through the sun, because its edge is
then only enlightened; and being very thin, the whole
quantity of reflected light will scarcely be sufficient to
render it visible. It is, however, evident that in these
two cases the effect will be modified in some degree by the
power of the telescope. In ordinary telescopes the ring
disappears sometimes before its plane comes into either of
the situations mentioned ; but Herschel never lost sight of
it, either when its plane passed through the earth or the
sun. In the last case the edge of the ring appeared as a
luminous line on the round disk of the planet, measuring
scarcely a second in breadth ; but at the distance of Sa¬
turn a second corresponds to 4000 miles, which is equal to
the semidiameter of the terrestrial globe. The reason of
the ring’s disappearance will be easily understood by re¬
ferring to fig. 102, where the circle abed represents
the orbit of the earth, A B C D that of Saturn 9£ times
more distant from the sun. When Saturn is at A, the
earth and sun are both in the plane of the ring; its edge
is consequently turned towards us, and it will be invisible
unless telescopes of very high power are used. As Saturn
advances from A to B the ring gradually opens, and it
attains its greatest breadth at C, where its face is turned
more directly towards us, or a straight line perpendicular
to its plane makes a more acute angle with the visual
ray than in any other situation. As the planet advances
towards D, the plane of the ring becomes more oblique to
the visual ray ; the breadth of the ring consequently con¬
tracts, and it again disappears at E. From E to F, G, and
A, the same phenomena will be repeated, only in this
case it is the southern side of the ring which is visible to
the earth, whereas, while Saturn was in the other half of
his orbit, it was the northern side.
The successive disappearances of the ring form a period
of about 15 years, with some variations arising from the
different positions of the earth in its orbit. Before its dis¬
appearance in 1833, its south side was presented to us ; its
northern surface became visible in 1838; it again dis¬
appeared in 1848, and it will show its southern side in
1855.
Sir W. Herschel’s observations have added greatly to
our knowledge of Saturn’s ring. According to him, the
ring is separated into two annular portions by a dark belt
or zone, which he has constantly found on the north side.
As this dark belt is subject to no change whatever, it is
probably owing to some permanent construction of the
surface of the ring; and it is evidently contained between
two concentric circles, for all the phenomena correspond
with the projection of a circular zone. The matter of the
ring Herschel thinks no less solid than that of Saturn, and
it is observed to cast a strong shadow upon the planet.
The light of the ring is also generally brighter than that
of the planet; for it appears sufficiently luminous when
the telescope affords scarcely light enough for Saturn. It
is remarkable that the outer ring is much less brilliant than
the inner. Herschel concludes that the edge of the ring
is not flat, but spherical or spheroidal. The dimensions of
the ring, or of the two rings with the space between them,
he gives as follows :—
i
72
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical _
Astronomy. Inner diameter of smaller ring iq^qqq
Outside diameter of ditto 
Inner diameter of larger ring 
Outside diameter of ditto 
Breadth of the inner ring  7900
Breadth of the outer ring    p
Breadth of the vacant space, or dant zone.....
The following measures were taken by Professor fetruve,
at Dorpat in Russia, in 1828, with a repeating wire-mi-
crometer attached to the large refracting telescope ot
Fraunhofer, belonging to the observatory at that place,
and may be regarded as decidedly the most accurate of
any that we possess. (See Memoirs of the Astronomical
Society, vol. iii. p. 301.) Afy'-OO^
Outer diameter of the outer ring ^
Inner diameter of the outer ring ^
Outer diameter of the inner ring  p
Inner diameter of the inner ring ^
Breadth of the outer ring    ^ ™
Breadth of the division between the rings  0 -408
Breadth of the inner ring    ^’ooq
Distance of the ring from the ball  *
Equatorial diameter of Saturn   y. f
These dimensions are adapted to the mean distance ot
Saturn, 9-53877. According to the same excellent astro¬
nomer, the inclination of the plane of the ring to the
ecliptic is 28° 5'-9. r i * i
In observing the ring with very powerful telescopes,
some astronomers have remarked, not one only, but seve¬
ral dark concentric lines on its surface, which divide it
into as many distinct circumferences. In common tele¬
scopes these are not perceptible; for the irradiation, by
enlarging the space occupied by each ring, causes the in¬
tervals between them to disappear, and the whole seems
blended together in one belt of uniform appearance, (bee
fig. 103.) Struve, however, noticed no trace of the division
of the ring into many parts.
By means of some spots observed on the surface of the
ring, Herschel found that it revolves in its own plane in
10 hours 32 minutes 15-4 seconds; and Laplace arrived
at the same result from theory. It is particularly worthy
of remark, that this is the period in which a satellite, hav¬
ing for its orbit the mean circumference of the ring, vvould
complete its revolution according to the third law of Kep¬
ler. This circumstance furnishes a physical explanation
of the reason why the ring is able to maintain itself about
the planet without touching it; or at least brings the fact
within the general law by which the planets are sustained
in their orbits. The centrifugal force resulting from its
rotation, and the attraction of the planet, suffice to main¬
tain its equilibrium.
notation From observations of some obscure belts, and a very
of Saturn, conspicuous spot on the surface of Saturn, Herschel con¬
cluded that his rotation is performed in 10 hours 16 mi¬
nutes, on an axis perpendicular to the belts and to the
plane of the ring; so that the planes of the planet s equa¬
tor and ring coincide. According to the same astronomer,
the ratio of the equatorial and polar diameters of Saturn
is 2281 to 2061, or nearly 11 to 10. He also believed that
the -lobe of Saturn appeared to be flattened at the equator
as well as at the poles. The compression he thought to ex¬
tend to a great distance over the surface of the planet, and
the greatest diameter to he that of the parallel of 43 of lati¬
tude where, consequently, the curvature of the meridians
is also the greatest. The disk of Saturn, therefore, resem¬
bled a square of which the four corners have been rounded
off. According to the more recent measures of Bessel and
Main, this idea is proved to be erroneous, and the shape of
Miles. the planet is that of an exact spheroid of revolution.
Supplement to Part II.)
Saturn is attended by eight satellites, but so small that
i   l 1.. ^ , 1 f £ilocr»nrw^c
/<2„p Theoretical
ee Astronomy
Rotation
of the
ring.
Saturn is attended Dy eignt satellites, out su SatelUtes
they can only be seen by the help of powerful telescopes. of Saturn
Huygens first discovered one of these satellites in 1655, the
sixth in the order of distance, and the largest. Four others
were discovered about twenty years afterwards by Dominic
Cassini; and Sir W. Herschel, in 1789, discovered two
new satellites, at a time when the ring was visible only m a
telescope of forty feet. The orbits of these are interior to
those of the five satellites formerly discovered, but exterior
to the ring, though so near to it that it is only when the ring
disappears that they can be seen. Lastly, an eighth satellite
was discovered almost simultaneously by two observers in
1848. All the satellites appear to revolve in the plane of
the ring, with the exception of the two nearest.
Uranus.
Uranus is the remotest planet belonging to the system,
and is scarcely visible excepting through the telescope. His
distance from the sun is nineteen times the mean radius of
the orbit of the earth, or about 1800 millions of miles; and his
sidereal revolution is performed in rather more than 84 years.
His diameter is about 35,112 English miles, or nearly six
and a halftimes that of the earth, and, seen from the earth,
subtends an angle of only 4", even at the time of his op¬
position. The apparent diameter of the sun, seen from
this planet, is 1' 40"; consequently the surface of the sun
will there appear 400 times less than it does to us, and the
light and heat which is received will be less in the same
proportion. Analogy leads us to infer that Uranus is opaque
and revolves on his axis, but of this there is no direct
proof. Laplace has concluded from theory, that the time
of his diurnal rotation cannot be much less than that ot
Jupiter and Saturn, and that the inclination of his equator
to the ecliptic is very inconsiderable. His density is sup¬
posed to exceed somewhat that of the earth. Schroeter
thinks that certain variations in the appearances of his disk
indicate that great changes are going on in his atmo-
sphere.
1 This planet was discovered by Sir W. Herschel at Bath
on the 13th of March 1781. His attention was attracted
to it by the largeness of its disk in the telescope, which ex¬
ceeded that of stars of the first magnitude, while to the
naked eye it was scarcely, if at all, visible. In the course of
a few days its proper motion became sensible, consequently
it could not be a fixed star. Herschel at first took it for a
comet, but it was soon perceived that it described a path
which, instead of resembling the eccentric orbits of the
comets, was almost circular, like that of the planets. It
was then recognized to be one of the principal planets of
the solar system; and the observations of the last fifty
years have not only confirmed this fact, but afforded data
from which the elements of its orbit have been determined
with great precision. Herschel gave it the name of the
Georgium Sidus, in honour of his royal patron George I Li.
Foreigners for some time generally called it the Herschel,
after its discoverer ; but the mythological name of Uranus,
suggested by the late Professor Bode of Berlin, is now
generally adopted. In 1787 Herschel discovered that it
was attended by two satellites ; he subsequently discovered
four others, but they have been never reobseryed, and the
exact number of the satellites of Uranus is still uncertain.
Two additional satellites interior to all the others have been
recently discovered. (See Supplement to Part II.)
Before concluding this section, it will be proper to take
notice of the following curious relation of the numbers
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical which express, approximately at least, the distances of
Astronomy, planets from the sun. It was first pointed out by Bode,
and, though purely empirical, and not even very accurate,
served to confirm the German astronomers in their anti¬
cipations of the discovery of a new planet between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Let the number 10 be assumed to represent the semi¬
diameter of the earth’s orbit; then the semidiameters of
the orbits of the other planets may be expressed in round
numbers as follows:—■
Mercury... 4
Venus 7 = 4 + 3-2°
Earth 10 — 4 + 3-21
Mars 16 = 4 + 3-22
Ceres 28 = 4 + 3*23
Jupiter...52 = 4 + 3’24
Saturn ...100 = 4 + 3’25
Uranus..l96 = 4 + 3‘26
It will be remarked that every succeeding term of this
series of numbers, after the second, is the double of the
preceding, minus 4; the general term being 4 + 3-2"-2,
commencing with Venus, and n indicating the rank of the
planet.
A view of the proportional magnitudes of the orbits and
disks of the planets, as also of the comparative magni¬
tudes of the sun seen from each planet, is given in fig.
iOL
On the subjects contained in this section the following
works may be consulted: Galileo, Nuntius Sidereus;
Simon Marius, Mundus Jovialis anno 1609 delectus, &c.
1614; Cassini, Martis circa proprium axem revolubilis
Observationes Bononienses, Bonon. 1666; Idem, Disceptatio
Apologetica de Maculis Jovis et Martis, Bonon. 1667 ; Idem,
Nouvelles Decouvertes dans le Globe de Jupiter, Paris, 1690;
Bianchini, Hesperi et Phosphori Nova Phcenomena, 1728 ;
Cassini, Elemens d'Astronomic, 1740; Schroeter, Aphro-
ditographische Fragmente, Helmstadt, 1796; Idem, Lilien-
thalische Beobachtungen der neu entdeckten planeten, Got¬
tingen, 1805; Gauss, Theoria Motus Corporum Ccelestium,
Hamburgi, 1801; Idem, Journal of Gotha, 1811 ; Laplace,
Mecanique Celeste, tome iv. p. 135; Idem, Systeme du
Monde; Delambre, Astronomic, tome ii. chap, xxvii.;
Schubert, Trade d'Astronomic Theorique, tome ii. Peters¬
burg, 1822; and the numerous papers of Sir W. Herschel
v in the Philosophical Transactions.
Sect. IV.— Of the Orbits of the Satellites.
In order to establish a theory of the motions of the
satellites, the first thing necessary is to ascertain the di¬
rections in which they move with reference to the primary
planet. Now, it is observed that their motion is some¬
times towards the east, and at other times towards the
west; but that the satellites are never occulted except in
passing from the west to the east of the planet. When
an occultation occurs the satellite is always moving east¬
ward ; on the other hand, the satellite is always moving
westward when it appears on the planet’s disk. From
this it results that the true motions of the satellites
around the planets are from west to east, according to the
order of the signs, or in the same directions as the mo¬
tions of the planets about the sun. This fact, which
holds true of the moon, and the satellites of Jupiter and
Saturn, is one of the most remarkable in the planetary
system. With regard to the satellites of Uranus, their
motions are performed in orbits almost perpendicular to
the ecliptic; they cannot therefore with propriety be said
to be either direct or retrograde.
The eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter present an easy
VOL. IV.
method of determining their mean motions and periodic^heoreti^
times; and, by reason of the small inclinations of the or- As ronomy
bits, these are of very frequent occurrence; for the first
three satellites traverse the shadow of Jupiter in every re¬
volution, and the fourth only passes by it sometimes, in
consequence of the greater inclination of its orbit. If
the instants can be observed at which a satellite enters
and emerges from the shadow, the middle point of time
between these two instants will be that of the helio¬
centric conjunction of the satellite with its primary. The
interval between two central eclipses gives the synodic
period of the satellite; whence, since the motion of the
primary is known, the sidereal period of the satellite, and
its mean angular motion with regard to the straight line
joining the centres of the sun and the planet, are easily
deduced. Instead of two successive eclipses, it is prefer¬
able to compare two that are separated from each other
by a long interval of time; the interval divided by the
number of sidereal revolutions will give the mean time,
unaffected by any periodic inequalities which may exist
in consequence of the mutual action of the satellites on
one another. In order to render the result as accurate
as possible, those eclipses are chosen which take place
when the planet is nearly in opposition.
The distances of the satellites from their primary are
ascertained by measurement with the micrometer, at
the time of the greatest elongations. On comparing the
distances with the times of revolution, the beautiful law
of Kepler is found to prevail; and, as in the system of the
planets, so in the various systems of the satellites, the
squares of the periodic times vary as the cubes of the
mean distances from the central body. The distances of
the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, compared with the
diameters of their respective primaries, are represented
in fig. 105.
The inclinations of the orbits of the satellites of Jupi¬
ter, and the positions of their nodes, together with the
other elements of their elliptic motion, are determined by
means of their eclipses. The plane of the orbit of the
first satellite nearly coincides with the plane of the equator
of Jupiter, the inclination of which to the plane of his or¬
bit is 3° 5' 30". The inclination of the orbit of the second
to the plane of the planet’s equator is 27' 49"-2. Its nodes
have a retrograde motion on that plane, and go through^
an entire circuit in the space of 30 years. Ihe orbit of
the third is inclined to the equator of Jupiter in an angle
of 12' 20"; and the line of the nodes retrogrades through
a whole circumference in 142 tropical years. Hence the
inclinations of the orbits of these two satellites to the or¬
bit of Jupiter are variable; that of the second varying
between 3° 19' 24"-6 and 2° 51' 35"*4, and that of the
third between 3Q 17' 50" and 2° 53' 10". The inclination
of the orbit of the fourth satellite to the orbit ot Jupiter
is also variable. Its nodes have a retrograde motion, and
complete a revolution in 531 years. Since the middle of
the last century the inclination of this satellite has been
observed to increase, and the motion of its nodes to di¬
minish. (Laplace, Mecanique Celeste, tome iv. livre yiii.)
The orbits of the four satellites are doubtless elliptical,
but those of the first and second are so small that it has
been found impossible to determine their eccentricity.
The eccentricity of the third is perceptible, that of the
fourth much more so. According to Laplace, the greatest
equation of the centre of the third, at its maximum in
1682, amounted to 13' 16"-4, and at its minimum in
1777, only to 5' 7"-5. The eccentricity of the orbit of
the fourth is still greater, and also subject to con¬
siderable variations. The line of the apsides has a direct
motion, amounting to 42' 58"*7 annually. The great in-
K
74
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical fluence of the compressed figure of Jupiter on these ele-
Astronomy. ments gives each of the orbits an eccentricity peculiar to
  'it; but each is also affected by the eccentricities of the
others. The mutual perturbations ot the satellites great y
affect their motions, and render their analytical theory ex-
ceedina-ly complicated and difficult.
On comparing the mean longitudes with the mean mo¬
tions of the first three satellites of Jupiter, Laplace dis¬
covered the two following relations, which, by reason o
their remarkable simplicity, may perhaps be regarded as
among the most curious discoveries ever made in astro¬
nomy: Denoting by m\ m", m’\ the mean motions of the
three satellites respectively, and their mean longitudes by
l, t’ l'", these laws are expressed by the formulae,
in! 4- 2 m!" — 3 m" = 0
l' 21!" —Zl" — 180° ;
that is to say, the mean sidereal motion of the first’ a^®d
to twice that of the third, is equal to three times that of the
second; and the mean longitude of the first satellite, plus
twice that of the third, minus three times that of the
second, is always equal to a semicircumference. Ihe tirst
of these relations is true of the synodical as well as of the
sidereal revolutions; and it follows from the second, that
the first three satellites can never be eclipsed at the same
time, because in that case their longitudes would be equal,
or V + 21!" 3/"—0. These results of theory agree so
nearly with observation, that we are tempted to regard
them as rigorously exact, and to ascribe the slight differ¬
ences that may be perceptible to the unavoidable errors of
observation, and to the periodic inequalities in the motions
of the satellites, by reason of which their true motions are
alternately greater and smaller than their mean motions.
We must therefore infer that these relations depend on a
physical cause, by which they will be preserved for ever,
or at least during a long series of ages, notwithstanding
the small oscillations to which, from various sources ot
perturbation, the mean longitudes of the satellites are
iLom observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites,
Roemer was led to the very important discovery of the
successive propagation of light. The times at which these
eclipses happen are found to differ from the times com¬
puted from the sidereal revolutions of the satellites, being
sometimes earlier and sometimes later, according to the
position of Jupiter relatively to the sun and the earth.
When Jupiter is in opposition with the sun, and his dis¬
tance from the earth consequently less than his distance
from the sun by the whole radius of the earth s orbit, the
satellites are eclipsed sooner than they ought to be ac¬
cording to computation. On the contrary, when Jupiter
.is in conjunction, and his distance from the earth greater
than his distance from the sun by the same quantity, the
eclipses happen later. These differences, which aie ex¬
actly the same for all the satellites, cannot be ascribed
either to the eccentricity ot the orbit of Jupiter, or to
inequalities in their motion; for the oppositions and con¬
junctions of the planet correspond successively to all the
different points of his orbit, and the eclipses also happen
when the satellite is at different points of its own orbit.
The simplest and most natural way of explaining the phe¬
nomenon is to suppose that the light reflected from the
satellites is not transmitted to the earth instantaneously,
but occupies a sensible portion of time in traversing the
diameter of the terrestrial orbit. When Jupiter is near his
conjunction, the eclipses are observed to happen about 16
minutes 26 seconds later than when he is near his opposi-
tion ; the difference between his distances from the earth
in these two positions is equal to the diameter of the earth s
orbit, supposing the orbits to be circular: it follows, there¬
fore, that light employs 16 minutes 26 seconds in travers-Theoretical
ing the terrestrial orbit, and consequently the half of that v s roD°^y
time, or 8 minutes 13 seconds, in coming from the sun ”
to the earth. The exact agreement of this hypothesis
with observation renders its truth unquestionable. The
fact of the successive transmission of light led to another
discovery of the utmost importance in astronomy, name¬
ly, the aberration.
The eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites are useful in deter¬
mining the longitude of places on the earth, and on this
account the theory of the motions of these bodies has
been cultivated with the most laborious care. The epochs
at which the eclipses take place are calculated in advance,
and inserted in the Ephemerides. On comparing these
epochs, computed for a given meridian, with the imme¬
diate results of observation made in another place at a
given hour, the difference of time is obtained, whence
the difference of longitude is immediately deduced. The
method is the same as for the eclipses of the moon. Un¬
fortunately, by reason of the magnifying power required
to render the satellites visible, it cannot be employed at
sea, the instability of the vessel rendering the telescopes
unserviceable. The tables of Delambre, which were com¬
puted from the theory of Laplace, and the comparison of
an immense number of observations, give the places of
the satellites with all the precision which it is perhaps
possible to obtain. . .
The satellites of Saturn have not the practical utility
of those of Jupiter, because, by reason of their great dis¬
tance, their eclipses are invisible; and indeed some of
them cannot be perceived at all, excepting through tele¬
scopes of extraordinary power. Their periods, mean mo¬
tions, and some of the other elements of their mbits, are
determined by the micrometrical measurement of their
greatest digressions from their primary. At the time of
their greatest digressions they are always situated in the
same straight line with the greater axis of the ring, and
their distances from Saturn are then equal to the semi-
transverse axes of their apparent orbits. In their conjunc¬
tions the minor axes of their apparent ellipses seem only
half as great as their transverse axes, whence it is infer¬
red that the sine of their inclination is one half, and con¬
sequently that the inclination itself is about 30°, which is
nearly the inclination of the ring. Hence the satellites
seem to move in the plane of the ring. The only one
which deviates considerably from that plane is the seventh.
From certain observations made by Bernard m 1787, La-
lande makes the inclination of this satellite 22° 42' to the
orbit of Saturn, or 24° 45' to the ecliptic. There exists,
however, considerable uncertainty with regard to the in¬
clination of the orbits of the satellites, as well as with re¬
gard to that of the ring. , ., ,
According to the theory of Laplace, the spheroidal
figure of Saturn, of which the compression is very consi¬
derable, must maintain the ring, and the orbits of the inte¬
rior satellites, in the plane of his equator. All that is cer¬
tain is, that the inclination of the orbits of the first five sa¬
tellites to the equator of the planet is insensible at the dis¬
tance of the earth ; consequently all the satellites, excepting
the seventh, and probably also the sixth, will appear, as
well as the ring, to move in the plane of the equator. Ifie
orbit of the seventh satellite preserves the same mean in¬
clination to the plane of the equator of the planet; and
the line of its nodes has a retrograde motion nearly um-
^01 The orbit of the sixth satellite is elliptical. For the
meridian of Paris its longitude in 1800 was 67 25 47 ;
that of its inferior apside 203° 35' 7". Its mean motion
in 36525 days is 2290 revolutions + 202° 12'; in one day
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical 22° 34' 37M86. The eccentricity is *04887 ; and its
Astronomy, greatest equation 5° 36' 8". By particular observations on
^>^v^-^this satellite, Bessel found its inclination to the ecliptic to
be 24° 30', or 25° 55'; differing very sensibly from that of
the ring or the equator of the planet. It is, however, not
improbable that these two planes may have some inclina¬
tion to each other. (Delambre, Astronomic Theorique et
Pratique, tome iii. p. 510.)
The satellites of Uranus can be perceived with still
greater difficulty than those of Saturn. The orbits of
these satellites are almost perpendicular to the ecliptic.
The elements of the second and fourth have been deter¬
mined by actual measurement; the periods of the two
others have been theoretically deduced from the third law
of Kepler. The inclination of the fourth is 89° 30', or
90° 30', and the ascending node 171° or 249°, according
as it is conceived to be direct or retrograde.
The following table exhibits the mean distances and
sidereal revolutions of the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn,
and Uranus (all, except the 2d and 4th, very doubtful).
MEAN DISTANCES.
(The radius of the planet
being = 1.)
Jupiter.
1st satellite
2d 
3d 
4th 
Saturn.
1st satellite
2d 
3d 
4th 
5th 
6th... 
7th 
Uranus.
1st satellite
2d 
3d 
4th 
5th 
6th 
5*81296
9-24868
14-75240
25-94686
3-080
3- 952
4- 893
6-268
8-754
20-295
59-154
13-120
17-022
19-845
22-752
45-507
91-008
SIDEREAL REVOLUTIONS,
According to According to
Laplace. Delambre.
Days.
1-7691378
3-5511810
7-1545528
16-6887697
Days.
0*94271
1-37024
1- 88780
2- 73948
4-51749
15-94530
79-32960
Davs.
5-8926
8-7068
10-9611
13-4559
38-0750
107-6944
d. h. m. s.
1 18 28 35-94537
3 13 17 53-73010
7 3 59 35-82511
16 18 5 7-02098
d. h. m. s.
0 22 37 32-9
1 8 53 8-9
1 21 18 26-2
2 17 44 51-2
4 12 25 11-1
15 22 41 13-1
79 7 53 42-8
d. h. m.
5 21 25
8 17 1
10 23 4
11 11 5
38 1 49
107 16 40
0-
19-
1-5
CHAP. V.
OF COMETS.
The comets form a class of bodies belonging to the
solar system, distinguished from the planets by their phy¬
sical appearances and the great eccentricitiesof their or¬
bits. By reason of the smallness of their diameters, and
a nebulosity which renders them ill adapted to reflect
the rays of light, the greater part of them are only visible
in the telescope, and continue to be so only during a short
period of time; for as they advance to and recede from
the sun almost in straight lines, and with prodigious velo¬
cities, they are soon carried far beyond the limits of vision.
They have received the name of comets {coma, hair) from
the bearded appearance which they frequently exhibit.
Sect. I.— Of the Orbits of Comets.
The comets are not more remarkably contrasted with
the planets in the singularity of their physical appear¬
ances, than in the directions of the paths which they follow
in space. While the orbits of all the planets are confined Theoretical
within a narrow zone, or to planes not greatly inclined t,0 Astronomy-
the ecliptic, those of the comets are inclined in all possible
angles, and some of them are even observed to be per¬
pendicular to the ecliptic. Nor is the contrast less strik¬
ing with regard to the figures of the orbits, which, instead
of being nearly circular, like those of the planets, have
the appearance of being almost rectilinear. Kepler was
of opinion that the cometary orbits are straight lines ; Cas¬
sini supposed them to be very eccentric circles ; and Ty¬
cho was for some time of the same opinion, but he after¬
wards found that the hypothesis of the eccentric circle
would not satisfy the observations of the comet of 1577.
Hevelius seems to have been the first who discovered, by
means of a geometrical construction, that the orbits might
be represented by parabolas ; and Ddrfel first calculated
their elements on this hypothesis. After it was known,
however, that certain comets return to the sun in the
same orbits, it became necessary to adopt an opinion, al¬
ready probable from analogy, that, in conformity with the
laws of Kepler, the cometary orbits are ellipses having
the sun in one of the foci. This hypothesis is now uni¬
versally admitted; but as the ellipses are in general ex¬
tremely elongated, and the comets are only visible while
they describe a small portion of their orbits on either
side of their perihelia, their paths during the time of
their appearance differ very little from parabolas; whence
it is usual, on account of the facility of computation, to
assume that they really move in parabolic curves. New¬
ton employed the hypothesis of an elliptic motion to com¬
pute the orbit of the famous comet of 1680. Since that
time the orbits of more than a hundred and fifty different
comets have been computed on the elliptic hypothesis,
and their elements determined so as to satisfy all the ob¬
servations. It is possible that the orbits of some comets
may be in reality parabolic; but in this case the comet,
after having passed its perihelion, would recede to an
infinite distance from the sun, and never again visit our
system. Burckhardt imagined that the observations of
the comet of 1771 were best represented by supposing the
orbit to be an hyperbola. In fact, it is demonstrated in
the Principia, and every treatise on Physical Astronomy,
that the species of curve which one body describes about
another, in virtue of an attractive force varying inversely
as the square of the distance, depends only on its velocity
of projection. The curve must necessarily be a conic sec¬
tion ; but it may be an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola,
according as the primitive impulsive force falls within
or exceeds certain assignable limits.
If the comets moved in parabolas or hyperbolas, and
had consequently only a temporary connection with the
solar system, the determination of their orbits would be
a matter of mere curiosity, and of no consequence what¬
ever to astronomy. But it is only by the accurate deter¬
mination of the elements of their orbits that it can be
discovered whether those bodies ever revisit the sys¬
tem ; for the appearances which they exhibit, depending
on the situation of the earth in its orbit with relation to
them at the time they are visible, are far too variable
and uncertain to afford any sure means of recognising
them. The comet of 1811 was scarcely visible in the
months of April and May; it was subsequently lost in
the sun’s rays, and, having passed its perihelion, re-ap¬
peared in August with a splendour and magnificence that
rendered it an object of admiration. It is therefore only
by observing that a comet follows the same orbit in its suc¬
cessive returns to the sun that we can be assured of its
identity. But even the determination of the orbit is not
always sufficient to lead to the detection of a comet in a
76
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical subsequent revolution; for if, in the course of the pre-
Astronomy. vious 0ne, it came within the sphere of attraction of Jupi-
'ter, or any of the larger planets, the elements of its orbit
may have been greatly or entirely changed. The orbit
of the comet of 1770 was calculated by Lexell, and sub¬
sequently by Burckhardt, and both these astronomers
found that the observations could only be represented by
an ellipse in which the time of revolution was five years
and a half; yet the comet has never been seen since, or at
least seen moving in the same orbit. Hence it is conclud¬
ed with certainty that the attraction of Jupiter, near which
planet it approached, was so great as to compel it to move
in a totally different ellipse. Other causes also conspire to
render the chances of the discovery of periodic comets ex¬
tremely small. In the first place, it is only within a very
small portion of their orbits that they are visible ; and this,
on account of its proximity to the sun, is passed over with
inconceivable rapidity. But in proportion as they rece e
from their perihelia the solar action diminishes; and, to¬
wards the aphelion of its orbit, a comet may be almost
motionless, and for this reason not return for thousands
of years. In the second place, it may happen, that during
the greater part of the time the comet continues in the
visible portion of its orbit, it may rise above the horizon
only during the day, in which case it will be invisible,
and may consequently pass through our system without
being observed. The comet of 1818 was present m all its
splendour long before it became visible, but in full day.
Seneca relates a very curious instance of one having been
seen during a total eclipse of the sun, in the year 60 be¬
fore our era. A third cause of uncertainty consists in the
difficulty of observing their true places with sufficient pre¬
cision to enable the elements of their orbits to be exactly
determined. The small comets are only nebulous points,
which can be distinguished with difficulty ; the larger
ones are surrounded with a variable, ill-defined, and in^ls"
tinct nebulosity. The comet of 1729 continued visib e
during six months: its orbit was computed by three dif¬
ferent astronomers, whose results were far from coin¬
ciding. The same uncertainty exists with regard to the
orbits of several other comets. When, therefore, all these
circumstances are taken into consideration, it wil not
appear surprising that, although the elements of above ioU
comets have been computed, there are only three which
are certainly known to have been observed in their suc¬
cessive revolutions.
The most remarkable periodic comet with which we
are acquainted was made known to astronomers by Dr
Halley. That active and indefatigable genius, having
perceived that in 1682 the elements of its orbit were
nearly the same as those of two comets which had
respectively appeared in 1531 and 1607, concluded that
the three orbits belonged to the same identical comet,
of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After a
vague estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from
the attraction of the planets, Dr Halley predicted its re¬
turn for 1757,—a bold prediction at that time, but justified
by the event, for the comet again made its appearance as
was expected, though it did not pass through its perihelion
till the month of March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and
Saturn having caused, as was computed by Glairaut previ¬
ously to its return, a retardation of 618 days. This comet
had been observed in 1066; and the accounts which have
been preserved represent it as having then appeared to be
four times the size of Venus, and to have shone with a light
equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is silent
respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it
passed very near to the earth : its tail then extended ovei
60° of the heavens, and had the form of a sabre. An ob¬
ject so striking and so terrific could not fail, m a supersti-Theoret,o,i
tious age, to excite universal dismay, and be regarded as
portentous of the greatest calamities to the human race,
if not of the destruction of the world. Accordingly Pope
Calixtus ordered public prayers to be said over Christen¬
dom, in which he exorcised the comet, and the lurks,
who had at that time made themselves masters of Con¬
stantinople, and overthrown the eastern empire. Dr
Halley’s comet returned to its perihelion in 1835 ; and the
splendour of its appearance rendered it once more an object
of universal interest; it was well observed in almost every
observatory. The following table of its elements in 183o
is given by Pontecoulant {Theorie Analytique du Systeme
du Monde, tome ii. p. 147):
Instant of the passage through the perihelion
in October 1835 ,
Semiaxis major   y; y ^
Ratio of the eccentricity to the semiaxis majOT-.-O 967453
Place of the perihelion on the orbit 304 34 J 9
Longitude of the ascending node 55 b u9
Inclination 17 46 50
Two other famous comets whose periodic returns have
been verified by observation have received the names oi
Encke and Biela, the astronomers who first computed
their orbits, or recognised them as having been observed
in their previous revolutions. The first returns to its
perihelion in 1208 days, and the second in 2440 days.
Encke’s comet, although its identity was not discovered
till 1818, has been frequently observed, as m 1789, 1/95,
1801, and 1805, and on these occasions it exhibited very
different appearances, having been seen with and without
a nucleus, with and without a tail,—circumstances which
account for its having so long escaped being recognised
as a regular attendant on the sun. In its returns to its
perihelion in 1808, 1812, and 1815, it escaped detection;
but it re-appeared in 1818, and it was from the observa¬
tions of this year that Encke computed the elliptic ele¬
ments of its orbit. On its next return, in 1822, it was
invisible in Europe ; but it was observed at Paramatta, in
New South Wales, during the whole month of June, and
the time of its perihelion passage was found to differ only
bv about three hours from that previously computed by
Encke. On its returns in 1825 and 1828 its observed
and computed places agreed equally well. The following,
according to Pontecoulant, are its elements tor i82J-5U,
computed from the observations at Paramatta:
Passage through the perihelion, 1829, January lOd.573
Mea" diurna, -.ion ^ *5™ ^
Place of perihelion...     lJ> ' ^
Longitude of ascending node 534 ^4
Inclination 16 r? ff’
Encke’s comet presents in some respects a considerable
analogy with the planet Ceres, the inclination and greater
axis of its orbit being the same, while its sidereal revolution
is only 46 days shorter than that of Vesta. The orbit is,
however, greatly more elongated, for its perihelion falls
within the orbit of Mercury, and its aphelion is situated
between Jupiter and the new planets. The perturbations
it sustains are chiefly occasioned by the attraction of
Jupiter, that of the earth and Venus being extremely
small, while the action of Mercury is insensible.
A third comet of short period with which our knowledge
of the solar system has been enriched receives its name from
Biela by whom it was first perceived in Bohemia, on the
27th of February 1826. The parabolic elements computed
from tbe first observations presented a striking resemblance
with those of two comets which had been observed in 177-
p-
ASTRONOMY.
77
'nmiwtlcal and 1806, which induced MM. Clausen and Gambart, the
Astronomy first at Marseilles and the second at Altona, to compute the
\  / elements of the three comets on the hypothesis of elliptic
orbits ; and, after some attempts, each found an ellipse which
represented all the observations so accurately as to leave no
doubt of the identity of the comet. Its period is six years
and about nine months, and it returned to its perihelion in
November 1832, about the same time with Encke’s. The
following table of its elements was computed from the ob¬
servations of 1826, and the theory of the perturbations
(Pontecoulant, tome ii. p. 158):—
Passage through the perihelion 1832, November 27d-4808
Eccentricity 17481
Place of the perihelion 109 56 4o
Longitude of ascending node 248 12 24
Inclination... 
Semiaxis major  a ooooo
Besides the periodical comets which have been men¬
tioned, there are two others of long period, of which the
orbits are supposed to be known, though their returns to
their perihelia have not yet been verified. The first is
that which appeared in 1680, and of which Newton com¬
puted the period to be 575 years. It may therefore be
identical with those which are recorded in history to have
appeared in 1106, 531, 34 b. c. and 619 b. c. The second
is that which appeared in 1556, and is supposed to have
made a former visit in 1264. This comet is expected to
appear again in 1858.
The following table, taken from one given by Delambre
in the third volume of his Astronomie, shows the com¬
paratively small distances within which the greater part
of the comets hitherto observed approach to the sun, and
the apparently fortuitous inclinations of the planes of their
orbits to that of the ecliptic. Supposing the sun’s dis¬
tance from the earth to be unity, then, of 120 comets,
there are
5 whose perihelion distance is less than...0#l
3  between O’l and 0*2
g 0*2 and 0*3
U  0*3 and 0*4
  0*4 and 0*5
22 v. 0*5 and 0*6
  0*6 and 0*7
11 0*7 and 0*8
g  0*8 and 0*9
g 0*9 and 1
21    1 and 2
1 .  ....equal to 2*293
l[. 4*069.
Of the same number there are
4 whose inclination is between  1° and 5°
3     5 and 10
4  10 and 15
3      15 and 20
2  20 and 25
2   25 and 30
7  30 and 35
  35 and 40
4   40 and 45
] 45 and 50
3    50 and 55
4  ..55 and 60
7 60 and 65
3..,.    65 and 70
3  70 and 75
3   75 and 80
4     80 and 85
2  85 and 90.
The motions of the above 61 are direct; those of theTheoretical
remaining 59 are retrograde, and their orbits are distri-^™i«^
buted over the whole quadrant in the same random man¬
ner. This circumstance sufficiently indicates that the
mechanical causes, whatever they were, which gave the
same direction to the two motions of translation and rota¬
tion of all the planets and satellites, exercised no influence
on the comets. Hence many astronomers have entertain¬
ed the idea that these bodies have only a casual or tran¬
sient connection with the planetary system.
Sect. II. Of the Appearances and Physical Constitution
of Comets.
Of all the celestial phenomena, those of the comets are
the most striking, and the most calculated to impress the
ignorant with the idea of supernatural agency. Appear¬
ing suddenly in the heavens, and under aspects the most
uncommon and terrific, they have been almost universally
regarded as visible demonstrations ot the wrath, and har¬
bingers of the vengeance, of offended deities. Ihese super¬
stitious terrors, arising from that vain propensity of the mind
of man to regard the universe as created for himself alone,
have only been dissipated by the progress of sound philo¬
sophy, and a more extended acquaintance with the riches
of nature, and the endless variety of her productions.
The appearances exhibited by the comets are exceed¬
ingly diversified, and sometimes extremely remarkable.
That which appeared in the year 134 b. c., at the birth of
Mithridates, is said to have had a disk equal in magni¬
tude to that of the sun. Ten years before this, one was
seen, which, according to Justin, occupied a fourth part
of the sky, that is, extended over 45°, and surpassed the
sun in splendour. Another, equally remarkable, appeared
in the year 117 of our era; and in 479 there was one of
which the disk, according to Freret, was of such magni¬
tude that it might have occasioned the extraordinary
eclipse of the sun which took place about that time. In
400 one was observed, which is said, on the authority ot
Gainas, to have resembled a sword, and to have extended
from the zenith to the horizon. That of 531 was of greater
magnitude still, and its appearance more terrific. Those
which appeared in 1066 and 1505 exhibited disks larger
than that of the moon. It is, however, highly probable
that all these accounts have been greatly exaggerated,
through the ignorance and credulity of the historians by
whom they are related; for, since comets have been ob¬
served by astronomers, no instances have occurred in
which their magnitudes and appearances have been so
extraordinary. The most remarkable among those of
which we possess accurate accounts appeared in the years
1456, 1618, 1680, 1744, 1759, 1769, 1807, and 1811.
Fig. 106 is a representation of the celebrated comet of Plate
1680, taken from Lemonnier’s Histoire Celeste. It exhi-
bits the nucleus or disk with its surrounding atmosphere.
Above is a sort of ring, wider at the summit, and narrower
towards the sides. A coma or beard succeeds the ring;
and lastly, an immense train of luminous matter, some¬
what less vivid than the nucleus. This luminous train, or
tail as it is called, is by far the most singular and striking
feature presented by the comets. That of the comet of
1744 was one of the most remarkable. It was divided into
six branches, all diverging, but curved in the same direc¬
tion ; and between the branches the stars were visible. It
is represented in fig. 107. The tail of the comet of 1811
was composed of two diverging parts inclined to each other
in an angle which varied from 90 to 15 or 20 degrees.
These branches were curved in opposite directions, and
descended from the nucleus like a veil: between the
78 ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical branches, and surrounding the nucleus, was a space com- line joining the centres of the sun and comet. The slight Theoretical
Astronomy paratively obscure. curvature which is generally observed may be accounted
1 The nucleus, which is the densest and most luminous for by combining the motion given to the vapours by the^^v^'
part, may be said to form the true body of the comet. It impulsion of the sun’s rays with the motion of the comet
is, however, so far from having the dense and solid ap- in its orbit; for the detached vapouis aie driven by the
pearance of the planets, that some astronomers have ima- impact of the luminous particles beyond the sphere of
mned it to be diaphanous, and even supposed that they the comet’s attraction, and consequently cease to follow
have observed stars through it. But supposing such an the direction of the nucleus. Hence the curvature of the
observation certain, it may be accounted for with much tail must be greatest towards its extremity, and this is
greater probability by the effects of refraction; and it is observed to be actually the case. It may be remarked,
besides extremely difficult to distinguish the nucleus from however, that although this hypothesis serves to explain
the surrounding nebulosity. If the nucleus were an the phenomena when all the branches of the tail are bent
opaque "lobular body, it would exhibit phases like Venus in the same direction, it is inapplicable when the direc-
or Mars, according to its different positions with relation to tions of the curvature are opposite, as was the case with
the sun and the earth ; and such were observed, or at least regard to the comet of 1811. In fact, no ultimate reasons
were supposed to be observed, in the case of the comet of for several of the phenomena exhibited by comets have
1682, by Hevelius, Picard, and Lahire. But the nebulo- yet been given which can be considered as entirely satis-
sity renders the phases exceedingly obscure and indis- factory. . .
tinct, and prevents the true body of the comet from be- The discovery of the periodic returns of certain comets
ing seen; in the same way as a globe of roughened glass necessarily put an end to the apprehensions and terrors
prevents us from distinguishing the form of the flame of which their unusual appearances were well calculated to
an inclosed lamp. The real nucleus has probably never excite, and proved them to be permanent bodies belong-
been observed by any astronomer; and, from the appear- ing to the same system, and acted on by the same laws,
ances, we are led to infer that a comet, at least near its as the planets. But this very discovery gave rise to ap-
perihelion, is only an agglomerated mass of vapours. As prehensions of another kind, more natural, though, when
it recedes from the perihelion, the vapours may be con- closely examined, hardly more reasonable. Since the
densed by cold into a solid substance. This hypothesis is comets are so numerous, and their orbits traverse the
also favoured by the extreme smallness of the density planetary system in all directions, and come within the
of the comets, which is known certainly from the cir- orbit of the earth, is there not a probability that some of
cumstance that they produce no appreciable effect on them may come into contact with our globe, and destroy
the motions of the planets. The comet of 1770 traversed it by the direct collision ; or at least approach so near as
the system of Jupiter’s satellites without causing any sen- to produce the most disastrous effects by their attrac-
sible perturbation of those small bodies. This comet also tion ? Halley found that the comet of 1680 had ap-
passed very near the earth ; and Laplace calculated, that preached its perihelion about the time of the universal de-
if its mass had been equal in density to that of the earth, luge, and thought it probable that that great catastrophe
the effect of its attraction would have increased the length might have been immediately occasioned by the earth s
of the sidereal year by two hours and twenty-eight minutes, being enveloped in the aqueous vapours of its tail,—an idea
But since its influence was altogether insensible, it is cer- which was afterwards more fully developed by whiston.
tain that its mass was not equal to the five thousandth Lalande and Maupertuis have minutely detailed the ter'
part of that of the earth, and probably much inferior even rible effects which might be produced by the shock of
to this quantity. a comet, or even by its approach to our earth. I he va-
If the nuclei of comets are solid, the matter of which pours brought by the tail would mingle with the atmo-
they are composed must be extremely fixed in order to sphere, and render it less respirable. Ihe attraction of
enable them to resist the intense heat they necessarily the nucleus would destroy the equilibrium of the ocean,
experience in their approaches to the sun. According to and cause extraordinary inundations, which might sweep
the computation of Newton, the great comet of 1680, at off the greater part of the human species. Ihe direct
its perihelion, was only distant from the sun by the 163d shock might change the position of the earth s axis, or
part of the semidiameter of the earth’s orbit, where it even cause the earth to leave its present mbit. It migit
would be exposed to a heat above 2000 times greater than then become a satellite of the comet, and be carried away
that of red-hot iron,—^a temperature of which we can form with it to the extreme limits of the suns attractive in-
no conception, and which would instantly dissipate any sub- fluence : or, as the mass of the comet would probably be
stance with which we are acquainted. inferior to that of the earth, the earth would carry the
In order to explain the singular phenomena of the train comet along with it in its orbit, and thus acquire a second
of light which frequently attends the comets, the follow- moon ; and it has even been surmised that the moon we
ing theory was proposed by Newton. The comets move actually enjoy may owe its origin to an accidental occur-
in very eccentric orbits, and consequently, towards their rence of this kind. But all these reveries have disappeared
perihelia, approach very near to the sun. The excessive before the calculus, by which it is demonstrated that the
degree of heat they sustain near this point of their orbits orbit of the moon can never at any time have been greatly
must convert into vapour every substance capable of va- different from what it now is. The collision of a comet with
porization ; and hence the prodigious extent of their at- the earth is not an impossible event; though so infimte-
mosphere in comparison of the smallness of their nuclei, ly little probable, that it can never excite any just cause
When this atmosphere has acquired all the volatility of of alarm. Ihe conjunctions of the planets anciently
which it is susceptible, the impulsion its vapours receive caused terrors still more unreasonable; and the eclipses,
from the solar rays, however feeble that force may be which now scarcely attract the notice of the vulgar, long
conceived to be, is sufficient to put them in motion, and rivalled the comets in the terrors which they occasioned
drive them off in a direction opposite to the sun. Thus to the inhabitants of the earth.
it is remarked, that the tail becomes most conspicuous Various opinions have been entertained respecting the
after the comet has passed the perihelion, and that its nature, and formation, and uses of the comets. Newton
direction, as was first observed by Appian, is the straight supposed that, as some of them pass so near to the sun as
raw-
astronomy.
79
Theoretical to be involved in all probability within bis atmosphere, the
Astronomy, resistance they must consequently experience will cause
them to approach nearer and nearer to the great luminary
at every successive revolution, till at last they are preci¬
pitated into his substance; hence their use in the system
may possibly be to repair the losses which the sun sus¬
tains from the constant emission of light. Whatever des¬
tinies they may be appointed to fulfil, the recent discovery
of several comets of short periods must be regarded as of
great importance to astronomy, inasmuch as the frequency
of their appearance will enable observers to take notice of
any great changes with which either their masses or orbits
may be affected.
With regard to the actual number of comets belong¬
ing to the solar system, there are no data from which
we can form any probable conjecture. Those only (with
two or three exceptions) which come within the orbit
of the earth are visible to us, and nearly 200 have been
observed since the discovery of the telescope. If, then,
we suppose them to be equally distributed throughout
the whole system, it would follow that the number of
comets coming within the sphere of Uranus, the radius
of which is twenty times that of the earth’s orbit, amounts
to 1,200,000 (the cube of 20 multiplied into 150), assum¬
ing the average period of their revolutions to be that in
which 150 have come within the sphere of the earth.
Such computations, however, are scarcely deserving of
notice.
On the subject of comets, the reader may consult Aris¬
totle, Meteorol. lib. i. cap. vi.; Seneca, Qiuest. Natural.
vii.; Hevelii Cometographia; Newton, De Mundi Syste-
mate, and Princip. lib. iii. prop. 42; Halley, Synopsis As¬
tronomies CometiccB, and Phil Trans, vol. xxiv.; Euler,
Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1756; Dionis du Sejour, Essai sur
les Cometes, Paris, 1775 ; Lexell, Phil. Tracis. 1779 ;
Clairaut, Mem. Acad. Paris, 1760; Lambert, Lettres
Cosmologiques, and Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1771; Bode, ibid.
1786, 1787; Sir H. Englefield on the Orbits of Comets,
4to, London; Pingre, Cometographie, 2 vols. 4to, Paris,
1784; Laplace, Mecanique Celeste, tome iv. p. 193, and
Systems du Monde, 4to, p. 127; Delambre, Astronomic
Theorique et Pratique, tome iii. chap, xxxiii.; also the Con-
noissance des Terns, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society,
and the various scientific Journals. (See also Supplement.)
CHAP. VI.
OF THE FIXED STARS.
After having treated of the different classes of bodies
which compose the solar system, it only remains for us to
inquire what observation has been able to discover re¬
specting that innumerable host which “ studs the ga¬
laxy,”—that multitude of brilliant points which, on ac¬
count of their always sensibly retaining the same relative
positions, have received the name of Fixed Stars.
tial globes and charts has been only recently, if it has Theoretical
yet altogether, been abandoned. The ancients likewise Astronomy,
distinguished some of the brightest stars in the different
constellations by particular names; but when it was
wished to include others less conspicuous, it became ne¬
cessary to have recourse to a different mode of proceed¬
ing. According to the usual method, first introduced by
Bayer in his Uranometria, each of the stars in every con¬
stellation is marked by a letter of the Greek alphabet,
commencing with the most brilliant, which is designated
by a, the next most conspicuous is called /3, the third y,
and so on. When the Greek letters are exhausted, re¬
course is had to the Homan or Italic; but even with the
help of these the nomenclature cannot be extended far,
and the simplest and most comprehensive method is un¬
doubtedly to employ the ordinal numbers to particularize
the stars belonging to each constellation. It requires to
be remarked, that the order of the letters indicates only
the relative brilliancy of the stars in the same constella¬
tion, without any reference to those in other parts of the
heavens. Thus a Aquarii is a star of the same order
of brightness as y Virginis. The stars of the first order
of brightness are likewise denominated stars of the first
magnitude; those of a degree inferior in brightness are
said to be of the second magnitude ; and so on with the
third, fourth, &c. Below the sixth the same denomina¬
tions are continued ; but the stars of the seventh and in¬
ferior magnitudes are no longer visible to the naked eye,
and are therefore called telescopic stars. It is obvious
that, in conferring these denominations, it has been
assumed that the brilliancy of the stars is proportional to
their magnitudes,—an hypothesis atleast extremely doubt¬
ful. The terms are however only used for the sake of
distinction, and no exact ideas can be attached to the
numbers. Observers are even at variance on the subject,^
certain stars being regarded by some of them as being of
the first, which are considered by others as being only of
the second magnitude.
A few stars have preserved the names conferred on
them by the Greek or Arabian astronomers. Some of
those names, belonging to stars of the first magnitude,
are the following:—Sirius, in the right shoulder of Orion ;
Rigel, in his left foot; Aldebaran, or the eye of the Bull;
Capella; Lyra; Arcturus; Antares; Spica Virginis;
Begulus, or the heart of the Lion; Canopus ; Fomalhaut;
Acharnar, &c.
The number of constellations given by Ptolemy is 48.
They do not comprehend all the stars in his catalogue,
and those not included in the figures are called by him
unformed stars (uyogpuroi, informes), and given at the end
of that constellation to which they are nearest. The fol¬
lowing table includes Ptolemy’s constellations, and those
which have been added by the moderns.
ptolemy’s constellations.
Sect. I.—Of the Arrangement of the Fixed Stars.
The great multitude of stars visible even to the naked
eye renders it impossible to distinguish each by a parti¬
cular name: astronomers have accordingly, for the sake
of reference, formed them into groups, to which they give
the name of Constellations or Asterisms. To the different
constellations the early astronomers gave the names of
men, and animals, and other familiar objects, from some fan¬
cied resemblances or analogies, which, for the most part,
are not easily traced. These denominations, consecrated
by ancient usage, are preserved in modern catalogues;
and the practice of delineating the object itself on celes-
North of the Zodiac.
1. Ursa Minor,
2. Ursa Major,
3. Draco,
4. Cepheus,
5. Bootes, Arctophilax.
6. Corona Borealis,
7. Hercules, Engonasin,
8. Lyra,
9. Cygnus, Gallina,
10. Cassiopeia,
11. Perseus,
12. Auriga,
The Little Bear.
The Great Bear.
The Dragon.
Cepheus.
The Northern Crown.
Hercules kneeling.
The Harp.
The Swan.
The Lady in her Chair.
Perseus.
The WTaggoner.
80
Theoretical 13. Serpentarius, Ophiuchus, Serpentarius
ASTRONOMY.
Astronomy 14. Serpens,
' 15. Sagitta,
, „ f Aquila, Vultur, et
' i Antinous,
17. Delphinus,
18. Equulus, JEqui Sectio,
19. Pegasus, Equus,
20. Andromeda,
21. Triangulum,
The Serpent.
The Arrow,
f The Eagle and
\ Antinous.
The Dolphin.
The Horse’s Head.
The Flying Horse.
Andromeda.
The Triangle.
In the Zodiac.
22. Aries,
23. Taurus,
24. Gemini,
25. Cancer,
26. Leo,
27. Virgo,
28. Libra, Chelce,
29. Scorpio,
30. Sagittarius,
31. Capricornus,
32. Aquarius,
33. Pisces,
Southern
34. Cetus,
35. Orion,
36. Eridanus, Fluvius,
37. Lepus,
38. Canis Major,
39. Canis Minor,
40. Argo Navis,
41. Hydra,
42. Crater,
43. Corvus,
44. Centaurus,
45. Lupus,
46. Ara,
47. Corona Australis,
48. Piscis Australis,
The Ram.
The Bull.
The Twins.
The Crab.
!The Lion, to which he join¬
ed some stars of Berenice’s
Hair.
The Virgin.
The Scales.
The Scorpion.
The Archer.
The Goat.
The Water-bearer .
The Fishes.
Constellations.
The Whale.
Orion.
Eridanus, the River.
The Hare.
The Great Dog.
The Little Dog.
The Ship.
The Hydra.
The Cup.
The Crow.
The Centaur.
The Wolf.
The Altar.
The Southern Crown.
The Southern Fish.
The constellations added by Hevelius are the follow¬
ing :
1. Antinous,
2. Mons Menelai,
3. Asterion et Chara,
4. Camelopardalus,
5. Cerberus,
6. Coma Berenices,
7. Lacerta,
8. Lynx,
9. Scutum Sobieski,
10. Sextans,
11. Triangulum,
12. Leo Minor,
Antinous.
Mount Menelaus.
The Greyhounds.
The Giraffe.
Cerberus.
Berenice’s Hair.
The Lizard.
The Lynx.
Sobieski’s Shield.
The Sextant.
The Triangle.
The Little Lion.
The constellations added by Halley in the southern
hemisphere are,
1. Columba Noachi,
2. Robur Carolinum,
3. Grus,
4. Phcenix,
5. Pavo,
6. Apus, Avis Indica,
7. Apis, Musca,
8. Chamaeleon,
Noah’s Dove.
The Royal Oak.
The Crane.
The Phoenix.
The Peacock.
The Bird of Paradise.
The Bee or Fly.
The Chameleon.
One of the most important objects of practical astrono¬
my is the formation of catalogues of the fixed stars, in
which their positions are determined for a given epoch ;Theoretical
for it is only by means of registered observations that the Astronomy
state of the heavens can be compared at different times, "
and any changes which take place be detected. The ap¬
parent place of a star is easily determined by observation;
but in order to render such observations available for the
purposes of comparison, the mean place of the observed
star must be computed and reduced to a given epoch;
and this reduction, which involves a knowledge of the pre¬
cession, nutation, aberration, and in general of all the mo¬
tions which affect the star’s apparent place, is only ac¬
complished by a laborious process of calculation.
The principal catalogues of the stars which we possess Catalogues
are the following :— slars'
Ptolemy’s catalogue, which contains 1022 stars. The
positions are referred to the ecliptic, and the longitudes
are for the year 137 of our era. It is supposed that the
greater part of the observations on which it is founded
were made and computed by Hipparchus 267 years be¬
fore, and that Ptolemy merely reduced them to his epoch
by adding to each of the longitudes 2° 40', which, accord¬
ing to him, was the amount of the precession of the equi¬
noxes in that interval. This catalogue forms part of the
Almagest.
The catalogue of Ulugh Beigh, containing 1017 stars.
Tycho’s catalogue, which contains only 777 stars, in 45
constellations.
Riccioli’s catalogue, which contains 1468 stars. Part
of it, however, was merely copied from more ancient ca¬
talogues.
Bayer’s catalogue, containing 1762 stars, in 72 constel¬
lations. It was published in his Uranometria in 1603.
The third edition of this work appeared at Uhn in 1661.
The catalogue of Hevelius, which contains 1888 stars,
of which it gives the latitudes, longitudes, right ascen¬
sions, and declinations, for the year 1661. Published in
his Prodromus Astronomies in 1690.
Flamsteed’s catalogue, containing 2884 stars. Publish¬
ed in the Historia Ccelestis Britannica in 1725. A less
perfect edition was given by Halley in 1712.
Catalogues of Lacaille.—The first of these, published
in his Astronomies Fundamental contains 397 stars; the
second, which is given in his Cesium Australe Stelliferum,
contains 1942 of the stars in the southern hemisphere;
and the third, which was reduced from his observations by
the celebrated Bailly, contains the places of 515 zodiacal
Mayer’s catalogue, containing 998 zodiacal stars. It
appeared in his Opera Inedita, Gottingen, 1775, and was
reprinted in the Connoissance des Terns for 1778.
Bradley’s catalogue, containing 587 stars. This was
published in the first volume of his observations, edited
by Hornsby, in 1798. Fhe positions of 389 stars, calcu¬
lated from Bradley’s observations, had been given by Ma¬
son in the Nautical Almanack in 1773. Bradley’s obser¬
vations extended to 3000 stars, but the greater part of them
remained useless to astronomy till they were reduced and
made the subject of discussion by Bessel in his Funda-
menta Astronomies, Regiomonti, 1818.
Maskelyne’s catalogue of 36 stars.
Cagnoli’s catalogue, containing 501 stars. Published
in the Memoirs of the Italian Society.
Bode’s catalogue, which contains 17,240 stars, reduced
from the observations of various astronomers.
Piazzi’s catalogue, which contains 6748 stars, reduced
to the year 1800. In 1814 Piazzi published a new cata¬
logue, comprising 7646 stars.
Zach’s catalogue, inserted in his Tabules sped ales Aber-
rationis et Nutationis, Gothae, 1806.
astronomy.
rheoretical Catalogue of the Astronomical Society of London, con-
Astronomytaining 2881 stars, published in the second volume of their
'Memoirs. Almost all the stars comprised in this cata¬
logue are to be found in the catalogues of Bradley or Piazzi,
from which they have been reduced to the year 1830.
In addition to the above, the records of great masses of
observations may be found in the Philosophical Transac¬
tions, the Connoissance des Terns, and the various astro¬
nomical and scientific Journals. Lalande has registered
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris, and his Histoire
Celeste, the positions of no fewer than 50,000; and Bes¬
sel, of the Kdnigsberg Observatory, who continues to ex¬
plore the heavens with unabated zeal, has already exa¬
mined an equal number. Astronomers are now aware of
the importance of extending their researches to the most
minute sidereal objects. (See Supplement.)
Sect. II.— Of the Parallax, Distance, Magnitude, and
Number of the Fixed Stars.
The fixed stars being the points of departure from
which all the celestial motions are estimated, one of the
first objects in astronomy is to determine the amount and
law of all the minute variations of position, real or appa¬
rent, to which they are subject. One of the most obvious
consequences of the hypothesis of the annual motion of
the earth is the existence of an annual parallax of the stars ;
but on account of the enormous distances of these bodies,
this effect of the earth’s motion is so small that it can¬
not be easily measured ; and there are even now very few
cases in which, with the utmost refinements of methods and
instruments, a measurable parallax has been detected. The
longest line which nature has furnished us with the means
of actually measuring, is the circumference of our own globe.
From this geometry teaches us how to find its diameter ; and
the diameter we employ as a scale with which to compare
the distances of the sun and moon, and the other bodies
of the solar system. But experience shows us that this
scale, large as it is in our conceptions, is only an insen¬
sible point in comparison of the distances ot the fixed
stars. Astronomy has furnished us with another base,
about 24,000 times longer than the former, or above 190
millions of miles. This is the diameter of the earth’s or¬
bit, which is most conveniently used for expressing the
distances of the planets and comets from the sun. Yet
even this line is in general insensible when compared with
the distances of the stars ; for, on observing the same star
from its two extremities, at the end of six months, no va¬
riation whatever is perceptible in the star’s position, after
the proper corrections have been made for the small effects
produced by different and known causes. The limits of
the errors of modern observations cannot well be supposed
to exceed 1". It follows, therefore, that, seen from the
distance of the fixed stars, the diameter of the ecliptic,
which exceeds 190 millions of miles, subtends an angle of
less than 1". Had the annual parallax exceeded this
small quantity, it could scarcely have escaped the multi¬
plied efforts that have been made to detect it, not only by
Bradley, whose observations, undertaken for the express
purpose of determining the parallax of the stars, conducted
him to the grand discoveries of the aberration and nutation,
but also by other observers furnished with the more delicate
instruments of the present day; and particularly the obser¬
vations made with the splendid instruments of the Royal
Observatory of Greenwich. A long controversy was carried
on, extending from the year 1810 to 1824, between Dr
Brinkley and Mr Pond, on the subject of the annual paral¬
lax of some of the brightest stars, Brinkley asserting that
he had found large parallaxes, and Pond denying the exist-
VOL. IV.
81
ence of any measurable parallaxes. Brinkley’s conclusions Theoretical
are now generally acknowledged to have been erroneous. Astronomy
Brinkley did not observe any parallax in the case of the
stars of the constellation Cygni, some of which, haying a
very sensible proper motion, may, with great probability, be
considered as being at a less distance from the earth ; but in
Wega (a Lyrae) he found a parallax of 1"T3, and one of
1"*42 in the star Altair, in Aquilae. Bradley supposed
the parallax of Sirius to amount to 1". These facts are, how¬
ever, disproved by other eminent observers. In a series
of 14 stars Struve found the parallax to be negative; that
is, the small change of position which the observations
seemed to indicate was in a direction contrary to what
it would have been if it had arisen from the annual mo¬
tion of the earth. Mr Pond, the Astronomer Royal,
thought the probable value of the parallax could not
exceed 0"-018, a quantity so extremely minute as to be
altogether lost in the uncertainties of instrumental errors,
and the errors of refraction, which are at least 20 times
S1<Letus concede tor a moment the disputed parallax of 1",
and inquire what must be the corresponding distance of the
star. The semidiameter of the terrestrial orbit being taken
at 95 millions of miles, the distance of a star whose parallax
is 1" will be expressed by -r^—pX 95000000=206264 X
95000000 = 19,595,080,000,000, or about 20 trillions of
English miles. To assist the imagination in forming some
idea of this almost inconceivable distance, we may cal¬
culate that a ray of light which darts from the sun to
the earth in the space of 8 min. 7 sec., would require
206264 X 8 min. 7 sec., or 3 years and 216 days, to reach us
from the star. A spider’s thread before the eye of a spec¬
tator placed at the same distance would suffice to conceal
the orbit of the earth; and the breadth of a hair would
blot out the whole planetary system. But a star having a
parallax of 1" is at a moderate distance in comparison of
innumerable others, in which no parallactic motion what¬
ever can be distinguished. Supposing the distance of
one of these to be only a thousand times greater, a ray of
light darted from it would travel between 3000 and 4000
years before it reached the earth; and if the star were
annihilated by any sudden convulsion, it would appear to
shine in its proper place during that immense period, after
it had been extinguished from the face of the heavens.
Pursuing speculations of this kind, we may conceive, with
Huygens, that it is not impossible that there may exist
stars placed at such enormous distances, that their light
has not yet reached the earth since their creation.
When viewed with the naked eye, the magnitudes of the Magni-
stars appear to be very different,—a circumstance which tude of the
may be attributed either to a real diversity of brightness,
or, which is more probable, to the great differences in
their distances. The sensible magnitudes which they ex¬
hibit when viewed in this manner are owing only to the
numerous reflections of the rays of light from the aerial
particles surrounding the eye; as is proved by looking at
them through a long tube, which prevents any rays from
reaching the eye excepting those which come directly from
the star. In the telescope their dimensions are entirely
inappreciable : the greater the power with which they are
viewed, the smaller are their apparent diameters, because
they are then more completely divested of the effects of
irradiation. A star having a diameter of 1", and an an¬
nual parallax of 1", would be more than a million of times
larger than the sun. Nevertheless, Sir W. Herschel as¬
sures us, that, by means of the great powers which his
telescopes carried, he had seen the disks of some stars
perfectly round, and had even succeeded in measuring
astronomy.
82
Theoretical their apparent diameters. He found H’e diairico r 'if'
Astronomy. Wega to be that of Aldebaran V‘5, and that of Capell
2"-5. Supposina: the measurement accurate, and the an¬
nual parallax of this last not to exceed V, its volume
would be equal to 20 million times that of the
Number of With regard to the number of the stars, it is altoget
the stars, impossible to form any satisfactory conjecture.
which are visible to the naked eye the number does not,
nrobablv at any time, exceed 1000, although, . , . ,
effect of their twinkling, and the confused manner m which
thev are seen, one is apt to suppose them to be muc
more numerous ; but in the telescope they are Prod,^ous0'
ly multiplied. Within the limits of a space extending 1^
by 2°, Herschel counted no fewer than 50,0 •
single constellation of the Pleiades, instead of 6 or 7,
wh?ch can be distinguished by the unassisted v^on Hooke,
with a telescope of 12 feet, counted and m te^
scopes of greater power the number appears to be vast y
larger! Although, by reason of their very unequal d.s-
tribution, no accurate estimate can be formed of t e
number contained in the whole sphere by the examination
of any small portion of it, yet there is smne teason to con¬
clude that there cannot be less than 75 millions of stars
altogether visible in a good telescope. Baron Zach es
timates that there may be at least a thousand ^ ^ns o
stars in the entire heavens, without reckoning (what may
probably exist) opaque bodies which cannot be perceived,
and stars whose light has been extinguished. It is, how
ever, evident that all estimates of this sort have no other
limit than such as is imposed by the imagination. If an
observer could be transported to the remotest star visible
in his telescope, he would probably see extending be¬
fore him in the same direction, a firmament equally rich
and splendid as that which he beholds from our own in¬
significant planet.
Sect. III. Of the Proper Motions of the Stars.
In Chap. II. four different causes of apparent motion
with regard to the stars have been explained; namely, the
precession of the equinoxes, the nutation of the earth s
axis, the secular diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic,
and the aberration of light; all which are occasioned by
the various motions proper to the earth, and for that rea¬
son are called apparent motions. But if, after due allow¬
ance has been made for the effects produced by them, it
should happen that the observed place of any star, or
number of stars, does not correspond with former obser¬
vations, a new and peculiar motion would be indicated,
which must be explained by a new hypothesis. Now
there are obviously two ways of accounting for such a
phenomenon, namely, a parallactic motion and a proper mo¬
tion from either of which the observed variation of position
may result. It has already been shown that the annual
parallax, or that apparent alteration in the places of the
fixed stars which might be expected from the motion ot
the earth in its orbit, is insensible; but we may suppose,
and indeed observation has even rendered it probable, that
the sun, accompanied by his whole train of planets and
comets, is in motion in space; and if this is the case, the
stars must appear to change their relative situations as
soon as the sun has described a space bearing a sensible
ratio to their distance. The resulting motion would thus
partake of the nature of parallax, and is hence termed
parallactic. The other method of accounting for any ob¬
served alteration in the mutual position of the stars, is to
ascribe to them a proper motion, instead of supposing them
to be absolutely fixed. On this supposition the motion is
real; yet it may happen that the observed changes ot po-
sition result from the combined effects of a real and pa.Tho«U
rallactic motion. The effects of these motions are in their
nature sufficiently distinct, although, on account of t e
extremely minute quantities to be determined, and tne
uncertainty that still exists as to the exact amount of
some of the apparent motions with which they are blended,
it may for centuries to come be found impossible to sepa¬
rate them. If all the stars forming a group, or situated in
the same quarter of the heavens, appear to recede from
or approach to each other, their motions may with rea¬
son be ascribed to the translation of the solar system in
space, and consequently be parallactic : but if, on the con¬
trary, some appear stationary, while others appear to move
in different directions, the phenomena will indicate a real
change in the positions of the stars.
From the analogy of our own system we are naturally
induced to extend the principle of gravity to the sphere o
the stars, and to suppose, as a necessary consequence
that none of the celestial bodies are m a state of absolute
repose. Their mutual attraction must communicate to
them a motion which would end in uniting them all m the
same mass unless it were counteracted by a cent^lt,J£j
force : hence the stars are supposed to move about distant
centres in orbits analogous to those of the plane s.
if the stars are not absolutely at rest in space, their
tions must be extremely slow, inasmuch as the actua
state of the heavens corresponds entirely with the descrip¬
tions that have been given of it by H^parchus and
Ptolemy. Ptolemy has transmitted to us a great numbe
of observations on the relative situations of the fixed stars
made by Hipparchus, whose method was to observe those
which are situated in an arc of the same circle, or
can be intersected by the same strmght hne; and he
assures us that he himself, after an interval of 280 years,
could perceive no alteration. In order to furnish postey
with the means of pursuing similar inquiries, ,7
added the positions of many other stars determined by
own observations ; and we owe to his labours certain
knowledge that the relative positions of the stars, notwith
standing8the numerous displacements of the e dip tic and
equator, are at present nearly the same as they we
years ago. The ancient observations were, however, of too
rude a nature to admit of any satisfactory conclusion being
deduced from them respecting the minute quantities
question. The accurate instruments of the P^ent day
have enabled observers to remark some changes of pos
Bon too decided to admit, of doubt; hence astronomers
have inferred a proper motion in several stars, as wel a
translation of the sun and the planets in sPa“- F™£ *e
comparison of a great number of observations, bir W.
Herschel was of opinion that many of the proper motions
might be explained by supposing the solar system to ave
a motion directed towards the star X in the constellation
Hercules. Bessel, having subjected to a rigorous compari¬
son a much greater number of the proper motions indicated
by comparing the catalogues of Bradley, Mayer, Piazzi, &c.
arrived at the conclusion that many points might be assigned
in the sphere, some of them even diametrically opposite to
each other, situated in the direction of those motions ; but
that, in whatever direction the sun is supposed to move, so
many proper motions will remain unaccounted for, that there
is noYreason for preferring one point to another. It has since
been demonstrated, however, by astronomers, that Bessel s
conclusion was erroneous, and that Herschel s idea was cor¬
rect. The conspicuous proper motions of the stars wmen
have hitherto been remarked are subject to an assignable law,
and are not directed to arbitrary points in space; and it is
only after eliminating the effects of the solar motion, that
the real proper motions can be inferred. It i ,
ASTRONOMY.
83
Theoretical ever, on the whole, probable that they are due, in part at
Astronomy least, to a real displacement of the stars, and not to a ge¬
neral translation of the solar system.
As early as the beginning of the present century, astro¬
nomers had detected proper motions in a great number of
stars, the rates of which they inserted in their catalogues
along with those of the precession ; but great discrepancies
existed in their conclusions. Baron Zach, comparing Mas-
kelyne’s observations of the right ascensionsof the Greenwich
stars, reduced to 1802, with those of Bradley, reduced to
1760, found results which differ from those of Maskelyne
himself, not only in amount, but in several instances even in
the direction of the supposed proper motions. For example,
the proper motions (in right ascension) of y Pegasi, a Ceti,
Rigel, Sirius, Spica, y and /3 Aquilce, a Cygni, a Aquarii,
and a Pegasi, are all positive according to Zach, while Mas¬
kelyne considered them as being all negative. Such was the
uncertainty respecting the proper motions even of the Green¬
wich stars, which, by reason of the frequent observations
they had undergone, and the rigorous scrutinies to which
they had been subjected, were probably those whose places
had been the most accurately determined of any in the whole
heavens. But the motions are so slow that they must re-
Star.
107
52
13
12
23
27
40
1
11 /3 Cassiopeiee...
24 r\ Ditto 
37 y, Andromedae..
1 Polaris  
37 h Cassiopeke...
Piscium 
Ceti 
Persei 
Eridani 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Orionis  
104 m Tauri 
15 5 Leporis 
9 a Can. Maj....
10 a Can. Min....,
78 (3 Geminorum..
15 -vj/3 Cancri 
9 / Ursae Maj...,
81 <ir Cancri 
25 <3 Ursae Maj...
29 v Ditto 
7 « Crateris  
63 ^ Leonis 
53 £ Ursae Maj...
94 /3 Leonis 
5 j3 Virginis 
16 c Ditto 
5 x Draconis....
3 Canum Yen.
29 y Virginis 
43 d Ditto 
43 Com. Ber....
61 Virginis 
70 Ditto  
Proper motion in
M.
+ 0"'
+ 1 '
+ 1 '
+ !■
+ 0'
— 1
+ 0
+ 0
82
78
•20
■47
•64
•86
•67
•64
85 7] Ursae Maj.
— 2
+ 0
+ 0
— 0
— 0
— 0
— 0
— 1
— 0
— 1
— 0
— 0
— 0
— 0
— 0
+ 0
— 0
— 0
— 1
— 0
— 0
— 1
— 1
21
54
69
51
71
■72
■60
•05
■55
•80
■60
■59
•53
■52
•53
■76
•55
•50
•02
•72
•65
•19
•30
D.
— 0-50
0"-72
— 0-57
+ 0-84
+ 0-82
— 0-60
— 0-59
— 3-60
— 0-62
— 1 -14
— 0-98
— 0-60
0-64
+ 0-94
_ 1 -08
— 0-53
main, for a considerable number of years at least, blended Theoretical
with the errors of observation. The double star 61 Cygni Astronomy
is indeed demonstrated to have an annual proper motion
of + 5" •06 in right ascension, and 3"-34 in declination ;
but in general the rates are confined within much nar¬
rower limits, and appear to amount only to a fraction of
a second. The number of stars in which this proper
motion has been supposed to be observed is, as we have
already noticed, very considerable. M. Bessel, by a com¬
parison of 2959 stars out of Bradley’s catalogue, with the
same stars in the catalogue of Piazzi, found that 425 of
them had an annual proper motion, amounting to more
than 0"-2, in the arc of a great circle. The following table,
published by Mr Baily in the second volume of the Me¬
moirs of the Astronomical Society, contains a list of all
those stars observed by Bradley and Mayer, whose annual
proper motions, according to Piazzi, as given in his cata¬
logue, amount to 0"-5 either in right ascension or declina¬
tion. The positive sign, in the column of declinations, de¬
notes a motion towards the north, the negative a motion
towards the south. The numbers prefixed are those of
Flamsteed, unless when inclosed within a parenthesis, in
which case they are those of Piazzi.
Star.
5 9
16 «
19 A
23 9
44
41 7
49
18
40 l
26 s
36 a
30
22 g
27 /
86 y,
70 p
58 n
44 ^
(50)
31 b
3
61 <s
53 a
60 /3
15 z
r
1 x
3 »
61
3
65 r
(36)
6 7
17 /
(249)
85
Centauri.
Bootis...,
Ditto  
Ditto  
1.0 x
(29) 7
Ditto....:....
Serpentis....
Librae 
Scorpii 
Herculis 
Scorpii 
Ophiuchi....
Scorpii 
Ursae Min...
Draconis....
Herculis....
Ophiuchi....
Serpentis....
Draconis....
Sagittarii....
Aquilae 
Cygni.; 
Draconis  
Aquilae 
Ditto 
Sagittae 
Sagittarii....,
Cephei 
Ditto 
Cygni 
Piscis Aust.,
Cygni 
Lacertae 
Piscium 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Pegasi 
Proper motion in
— 0"-63
— 1 *17
— 0-55
— 0-80
— 0-91
— 0-75
— 0*70
— 0-65
— 0-59
— 0-58
— 0-82
— 0-51
— 0-67
+ 1 -72
+ 0-92
+ 1-28
+ 0-51
— 0-50
4- 1 -24
— 0-80
4-5-38
— 1 -09
4-0-75
4-0-78
4-0-70
4-0-90
D.
— l"-96
— 0-54
— 1 -31
— 0-53
1 -25
1 -24
— 0-84
— 1 -17
— 0-68
— 0-54
4-0-72
— 0-72
— 2-12
— 0-54
4-0*76
4- 0-81
4-3-30
4-0-50
— 0-80
— 0-55
— 1-15
The proper motions of the stars are not susceptible of the observed position of any given star the corrections due
direct observation or measurement: they are only indicated to all the apparent motions with which we are acquainted,
by the minute differences which remain after applying to Thus, let M and M' be the mean places of any given star
astronomy.
84
Theoretical at two difFerent epochs, the !nter7\,betp^ ^
Astronomy years; P the annual precession of the equinoxes, and
v v / the annual motion of the star in right ascension. It is ob¬
vious that x will be given by the formula
M—M' __p.
so that the value of x, or the amount of the
is dependent not only on the accuracy of the observatio^
and on the computations from which Mand 2 ,
places of the star, have been deduced, but a
quantity P, which is calculated by a method of approxi-
mation not entirely exact. For all these reasons it is easy
to see that the determination of the proper motions must
be attended with considerable uncertainty, and that hu
dredt probably thousands, of years will be requ.red o^e-
velope their rates and directions, and assign the dista
centres round which they are performed. (See bupp.;
Sect IV—Of Variable and Double Stars, Nebula, and
J the Milky Way.
The periodical variations of brilliancy to which some of
the fixed stars are subject, may be reck,°^fp
most remarkable of the phenomena exhibited by those
bodies. Several stars, formerly distinguished by the
splendour, have entirely disappeared; others are now con¬
spicuous which do not seem to have been visible to the
ancient observers; and there are some which alternately
appear and disappear, or of which the light at ieast under¬
goes great periodic variations. Some seem to become
gradually more obscure, as 8 in the Great Bear; others,
like P in the Whale, to be increasing m brilliancy. Some
stars have all at once blazed forth with great splendour,
and after a gradual diminution of their light, have aga
become extinct. The most remarkable instance o this
sort is that of the star which appeared in 1572, in the
time of Tycho. It suddenly shone forth in tbe constella¬
tion Cassiopeia with a splendour exceedmg that of stars
of the first magnitude, even of Jupiter and Venus at t
least distances from the earth, and could be seen with tl e
naked eye on the meridian in full day. Its brilliancy
gradually diminished from the time of its first appearance,
and at the end of sixteen months it entirely disappeared,
and has never been seen since. During the whole time
of its apparition its place in the heavens remained unal¬
tered, and it had no annual parallax; its distance was
consequently of the same order as that of the fixed sta .
Its colour, however, underwent considerable variations.
Tvcho describes it as having been at of a brig
white; afterwards of a reddish yellow, like Mars or Alde-
baran; and, lastly, of a leaden white, like Saturn. Another
instance of the same kind was observed in 1604, when a
star of the first magnitude suddenly appeared in the right
foot of Ophiuchus ; it presented phenomena analogous to
the former, and disappeared in like manner after some
months. Kepler wrote a book on this singular apparition.
These instances sufficiently prove that the stars are sub-
iect to great physical revolutions.
A great number of stars have been observed whose
light seems to undergo a regular periodic increase and
diminution, and these are properly called variable stars.
One in the Whale has a period of 334 days, and is re¬
markable for the magnitude of its variations. From being
a star of the second magnitude, it becomes so dim as to
be seen with difficulty through powerful telescopes. Some
are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their
variation. Alyol has a period of between two and three
days, 8 Cephei one of 5| days, P Lyra one of 6f days,
^ Antinoi one of 7 days. The regular succession of these
variations precludes the supposition of their being °cca-^eoretical
sioned by a real or permanent destruction of the stars’
neither can they be supposed to arise fr.01". a.cha"^ "J
distance ; for as the stars invariably retain their apparent
places, it would be necessary to suppose that they ap¬
proach to and recede from the earth in straight lines, an
hypothesis which is at least extremely improbable, t he
most probable supposition is, that the stars revolve, like
the sun and planets, about an axis; and that the sur¬
faces of the variable stars are unequally covered with
dark spots, or unequally fitted to emit light; whence their
dark sides will be turned towards us after certain inter¬
vals by the effect of rotation. In this way Newton ac¬
counted for the phenomena. Other astronomers have de¬
vised different explanations. Maupertms supposed that
the figure of the stars is not globular, but flat, and that
the variations of brilliancy depend on the angle whic
their flat sides make with the visual ray,—an angle which
will be constantly varying if the stars are endowed with a
rotatory motion. Others, again, have imagined that the
partial obscurations of the stars may be occasioned by
their being eclipsed by opaque bodies or planets revo ving
r0lOn examining the stars with telescopes of considerable ^alsUple
power, many of them are found to be composed of two or
more stars placed contiguous to each other’ or °^hich
the distance subtends a very minute angle. This appear¬
ance is probably in many cases owing s°lely to the optical
effect of their position relative to the spectator; for it
evident that two stars will appear contiguous if they arc
placed nearly in the same line of vision, aUhoughten-
real distance, may be immeasurably great. T-here are,
however, many instances in which the angle of position of
the two stars varies in such a manner as to indicate a mo¬
tion of revolution about a common centre ; and m this case
the two stars form a binary system, performing to each
other the office of sun and planet, and connected to¬
gether by gravity or some equivalent principle. Ihe e
cent observations of Herschel, Dawes, South, and Struve^
have placed this fact beyond doubt. fa^
been detected so rapid as to become measurable within
very short periods of time; and at certain epochs the sa-
telllte or feebler star has been observed to disappear,
either on passing behind or before its primary, or by ap¬
proaching so near to it that its light has been absorbed
by that of the other. The most remarkable instance of a
regular revolution of this sort is that of the double star
l Ursa Majoris, in which the angular velocity is 6 4 an¬
nually, so that the two stars complete a revolution about
one another in the space of 60 years; and above three
fourths of a circuit have been already described since its
discovery in 1781. The double star p Ophiuchi presents
a sTmLr phenomenon, and the satellite has a motion in its
orbit still more rapid, a Gastons, y Virgims, £ Canon,
y. Bootis 8 Serpentis, and that remarkable double star 61
togethe? with several others, exhibit similar vana-
leo that the apparent distance of two stais which a
v A near each other will vary with the position of the
earth in its orbit, unless they are both so remote that, in
comparison of their distance from the earth, the diameter
of the terrestrial orbit is insensible. His attention was,
however^ soon arrested by the new and nnex^ed ph^
rmmena which these bodies presented. Sir W. Herscne
observed in all 2100 of them. Messrs South and Hersc!'e'
have given a catalogue of 380 in the Transactions of the
ASTRONOMY.
85
Theoretical Royal Society for 1824, and South added 458 to the list
Astronomy, in the volume for 1826. Mr Herschel has published three
series of observations in the Memoirs of the Astronomical
Society, containing altogether 1000 double stars ; and the
catalogue of M. Struve of Dorpat contains 3063 of the
most remarkable. The object of these catalogues is not
merely to fix the place of the star within such limits as
will enable it to be easily discovered at any future time,
but also to record a description of the appearance,
position, and mutual distances, of the individual stars
composing the system, in order that subsequent observ¬
ers may have the means of detecting their connected
motions, or any changes with which they may be affected.
M. Struve has also taken notice of 52 triple stars, among
which No. 11 of the Unicorn, £ of Cancer, and g of the Ba¬
lance, appear to be ternary systems in motion. Quadruple
and quintuple stars have likewise been observed, which
also appear to revolve about a common centre of gravity.
Every region of the heavens furnishes examples of these
curious phenomena,especially those which abound in stars;
though M. Struve remarks that some parts of the milky
way contain very few, while others present them in great
abundance.
Some of the double stars present curious instances of con¬
trasted colours, and generally assume the complementary
tints,—a circumstance which, Mr Herschel thinks, may
be owing in some degree, at least in cases where red and
green, yellow and blue stars are combined in a double star,
to the influence of optical deception. “ When I first observ¬
ed,” says that ingenious philosopher, “the double star No.
881, JR-19 hours 8 minutes 56 seconds, P. D. 95° 45' 33", I
remarked it as a case of contrasted colour, the large star
being ruddy, and the small one blue. But on closer attention
I perceived the small star itself to be double; yet each of the
two very minute stars of which it consists appeared equal¬
ly blue while the eye continued under the influence of
the large one; but when this was withdrawn from the
field, they appeared of no particular colour, but just like
other small stars in the neighbourhood. It may be re¬
marked further, too, that yellow stars are, generally speak¬
ing, accompanied by blue small ones, blue being the com¬
plementary tint of yellow ; but when the large star has an
excess of red rays, the blue verges to green, as it ought
on the hypothesis of contrast. A most remarkable in¬
stance is that of No. 895 (Struve’s catalogue), H2.6 hours
12 minutes, P. D. 84° 12', in which the large star is of a
full ruby red, and the smaller one of a fine green, but
which colour it also loses when the large star is conceal¬
ed behind the cross of the wires.” (Memoirs of the As¬
tronomical Society, vol. iii. p. 186.)
Nebulae. The Nebulce, so called from their dim cloudy appear¬
ance, form another class of objects which furnish matter
for curious speculation and conjecture respecting the for¬
mation and structure of the sidereal heavens. When ex¬
amined with a telescope of moderate powers, the greater
part of the nebulae are distinctly perceived to be compos¬
ed of clusters of little stars, imperceptible to the naked
eye, because, on account of their apparent proximity,
the rays of light proceeding from each are blended to¬
gether, through the effects of irradiation, in such a manner
as to produce only a confused luminous appearance. In
others, however, no individual stars can be perceived,
even through the best telescopes; and the nebula exhi¬
bits only the appearance of a self-luminous or phosphores¬
cent patch of matter in a highly dilated or gaseous state;
though it is possible that even in this case the appear¬
ance may be owing to a congeries of stars so minute, or
so distant, as not to afford singly sufficient light to make
an impression on the eye. In some instances the nebula
presents the appearance of a faint luminous atmosphere, Theoretical
of a circular form, and of large extent, surrounding a star Astronomy,
of considerable brilliancy. One of the most remarkable
nebulae is that which is situated in the sword-handle of
Orion. It was discovered by Huygens in 1656, and de¬
scribed and figured by him in his Systema Saturnium.
Since that time it has been examined and described by
various observers, particularly Fouchy, Mairan, Le (lentil,
and Messier, who have given engravings of it; and if any
trust can be placed in their descriptions of so indistinct
and difficult an object, it must have undergone great
changes in its form and physical appearances. Unfortu¬
nately, however, no satisfactory inference can be drawn
from the comparison of the different descriptions; for it
is found that the same nebula, viewed on the same night
with different telescopes, presents appearances so differ¬
ent as to be scarcely recognizable as the same object.
The effects of atmospherical variations also cause great
differences in its appearance, even when it is viewed
through the same telescope at different times ; so that it
is scarcely possible that any two observers will be found
to agree in their delineations of its outline. Sir J. Her¬
schel, in the second volume of the Memoirs of the Astro¬
nomical Society, has given a detailed description of this
nebula as it appeared in his twenty feet reflector in 1824,
together with a drawing which, on account of the supe¬
riority of his telescope, is probably a much more correct
representation of the object than any which previously
existed. Fig. 108 is copied from that drawing. Of that Plate
portion of the nebula which he calls the Huygenian re-bXXX\m.
gion Mr Herschel gives the following account: “ I know
not how to describe it better than by comparing it to a
curdling liquid, or a surface strewed over with flocks
of wool, or to the breaking up of a mackarel sky when
the clouds of which it consists begin to assume a cir¬
rous appearance. It is not very unlike the mottling of
the sun’s disk, only (if I may so express myself) the grain
is much coarser, and the intervals darker ; and the flocculi,
instead of being generally round, are drawn out into little
wisps. They present, however, no appearance of being
composed of small stars, and their aspect is altogether
different from resolvable nebulce. In the latter we fancy
that we see stars, or that, could we strain our sight a little
more, we should see them; but the former suggests no
idea of stars, but rather of something quite distinct from
them.” .
Another very remarkable nebula is that in the girdle of
Andromeda, which, on account of its being visible to the
naked eye, has been known since the earliest ages of as¬
tronomy. It was re-discovered in 1612 by Simon Marius,
who describes it as having the appearance of a candle
seen through horn, that is, a diluted light, increasing in
density towards a centre. Le Gentil mentions that its
figure had appeared to him for many years round, but
that in 1757 it had become oval. He also remarks that
its light was perfectly uniform in all parts,—a fact which
is quite at variance with its present appearance, and which,
if true, argues that the nebulous matter is in a rapid state
of condensation. “ At present,” says Sir J. Herschel, in
the volume above referred to, “ it has not, indeed, a star
or any well-defined disk in its centre ; but the brightness,
which increases by regular gradations from the circum¬
ference, suddenly acquires a great accession, so as to offer
the appearance of a nipple, as it were, in the middle, of
very small diameter (10" or 12"), but totally devoid of any
distinct outline, so that it is impossible to say precisely
where the nucleus ends and the nebula begins. Its nebu¬
losity is of the most perfect milky, absolutely irresolvable
kind, without the slightest tendency to that separation
86
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical into flocculi above described in the nebula of Orion ; nor
Astronomy: jg (;jiere any sort 0f appearance of the smallest star in the
^upp ement cenj.re 0p nipple# This nebula is oval, very bright,
"" an(l of great magnitude, and altogether a most magnifi¬
cent object.”
Sir W. Herschel, who devoted himself to the examina¬
tion of every uncommon appearance in the sidereal heavens,
has given catalogues of 2000 nebulae and clusters of stars
discovered by him, and has shown that the nebulous
matter is distributed through the immensity of space in
quantities inconceivably great, and in separate parcels of
all shapes and sizes, and of all degrees of brightness be¬
tween a mere milky appearance and the condensed light
of a fixed star. Finding that the gradations between the
two extremes were tolerably regular, he thought it pro¬
bable that the nebulae form the materials out of which
nature elaborates suns and systems, and conceived that,
in virtue of a central gravitation, each parcel of nebulous
matter becomes more and more condensed, and assumes
a rounder form; that from the eccentricity of its shape,
and the effects of the mutual gravitation of its particles,
it acquires gradually a rotatory motion ; that the conden¬
sation goes on increasing till the mass acquires consistency
and solidity, and all the other characters of a comet or
planet; that by a still further process of condensation the
body becomes a real star, self-shining; and that thus the
waste of the celestial bodies, by the perpetual diffusion
of their light, is continually compensated and restored by
new formations of such bodies, to replenish for ever the
universe with planets and stars. (See the Philosophical
Transactions for 1811.) These hypotheses or conjectures
give no doubt a mechanical reason for the formation of
stars, but the answer to them is exceedingly obvious.
Has any instance as yet been observed of a nebula being
succeeded by a star, or cluster of stars, or even of becom¬
ing so much more condensed as absolutely to change its
form ? Till a change of this sort has been observed, the
inferences are drawn from analogies too slender to entitle
them to be regarded as any thing more than mere fancies
and speculations. Even if every link in the chain were per¬
fect, and the gradation distinctly traced from the most dif-Theoretical
fuse nebula to the most compact star, the facts would still ^tro®^y =
be insufficient to warrant the conclusion that the celestial ^uPp
matter had actually undergone a transition from the ne¬
bulous to the stellar state, or that any star or nebula in
the heavens ever existed in a state different from its pre¬
sent. Though there is little reason to hope that we shall
ever obtain a full knowledge of the mysterious processes
which the great Architect of the universe has employed
in the formation of the celestial bodies, yet a long series
of observations with such instruments as are now con¬
structed may lead to the detection of changes sufficiently
indicative of the nature of the forces by which they are
produced. These cosmological speculations, however, it
may be well to remark, are not of the slightest value
to astronomy.
That great luminous tract which encompasses the sky Milky,
like a girdle, and is called the Galaxy or Milky-Way, is Way-
supposed by Sir W. Herschel to be a nebula of which the
sun forms one of the component stars ; and hence it ap¬
pears immensely greater than other nebulae only in conse¬
quence of our situation with respect to it, and of its great¬
er proximity to our system. On examining any part of
it with a good telescope, we perceive a prodigious multi¬
tude of small stars, whose blended light occasions the
whitish appearance which forms so remarkable an object in
the heavens. Yet notwithstanding the apparent contiguity
of the stars which crowd the galaxy, it is certain that
their mutual distances cannot be less than a hundred
thousand times the radius of the terrestrial orbit. From
this we may attempt to form some notion of the incon¬
ceivable distances of the other nebulae, some of which,
probably not inferior in magnitude to the milky-way, ap¬
pear only as small luminous patches in the telescope.
See Tycho de Nova Stella anni 1572; Hevelius, Histo-
riola mircB Stellce in Collo Ceti, anno 1660; Maupertuis,
Figure des Astres, CEuvres, tome i. Lyon, 1756 ; Michel,
Phil. Trans. 1784; Pigott, Phil. Trans. 1785, 1797; Le-
monnier, Mem. Acad. Par. 1789; Lalande, Astronomic
(885) ; Plerschel, Phil. Trans, passim. (t. g.)
Supplement to Part II.
Since the last revision of the article Astronomy in this
work, the discoveries in many of the branches of the science
have been so various and of so much importance, that it
would have been useless to attempt their incorporation in
the body of the work without a total alteration of its con¬
struction. It has been, therefore, judged more convenient,
as well as more useful, to add in a supplement such disco¬
veries and improvements as have had an undoubted influ¬
ence on the science in its present condition, and which hold
out hopes of still greater extension for the future.
We shall preserve the same order as that used in the pre¬
ceding part devoted to Theoretical Astronomy, and describe
as briefly as possible the chief additions which have been
made to the respective departments of the Planetary, Comet¬
ary, and sidereal branches of the subject.
CHAP. I.
OF THE SUN.
Sect. I.—Of the Motion of the whole Solar System in Space.
It has been previously mentioned (vol. iii. p. 807) that the idea
of a proper motion of the sun had been embraced by Sir W. Her¬
schel, but had been rejected as improbable by Bessel and other
astronomers. The fact, however, of the existence of this mo¬
tion has been now rendered incontestible by the independent
labours of several astronomers, and we propose to give briefly
the grounds of their several determinations.
First, with regard to theory, let us imagine that the sun has
a motion (carrying, of course, the earth with it) which, for the
small interval of time included by our modern observations
which are of sufficient accuracy to decide the point, may be
considered as uniform and rectilinear, towards a point of the
heavens denoted by right ascension A and declination D. It
is evident, in the first place, that the general effect of such a
motion would be to produce an apparent displacement of all
the stars in the heavens of such a nature as to increase the ap¬
parent angular distances of all stars towards which the motion
is described, and to diminish the apparent distances of all those
in the opposite quarter of the heavens. With regard to the
right ascensions of all stars, then, the effect would be to pro¬
duce an apparent proper motion in that element, such that the
right ascensions to the left of the point towards which the sun
is moving would be increased, and those to the right would be
diminished; while those lying in the meridian of the solar
motion would remain unaltered. Similarly with regard to the
stars lying in the latter plane, the north polar distance of all
to the north of the point of solar motion would be diminished,
while all to the south of it would be increased.
To determine accurately the amount of apparent motion of
any star in right ascension and declination, let « and J' be the
right ascension and declination of any star at a linear distance
r from the sun or earth. Then, if the line joining the earth
or sun, and the star, make with the line of direction of the_ sup¬
posed motion, an angle 9; and if, in the unit of time, the linear
solar motion be a, the angle of apparent displacement of the
star in this plane will be ^ sin 8. If, now, we imagine the
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical spherical triangle formed by the great circles joining the north
Astronomy: pole of the heavens, the apex of solar motion, and the star, its
:Supplementtjiree spies will be 90° — D, 90° — <T, and a; and the angle op-
posite to 0 will be a — A. From this it maybe readily shewn
, . ,-I , ,• • T> * • . a cos. D sin. (« - A)
that the apparent motion m it. A. is h — ^  
rr r 15 cos.
(expressed in time), and the motion in declination (northwards)
is + — | sin. D cos. — cos. D sin. f cos. (« — A) |. These, then,
are the formulas by which the proper motions of the stars, when
deduced from comparison of observations made at distant epochs,
are to be tested; and, assuming that the solar motion does
really exist, and that, on the whole, the proper motions of
the stars are to be attributed to it, the most probable values
of A and D are to be deduced; and it is evident that, since
there is antecedent probability of the reality of the motions of
many of the stars, the most probable values can only be deter¬
mined by the use of a tolerably large catalogue in all parts of
the heavens, so that their real proper motions having no de¬
terminate direction, the effects will be eliminated, or nearly so,
in the final result. Another difficulty arises from the circum¬
stance that the formulae involve the distances of the stars which,
except in a very few exceptional cases, are totally unknown.
This can only be obviated either by assuming, with Argelan-
der, that, on the average, stars having the greatest proper
motions are nearest to the sun ; or, by introducing, with Otto
Struve, some empirical law of distance derived from the ap¬
parent magnitudes. Both hypotheses are precarious; but it
is likely that, with either, the average result for the position
of the apex of solar motion, deduced from a large catalogue of
proper motions, will be tolerably correct; and it is also not im¬
probable that in large numbers of stars the distances will so
far agree with the law of apparent magnitudes, as to give a re¬
sult for the actual amount of solar motion (based on the few
cases of distances actually known) not very far distant from
the truth.
The first astronomer who successfully attempted a solution
of the problem was Argelander, in a paper published in 1837
in the Memoires presentees par divers Savans of the Imperial
Academy of St Petersburg. The proper motions employed
are those derived from his own catalogue of 560 stars observed
at Abo, by comparison with Bradley’s observed places, as given
in Bessel’s Fundamenta. The only peculiarity which we have
space to notice in Argelander’s treatment of the problem is, that,
assuming stars with the greatest proper motions to be nearest
to us, he divides them into three classes determined by the
greatness of the proper motions, and deduces a separate result
from each class. The final result which he deduces is, when
reduced to 1800,
A = 259° 5T-8 ; D = + 32° 29'-l.
In No. 398 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, Argelander
gives a result obtained by Lundahl, based on a comparison of
147 stars of Pond’s catalogue of 1112 stars with the Funda¬
menta, each of the stars having an annual proper motion not
less than 0'/‘09. The result arrived at is for 1792’5,
A = 252° 24'-4; D = + 14° 26'-l.
The most important paper is that of M. Otto Struve, printed
in the fifth volume of the Petersburg Transactions for 1842.
The title of the paper is Bestimmung der Constante der Pre¬
cession mit Beruchsichtigung der eigenen Bewegung der
Sonnensystems, and for it the author received the gold medal
of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1850. The investigation
is grounded on the proper motions of about 400 stars (chiefly
double) observed at Dorpat; for determining the weights of
his equations, he assumes that the distances of the stars are
inversely as the apparent magnitudes ; and for his final result
he obtains, as the most probable values of A and D for 1790,
A = 261° 2P-8 ; D = + 37° 36'-0.
And, by combining his observations with those of Argelander
and Lundahl with proper weights he obtains, finally, for 1792-5,
A = 259° 9'-4 ; D = + 34° 36'-5.
The most recent investigation of the direction of the solar
motion is by Mr Galloway, printed in the Philosophical Trans¬
actions for 1847, Part L, and for which the royal medal
was awarded to him. His object was to show whether the
87
general drift of the southern stars indicated a motion of the Theoretical
sun towards the same point of the heavens as that indicated by Astronomy:
the northern stars. For this purpose he employed the cata- Supplement
logue of 606 stars observed at St Helena by Mr Johnson, and
the catalogue of 172 stars observed by Mr Henderson at the
Cape of Good Hope ; Mr Galloway’s method of investigation
is precisely the same as that of Argelander, excepting that he
does not attempt to assign weights to his equations by any hy¬
pothesis whatever with regard to the distances of the fixed
stars, considering that no greater probable accuracy could be
obtained in his inquiry by the adoption either of'Argelander’s
or of Otto Struve’s assumption of the criterion of distance.
The result which he obtains for the values of A and D is, for
the epoch 1790,
A = 260° 0'-6 ; D = + 34° 23'-4.
The essential identity of this position of the apex of solar mo¬
tion, derived from the southern stars, with that deduced from
three separate sets of northern stars, confirms the/act of the
existence of this motion, and shows that we have arrived at a
very close approximation to its direction. The investigation
of Otto Struve has also shown that its amount (0"-3 in a year)
is too large to be neglected in any future cosmical speculations.
The subject is therefore one of very considerable importance,
and must form the basis of any future inquiries respecting the
connexion of our sun and planets with that sidereal system of
which they form a part.
Section II.—Of the time of rotation of the Sun, and the
physical peculiarities of his surface.
In the preceding part of this article, the method has been
explained by which astronomers have determined, with various
degrees of accuracy, the time of the sun’s rotation, and the
position of his equator with regard to the ecliptic, by means
of observations of the spots which are frequently observed.on
his disk. The chief observations and investigations having
this object in view, were made by Scheiner, Cassini, and La-
lande, at epochs included between the years 1626 and 1776.
Recently several attempts have been made to obtain results
of greater accuracy, by M. Laugier, Dr Petersen, and Dr
Bohm of Vienna. The dissertation of the last-named astro¬
nomer has been recently printed in vol. iii. of the Denkschrif-
ten der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschriftlichen Classen of
the Academy of Sciences of Vienna ; and this paper is well
worthy of the attention of the student, from the elaborate care
which has been bestowed upon the mathematical treatment of
the subject, as well as for the excellence of the observations
carried on for some years on which the results depend.
The results deduced by Dr Bdhm are, for the epoch 1834-6:
Longitude of ascending node of sun’s equator, =76° 46'-9.
Inclination of sun’s equator to ecliptic, , . = 6° 56,,6.
Time of sun’s rotation, = 25 days 12 hours 30 minutes.
The times of rotation, according to M. Laugier and Dr
Petersen, are respectively,
25d 8h 10m, and 25d 4h 30m.
With regard to the physical peculiarities of the surface of
the sun, some important additions have been recently made by
Mr Dawes, by means of an eye-piece devised by himself, which
enables the observer to examine minutely, and with comfort,
any separate portion of the disk. Mr Dawes’ apparatus is
very simple, and consists of a metallic perforated slide (the
perforations being of a diflerent size for different purposes)
which crosses the eye-tube at right angles, in place of the fixed
bar ; that is, in the plane of the focus of the object-glass. By
this means the field of view can be rendered as small as is de¬
sired for examination of a minute portion of the solar disk, the
only light and heat reaching the eye being those transmitted
from that portion. This eye-piece has since been adopted by
other astronomers, and Mr Dawes was rewarded almost imme¬
diately after its application by the discovery of two facts of
considerable importance in the theory of the solar spots.
The first discovery relates to the existence of a stratum of
comparatively faint luminosity, which he denominates a cloudy
stratum, giving the impression of considerable depth below
the second luminous stratum, which forms the shadow or pen-
88
astronomy.
Theoretical umbra usually seen round tlie nucleus of a spot. This stratum
Astronomy: appears to be not self-luminous, but of such a nature as to aD-
Supplement sorb a vast quantity of light/and to reflect very little. I he
faint illumination is rarely uniform, presenting rather a mottle
or cloudy surface, and occasionally some very small patches are
very decidedly more luminous than the rest. In all spots o
considerable size, a black opening is perceivable in the cloudy
stratum, which is proved to be, if lummous at all, less so than
our own atmosphere when illuminated by the direct rays ot
^ThT'second curious fact discovered by Mr Dawes is that oi
the rotation of the spots. This phenomenon was seen remar -
ably in the case of a spot sketched on January 17 and January
23 of the year 1852 ; by which it became evident that m this
interval the spot had rotated through 180 . If we accept the
usual hypothesis, that the spots are vast disturbances in the
atmosphere of the sun, revealing to us for a time Part
surface, what an idea does this present to us of .th® * „
of the operations of nature in this stupendous globe . A mas
of aeriform or gaseous fluid, whose diameter is frequently more
than 100,000 miles, is agitated by a rotating storm similar
probably to those which sometimes devastate the surface of our
own planet. In the above instance, the mass must have taken
about twelve days to complete a revolution; and therefore,
though the angular velocity is moderate. yet the outer cu e
would be moving with the enormous velocity ofabout bJUmiles
per hour, a velocity in fact ten times greater than that ot the
fiercest hurricanes which have at times laid waste portions ot
the surface of the earth. , , .
With regard to the faculce, Mr Dawes has had opportuni¬
ties of proving the correctness of Sir J. Herschel s supposition,
that they are in reality great waves or undulations projecting
beyond the. general surface of the solar disk. He says, ;
faculae are best seen near the east and west edges of the smi s
disk, where they give the impression of narrow ridges, whose
sides are there presented to view. . . • • Thef are ra! -
seen as actual projections from the limb. On one occasion,
however, I had an opportunity of observing a satisfactory con¬
firmation of the idea that they are ridges or heapmgs up ot
the luminous matter A large bnght streak or
facula was observed to run, as usual, nearly parallel to the
sun’s edge for some distance, and very near it; and then to
turn rather abruptly towards the edge and pass over it. ihe
limb was at this time very well defined; and, when it was
most sharp and steady, the bright streak was seen to project
sliqhtly beyond the smooth outline of the limb, in the man
ner of a mountain ridge nearly parallel to the sun _s equator.
Considerable information respecting the solar disk has been
obtained by the organized observations of the total solar eclipses
which occurred on July 8, 1842, and July 2b, 1851. T e or-
mer of these phenomena was admirably observed by Mr -Daily
at Pavia, and by Mr Airy at Turin, and detailed accounts ot
their observations and impressions are given in vol. x\\of
the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, accompanied
by drawings of the difierent phases of the eclipse. The atten¬
tion of astronomers having been, by these and other accounts,
directed to the extreme importance of observing with every
possible accuracy the total eclipse of 1851, an organization was
formed under the auspices of the British Association, and Sug-
qestions were published previously, giving mmute directions as
to the observation of every possible phenomenon which might
occur. The observations were remarkably successful, and the
accounts of the British observers alone form the firet part ol
vol xxi of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
An abstract of the results of the observations with regard to
the points of greatest interest, such as “ Baily s beads, usually
seen on the breaking up of the last narrow annulus of light;
the corona or faint ring of light which becomes visible when
the moon is quite hidden ; and the red or^ rose-coloured pro¬
minences which are then seen outside, and in contact with the
black lunar disk, will be found in the Annual Report of the
Council of the Royal Astronomical Society, forFebruan lbo_.
In lookino- for proximate causes of these phenomena,_ it
would naturally occur to any inquirer to seek for their origin,
either in the spots on the surface of the solar disk, or m the
faculae or wave-like ridges of light that are visible near the
borders, and to this probable identification the attention of as¬
tronomers was directed previously to the eclipse of 1851. In Theoretical
£Sar, M. Schweizer, director’ of the Observatory of Mos-
cow took the precaution of having drawmgs carefully made of v .
all the faculae which were visible for several days previous and
subsequent to the eclipse; and he has come to some remark¬
able conclusions, which render it very probable that the red
prominences are identical with them, and not with the spots.
Thus, though we cannot say that very much has been done
in establishing a satisfactory theory respecting the constitution
of the various layers forming the solar atmosphere, yet every
possible advantage has been taken of all the circumstances by
which, during the last few years, additional knowledge could
be gained. Several circumstances which were matters ot spe¬
culation have become now well-ascertained matters of fact, and
materials are laid up which may at some time not far distant tend
to the formation of a satisfactory theory based on observation.
It has been tolerably well confirmed by recent observations,
and especially by photographical representations of the sun,
that the light at the centre is considerably more intense than
that near the borders of the disk; and Professor Secchi has re¬
cently been engaged in a series of experiments, which seem to
prove very distinctly that the same is_true with regard to heat.
Secchi’s experiments were made with a thermo-electric pile
belonging to a Melloni’s apparatus, attached to the telesc0P®
of the equatorial of the Collegio Romano at Rome, and some
of his conclusions are very satisfactory. Amongst these, the
most important conclusion is, that the heat of the solar im g
is at the centre almost twice as great as at the borders, whethe
estimated in the direction of right ascension or of polar dis¬
tance. A second conclusion satisfactorily arrived at is, that
the point of greatest heat was not exactly at the centre of the
disk; but about 3' above it in declination; and on constructing
the curve of intensity, and considering the position of the sun
equator at the difierent times at which the experiments were
made, the maximum line of heat appears to be coincident with
the equator. Professor Secchi also thmks it not improbable
that the two solar hemispheres possess different temperatures,
as seems to be the case with the earth ; and if so, he considers
that his researches, if continued, will throw some Fghtonthe
climatology of our planet; since the heat of the sun would be
different,“accordingly as one or the other of its poles ^ turne
towards the earth. He also had occasion to remark, that the
influence of solar spots upon the temperature was very striking,
so that sometimes a spot which did not occupy more than one-
hundredth part of the aperture of the pile, caused the tempera¬
ture to fall 3°, or about one-fifteenth of the whole mtensity.
CHAP. n.
OF THE MOON.
Section I.—Correction of the Elements of the Lunar Orbit.
The greatest work of the present century, tending to bring
to perfection the theory of the motions of the moon,, is the re¬
duction, under the direction of Mr Airy, ot the ancient lunar
observations made at Greenwich. These observations extend
from the time of Bradley to that of Pond, and embrace a period
of eighty years, during which the nodes of the orbit in which
the cvcle of many of the perturbations is completed have made
more7Fan four revolutions. The number of observations made
in this interval, and thoroughly discussed, amount to about 90 JO.
It has been fortunate also to the science of astronomy, that
the same great astronomer who had courage to. undertake the
vast amoimt of labour connected with the reductions, has found
leisure to deduce from the results the corrections of the ele¬
ments of the orbit. The paper containing the investigation
connected with the corrections of the elements, is printed m
vnl xvii. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society,
from which we extract the following curious and important
results. . ,
Correction of the Epoch of Mean Longitude.
The correction of this element proved to be of very great
service to the lunar theory, by eliciting from Professor Han¬
sen the discovery of a new inequality, depending upon the
^By dHidingffie observations into groups of about five years,
ASTRONOMY.
89
Theoretical it was found that the corrections to Damoiseau’s epoch of longi-
Astronomy :tude were neither constant, implying that the mean motion
Supplementwas correct, nor uniformly increasing or diminishing, but that
a periodic inequality was very clearly exhibited, showing the
result of some unknown cause of disturbance. On the results
being shown in MS. to M. Hansen, he very quickly traced
the origin of the perturbation, and proved it to be due to the
unequal action of Yenus at different distances from the earth
and moon. On the application of these inequalities for the re¬
spective epochs, the periodical inequality disappeared, and the
successive corrections to the epochs of longitude for the different
epochs showed an evident error of assumed mean motion, the
secular correction to which was found to be + 39"‘3.
Another important result deduced by Mr Airy, was the cor¬
rection of Burckhardt’s value of the moon’s parallax, which
he found ought to be increased by -r^Wth part.
Subsequently, however, Mr Adams (the English discoverer
of the planet Neptune) has entered into a minute examination
of Burckhardt’s tables, especially with regard to the paral¬
lax ; and has found errors of such a magnitude as to enforce
the necessity of applying the requisite corrections to all the
observed places of the moon in which this tabular parallax has
been applied, including all for which the data of the Nautical
Almanac have been employed in the reductions. Mr Adams’s
paper on the lunar parallax is added to the volume of the Nau¬
tical Almanac for 1856, and the requisite tables are given for
deducing the corrections to be applied to the observed places
of the moon which have been reduced with the erroneous
parallax.
In Mr Airy’s corrections of the elements of the lunar orbit,
there is an inequality in the latitude of the form + 2,/-l7 x cos.
moon’s true longitude, which had not been detected by theory,
but which clearly resulted from the observations. Professor
Hansen, soon after the publication of Mr Airy’s results, showed
this also to be a legitimate deduction from theory, his calculated
coefficient of the inequality being + l,/-38. The cause of the
inequality he found to be due essentially to the circumstance,
indicated by Laplace, of the invariability of the mean inclina¬
tion of the orbit of the moon to the plane of the earth’s orbit,
as affected by the action of the planets. The development of
the expression for the latitude, according to this law of the in¬
clination, with a slight modification, was found to contain a
term of the form required. The same train of investigation
has given a new term in the expression for the moon’s longi¬
tude = — 0"‘50 x cos. long, of node, while that deduced from
observation and hitherto unexplained = — 0"-97 cos. long, of
node.
Again, in a subsequent communication to Mr Airy, M. Han¬
sen announced that he had verified by theory another small
term discovered by observation. According to his statement,
he found the correction to Damoiseau’s secular motion of the
node to be + 1"'643, while Mr Airy’s investigations had given
+ l"-721.
Section II.—Of Selenography, or Observations and Delinea¬
tions of the Surface and Physical Peculiarities of the
Moon.
The surface of the moon has received that attention which
might be looked for from the vast increase of optical power
which has been recently brought into action, and from the zeal
and talent which have been displayed in every department of
physical research.
The most important delineation of the whole surface of the
moon, as derived from observation, is that contained in the
admirably executed map, accompanying the elaborate work by
Beer and Madler, entitled Der Mond. This map is the result
of some years’ careful study and micrometrical measurement of
the surface of the moon, and every point discovered by the
telescope is laid down with all attainable precision.
A raised model of the whole surface, deserving especial no¬
tice, was executed by Madame Witte, a Hanoverian lady, and
exhibited in England in 1845. It is composed of a mixture of
mastic and wax, forming a globe of about 12 inches in diame¬
ter, on which the positions and general outlines of the craters
and other remarkable features were, in the first instance, laid
down from their latitudes and longitudes, as given by Beer and
Madler, and the modelling was afterwards performed by the
VOL. IV.
aid of a magnifying-glass from the actual appearance of the Theoretical
objects as presented in the telescope. Another original model, Astronomy:
executed by the same lady, is laid up in the Royal Museum 0f Supplement
Berlin.
Of English observers of the lunar surface, the most suc¬
cessful has been Mr James Nasmyth, a gentleman well known
to the general, as well as the scientific public by his mechani¬
cal inventions. In the year 1844 he exhibited, and subse¬
quently presented to the Royal Astronomical Society, a model
and drawing of a portion of the surface, occupying a space of
about 190 by 160 miles, the result of four years’ careful and con¬
tinuous labour. The observations were made with two reflect¬
ing telescopes, one of 8| inches aperture and 9 feet focal length,
and the other of 12 inches aperture, and 13 feet focal length.
Mr Nasmyth has continued up to the present time to direct
his attention to the lunar surface, and in the memorable year
1851 he exhibited, at the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, some
excellent models and charts of various portions of it. He has
recently announced that he is still engaged in sketching and
modelling the surface, employing for the purpose an excellent
reflecting telescope of 20 inches aperture, with a power of 410.
For Mr Nasmyth’s ingenious speculations on the formation of
the moon’s craters, and on the apparent identity of the vol¬
canic action with that existing on the surface of our own
planet, the reader may consult the Memoirs and Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society.
Professor Secchi, to whom we are indebted for some valuable
contributions to our knowledge of the heating properties of the
solar surface, has also, in connection with Professor Ponzi, a
distinguished Italian geologist, devoted considerable attention
to the study of the surface of the moon, and furnished some re¬
markable speculations respecting the successive periods of vol¬
canic action. We have not space for any detailed account of
these speculations, for which the reader is referred to vol. xiii.
of the Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
CHAP. HI.
OF THE PLANETS.
Mercury.
The theory of the motion of Mercury has recently been most
thoroughly investigated, and new tables have been constructed
by M. Leverrier.
The investigation of the corrected orbit, which is contained
in the additions to the Connaissance des Temps for 1848, is
one of the most profound and laborious, and at the same time
original, contributions to planetary astronomy, which have ap¬
peared during the last few years, and will well repay the per¬
usal, both of the student and the accomplished astronomer.
We have space only for a brief explanation of the processes
employed, and for a recapitulation of the principal results.
His object was to obtain new elliptic elements of the orbit
from the Paris Observations made between 1801 and 1828, and
between 1836 and 1842, and also totally to revise the whole
theory of the perturbations of the planets, using the best mo¬
dern elements, and taking in every term in the developments
of the perturbing function which could possibly exercise the
smallest influence on the place of the planet.
Using Lindenau’s elements as the basis of his investigations,
he first proceeds to prepare the expressions for the equation
of the centre and the radius-vector, to the ninth power of the
eccentricity. The next and most laborious part of the work is
the original redetermination of the perturbations of the ele¬
ments of the orbit. This process is described most elaborately,
and the action of each of the planets is given. Assuming the
provisional values for the masses of the disturbing planets, he
gives the numerical values of the secular variations of the ec¬
centricity, perihelion, inclination, and node of the orbit, and
points out a serious error committed by Laplace in the deter¬
mination of the secular variation of the equation of the centre.
Lastly, after having in a most elaborate way calculated the
periodical variations of the elements of the orbit, and of the
heliocentric co-ordinates produced by each planet separately,
he sums up the provisional expressions of the elliptic elements,
and the perturbations, with every detail.
The next part of the work is the reduction of the observa-
3VI
90
A S T R 0 N O M Y.
Theoretical tions, and the comparison of the observed and tabular places^
Astronomy: por the reduction of the observations of R.A., his - . , ,
Supplement ^ are tapen from the Tabula Regiomontance; the rig
W— ascensions of the sun are taken from the Connatssanc, des
Temps, but are corrected by the
radii-vectores of the Earth’s orbit are taken from Bessel s tables
and Bessel’s obliquity of the ecliptic is adopted m the reduc
tion to geocentric^longitude and latitude. In the redaction o
the obslrvations of declination, the planet is compared mth
stars lyin- nearly in the same parallel, and observed by the
same Sver-tL zenith point apparently not havmg^en
determined independently. The mean parallax of the sun
^Tel^ed^ht ascensions and d—ns ^ "
duced to geocentric longitudes and latitudes , and the tabular
heliocentric places are reduced by appropriate forrn^ to ge -
centric longitudes and latitudes ; and corrected
aberration, are immediately comparable ivith the obser
geocentric longitudes and latitudes, and the errors o
Hr nlaces are thus found. These errors are then converted
KoeSSs of heliocentric longitudes and latitudes by the use
of formula! similar to those given in th^n*™*“Sn,°Te^
Greenwich Observations, and involve t^e erro d
+nr But the errors of longitude can be immediately expressed
S iermf of the errors of the epoch, mean motion, eccentricity
Sid wrihelion, hv differentiation of the expression for the
true longitude, in terms of the mean anomaly and eccentric! y
and the errors of latitude can be easily ^‘thStwo
the errors of inclination and node of the orbit, hence the two
sets of equations are formed for the determination ot the six
"next partof k, Leverrier's process is the collection
and discussion of all the observations which had been made of
the t“«he planet across the sun’s ^r^
are capable of giving the exact position of the planet tor more
reFinally°he solves the equations resulting from the Pans Ob¬
servations by the method of least squares, and obtains the errors
0± Onetfthemost important results is the correction whidi he
finds it necessary to apply to annual mean motion namely
, A//.494 » The correction,’ he observes, is large, but it
it quite impossible without it to represent the ancient and mo-
deS teTe?ri“,SforThfp£pose of testing the accuracy of
his elements, applies them to the recomputation of the transits
across the disk of the sun from the year 16bl to h o- , and tue
tabulated errors arising from the use of these elements, an
those of Lindenau, being placed in adjacent columns, leave uo
doubt of the superior accuracy of the tormer.
He finally constructs two distinct sets of tables of the motion
of the planets; one according to the old form, and the other
according to a form totally original, and of which the chiet
peculiarly consists in taking the time for the sole argument
throughout. The latter he considers to possess very great ad¬
vantages and enters into a minute critical investigation oa the
defects of all planetary tables constructed m .the ordinary
way.
Venus.
in the epochs of the sun, and the place of the perigee given by Theoretical
late observations, with the corrections given by the observaf
tions of the last century, appeared to indicate the existence of^PP1™
some inequality not included in the arguments of those tables ;
and as soon as he had convinced himself of the necessity of
seeking for some inequality of long period, he commenced an
examination of the mean motions of the planets, with the view
of finding one whose ratio to the mean motion ot the earth
could be ^expressed very nearly by a proportion whose terms
were small. , ,,
Venus is precisely in this predicament with regard to the
Earth, since eight times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly
equal to thirteen times the mean motion of the Earth, that the
difference does not exceed H^th part of the Earth’s mean motion.
This would imply an inequality whose period is about-40 years
—a longer period with regard to the periodic time of the planets
disturbed, than any for which a term of perturbation had been
calculated. . ... ... . . _
The coefficient of the term of the expansion of the disturbing
function in which this inequality exists,_ is of the fifth order
with regard to the eccentricities and inclinations, anatheretore
would be exceedingly small; but on the other hand it would be
multiplied in integration by a quantity amounting to ,5 x lo x
(240)2 or afiout 2,200,000, and on this circumstance depended
the chance of its becoming sensible.
The orbit of Venus has also received considerable attention
during the present century, and the whole series of the Green¬
wich observations from 1750 to 1840 have been made available,
and been employed to obtain the corrections of Lindenau s ele¬
ments. These investigations, conducted successively by Mr
Main, Mr Glaisher, and Mr H. Breen, of the Greenwich Ob¬
servatory will be found in various volumes of the Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society, to which the reader is re¬
ferred, in connexion with the Introductions to the Greenwich
Observations, for explanation of the peculiarities of the methods
employed.
The planet Venus being 80 <rlo15e1a ^^our to the Earth
and her satellite the Moon, it might be expected that she would
•nroduce serious disturbances on the orbits oi these bodies. It
Sas been seen that this is the case with regard to the Moon ;
and long before the discovery of this inequality, a very im¬
portant inequality, of very long period, in the orbits of the
Earth and Venus, produced by their mutual action, was de-
te ThiSktSon (one of the most laborious and remark-
able in physical astronomy since the time ot Laplace) is con¬
tained in Part i. of the volume of the Philosophical Transac-
S for 1832 ; and we will give a few of the leading features
of the investigation, without any explanation of the abstruser
Pain%frtAiry’sCpap0er'in the Philosophical Transactions for
18^8 " On the Correction of the Elements of Delambre s fcolar
Tables” he had stated that the comparison of the corrections
Mars.
The orbit of Mars has received at the hands of Mr H. Breen
a revision similar to that bestowed on the orbit of \ enus by a
comparison of the places computed from Lmdenaps tables
with the Greenwich observed places from 1750 to 1830. I he
investigation is precisely similar to that for the orbit of Venus,
and will be found in vol. xix. of the Memoirs of the Royal
Astronomical Society.
Next to the transits of Venus across the sun s disk (which
afford absolutely the best means of determining the solar parai-
lax) the observations of Mars at his opposition are the most
useful for determining this element. The observatory at the
Cape of Good Hope is admirably situated relatively to Green¬
wich for such determinations, and, ever since the time ot Ba-
lande, comparisons of observations between the two observa¬
tories have been of great service to astronomy. > Notwithstand¬
ing the apparently definitive value of the sun s parallax ob-
SLd from the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769, astrono¬
mers have been so impressed with the importance of establish
incr the correctness of this element by all other available means,
that at everv opposition of Mars, the places of stars suitable
for comparison with the planet are published m the Nautical
Almanac, and observed at Greenwich and the Cape, and at
other places. At the opposition of 1851, a good series of com¬
parative observations of the planet was made at the two ob-
fervatories, and, as soon as the transit circle now m prepara¬
tion is established at the Cape, we may hope for some compara¬
tive results which will be of still greater service for the deter-
in in at ion of ttio parallax. ,
The shape of the planet has been well measured and it ap¬
pears certain that it has a measurable ellipticity, though there
Fs Si some doubt us to its amount. A good set of measures
made at Greenwich with a double-image micrometer in 184o,
frives 'A for the ellipticity, and another set made in L852, gives
^ fh M Arago contends for a much larger ellipticity, name y
_ 0 in nnfl snmo observers
1 th U. iira^O CUUbtJllU-O 1KJX at -laiAvxx  JT - '
Yth' as the result of the Paris measures, and some observers
have' not been able, after careful measures, to detect any cer¬
tain difference between the polar and equatorial diameters.
1 The physical peculiarities of the planet have been well studied.
On this head the reader may consult various papers m the
ASTRONOMY.
SI
Theoretical
Astronomy:
Supplement
Nachrichten, and especially one by Madler in the sixteenth
volume. Mr Do la Rue devoted a portion of his leisure to the
study of the surface of the planet at its last opposition, and has
presented to the Royal Astronomical Society some admirably
executed drawings of its appearance at various times.
The Small Planets whose orbits lie betiveen Mars
and Jupiter.
In no department of astronomy has more activity been dis¬
played than in the discovery of these minute bodies ; and the
research necessary for discovering them acts very advanta¬
geously on the progress of the science, in the formation of charts
of small stars lying near the ecliptic, or in regions of the
heavens where they are likely to exist. Mr Bishop, at whose
observatory in the Regent’s Park so many of these bodies have
been discovered by Mr Hind, has already published several
ecliptic charts, containing all stars as low as the tenth magni¬
tude inclusive, within a zone of 3° on each side of the ecliptic ;
and Mr Cooper of Markree in Ireland, at whose observatory
Metis was discovered, has published in two volumes of ob¬
servations, catalogues of 30,097 stars. Mr Cooper’s telescope,
mounted equatorially, has 25 feet focal length, with 14 inches
aperture, and he is therefore possessed of peculiar advantages
for these researches, and he is still more fortunate in securing
the services of his active and talented observer, Mr Graham,
the actual discoverer of Metis.
The first planet, Astraea, of the more modern group, was dis¬
covered, after an interval of several years, at the end of 1845,
by M. Hencke of Driessen ; and the next in order of discovery,
Hebe, was also discovered by him in 1847. Since that time
discoveries of other planets, by Hind, He Gasparis, and others,
have followed in rapid succession, till at the present time we
are acquainted with twenty-six of these bodies. We subjoin
a table exhibiting the whole list, writh the names of the discover¬
ers, the dates of discovery, and relative magnitudes of their
orbits subjoined. It is only necessary to explain, that they are
placed in the order of their mean distances from the sun, as
given by the orbits (many of them only provisional) which have
been computed.
Name of
Planet.
Flora
Melpomene
Victoria
Vesta
Iris
Metis
Phocea
Hebe
Parthenope
Fortuna
Massilia
Thetis
Astraea
Egeria
Irene
Proserpine
Lutetia
Eunomia
Juno
Thalia
Ceres
Pallas
Psyche
Calliope
Hygeia
Themis
No. in
Order
of Dis¬
covery.
8
18
12
4
7
9
25
6
11
19
20
17
5
13
14
26
21
15
3
23
1
2
16
22
10
24
Discoverer.
Date of
Discovery.
| Mean
Distance.!
Hind
Hind
Hind
Gibers
Hind
Graham
Chacomac ,
Hencke
De Gasparis i
Hind
De Gasparis j
Luther
Hencke
De Gasparis:
Hind
Luther
Goldschmidt
De Gasparis
Harding
Hind
Piazzi
Gibers
De Gasparis
Hind
De Gasparis
De Gasparis
1847, Oct. 18.
1852, June 24.
1850, Sept. 13.
1807, Mar. 29.
1847, Aug. 13.
1848, April 26.
1853, April 7.
1847, July 1.
1850, May 11.
1852, Aug. 22.
1852. Sept. 19.
1852, April 17.
1845, Dec. 8.
1850, Nov. 2.
1851, May 19.
1853, May 5.
1852, Nov. 15.
1851, July 29.
1804, Sept. 1.
1852, Dec. 15.
1801, Jan. 1.
1802, Mar. 28.
1852, Mar. 17.
1852, Nov. 16.
1849, April 12.
1853, April 5.
2-202
2-297
2335
2-361
2-381
2-386
2-405
2-426
2-426
2-446
2-449
2-491
2-577
2-579
2-584
2-588
2 605
2 648
2-671
2707
2-768
2-773
2- 933
2 941
3- 122
3 357
Sidereal
Period
in Days.
1193
1275
1303
1326
1342
1346
1362
1380
1380
1397
1400
1436
1513
1514
1517
1521
1536
1573
1593
1627
1682
1686
1835
1842
2015
2252
The discovery of so many of these small planets has made it
necessary to seek for some more convenient method of com¬
puting their perturbations than that of mechanical quadratures
formerly in use. The difficulty of the calculations consists in
the largeness both of the excentricities and inclinations of the
orbits, since it is by powers of these quantities or functions of
them, that the effects of perturbation are expressed in the ordi¬
nary methods.
In a paper published by Professor Hansen in 1843, in the
Transactions of the Royal Academy at Berlin, and since
translated into the French language by Mauvais, and published Theoretical,
in the Connaissance des Temps for 1847, a method is given
by which the variations of these elements can be expressed in ^' j
general terms by means of series converging with a sufficient
degree of rapidity.
Professor Encke has for several years devoted considerable
attention to the same subject, and has recently devised a me¬
thod of remarkable simplicity for effecting the summations of
the perturbations. The pamphlet containing the exposition
and application of the method has been translated from the
German by Mr Airy, with additional notes and illustrations, and
is appended to the Nautical Almanac for 1856.
A remarkable paper by Mr G. P. Bond, on the same subject,
is printed in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the American
Academy, entitled, “ On some applications of the method of
mechanical quadratures.”
Jupiter.
On account of the vast size of the planet Jupiter, the deter¬
mination of his mass is a matter of very great importance, and
on account of the brightness of his satellites, this determination
is easily effected by means of their observed elongations.
Till the year 1832, however, no observations of the satellites
were extant which were sufficiently accurate for the purpose.
At this time, Professor Airy made an excellent series of ob¬
servations of the extreme elongat ions of the fourth satellite, and
obtains for the value of the mass rviv-T- In the years 1833
and 1834 he repeated the observations, and found for the mass
the values and -nrcV-iri* He finally caused a similar
set of observations to be made with the Shuckburgh equatorial
at Greenwich, in 1836, and found for the value, ttiVw The
weights which he assigns to these results are 2,2’3, and 8, and
his definitive value is TTyiv-TT- The separate investigations
will be found in vols. vi., viii., ix., and x. of the Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society.
About the time of the commencement of Mr Airy’s observa¬
tions, Bessel had undertaken the same problem on a more ex¬
tended plan, including not only the determination of the mass
of Jupiter, but a complete revision of the elements of the or¬
bits of the satellites, by means of observations of their elonga¬
tions. For this purpose he commenced with the Konigsberg
heliometer a very elaborate series of measures of distance and
angle of position of all the satellites relatively to their primary,
which was continued from 1832 to 1835, and then again taken
up and completed in 1839. His resulting values of the mass
are as follow :—
From the observations of the 1st satellite,   1048,381
2d   1048-153
3d   1048-143
4th ...    1047-746
and from these values he deduces for the definitive value of the
mass of the Jovial system
Bessel’s dissertation on the mass of Jupiter is contained in
the second volume of the Astronomische Untersuchungen, a
work containing several of the most profound researches of
this eminent astronomer, published in 1842. The dissertation
is accompanied by new tables of the satellites.
An investigation of the value of the mass of Jupiter was also
made by Professor Santini at Padua in 1835, by observations
of distance of the fourth satellite from the centre of the primary,
made with a double-image micrometer furnished by Amici.
The definitive result for the mass is and this dissertation
also is accompanied by tables of the motion of the fourth satel¬
lite. (Memorie della Societa Italianadelle Scienze, vol. xxi.)
With regard to the form of the planet Jupiter, the received
value of the ellipticity for many years was that deduced by
Struve at Dorpat—viz., T^-.T. (See Memoirs of the Royal As¬
tronomical Society, vol. iii.) This value has, however, been
found to be sensibly erroneous, by means of measures taken in
several successive years at the Greenwich Observatory, wdth a
double-image micrometer applied to the Sheepshanks equatorial.
The value of the ellipticity, deduced from nearly fifty sets of
measures averaging ten measures in each set, is T j.7.
We may finally mention a valuable paper by Mr ’Wool-
house, on the satellites of Jupiter, which will be found in the
appendix to the Nautical Almanac for 1835. It contains
new tables for the calculation of the occultations of the satel-
1
92
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical lites, and of the transits of the satellites and shadows across
Astronomy :t}ie disk of the planet.
Supplement
Saturn.
The additions made to our knowledge of the theory and phy¬
sical constitution of this important member of the solar system
have been very great. In treating of them, we will take in
order the orbit, the uranography of the body, the form of the
body, the rings, and finally the satellites.
The tables representing the motion of Saturn, which have
been used to the present time, are those of Bouvard, and in
the construction of them a curious error has been detected by
Mr Adams, in his course of investigations concerning the orbit.
Mr Adams detected a periodical error of latitude of consi¬
derable amount, which, he felt convinced, could not arise from
any imperfection in the theory of the perturbations ; and on
examining the law of the error, of which the period appeared
to be nearly twice that of Saturn in his orbit, he traced it to
Table xlii. in Bouvard's Tables. The formula given in the
introduction is correct, but the computation of the whole table
is totally erroneous.
Mr Adams gives, in the 14th number of vol. vn. ot the
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, a correct table of
the values of the inequality in question, to which we would
direct the attention of the reader. _
In considering the various phenomena which, must be con¬
stantly occurring before the eyes of a spectator situated on.the
surface of Saturn, attention is naturally directed to.the efleets
which would be produced by the projection of the rings on the
firmament of the spectator, and to the consequences resulting
from its interposition for a long period between him and . the
sun. It has been generally considered, without entering into
calculation, that, to the inhabitants below a certain latitude on
the planet, the rings, stretching in a circular shape across the
heavens, would present a magnificent spectacle for a certain
number of years, or as long as the sun should continue on the
same side of the ring with the spectator; but that an equally
long eclipse, with total absence of light, would be suflered by
the inhabitants after the passage of the sun to the other side
of the ring.
Dr Lardner has recently shown, in an elaborate paper
printed in vol. xxii. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astrono¬
mical Society, that this view of the subject is to. a great ^ex¬
tent erroneous ; and that even Madler, who, in his Populare
Astronomic, has entered more minutely into the consideration
of the uranography of Saturn, has made some grave errors in
treating the subject. For the details of the investigation by
Dr Lardner, we must refer to his paper.
The form of the planet Saturn has been the subject of con¬
siderable discussion at various times, but its strictly elliptical
figure has been recently established beyond controversy, and the
amount of the ellipticity has been very accurately determined.
At the time of the disappearance.of the ring in the years
1832 and 1833, Bessel took the opportunity of measuring the
planet with the heliometer, with, the express view, of deciding
upon the correctness of Sir William Herschel’s opinion, “ that
at middle latitudes the figure of Saturn deviated consider¬
ably from an ellipse,” and also of determining accurately the
amount of the ellipticity. He measured, therefore, in the
directions of the polar and equatorial diameters, and of dia¬
meters lying nearly in latitude 45 , and found that the shape
was strictly elliptical, and that the ellipticity, deduced from all
the measures taken when the ring was either very small or
totally invisible, was 75.-5eth.
Recently, at the last disappearance.of the ring m 1848, a
series of measures was made with a similar object at Green¬
wich, by the Rev. R. Main, which give results almost identi¬
cal with those of Bessel. The shape is proved, by a careful dis¬
cussion of all the measures, to be strictly elliptical, and the de¬
duced ellipticity is Mr Main’s paper is printed in vol.
xix. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
With regard to the present physical condition of the surface
of Saturn as well as of Jupiter, Mr Nasmyth has thrown out
some ingenious conjectures based on the knowledge which the
rapid advance of geological science has gained tor us w ith re¬
gard to the former conditions of the surface of our own planet.
Such inquiries are fair subjects of speculation in the present
state of the physical sciences, and Mr Nasmyth’s paper in No. Theoretical
2 of vol. xiii. of the Notices of the Royal Astronomical So- Astron0my.
ciety is well worth perusal. . _ .
Amongst the most remarkable discoveries of recent times “ v~’*-
with regard to the rings of Saturn, is that of the inner dusky
or semi-transparent ring, sufficiently obvious to any observer
capable of using well a moderately good telescope, but which,
previously to the year 1850, was scarcely suggested by any
astronomer. It appears, however, by a paper by Dr Galle of
Berlin, published in the Nachrichten, No. 756, and discussed
with his usual judgment by Mr Dawes in the Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xi. p. 184, that this
interesting phenomenon was seen by him with the large Ber¬
lin refractor in the year 1838, though the observations were
not published at the time in the Nachrichten, and the atten¬
tion of the scientific world was not generally drawn to it. The
account of Galle’s observations, accompanied by drawings ex¬
hibiting the trace of the dusky ring as it crosses the body of
the planet, was given by Encke in the Transactions of the
Berlin Academy for 1838.
This was the only intimation of the existence of the inner
ring received by the scientific world from that time till the year
1850, when its existence was recognized almost simultaneously
b3T two observers, namely, by Professor Bond of the Cam¬
bridge Observatory, U.S., and by the Rev. W. R. Dawes at
Wateringbury, near Maidstone. Since that time there has
been no difficulty in seeing this curious appendage to Saturn,
though it still requires a practised eye and a good telescope.
At thq time of the discovery of the dusky ring, Mr Dawes
also satisfactorily established the fact of the outer division of
the exterior ring near its outer extremity ; and subsequently
he observed a series of discontinuous gradations of . colour or
intensity of brightness in a portion of the inner bright ring.
He observes, that “ the exterior portion of the inner bright
ring to about one-fourth of its whole breadth, was very bright,
but that interior to this, the shading-off did not appear, as
under ordinary circumstances, to become deeper towards the
inner edge without any distinct or sudden gradations, of shade ;
on the contrary, it was clearly seen to.be arranged in a series
of narrow concentric bands, each of which was darker than the
next exterior one. Four such were distinctly made out, they
looked like steps leading down to the black chasm between the
ring and the ball. The impression I received was, that, they
were separate rings, but too close together for the divisions
to be seen in black lines.” This curious phenomenon was con¬
firmed afterwards by Professor Bond.
Many valuable observations of Saturn and his rings have
been made recently by Mr Lassell, who, in the autumn of
1852, established himself with his 20-foot reflecting telescope
at Malta, for the purpose of observing in a purer atmosphere.
Amongst his discoveries may be mentioned the fact of the
semi-transparency of the dusky ring., which curious fact had
been previously recognized by Captain Jacobs at the Madras
Observatory. ^
Mr De la Rue has also devoted considerable attention to the
system of Saturn, and has recently published an admirably exe¬
cuted drawing, which embodies the results of his observations.
We would, before concluding our remarks on the rings of
Saturn, draw attention to a remarkable paper by M. Otto
Struve,’ printed in vol. v. of the Petersburg Memoirs. M.
Struve’shows with tolerable certainty that the inner or dusky
ring is not a modern appendage to the planet, as might almost
be-suggested by the fact of its remaining so long undiscovered;
'but that at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the dark
line thrown by it across the planet was not confounded with
the shadow of the bright rings, but was known by the name
of the equatorial belt.
But one of the most curious results of M. Struve’s researches
is that by a comparison of the micrometrical measures of
Huyghens, Cassini, Bradley, Plerschel, W. Struve, .Encke,
Galle, and himself, he finds that the inner edge of the interior
bright ring is gradually approaching the body of the planet,
while at the same time the total breadth of the two bright
rings is constantly increasing.
An eighth satellite of Saturn was discovered in 1848, inde¬
pendently, and almost simultaneously by two observers, Pro¬
fessor Bon’d and Mr Lasseli. The names of the seven satel-
astronomy.
93
heo-ctical lites previously known, proposed by Sir J. Herscbel, were
stronomy: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and lapetus.
ipplement j?or new satellite Mr Lassell proposed the name Hyperion.
' jts period, as determined by Mr Lassell, from a comparison
of observations made in 1850 with those made in 1852 and
1853 is 21'297 days; and, in order of distance from Saturn,
it lies between Titan and lapetus, the latter being the exterior
of all.
Uranus.
For many years the orbit of Uranus has been the occasion
of oreat embarrassment to astronomers, from the impossibility
of adequately reconciling the ancient and modern observations
by any one set of elements, and from the rapid increase of the
tables from year to year. .
Amongst the astronomers who entered seriously upon tne
task of tracing the course of the irregularities in the motions
of the planet we can only mention those who arrived at a
successful solution of the problem ; namely, M. Leverrier and
Mr Adams, each of whom has attained to a world-wide celebrity
by the profound and masterly analysis which led to the dis¬
covery of the disturbing planet Neptune.
In France the attention of M. Arago had been particularly
directed to the subject; and about the year 1845 he earnestly
represented to M. Leverrier the importance of the question,
and induced him to lay aside the cometary researches on which
he was engaged, and to enter upon the painful and laborious
calculations which the problem demanded.
The first part of M. Leverrier’s work consists of a complete
revision of the theory of the perturbations of Uranus ; and his
first memoir, which was presented to the Institute in November
1845, is devoted to the exact redetermination of the perturba¬
tions produced by Jupiter and Saturn ; and this profound in-
vestigation is conducted with the same masterly skill wine
distinguished his researches on the orbit of Mercury.
The second memoir was read before the academy on June 1.
1846, and has for its chief object the comparison of the ob¬
served places of Uranus with the tabular places, computed bj
Bouvard’s tables, corrected according to the previous investiga¬
tions for the new inequalities produced by Jupiter and Saturn,
and for such other errors as had been discovered in the progress
of the work. He arrives at the important conclusion, that
though large errors existed in the tables, and through .this
cause alone they could not correctly represent the observations,
yet that the difference existing between theory and observation
could not be adequately accounted for by such imperfections,
and that the cause of the “ discordances’ must be sought for
el g 0^1161*6 •
It is but just to Mr Adams to state, that he also, before
entering upon the task of accounting for the discrepancies ob-
served, by the hypothesis of an exterior disturbing planel, .re¬
computed all the principal inequalities produced by the action
of Jupiter and Saturn, and satisfied himself that errors m the
tables would not account for the failure in the agreement be¬
tween theory and observation.
With regard to the satellites of Uranus some considerable
discoveries have been made, though modern research has f ailec
to identify the greater number of those seen by Sir W. Her-
schel. However, two additional satellites certainly (and pro¬
bably three) were found in 1847 by the exertions of Mr LasseL
and M. Otto Struve, each of which is nearer to the planet than
any of those discovered by Sir W. Herschel. In the Notice of
the Royal Astronomical Society for January 1848, will be
found the account given by each of these astronomers of the
discovery of at least one satellite interior to the second of Sir
W. Herschel. Mr Lassell observed the same object for several
nights, and on one occasion he observed an additional one, the
positions of the object observed being always on the north si e
of the planet. M. Otto Struve, on the contrary, observed an ob¬
ject always on the south side only of the planet. In the A otice
for March 1848, will be found a paper by Mr Dawes, in which
he discusses very thoroughly the whole of the observations mac e
by both astronomers, and arrives at the conclusion that the
objects observed by them are not identical, and consequently
that two satellites must have been discovered.
Mr Lassell has since that time been able to follow’ up the
observations of both these bodies, and by a comparison of the
observations made by him in 1847, 1851, and 1852, he finds Theoretical,
for the period of the inner satellite which he calls Ariel,
2-520378 days, and for the period of the exterior one (Um- v ™ _ j
briel) he deduces 4-144557 days.
By a rigorous scrutiny of all the observations made by the
two Herschels, Dr Lament, and Mr Lassell, of the two bright
satellites of Sir W. Herschel, Mr Adams finds for their periods
8d 16h 56m 24s,88, and 13d llh 6^ 55s,21.
Neptune^
In whatever light we regard the discovery of the planet
Neptune, it must certainly rank amongst the most brilliant of
the discoveries of the present century the highest achieve¬
ment in an age abounding with every resource of science and
intellectual cultivation. . . „ ,,
It has been stated that Leverrier undertook the task of the
revision of the theory of Uranus at the instance of M. Arago,
that his first memoir on the subject was read before the
French Academy in November 1845, and that his second me¬
moir was read in June 1846. These memoirs wepe printed in
the Comptes Rendus, vols. xxi. and xxii. In the second memoir
Leverrier demonstrates that an account of the motions of
Uranus can only be given by the introduction of the disturb¬
ing force of a new exterior planet, and he fixes its position for
1847, January 1, at 325° heliocentric longitude. .
The third memoir, entitled “ Sur laplanete quiproduit les
anomalies observees dans le mouvement d’ Uranus—Deter¬
mination de sa masse, de son orbite, et de saposition actuelle,
was read on August 31. 1846. In it the position,of the disturb¬
ing planet is fixed more exactly at 326° 32' heliocentric longi¬
tude for 1847, January 1.
The three memoirs mentioned above were read betore tlie
discovery of the planet;—the fourth, memoir, containing the
remaining part of M. Leverrier’s investigations,. was read
after its discovery, on October 5. 1846, and both this and the
third are printed in vol. xxiii. of the Comptes Rendus . The
fourth memoir is entitled “ Sur la planete qui produit les
anomalies observees dans le mouvement d’ Uranus; cinquieme
et derniere partie, relative d la determination de sa position
au plan de I’orbite.”
Finally, the whole investigation was printed as one continu¬
ous treatise hi the Additions to the Conriaissance des lemps
for 1849.
The discovery of the disturbing planet followed almost im¬
mediately after the publication of the third memoir of Le¬
verrier, In acknowledging the receipt of a paper from his
friend Dr Galle of Berlin, he took the opportunity of request¬
ing him to search for the planet with the large refracting tele¬
scope of the Berlin observatory, at the position which he in¬
dicated to him. This letter reached Berlin on September 23,
and on the same evening Galle had an opportunity of comply¬
ing with the request contained in it. He observed all the stars
in the neighbourhood of the place indicated, and compared
their places with those given in Bremicker’s Berlin Star-Map
(Hora xxi.) This map, it is necessary to say, had not yet
reached England, and on this circumstance probably depended
the priority of discovery at Berlin. He very quickly found a
star of about the eighth magnitude, nearly in the place pointed
out, which did not exist in the map. Little doubt was enter¬
tained at the time that this was the planet, and the observa¬
tions of the next two days confirmed the discovery.
It will now be necessary to explain in few words the at¬
tempts made in England during the same period of time to se¬
cure the discovery of the planet. Mr Adams had, ever since
the year 1841, determined on attempting the solution ot tbe
problem relating to the unknown disturbances of Uranus, and
in 1843 he began his investigations. In September 184j, he
communicated to Professor Challis the values of the. elements
of the orbit of the supposed disturbing planet, and, m the loi-
lowing month, he communicated to the astronomer-royal the
same results slightly corrected. Mr Airy entered into corre¬
spondence with him, and requested, to be informed whether the
assumed perturbations would explain the errors of radius-\ ec or
as well as of longitude. From some unexplained cause, no
answer was received to this letter, and no steps were taken in
England to secure by observation the discovery of the plane,
till the summer of 1846, after the publication of Le\eirier s
94
ASTRONOM Y.
Astr0ornimal-SeCOnd ™einoir> in w]l'lch same position, within one degree,
Supplement T'aS assh?nec^ ^ie disturbing planet, as that given in Mr
i , Adams’s paper.
The resources of the Cambridge Observatory were now
brought into use for the discovery of the planet, and a syste¬
matic search was begun by Professor Challis with the great
A orthurn berland telescope. With regard to the success of the
system devised for conducting the observations, it is sufficient
to say that the sweeps of the portion of the heavens in which
it was supposed the planet would be found, were begun on
July 29, and the planet was actually observed on August 4,
but without recognition. After the discovery of the planet at
Berlin, it was found that the planet had also been observed on
August 12. If, therefore, Bremicker’s map had been in the
hands of Professor Challis, or if he had found leisure for the
mapping of his observations from night to night, Neptune
would have been infallibly detected within a very few days of
the commencement of the search, and the whole glory of the
discovery would have belonged to the English geometer.
The subsequent history of the planet may be summed up in
few words. An ancient observation in Lalande’s catalogue
was discovered almost simultaneously by Mr Walker, of the
Washington Observatory, and by Dr Petersen at Altona ; two
observations, the one in October 1845, and another in September
1S46, were also detected by Mr Hind in Lament’s Zones ; and
these (especially the former) contributed greatly to the con¬
struction of an accurate orbit. An excellent orbit was com¬
puted by the joint labours of the American astronomers Peirce
and Walker, which, up to the present time, continues to re¬
present perfectly the motions of the planet.
Our sketch of the history of Neptune is necessarily so im¬
perfect, through want of space for details, that we feel it ne¬
cessary to add a list of the principal works to be consulted by
those who are desirous of obtaining correct notions on all points
relating to this brilliant discovery.—1. Airy’s Account of some
circumstances historically connected ivith the Discovery of
the Planet exterior to Uranus.'—Notices of the Royal Astro¬
nomical Society, yol. yii., p. 121; 2. Gould’s Report to the
Smithsonian Institution on the History of the Discovery of
Neptune ; 3. Lindenau’s Beitrag zur Oeschichte der Nep-
tun-Entdeckung, in the Erganzung-Heft to the Astro. Nachr.
published in 1849 ; 4. Sir J. Herschel’s account in his Outlines
of Astronomy.
Almost immediately after the discovery of Neptune, it was
found to be attended by one satellite. This discovery was
made by Mr Lassell in October 1846, and the orbit of the sa¬
tellite is o found to be inclined to the elliptic at an angle of
about 35 . By observations of this satellite at Cambridge in
America, and at Pulkowa, two separate values of the mass,
namely, tuIw and ti! have been deduced ; but the object
is so difficult to observe that a considerable time must elapse
before any very accurate determination will be arrived at.
CHAP. IV.
OF COMETS.
On the chief Discoveries recently made in Cometary
Astronomy.
The discoveries in Cometary Astronomy have kept pace with
those in the other departments of the science.
With regard to theory, it has become of great importance,
on account of the great number of comets which are discovered'
to ease as much as possible the practical difficulties of the me¬
thods of computing the orbits, and many excellent papers will
be found in the Astronomische Nachrichten, and in the Me¬
moirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
In particular, we would refer to a paper by Mr Airy, in
vol. xi. of the Memoirs, the object of which is to render La¬
place’s method of computing the orbit of a comet easier of
application, by enabling the computer to deduce the orbit im¬
mediately from the observed right ascensions and declinations,
without the conversion of those quantities into longitudes and
latitudes. This method evidently requires that the co-ordinates
of the sun referred to the equator should also be computed;
and these co-ordinates have therefore been given for some years
past in the Nautical Almanac.
For an expedient method of calculating an ephemeris of a Theoretics]
comet from its elements, we would also refer to a paper by-Astronomy
Mr Woolhouse, in the appendix to the Nautical Almanac SllPPlemenr
for 1835.
We will now proceed to give brief notices of some of the
most remarkable comets which have appeared during the pre¬
sent century. For full information, and for complete cata¬
logues of comets, the following works may be referred to :—■
1. Jahn’s Verzeichniss aller his zum jahre 1847 herechneten
Cometen-bahnen, Leipzig, 1847; 2. Hind’s work, entitled
The Comets, London, 1852; 3. Cooper’s Cometic Orbits,
Dublin, 1852; 4. Encke’s valuable edition of Olbers’s Ab-
handlung, Berlin, 1847.
Enclce s Comet, or Comet of Pons.—This comet was dis¬
covered in October 1805, almost simultaneously by Pons and
other astronomers, being the third observed appearance. At
this apparition it was sufficiently bright to be seen with the
naked eye. Its next apparition was in 1818, when it was again
discovered by Pons on November 26. By calculations accord¬
ing to Gauss’s methods, based upon the great number of obser¬
vations made at this apparition, Encke proved the orbit to be
an ellipse, with a period of about 2f years, and established
its identity with the comets which appeared in 1786, 1795,
and 1805. To do this it was necessary to. calculate the whole
of the perturbations which it had experienced from the large
planets, from the time of its apparition backwards to the dates
of the.other apparitions. This enormous labour Encke satis¬
factorily accomplished in a very short space of time ; and the
comet has ever since been called most commonly after his name.
Since that time it has been observed at most of its apparitions,
of which one of the most favourable for observation was in
1838. It was in the discussion of the elements of the orbit
from the observations made at this apparition, compared with
the previous ones, that Encke was induced to enter seriously
upon the celebrated problem of the retardation probably expe"-
rienced by the comet by a highly-attenuated resisting medium.
The value of the constant of resistance was afterwards defi¬
nitely determined by him, and the disturbance produced by this
singular cause has been introduced into every subsequent dis¬
cussion of the orbit.
In the year 1805 appeared the comet now known as Biela’s
Comet, also of short period. It was discovered by Pons on
November 10. It was afterwards observed at the appari¬
tions of 1826, 1832, and 1846, and at the last appearance pre¬
sented the remarkable phenomenon of a double comet, both
components being together in the field of the same telescope.
Its period is rather less than seven years.
In 1807 appeared a great comet, surpassing in splendour
any which had appeared since 1769. One of the most remark¬
able phenomena attending it was a double tail.
In 1811 appeared a very splendid comet, whose appearance
is still remembered by many persons yet living. Its orbit was
so situated that for many months it was circumpolar, and this
added to the lustre of its appearance. In October the tail ex¬
tended over an arc of 25° in length.
In 1812 appeared a fine comet, at one time visible to the
naked eye. It was discovered by Pons on July 20. Encke
calculated elements, giving a period of about 71 years.
In 1819 a great comet suddenly made its appearance at the
beginning of July. The tail was about 7° in length, and at
one time it must have transited the sun’s disk.
In 1823 appeared a come# worthy of notice, from the fact of
its exhibiting two tails, of which one was turned towards the
sun, and the other in the opposite direction.
In 1825 appeared a great comet, which was discovered in¬
dependently by Pons and Biela in July, and continued visible
till the same season of the following year. The tail, which
was double, extended over an arc of 15°.
In 1830 appeared two comets, visible to the naked eye, the
first of which was discovered by Gambart in April. Each
was attended by a tail, and the nucleus of each was bright.
In 1835 appeared, according to prediction, the famous comet
of Halley. It was first detected at Rome by Dumouchal, on
the 5th of August 1835, and was observed till May 1836; and
excellent series of observations of it were made at the greater
number of the observatories both of the northern and southern
hemisphere. For particulars of its appearance, the reader
Theoretical
Astronomy:
ASTRONOMY.
may consult Sir J. Herscliel’s Results of Observation* made
■at the Cape of Good Hope; the Memoirs of the ll«ya\ff]r0;
nomical Society; and Struve’s Beobachtungen des Halley-
schen Cometen, where admirable drawings will he found of
its appearance at various phases. To these may beadded
Bessel’s drawings in the Astronomische Nachnchten No. dUJ.
Westphalen’s elliptic orbit corresponds to a period ot about
76Inei843 appeared the most remarkable comet of the present
century, familiarly known as the great comet of 1843. Ihis
comet ^ame suddenly upon astronomers m all ^^ness
the immense tail being first seen m England m the month ot
March, like a long band of light cirrous cloud, not very high
above the south-west horizon soon after sunset. .
For accounts of its physical appearance, we are indebted
chiefly to accounts given by officers of ships on their P»ssag
to England from the southern seas, and a great number of such
accounts will be found in vols. v. and vi. of tbo Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society. As seen by southern observer^
the spectacle presented by it must have ^en very ^d The
tail extended over an arc varying from 30 to 45 , and its
breadth was so great that it produced the effect of two distinct
streams of light united at the head of the comet, but separated
throughout nearly the whole length by a dark interval.
But the most Remarkable observations ot this comet were
made in America at the time of its nearest approach to the
sun’s disk, in broad daylight, by Mr J. G. Clarke, at Portlan ,
in the State of Maine. He measured the distance of the nu
cleus from the sun (about 34°) in strong sunshine, and states
that it and the tail were as well defined as the moon m a clear
day, and resembled a perfectly pure white cloud.
In 1843 was also discovered a comet of short period, by - .
Faye, which has been the subject of some remaAable papers
bv Leverrier, in vols. xx., xxv., and xxvi. of the Comptes
Rendus. The period of this comet is about 7a years> and 1
wots observed on its return in 1850. -r\ -n-
In 1844 another periodical comet was discovered by De \ no
nt T?nme The period is about 1993 days, but it was not ob-
served atite return in 1850, owing to its «nfayo™ne posto
In 1845 a briaht comet was discovered by Coiia at t arma,
oJjune 2. It fas at one period visible to the naked eye, and
“ifX* of February 26, an interesting pmodfcai comet
was discovered by Brorsen. The period is about 5S years. It
ZZ not seen at its return in 1851, being very near the sun at
TZmI rfXas discovered by Mr HM on
February 6 Before its perihelion passage, it became bright
TntuTto be seen in the doming twilight, and it was observed
Pliwe to the sun on March 30, at noonday. , , ^ „
In 1850 on May 1, a comet was discovered by Petersen,
wh£h Sue bright enough to be visible to the naked eye,
with a tail several degrees m length. October 22
In 1851, Brorsen discovered a bright comet on October
which exhibited a double tail. wKlinker-
Tn the present year 1853, a comet was discovered by EimJter
fues at Gfittingen^on Jun^ 10, which in August became very
bright, and for several evenings was a s]denCJ^ ;ted'a tail Tier
west, seen after the setting of the sun. It exhibited a tail per
fectly straight, of several degrees in length.
CHAP. V.
OF THE FIXED STARS.
Sect. Ccit&locjyjcs*
Within the last few years very many vaiuabie f
logues have been added to the list, through the combmed la¬
bours of public and private observers.
names of a few of the most important, with such notices o
their construction as seem necessary . , T,rah/
]. The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulugh Beigh, Tycho BraM
Halley, and Hevelius, have been admirably edited J
Bailyl and form vol. xiii. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astro
W02? Flamsteed’s Catalogue in the ^s b^en
also edited by Mr Baily, and was published m 1835, together
with his life of Flamsteed.
95
3. A Catalogue of the Stars in Lalande’s Histoire OcZeste Theoretic^1;
(about 40,000 in number), edited and compiled by Mr Baity, Supplement
at the expense of the British Association, and printed at the
expense of the Government in 1847. ,
4 The Catalogue of Stars of the British Association, con-
taming 8377 stars, edited by Mr Baily. 1845.
5. Lacaille’s Catalogue of 9766 Stars, reduced at the expense
of the British Association, under the superintendence of 1 ro-
fessor Henderson, and printed at the expense of the Govern¬
ment, under the direction of Mr Baily, with Preface by Sir J.
6. Sir Thomas Brisbane’s Catalogue of 7385 Stars, chiefly
in the Southern Hemisphere, observed at Paramatta. 1835.
7. Groombridge’s Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars, edited by
^8. Johnson’s Catalogue of 606 Principal Stars in the South¬
ern Hemisphere, 1835.
9. Argelander’s Catalogue of 560 Stars exhibiting Proper
Motions*5observed at Abo. 1835. _ Q,
10. The Greenwich Twelve-Year Catalogue of 21o6 Stars.
1849
11 Taylor’s Madras Catalogue of 11,015 Stars. 1844. _
12'. Weisse’s Catalogue of those Stars in Bessel’s Zones, situ¬
ated in a Zone extending 15° North and South of the Equator.
1813. Oeltzen’s Catalogue of the Stars in Argelander’s Zones
situated between 45° and 80° North Declination^ 2 vols. 1851
and 1852. (This valuable Catalogue forms vols. 1. and 11. of the
Third Series of the Annalen des h. k. Sternwarte in Ij ten.)
14. Rumker’s Catalogue of 12,000 Stars. 1840-1851.
15. Cooper’s two Catalogues of 30,097 Stars near theEchptic,
observed at Markree. 1851 and 1853. . .
Several other Catalogues will be found m the Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society, but we have not space for
separate accounts of them. _ _, ^ , ,
The following Catalogues of Double Stars must be men-
1. Struve’s Great Catalogue of Double and Multiple Stars,
observed at Dorpat. 1837.
2. Struve’s Catalogue of 514 Double and Multiple Stars ob¬
served at Pulkowa. 1843. . .
3. Herschel and South’s Catalogue of 380 Double and Inple
Stars. (Phil. Trans, for 1825.)
4 Dawes’s Catalogue of 121 Double Stars, observed at
Ormskirk in the years 1831-1833. {Memoirs of the Royal
Astronomical Society,vo\. ~
5. Smyth’s Cycle of Celestial Objects 2 vols. 1844.
6. Struve’s Catalogue of tlie Mean Places of the Stars ou-
served at Dorpat from 1822 to 1843. 1852.
Section II. Of the Apparent Magnitudes, Number, and
Distribution of the Stars.
In any scheme for the re-arrangement of the stars m new
constellations or asterisms, according to the views of Sir John
Herschel {Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society,\ol. xn.),
or for thoroughly correcting the old arrangement of the con¬
stellations, a knowledgeof their relative brightness or apparent
magnitudes is absolutely necessary; yet this department of the
science remains, even at present, m a very unsatisfactory
state; and the estimated magnitudes set down m our best
catalogues are always vague, and frequently inaccura e.
Notwithstanding this, however, several successful attempts
have been made by eminent astronomers to put this branch of
science on a better footing ; and, under this head, its progress
is mainly due to Argelander, Herschel, Johnson, and Dawes.
Argelander’s remarkable work, the Uranometria JS ova, pub¬
lished in 1843, gives for the northern heavens the most accu¬
rate scale of magnitudes for all stars visible to the naked eye,
though the estimations do not profess greater acca™cy tjmii
the descending scale of thirds of magnitudes employed by him
W1Sir JHIerschel, while at the Cape, made the estimation of
the magnitudes of the stars on a better system than any for¬
merly employed—one of his most important su_ FJ s ’
naked-eye observations alone has assigned magni uc es ^
500 stars on a systematic plan, and with a degree o
96
ASTRONOMY.
Theoretical strable accuracy far exceeding anything which had been pre-
Astronomy: viously attempted. For a detail of his methods we must refer
^uppiement to his Observations at the Cape of Good Hope.
“ v-"- Mr Dawes has also been successful in devising a method for
observing the magnitudes of telescopic stars, which is very easily
applicable, and requires only ordinary perseverance and labo¬
rious observing, to establish, on a perfectly satisfactory basis,
a scale of magnitudes for all telescopic stars in the heavens.
(See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
vol. xii.)
Mr Johnson has also, in the course of his re-observation of
the stars of Groombridge’s Catalogue, paid great attention to
the correct estimation of their magnitudes, and has lately de¬
vised a method, by the use of the heliometer, for comparing
directly the magnitudes of such stars as lie within its range, so
as to be brought into the same field. The results of his re¬
searches are published in a pamphlet appended to his last
published volume of observations.
On the subject of the number and distribution of the stars,
a most valuable work was published by the elder Struve in the
year 1847, entitled Etudes d’Astronomie Stellaire ; sur la
Voie Lactee et sur le distance des Etoiles Fixes; which gives a
most lucid account of his own elaborate researches on this sub¬
ject distributed throughout his other works, and especially of
his preface to Weisse’s Catalogue. Of this treatise an excel¬
lent abstract was given by Mr Airy, and is included in the
Report of the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society of
February 11, 1848, printed in the Monthly Notices. To
this extract we must refer the reader for further information.
The almost-despaired-of problem of finding the distances
of some of the fixed stars, has been successfully solved during
the present half-century ; and in no branch of astronomy has
the perfection, both of the theoretical and practical methods
adopted by modern astronomers, been more severely tested, or
more triumphantly successful.
The star 61 Cygni, a binary system of two stars of very
nearly equal magnitudes, connected by gravity, and having a
large proper motion, is that of which the parallax was first
detected and ^measured by Bessel, by means of comparative
measures of distance made with the heliometer, extending from
the year 1837 to 1840, of which the whole series will be found
in vols. xvi. and xvii. of the Astr. Nachr. The definitive Theoretical
value of the parallax arrived at is 0,/,3483, which corresponds Astronomy:
to a distance of about 600,000 radii of the earth’s orbit. Supplement
The bright southern star a Centauri, has also had its paral- /
lax determined with great care by several series of meridian
observations of zenith distance made by Professor Henderson
and Mr Maclear. The resulting parallax amounts to very
nearly l".
The parallax of a Lyra3 was determined by micrometrical
measurements, made by M. Struve, of its distance from a
neighbouring faint star. The series of observations extended
from November 1835 to August 1838, and the resulting value
of the parallax is O'^OIO.
But the most remarkable paper on annual parallax is that
by M. Peters of the Pulkowa Observatory. He gives in this
paper the results of the meridian observations made with Er-
tal’s circle, to determine the parallaxes of the stars Polaris,
Capella, ( Ursac Majoris, Groombridge 1830 (having large pro¬
per motion), Arcturus, « Lyrae, « Cygni, and 61 Cygni. The
results he arrives at are as follow
Parallax
For Polaris  -p 0-067
... Capella  + 0046
... / Ursas Majoris  + 0T33
... Groombridge 1830   + 0‘226
... Arcturus  + 0T27
... a Lyrse  + 0T03
... a Cygni   _ 0-082
... 61 Cygni  + 0-349 ,
We have endeavoured in the preceding pages to give a few
of the most prominent of the researches and discoveries which
have enriched astronomical science in the present century; but
the very small space which could be allotted for this extension
renders of necessity the accounts very imperfect, and forbids
any details. It is hoped, however, that the references given
will enable the reader to obtain for himself the full details of
investigations of which we have only indicated the outlines,
and to study fully the methods by which the results given in
the preceding pages have been arrived at. (k. m—n.)
With
prob. error.
.. 0-012
.. 0-200
.. 0-106
.. 0-141
. 0-073
. 0-053
. 0-043
. 0-080
PART III.1
PHYSICAL ASTRONOMY.
The whole science of astronomy may be reduced to
two general problems. The first is to express the position
of all the heavenly bodies in terms of the time reckoned
from a given instant, either in the past or the future dura¬
tion of the world. The same may be otherwise stated by
saying, that the thing required is, to express the position
of any one of the heavenly bodies in a function of the
time, the time being considered as the only variable quan¬
tity, though combined with other known quantities, which
enter into the function as the co-efficients of the different
terms. This is the most general view of that which is
usually called descriptive, or sometimes geometrical as¬
tronomy. The solution of this problem enables us to de¬
termine for any time the places of the heavenly bodies,
relatively to one another, and relatively to any point on
the earth’s surface. It contains under it an endless variety
of subordinate problems, embracing a long series of suc¬
cessive generalizations, from the first observations to the
determination of the orbits of the heavenly bodies, and
the final reduction of all that concerns their motions into
the form of astronomical tables. The second problem is,
to compare the laws of motion in the heavens, as discover¬
ed from the preceding investigations, with the laws of
motion as already known on the surface of the earth, in
order to find out whether or not they are the same; and,
if not, in what their difference consists. The solution of
this problem constitutes what is called Physical Astro¬
nomy : it is the same with inquiring into the causes of the
celestial motions; for by causes we mean the general facts
concerning the motion of bodies which are observed to
take place on the surface of the earth.
Though the first of these two problems goes necessarily
before the second, for the solution of which it affords the
data, yet, after this solution is obtained, it affords great
assistance to many of the researches involved in the first,
and exemplifies, in a most remarkable manner, the use of
theory in the investigation of facts, and the re-action, as
it were, of the second problem on the first.
Taking for granted the solution of the first problem, as
given under the other Parts of this article, we are now to
^This portion of the present treatise is reprinted from the article on Physical Astronomy contributed by the late Professor Play¬
fair to the Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of this work. The chief alteration made in this, the eighth edition, is the
substitution of the differential for the exploded fluxional notation.
ASTRO
Physical consider the second, and to explain the manner in which
Astronomy. {(• {jeen resolved by Newton and the philosophers who
have come after him.
The history of the first of these two problems is long
and interesting, beginning from the remotest period to
which the records or the traditions of mankind have ven¬
tured to ascend, and coming down to the present time ;
and, in the ages to come, it is never likely to know any
limit but the movable instant which separates the past
from the future,—as long, at least, as science and civiliza¬
tion are inhabitants of the earth.
The history of the second comes within small compass;
because, between the first rude effort and the last refined
investigation there is hardly any intermediate stepbutone.
The concentric orbs of the ancient philosophers were an
attempt at an explanation of the physical causes of the
celestial motions, or at an assimilation of those motions to
such as we are accustomed to see on the surface of the
earth. The great phenomenon to be explained was the
diurnal motion of the heavens, by which so many bodies,
very distant from one another, all describe circles round
the earth, keeping time so precisely with one another, that
the revolutions, whether great or small, are accomplished
in the same interval. This could not be, unless a connec¬
tion subsisted between those bodies ; and the most simple
idea of that connection was, that the bodies were fixed in
the surface of a sphere which revolved on an axis, and
carried them along with it.
If the whole of astronomy had been confined to the
single fact of the diurnal revolution of the fixed stars, the
hypothesis just mentioned would have been quite satisfac¬
tory. But as some of the heavenly bodies, such as the
sun and planets, did not revolve precisely in the same time
with the rest, it was necessary to assign to them particular
spheres of their own. Those spheres, therefore, must be
transparent: light must find an easy passage through
them, and hence they must be crystalline. By degrees,
as more accurate knowledge was obtained of the motion of
the planets, it was found necessary so to increase the
number of the spheres, that the complication of the struc¬
ture was burdensome to the imagination; the hypothesis
did not answer the very first object of a theory, that of
connecting the facts together; and it was so unlike any
process of nature with which we are acquainted, that it
was highly improbable. The hypothesis of the homocen¬
tric orbs therefore fell into discredit, and, after the dis¬
covery of the earth’s motion, was entirely abandoned.
The next attempt to explain the whole system of the
celestial motions was that of Descartes, by means of vor¬
tices of subtile matter, and the pressure which, by the cen¬
trifugal force of those vortices, was produced on the gross¬
er bodies of the stars. But as a taste for accurate know¬
ledge increased, and as men reflected more on the true
objects of philosophic theory, the system of vortices ap¬
peared more and more defective, and at length ceased to
have any followers.
Newton succeeded, who, rejecting all the cumbersome
machinery, both solid and fluid, of his predecessors, adopt¬
ed a plan far more philosophical in the design, and far
more difficult in the execution, than any thing yet known
in the physical or mathematical sciences. Assuming as
true the three general facts concerning the planetary sys¬
tem known by the name of the laws of Kepler, he pro¬
ceeded to inquire by what sort of action on one another
the planets could be made to describe orbits having the
properties indicated by these three general facts. The
general facts to which we now refer, are,
I. That every planet moves so, that the line drawn from
it to the sun describes about the sun areas proportional to the
limes.
VOL. IV.
N O M Y. 97
II. That the planets describe ellipses, each of which has Physical
one of its foci in the same point, viz. the centre of the sun. Astronomy.
III. That the squares of the times of the revolutions of the
planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
Sect. I.—Of the Forces which retain the Planets in their
Orbits.
\. If a body gravitating to a fixed centre have a motion
communicated to it in a direction not passing through that
centre, it will move in a curve, and the straight line drawn
from the body to the centre will describe areas proportional
to the times.
Let S (fig. 109) be the centre to which the body A gra-Plato
vitates, at the same time that a motion is communicated LXXXIX.
to it in the direction AB. And first, let the gravitating
or centripetal force be supposed to act, not continually, but
at intervals, producing instantaneously, at the beginning
of each interval, the same velocity that it would have pro¬
duced by acting continually during the whole of that time :
let AC be the space which the body would describe by
the action of this force alone; also let AB be the space
which it would describe in the same time by the projectile
force acting on it alone. It will therefore describe the
line AD, the diagonal of the parallelogram contained by
AB and AC, and at the end of the first interval will be in
D. If, then, no new impulse of gravity were to act on it,
it would in the second interval of time go on in the direc¬
tion AD, and describe DF equal to AD. But if, at the
beginning of the second interval, an impulse of the centri¬
petal force be instantaneously impressed, sufficient to
carry the body in that time from D to E in the line DS,
it will describe the line DG, the diagonal of the parallelo¬
gram contained by DE and DF. The same is true of the
third interval, in which the body will go from G to L, and
of every subsequent interval. Join SB, SF, SK, &c. The
areas of the triangles ABS, ADS are equal, the triangles
being on the same base AS, and between the same paral¬
lels AS and BD. For the same reason, the triangles
DGS, DFS are equal, and DFS is equal to ADS, because
they have equal bases and the same altitude. For the
same reason, the triangle SGL is equal to SDG, or to
ADS; and the same is true of all the other triangles that
are described in the equal intervals of time by the line
drawn from the body to the centre S. This holds, how-
ever short the intervals may be, and however great their
number; and therefore it is true when the intervals are
indefinitely small, and their number infinitely great, that
is, when the action of the centripetal force is continued.
But when the intervals of time become indefinitely
small, the rectilineal figure ADGL passes into a curve. For
when these intervals diminish, the lines AB, DF, &c. the
lengths of the parallelograms, diminish in the same pro¬
portion ; but the lines AC, DE, &c. the breadths, diminish
in a greater proportion, viz. in that of the squares of these
intervals. Hence, the angles which AD, DG, GL, the
diagonals, make with the sides AB, DF, GK, continually
diminish; and therefore the angles ADG, DGL, or the
angle which each diagonal makes with that which is con¬
tiguous, increases without limit, so that, as the diagonals
diminish in length, the angles they make with one another
become greater than any finite rectilineal angles, and
therefore the figure becomes a curve line.
That the lines AC, &c. or the supposed effect of the
centrifugal force, diminish as the squares of the times, is
evident from the laws of the descent of heavy bodies, as
explained under the head of Dynamics.
2. Hence, conversely, if a body move in a curve, so that
the line drawn from it to a fixed point describe areas pro¬
portional to the times, the body gravitates to that point, or
tends continually to descend to it.
N
ASTRONOMY.
98
Physical For, since it does not move in a straight line, it must be
Astronomy, continually acted on by a deflecting force ; and the direc-
^ ' tion 0f thg deflecting force must always pass through the
same point, otherwise the areas described about that point
would not be proportional to the time.
3. Corollary. The velocities of a body in different points
of the curve which it describes about a centre of force,
are inversely as the perpendiculars drawn from the centre
to the tangents of the curve at these points. Let ACA',
fig. 110, be the curve which a body describes about the
centre S. Let Aa and A'a' be two arches of the curve,
described in the same indefinitely small portion of time.
Join Sa, Sa', then the areas of the triangles ASa, A'Sa'
are equal by this proposition. At A and A', draw the tan¬
gents AB' A'B', and from S let fall on them the perpendi¬
culars SB and SB'. Because the areas of the triangles
ASa, A'Sa', are equal, Aa X SB — A'a' X SB', or Aa : A'a'
:: SB': SB ; but Aa is to A'a' as the velocity of the body
describing the curve at A to its velocity at A, therefore
these velocities are inversely as the perpendiculars SB,
SB'. '
The straight line AB (fig. 109), according to which the
projectile motion was impressed on the body, is a tangent
to the curve at the point A.
4. On comparing the first and second of these proposi¬
tions with the first of Kepler’s laws, as just enumerated,
it is evident that the primary planets all gravitate to the
sun, and that the secondary planets gravitate every one to
its primary. The next thing, therefore, is to discover the
law observed by this force, or the function of the distance
to which it is proportional; and also, whether, in that
function, other variable quantities are not involved beside
the distance. The general fact that the orbits, or curves
described by the planets round the sun, are ellipses, may
assist in this investigation, and in expressing the velocity
of a planet, in terms of the radius vector, or its distance
from the sun
5. Let ADBE (fig. Ill) be the orbit of a planet, S the
focus in which the sun is placed, AB the axis major, and
DE the axis minor, C the centre, and F the superior focus.
Let the planet be anywhere at P; draw a tangent to the
orbit in P, on which from the foci let fall the perpendicu¬
lars SG, FH. Draw also DK touching the orbit in D,
and let SK be perpendicular to it. Let the velocity of the
planet, when at the mean distance, or at D, be = c, and
when at P = v. Join SP, FP. Then, by the corollary
to the last proposition, the velocity at D is to the velocity
at P as SG to SK, that is, c : v : : SG : DC, or v =
DC
c  .
SG
But because the triangles SGP, FHP, are equian¬
gular, having right angles at G and H, and also the
angles SPG, FPH equal, from the nature of the ellipse,
SP : PF :: SG: FH, and therefore also SP : PF : SG2: SG
X FH. But SG X FH=CD2, therefore SP:PF:: SG2:CD2,
J CD2 PF XT CD 2 „ CD2 ,
8,1(1 SG*=SP- and
PF
therefore v2 — • -gp.
Hence, as the distance of a planet from the $un, at any
point in its orbit to its distance from the superior focus, so
the square of its velocity at its mean distance from the sun
to the square of its velocity at the point just mentioned.
6. If SL be taken in the greater axis equal to SP,
and FN = PF, so that SN = the transverse axis AB,
, . NL „ SN —SP GXT. . ..
v^ — c1 * yt;  ct5 • I hen as SN is a given line,
JLo oJr
If, from the velocity of the revolving body thus ex- Physical
pressed in terms of the distance, a transition can be made Astronomy
to that of a body descending in a straight line, the law of
the centripetal force will be easily investigated. This
will be facilitated by the following proposition:
An equal approach to the centre of force produces an
equal increase of the square of the velocity, whether the body
revolve in a curve about the centre, or descend to it in a
straight line. In like manner, equal recesses from the centre
of force produce equal diminutions of the square of the velo¬
cities, in whatever lines the bodies move.
Let ABC (fig. 112) be a curve which a body describes
about a centre, S, to which it gravitates, while another
body descends in a straight line AS, to that centre. Let
BC be any arch of the curve ABC, and let BD, CH, be
arches of circles described from the centre S, intersecting
the line AS in D and H; the square of the velocity of the
body, which describes the arch BC, will be as much in¬
creased as the square of the velocity of that which falls
through DH.
From the centre S describe the arch bd, indefinitely
near to BD, and draw E/perpendicular to the arch B6.
Also let the centripetal force at B or D be called G.
Now, the part of this force which is in the direction B6,
and which is employed in accelerating the body moving
in that line, is G X ^; and the increment of the space
being B6, therefore 2G X — is the momentary in¬
crement of the square of the velocity of the body at B.
But B/ X B6 = BE2, because BE6 is a right-angled tri¬
angle, and E/ the perpendicular on the hypothenuse.
Therefore 2 G X = 2G X ^- = 2G X BE =
2G X Ddf. But 2G X DeZ is the momentary increment
of the square of the velocity of the body at D, or the in¬
crement of that square while the body falls from D to d.
These momentary increments therefore are equal; and
as the same may be shown for the next and every subse¬
quent instant, the whole increase of the square of the
velocities of the bodies in moving over BC and DH are
equal. . .
If the bodies moved in the opposite directions, the one
from C to B, and the other from H to D, it would be
proved, in the same manner, that the squares of their
velocities would be equally diminished.
7. Hence it is evident, that, if the velocities of the re¬
volving and of the falling body are equal in any one in¬
stance when they are equally distant from the centre,
their velocities will always be equal when they are equally
distant from that point; for equal quantities receiving
equal increments continue equal.
8. Suppose now that a planet revolves in the elliptical
orbit APB (fig. HI), it will have at A, the higher ap-
yAF
or (if AN in the axis pro-
yAN
-^-g. Let a body
at A begin to descend towards S with the same velocity;
then if SL = SP, the velocity of the planet at P will be
the same with that of the falling body at L. But the ve-
/PF /NL
locity of the planet atPiscX>w/pg = cX^/ -g|j,
therefore, a body descending from A, and falling directly
to the sun under the action of the same centripetal force
which urges the planet, would at any point L in its fall
v is expressed in terms where SP, the distance from the have jts velocity = c X Hence, at the point N
sun, is the only variable quantity. v LS
ASTRONOMY.
99
Physical its velocity would be equal to 0, or the body must begin
Astronomy. to fa]i from n, in order that its velocity may be every-
where equal to that which the planet has in its orbit,
when at the same distance from the sun.
The law, therefore, according to which the planets
gravitate is such, that any body under the influence of the
same force, and falling direct to the sun, will have its velo¬
city at any point equal to a certain velocity, multiplied into
the square root of the distance it has fallen through, divided
by the square root of the distance between it and the sun's
centre.
This is a fact with respect to the law of gravity in the
solar system, of which, though there be no direct ex¬
ample, yet is it no less certain than the ellipticity of the
planetary orbits, of which it is a necessary consequence.
9. From the law thus found to regulate the velocity of
bodies falling in straight lines to the sun, the law of the
force by which that velocity is produced may be derived
by help of reasoning which is quite elementary.
Let C (fig. 113) be the centre to which the falling body
gravitates, A the point from which it begins to fall, and
let its velocity at any point B, be to its velocity in the
the same for every second of the planet’s revolution, there- Physical
fore the area of the orbit divided by \bc will give the num- Astronomy
ber of seconds in which the revolution is completed, which
is therefore =-r^—=or since c2 = aF, the time of a
±bc
. . 2-Ka la
revolution — - = 2 tt /
V«F V f
11. Hence it is easy to compare the times of the revo¬
lutions of any two planets of which the mean distances
are known. Let t and f be the times of revolution for
two different planets, of which the mean distances are a
and a’, and the gravitation at those distances F and F',
1. 1
2 ,2
a o!
and, by what has just been shown, t \ £ :: —j- : —p or
FY
a!
¥
a’
A’
p2
1?
K, a
^ F
But F : F':: o'2 : a2, by what is already
shown (Art. 9), therefore f x if2:'. —: or f :£2 a3 : o'3,
that is, the squares of the times of revolution of any two pla-
nets are as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
to 1; it is required Thus the third law of Kepler is explained by the conclu-
' sions deduced from the other two.
to find the law of the force with which the body gravi¬
tates to C.
Let DEF be a curve, such, that if AD be an ordinate
or a perpendicular to AC, meeting the curve in D, and
BE any other ordinate, AD is to BE as the force at A
to the force at B, then will twice the area ABED be equal
to the square of the velocity which the body has acquired
in B. If, therefore, the velocity at B be v, that at the
12. The share which this third law has in establishing
the principle of universal gravitation does not seem to
have been always clearly apprehended. From the ellip¬
tical orbit of a planet, it is fairly inferred that, over all
the circumference of that orbit, gravitation is inversely
as the square of the distance from the centre of the sun.
• C^Cl
That force is shown to be — (x being the distance from
middle point G being c, v = c/~^, by hypothesis, and the centre of force), and the same is true of every individual
^ planet; but whether c?a was a constant quantity, or one
which retained the same value through the whole planet¬
ary system, could not be known without comparing the
periods of different planets with their distances from the
the sun. It was indeed highly probable that c?a was a given
quantity, or the same for every part of our system; but
reason 2A6ED = (?(_lV and therefore the ifc pould not be considered as a thing demonstrated till the
V oC ) evidence of the third law was introduced.
therefore 2ABED = c2
AC
AB
BC;
BC
BC’
and since
AC
AB = AC
BC, 2ABED = c2. A^ — l). For
Wherefore, dividing
difference of these areas, or 2B6eE, that is, 2EB X B6
,/AC AC\ 0 AC.B6
= e('5C
AC AG
by BS, 2EB = c2 . ; or EB = c2 . ; now <? and
AG are given, therefore EB is inversely as BC2, that is,
the centripetal force at B is inversely as the square of
BC, the distance from the centre of force. In the pla¬
netary system, therefore, the force with which any planet
gravitates to the sun varies in the inverse ratio of the square
of the distance of the planet from the sun's centre.
10. The line CG is the same with the mean distance
of the planet, in an orbit of which AC is the length of the
major axis, and if the gravitation at that distance = F,
F = ,
a c*
x
<r a
and the mean distance itself = a,
aF = c2.
Let it next be required, the elliptic orbit of a planet
being given, to find the time in which the planet will re¬
volve round the sun.
If a be the mean distance, or the semimajor axis, b the
semiminor, then vab — the area of the orbit. But as c is
the velocity at the mean distance, or the elliptic arch which
the planet moves over in a second when it is at D, the ver¬
tex of the minor axis, therefore \ be is the area described
in that second by the radius vector; and since this area is
13. These laws hold of the secondary planets relatively
to their primary, just as with the primary planets rela¬
tively to the sun. Each system of secondary planets,
however, has a different numerator to the fraction which
expresses gravity; that is, the quantity (Pa is the same for
all the satellites of Jupiter, but it is a different quantity
from that which belongs to the satellites of Saturn, and
different from that which belongs to the primary planets.
The quantity (Pa seems therefore to depend on the cen¬
tral body of each system of planets, and the precise nature
of this connection requires to be farther examined into.
14. Let the centripetal force tending to a given centre
S be inversely as the squares of the distances, and let the
intensity of that force at any given distance from the cen¬
tre be also given; then, if a body be projected from a
given point, with a given velocity, and in a given direc¬
tion, it is required to determine the conic section which
it will describe.
Let the semimajor axis, or the mean distance to be
found, = a, the semiminor = b, the velocity at the distance
a. — c, and at the given distance d let the centripetal force
=/; and first let the direction of the initial motion be at
right angles to the radius vector, so that the point of pro¬
jection is either the higher or the lower apsis. Let the ve¬
locity of the projection = v, and the radius vector at the
point of projection = r.
Because the areas described in equal times are equal,
100
ASTRONOMY.
and if F denote the centripetal force at the dis-
d2f
But F = -4, therefore
Physical be — rv ;
Astronomy. (2
1 tance a, c2 — a F, and F = —.
a
„ , . , Wa , !a * i Physical
time of the moon in seconds, or — X /- = r, so tnat Astronomy.
r ^3
g&
4^rV
bd
— — and c — d Hence, by substituting for c,
a a1 V a
'J{ — rv, and IPcPf — ar^v2. But Z*2 zr AS X SB —
r (2 a — r), wherefore r (2 a — r) cPf = ar2v?, and a —
rd2/ Thus a, the semitransverse axis, and there-
2a2f— rv2
fore the transverse axis itself, is found; and thence with
the focus S and the apsis A, the conic section may be
described.
15. The conic section will be a circle, when a—r, that is,
when 2 d2f — v2r — d2f or when d2f — v2r, and v2 —
16. But if 2d2f— rv2, or v2 = the denominator va¬
nishes, and a becomes infinite, so that the trajectory is
a parabola, of which the focus is S, the vertex A, and the
parameter 4r. The square of the velocity which determines
the trajectory to be a parabola is, therefore, double of the
square of the velocity which determines it to be a circle.
17. When 2d2ff>v2r, the value of a is affirmative and
the conic section is an ellipsis, and this ellipsis has its
t2 =
4w2«3
and a3 —
r2g&
Tf2'
Hence —^ —
r5
and — =
higher apsis at A, if v2 but when a2>—, and less
d2f
2d2f
A is the lower apsis.
18. When v2 goes beyond this
2d2f
last limit, or when
1*9
(\3. Hence, as q, r, and t are known, we may find
\4<9rr/
— or the ratio of the moon’s distance to the radius of the
r
earth, which, if it come out the same that it is known to
be from observations of the moon’s parallax, will prove that
the force which retains the moon in her orbit is the same
that causes bodies to fall at the surface of the earth, but
diminished in the same ratio that the square of the
moon’s distance is greater than the square of the radius
of the earth.
Now g i= 32T66 feet, r — 3481279-4 fathoms or
20887676-4 feet, and t — 2360591-5 seconds. Hence ^
=r 60-218.
Now the mean equatorial parallax of the moon is found
by observation — 57' 0"-9, from which the mean distance,
in semidiameters of the equator, is found 59-964.
But it is in mean semidiameters of the earth that the
moon’s distance is given in the former computation;
therefore, to reduce the last measure to the same scale,
it must be increased by a 600th part, as the mean radius
of the globe is about that much less than the radius of
the equator; the distance 59-964 then becomes 60-063,
which agrees with the former number to the small frac¬
tion -003 of the earth’s radius.
Thus, from the theory of gravity, combined with the
time of the moon’s sidereal revolution, her distance from
the earth is found to within a very small fraction of the
whole.
21. It is therefore a general proposition, derived from
the most rigorous induction, that the primary planets gravi¬
tate to the sun, and the secondary planets to the primary,
with forces which are inversely as the squares of the distances.
But since, in all communication of motion, the re-action is
equal to the action, when a planet gravitates to the sun,
   analogy forces us to conclude that the sun gravitates to
focus. Produce SE to N, so that SN = SO, and bisect the planet, in such a manner, that if the momentary ap-
EN in A, then is A the higher apsis; and if SP be made proach of the planet to the sun, and of the sun to the
equal to EA, P is the lower apsis, and AP the major axis; planet, were respectively multiplied by the quantity of
and therefore the foci and the major axis being given, the matter in those bodies, the products, or the quantities oj
elliptic orbit may be described. motion, would be equal. Such a mutual tendency, there-
20. From what has been shown at Art. 9, it is evident fore, of the great bodies of our system to the sun, and of
that the primary planets gravitate to the sun with forces the sun to them, doubtless takes place; but whether this
that are inversely as the squares of the distances, and that be in consequence of an attractive force residing in their
the secondary gravitate toward the primary, according to centres, as the magnetic force does in certain parts of the
the same law. This inference, however, does not apply loadstone, or if it arise from the mutual attraction of all
exactly to the moon, which, being a single satellite, does the particles of the one for all the particles of the other,
not by comparison with any other afford a proof that, in does not appear from the phenomena hitherto examined,
bodies revolving round the earth, the squares of the perio- We may, however, observe that the bodies between which
die times are as the cubes of the mean distances. The this attraction in the inverse ratio of the squares of the
centripetal force at the moon, however, from our know- distances takes place, are all of a round form, and are
ledge of her periodic time, may be compared with the either accurately spherical, or nearly approaching to that
force of gravity at the earth’s surface, and will determine shape. It will therefore be of use for resolving this ques-
whether that force decreases as we recede from the earth tion, to inquire whether, if the particles of matter did at-
in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances. tract one another with forces inversely as the squares of
Let a be the distance of the moon from the centre of their distances, the spherical bodies, compounded of such
the earth, r the radius of the earth, g the velocity ac- particles, would attract one another according to the same
quired by a heavy body at the earth’s surface by falling ]aw. If this is found to be the case, it will be reasonable
during one second; let £ be the period of the moon’s re- to conclude that the gravitation of large bodies to one
volution in seconds, and c the velocity of her motion, another arises from the mutual attraction of their particles
to one another.
22. In order to determine the relation between the at¬
traction of a sphere and that of the particles of which it
consists, we may consider the sphere as made up of plates
v2 >——, the value of a is negative, and the trajectory
becomes an hyperbola.
19. Next, let the body be projected from B (fig.114) with
the velocity v, in the direction BD, oblique to BS. Find
the distance from which a body must fall to acquire at B
the velocity v, and let OB, taken in SB produced, be equal
to this distance; then is SO equal to the major axis. Let
BE be drawn, making with BD the same angle that SB
makes with BG, and let BE r: BO, then is E the higher
Then, by Art. 14, ac2 — i^g, and therefore c ■= r
CL
Now, the circumference of the circle described by the
moon is 2n(a, and this, divided by c, gives the periodic
ASTRONOMY.
Phvsical or lamincB infinitely great in number, and infinitely small
Astronomy. in thickness. The attraction of each of these is to be es-
timated, and from thence the attraction of the whole may
be computed. Let AFBG (fig. 115), therefore, be a circu¬
lar plate, of which the centre is C; CE a straight line
passing through C, and perpendicular to the plane AFBG;
E any particle in that line attracted by each particle of
the circular plate, as D, with a force inversely as the
square of DE, the distance between the particles; it is
required to find the whole force with which E is attracted
in the direction EC.
If DC be drawn, the force with which D attracts E
in the direction ED is inversely as DE2 or as and
Dili
that same force, reduced to the direction EC, is as
101
dy — —. By substituting these values of y and dy in Physical
a Astronomy
the expresssion for the attraction of the circular plate, that ^
attraction =
2 Trxdx
1
d1—r2 +
='(
2 ax
2 axdx—a2dx + r‘dx—3i?dx\
X
From the centre C, with the radius DC,
EC _ EC
DE “ DE3
let a circle DKH be described, and indefinitely near it
the circle dkh; then, since every particle in the ring of
matter contained between these circles has its attraction
EC
proportional to the attraction of the whole ring will
EC
be as multiplied into the number of particles, or into
the solidity of the ring. But if EC = a, ED = x, and
AC = r, CD2 = x? — a2, and the surface of the ring
=3 2iTxdx. If then the thickness of the plate AFBG 33 m,
the solidity of the ring 3= 2Trmxdx, and its attraction in the
direction EC
But the attraction of this circular plate may be consi¬
dered as the differential of the attraction of the spherical seg¬
ment, generated by the revolution of the arch AD, and
therefore the integral of the above differential quantity will
give the attraction of that segment. Now, this integral
zr 7T (ax*-a*x + r*x-ix^ + c< Here c must be g0
determined that the integral may be equal to 0, when the
arch AD =3 0, or when x — y = a — r. Therefore C
,3 — ai3 _j_ .2. ^
3 »'
-)>
and the attraction
• a^x + r2x — a?3 + ^- a3 — ai2 + ^ r3).
This is the attraction of the spherical segment generated
by the arch AD, and will become equal to that of the whole
sphere when AD=3the semicircle ADB, or when x=a + r.
This substitution being made, and the terms reduced, the
attraction is found — But —is the solid content
which taken so as to vanish when DC 3: 0, or when x — a.
2‘i:ma „ ^
is 2irm
— 2mn
the attraction of the
of the sphere ; therefore the attraction of the sphere, on any
, the integral of particle E, is as the quantity of matter in the sphere, di¬
vided by the square of the distance of its centre from E.
Hence also the sphere attracts any particle without it, as ij
all its matter were united in its centre. The sphere, it is
also obvious, would attract another sphere just in the ra¬
tio of its quantity of matter, divided by the distance of
the centres of the spheres.
24. Thus, supposing that the particles of matter at¬
tract one another with forces which are inversely as the
squares of the distances, it is certain that the spherical
bodies composed of these particles would do so likewise,
or would attract one another with forces directly as their
circle DKH. Therefore, when x 3= AE, the whole attrac¬
tion of the plate, or the whole force which it exerts on the
/ EC\
particle E, is 2cm f 1— Ya)'
23. Next, let ABD (fig. 116) be a circle of which the
centre is C, and E a particle of matter anywhere in the
diameter AB produced. Draw ED to any point D in the quantities of matter, and inversely as the squares of the
circumference; draw also DC, and let DF be at right an- distances of their centres. Since, therefore, it has been
gles to AB. Then, when the whole figure revolves about found that round or spherical bodies, such as the sun and
EB, the semicircle ADB will generate a sphere, and DF the planets, do attract other bodies with forces that are
a circle perpendicular to the plane ABD, and having its inversely as the squares of the distances, it is reasonable
centre in F. If all the particles of the sphere attract the t° suppose that these bodies are composed of particles
particle E with forces inversely as the squares of their gravitating towards one another, or attracting one another
distances from it, then, by the last proposition, the attrac- with forces inversely as the squares of the distances. Ora¬
tion of the circular plate, of which the centre is F, will be vitation, therefore, is not to be considered as a force residing
/ EF\ the centres of the planets, but as a force belonging to all
'• ’EDy' ^le Par^es of matter, and as universally diffused through¬
out the universe.
Let CE33G!, ACz3r, ED33#, EF=y, and the attraction And as it has been shown that between spherical bo¬
dies constituted of such particles, the force of attraction
2<itm 11-
above will be 2‘trm
fi y\ a -c a u • 11 .1 “ies constituted of such particles, the force of attraction
p- x) ; and “ * and V be var,able>the is as the quantity of matter in the attracting body, divid-
quantity m in this formula, or the thickness of the circular
plate will be = dy, and therefore the attraction of the plate
= 27rdy ^1—. In order to integrate this quantity, y
ed by the square of the distance between its centre and
that of the attracted body; if m be the mass or quantity
of matter in the former body, and x the distance of the
771
centres, — is the value of f, the accelerating force with
must be expressed in terms of x, or x in terms of y.
Now, because AE3ia — r, and AF 33 ?/ — a-\-r, FB
=2r—y-j-g—r — a-\-r—y, and AFxFB33(r
(r + a y) — r a -\-2ay ^=DF 33x2 y1. Flence tinuuiei.> a ana a' De tne mean
a r + x therefore satellites revolve about any two planets, m and m! the
quantities of matter in those planets, tfand t their periods
which it attracts the other body.
a y, 25. Hence the masses of any two planets which have
TTonr-p b0(hes revolving round them may be compared with one
another. Let a and a! be the mean distances at which
2 ay = x2, or y —
2 a
102
ASTRONOMY.
Physical
—J ——
Astronomy.0f revolution; it has been shown that t=. j- =
2m2
1
a'2
df
or
f2'
and consequently t: t':: : —j-, and m : mr
m2 m'2
The masses, therefore, of any two planets are as the cubes
of the mean distances at which their satellites revolve, divid¬
ed by the squares of the periodic times of those satellites.
26. In this way the masses of the four planets which
have satellites may be compared with one another, and
with the mass of the sun. , ,
When this calculation is undertaken with the requisite
data, it is found that, making
Mass of the Sun 1
1
that of the Earth 
of Jupiter.
of Saturn.
of Uranus.
354936
1
1070-5
1
: 3512
1
: 17918'
Or if we make the mass of the Earth 1, that of the
Sun = 329630, of Jupiter 330-6, of Saturn 101-06, and
of Uranus 20*3. From this also may be derived the den¬
sities of the sun and of the four planets just mentioned.
Seen from a distance equal to the mean radius of the
earth’s orbit, the diameter of the sun subtends an angle of
1923", that of the earth would subtend 17"-4, of Jupiter
186"-8, of Saturn 177"-7, and of Uranus 74". The real
diameters, therefore, are in the proportion of these num¬
bers, and the bulk in the proportion of their cubes. By di¬
viding the quantities of matter by the bulks, we have the
densities; and if that of the earth be 4-713, which is its
mean density, that of water being = 1, then
Density of the Sun =1-1775
of the Earth =4-713
of Jupiter  =T1678
of Saturn  =0-4055
of Uranus = T0348.
The mean density of the earth, in respect of water, is
here taken from the experiments made at Schehallien.
(Phil Trans. 1811, p. 376.)
27. It has been already observed, that because action
is always accompanied by an equal re-action, when the
sun attracts a planet, the planet also attracts the sun,
and that the velocities impressed on the bodies by their
mutual attraction are in the inverse ratio of their masses.
In consequence of this mutual action the sun and the
planet must both move, and must describe orbits about
their common centre of gravity, the only point which the
mutual action of those bodies has no tendency to put in
motion.
In the solar system, therefore, the centre of gravity of
the whole is the focus about which all the orbits are de¬
scribed. Thus, if C be that centre (fig. 117), Sthe sun,
and P a planet; while P describes the elliptic arch PP'
about C, S describes the arch SS' similar to PP', and
having to it the ratio that SC has to CP, or the ratio
which the mass of the planet has to the mass of the sun.
The true orbits, therefore, are all described about the
same immovable point; but the orbit of any of the planets
may be referred to the sun as a centre, by supposing a
body placed in that centre equal to the sum of the masses
of the sun and of the planet. This is true, because the
bodies appear to approach one another, or to recede from
one another, with a force that is equal to the sum of the
forces with which they tend towards their centre of gra¬
vity. Thus, if S denote the mass of the sun, and E that of Physical
the earth, the distances from the centre being CP and CS, Astronomy;
the orbit which each of the two bodies will appear to de-V-^v^>^
scribe round the other, is that which would be described
about an immovable centre C, with a centripetal force
_ S + E
“ SP2 *
Thus we have arrived at the knowledge of the principle
of universal gravitation, a power which pervades all
nature, extending to an unlimited distance, and determin¬
ing the condition of every body in the universe at any
instant, from its state in the former instant, and from the
relations in which it stands to all other bodies. Whether
this force can be explained upon any principle more ge¬
neral than itself, is yet undecided, though, from the bad
success which has hitherto attended all attempts towards
that object, it seems probable that such explanation is not
within the reach of the human understanding. Thus much,
however, we know with certainty, that the law of gra¬
vity, as just announced, may be considered as a very ac¬
curate expression of all the phenomena of the planetary
motions.
Sect. II.— Of the Forces which disturb the Elliptic Motion
of the Planets.
1. Of the force by which the Sun disturbs the motion of
the Moon round the Earth.
28. The motion of the moon in an elliptic orbit round
the earth is disturbed by the action of the sun: the gra¬
vity of the moon to the earth is increased at the quadra¬
tures, and diminished at the syzygies; and the areas de¬
scribed by the radius vector, except near these four points,
are never exactly proportional to the times.
Let ADBC (fig. 118) be the orbit, nearly circular, in
which the moon M revolves, in the direction C ADB, round
the earth E. Let S be the sun, and let SE, the radius
of the earth’s orbit, be taken to represent the force with
which the earth gravitates to the sun.
1 1 SE3
Then ^: : SE : sm2 = the f°rCe by which the SUn
SE3
draws the moon in the direction MS. Take MG=-g^p,
and let the parallelogram KF be described, having MG for
its diagonal, and having its sides parallel to EM and ES.
The force MG may be resolved into the two, MF and MK,
of which MF, directed towards E, the centre of the earth,
increases the gravity of the moon to the earth, and does
not hinder the areas described by the radius vector from
being proportional to the times.
The other force MK draws the moon in the direction
of the line joining the centres of the sun and earth. It is,
however, only the excess of this force above the force re¬
presented by SE, or that which draws the earth to the
sun, which disturbs the relative position of the moon and
earth. This is evident, for if KM were just equal to ES,
no disturbance of the moon relatively to the sun could
arise from it. If, then, ES be taken from MK, the dif¬
ference HK is the whole force in the direction parallel to
SE, by which the sun disturbs the relative position of the
moon and earth. Now, if in MK, MN be taken equal to
HK, and if NO be drawn perpendicular to the radius
vector EM produced, the force MN may be resolved into
two, MO and ON, the first lessening the gravity of the
moon to the earth; and the second, being parallel to the
tangent of the moon’s orbit in M, accelerates the moon’s
motion from C to A, retards it from A to D, and so alter¬
nately in the other two quadrants.
Thus the whole solar force directed to the centre of
ASTRONOMY.
103
Physical the earth is composed of the two parts MF and MO, which
Astronomy. are sometimes opposed to one another, but which never
affect the uniform description of the areas about E. Near
the quadratures the force MO vanishes, and the force
MF, which increases the gravity of the moon to the earth,
coincides with CE or DE. As the moon approaches the
conjunction at A, the force MO prevails over MF, and
lessens the gravity of the moon to the sun. In the oppo¬
site point of the orbit, when the moon is in opposition at
B, the force with which the sun draws the moon is less
than that with which the sun draws the earth, so that the
effect of the solar force is to separate the moon and earth,
or to increase their distance; that is, it is the same as if,
conceiving the earth not to be acted on, the sun’s force
drew the moon in the direction from E to B. This force
is negative, therefore, in respect of the force at A, and
the effect in both cases is to draw the moon from the sun,
in a direction perpendicular to the line of the quadratures.
29. The analytical values of these forces must be found
if a more exact estimate is to be made of their effects.
Let SE, considered as constant, — a; EM, the radius vec¬
tor of the moon’s orbit, zrr,* the angle CEMrzp; the
mass of the sun = m. The force SE, then, which retains
the earth in its orbit, is —5, and the sun’s force in the di-
<r
771
rection SM, if ML be drawn perpendicular to ES, is
mm m
— SL2-f-LM2“(a—/'sin.p)2-{-7,2cos.p’-a2—2a7’sin.p-j-r2’
The part of this force, which is in the direction ES or
MK, is therefore 7-r—— rrf. By raising the
(a2—2arsin.p + r2)2 3 6
denominator to the power — |, rejecting the terms which
involve the higher powers of r, and multiplying ma by those
771 f 3/* \
that are left, the force MK comes out = —M I -I sin. 0)
a2 \ ' a r/
• • 771
nearly. Taking away from this ES or MH=r —, there re-
771
mains the force MN=^ X 3r sin. 0.
a6 r
Hence the force MO=-^ • 3/- sin.20; and the force
a6 r
NO at right angles to the radius vector • 3r sin. 0
aJ r
771 3/* . TTIT
X cos. sin. 20; also the force MF = —,
a3 2 r a3
rejecting such terms as involve the square and higher
powers of r. Therefore MF—MO, or the whole solar
force increasing or diminishing at any point, the moon’s
771V
tendency to the earth is (1 — 3 sin.2p).
30. At the quadratures where <p vanishes, this force is
771V
^3, and is affirmative, increasing the moon’s gravity to the
earth. At a certain point, between the quadratures and
the syzygies, when 3 sin.2p = 1, or sin. <p zr that is,
when p zz 35° 15' 5", the same force becomes equal to 0,
and at this point in each quadrant the moon’s gravity to
the earth is neither increased nor diminished. From these
points to the conjunction and opposition, as sin. increases,
the quantity 1 — 3 sin.2 <p is negative, and the moon’s gra¬
vity to the earth suffers a diminution. At the opposition
and conjunction sin. 1, and therefore the disturbing
force is 3-, and by this quantity the moon’s gravita¬
tion is diminished.
The mean quantity of the force which is thus continu¬
ally directed to or from the centre of the earth may also
be easily computed. Since for any point in the moon’s
orbit, where the radius vector makes the angle <f> with the
Physical
Astronomy
line of the quadratures, this force zz(1 — 3sin.2p);
771V
multiplying by d©, we have — {d<p—3 dp sin.2 p), the in¬
tegral of which = —r ( — 2 P + # sin. p cos. p), and this,
when p is an entire circumference or four right angles,
is —- X tt. This is the sum of the forces for an entire
er
revolution, and when divided by 2 tt, gives the mean force
771V
— r-j, which being negative, shows that the solar force,
£(X
on the whole, diminishes the gravitation of the moon to the
earth.
Thus it appears, that at the quadratures the gravity of
the moon to the earth is increased by a quantity equal to the
mass of the sun, multiplied into the radius of the moons or¬
bit, and divided by the cube of the suns distance from the
earth: at the syzygies it is diminished by twice this quan¬
tity ; and the effect on the whole is a diminution by one half
of the same quantity.
If ^3 be reduced to its numerical value, supposing the
moon’s gravitation to the earth to be 1, it is found zz -p^-
nearly. Hence the mean disturbing force of the sun is
nearly zz of the moon’s gravity to the earth.
31. From the disturbing force of the sun arise two kinds
of inequalities which affect the lunar motions; the one
kind affects the form and position of the orbit of that pla¬
net, the other immediately affects the motion of the pla¬
net in the orbit. When any of these inequalities is ex¬
pressed numerically, the measure of it so obtained is, in
the language of astronomy, called an Equation.
32. The line in which the plane of the moon’s orbit
cuts the ecliptic is called the line of the nodes; and this
line is subject to change its position continually, in such a
manner as to go back annually 19° 19' 42",3. The way in
which this effect is produced may be thus conceived. That
part of the solar force which is parallel to the line joining
the centres of the sun and earth, is not in the plane of the
moon’s orbit, except when the sun itself is in that plane,
or when the line of the nodes, being produced, passes
through the sun. In all other cases it is oblique to the
plane of the orbit, and may be resolved into two forces,
one of which is at right angles to that plane, and is di¬
rected towards the ecliptic. This force of course draws
the moon continually towards the ecliptic, or produces a
continual deflection of the moon from the plane of her
own orbit towards that of the earth Hence the moon
meets the plane of the ecliptic sooner than it would have
done if that force had not acted. At every half-revolu¬
tion, therefore, the point in which the earth meets the
ecliptic advances in a direction contrary to that of the
moon’s motion, or contrary to the order of the signs. This
retrograde motion is such that, in its mean quantity, it
amounts to 19° 19' 42"*3 in a year. The manner ol de-
104
ASTRONOMY.
Physical ducing it from the theory of gravity is explained by New-
Astronomy. UnR Princip. lib. iii. prop. 31. This motion is subject to
many inequalities, depending on the changes in the quan¬
tity and direction of the solar force.
If the earth and the sun were at rest, the effect of the
deflecting force just described would be to produce a re¬
trograde motion of the line of the nodes till that line was
brought to pass through the sun, and of consequence the
plane of the moon’s orbit to do the same, after which they
would both remain in their position, there being no longer
any force tending to produce a change in either. The
motion of the earth carries the lines of the nodes out of
this position, and produces, by that means, its continual
retrogradation.
33. The same force produces a small variation in the
inclination of the moon’s orbit, giving it an alternate in¬
crease and decrease within very narrow limits.
34. The line of the moon’s apsides, that is, the longer
axis of her orbit, has also a slow angular motion round
the centre of the earth, which is progressive, or in the
same direction with the motions of the moon itself. To
conceive the cause of this phenomenon, we may begin
with supposing the moon at the lower apsis, or perigee;
and it is plain, if that planet were urged by no other force
than its gravitation to the earth, that after the radius vec¬
tor had moved over 180°, the moon would be at the higher
apsis, where its motion would be at right angles to the
said radius. But as the mean disturbing force in the di¬
rection of the radius vector tends, on the whole, to dimi¬
nish the gravitation of the moon to the earth, the portion
of her path, described in any instant, will be less bent or
deflected from the tangent, than if this disturbing force
did not exist. The actual path of the moon, therefore,
will be less incurvated than the elliptic orbit that would
be described under the influence of gravity alone, and will
not be brought to intersect the radius vector at right
angles, till this last have moved over an arch of more
than 180°.
Hence the solar force, by lessening the moon’s gravity
to the earth, produces a progressive motion in the apsides
of the lunar orbit. If the disturbing force had increased
the moon’s gravity to the earth, the motion of the ap¬
sides would have been in antecedentia.
The precise quantity of the motion of the apsides is not
however easily determined. Newton left this part of the
lunar theory almost untouched; and the only investiga¬
tion he has entered into having any reference to it, as¬
signed a measure only the half of that which is known
from observation to belong to it. Several years after¬
wards, when Clairaut attempted a more accurate investi¬
gation of the lunar inequalities than was to be obtained
by the method which Newton had followed, he at first en¬
countered the same difficulty, and found that his calculus
gave the motion of the apogee only half of the real quan¬
tity. He began, therefore, to suspect that gravity does
not follow so simple a law as the inverse of the squares of
the distances, but one which is more complex, and such
as cannot be expressed but by a formula of two terms.
The second of these terms he supposed to be inversely as
the fourth power of the distance, and proceeded to in¬
quire what must be the co-efficient of that term, in order
to make this new supposition represent the true motion of
the apsides. In order to this, he found it necessary to
carry his approximation farther than he had yet done,
and to include terms which he had before neglected.
When these terms were included, he found that the co¬
efficient he was seeking for came out equal to 0; the ne¬
cessary inference from which was, that there was no such
term; and that the Newtonian law of gravity, when the
approximation was carried far enough, was quite sufficient
to explain the motion of the apsides. This doubt con- Physical
cerning the law of gravity terminated, therefore, in the Ast^onomy•
confirmation of it.
35. When the doubts excited by Clairaut’s first attempt
were made known, and before his final solution of the
difficulty was fully understood, there were several mathe¬
maticians who, still following the method of Newton, en¬
deavoured to deduce the true motion of the moon’s ap¬
sides from the theory of gravity. Among those who were
most successful in this attempt were Dom. Walmesley,
and afterwards Dr Matthew Stewart, professor of mathe¬
matics in the university of Edinburgh. In his Mathema¬
tical and Physical Tracts he has demonstrated this re¬
markable theorem:
Let r be the radius of the moon’s orbit, supposing it to
be a circle, and the moon to be acted on only by F, her
gravity to the earth. If the mean disturbing force by
which the sun diminishes the moon’s gravity be /, then
will the greatest distance to which the moon will recede
F—S/"
from the earth be r x
and the cube of this dis-
F-5/’
tance will be to the cube of r, in the duplicate ratio of
the angle described by the moon from one apsis to the
same apsis again, to four right angles.
Hence the angle described by the radius vector from
/p 3A £
one apsis to the same apsis, is 360° X (p"" yj
This proposition, which is demonstrated by Dr Stewart
in the fourth of his Tracts, in a manner somewhat prolix,
on account of his rigorous adherence to the methods of
the ancient geometry, but in a way perfectly clear and
elementary, is employed by him to deduce the mean dis¬
turbing force from the motion of the apsides as ascer¬
tained by observation. But when the mean disturbing
force is known from other phenomena, the same proposi¬
tion may be employed to deduce the motion of the ap¬
sides from that force. Accordingly, if the disturbing
force be taken = the motion of the apsides will
o5/# /
come out := 3° F 20" for a sidereal revolution of the moon,
very near the quantity actually observed.
36. Having determined the sun’s mean disturbing force
from the motion of the apsides, Dr Stewart proceeded to
determine from the former of these the sun’s distance
from the earth. The result of a very nice investigation
gave the sun’s parallax 6"’9, a quantity that is no doubt
too small, and makes of course the sun’s distance too
great. It is indeed but an inconsiderable part of the sun’s
disturbing force into which the parallax enters as an ele¬
ment, and therefore any deduction founded on it must be
liable to this inaccuracy, that a small error in the data
will produce a great one in the result.
37. After the inequalities which are conceived as be¬
longing to the moon’s orbit, come those which directly
affect the place of the moon in that orbit. The most con¬
siderable of these, after what is called the equation of the
centre, arising from the elliptic figure of the lunar orbit,
and independent of all disturbance, is the equation or in¬
equality called the evection, which was discovered by the
Greek astronomers. This depends on the position of the
transverse axis of the moon’s orbit in respect of the line
of the syzygies. When that axis is in the line just men¬
tioned, because the quantity by which the solar force di¬
minishes the gravitation of the moon in the syzygies is,
cceterisparibus, proportional to her distance from the earth,
it is greatest when the moon is in the apogee, and least
when in the perigee. In this situation of the orbit, there¬
fore, the greatest diminution is made from the quantity
of the moon’s gravitation which is already the least, and
ASTRONOM Y.
105
Physical the least from that which is already the greatest; the gra-
Astronomy. vitation at the perigee, and therefore the difference, is
augmented, and the orbit appears to have its eccentiicity
increased. When the line of the apsides is in the quad¬
ratures, the contrary happens ; the gravitation at the apo¬
gee is most augmented, and at the perigee least; the dif¬
ference is therefore diminished, and the eccentricity of
the lunar orbit seems also to be diminished. This is con¬
formable to observation; and when the evection is accu¬
rately deduced from the theory of gravitation, it appears
zz (1° 20' 29"‘9) sin. ^2 ( (I —O)—aj where d is the
mean longitude of the moon, © that of the sun, and a the
mean anomaly of the moon counted from the perigee.
38. The moon’s variation is an inequality which was
discovered by Tycho, and found to depend on the angu¬
lar distance of that planet from the sun. It is derived
from that part of the sun’s disturbing force which is at
right angles to the radius vector, and which accelerates
the motion of the moon from the quadratures to the sy-
zygies, and retards it from the syzygies to the quadra¬
tures. The effect of this force is found, from the theory
of gravity, to be represented by three terms, which, if a
be the angular distance of the moon from the sun, are,
+ (35' 41"*9) sin. 2 a
+ ( 0' 2" ) sin. 3 a
-j- ( 0' 14" ) sin. 4 a.
39. The lunar inequality, called the annual equation,
arises from the variation of the sun’s disturbing force ac¬
cording to the place which the earth occupies in its orbit.
It is shown above that the sun’s disturbing force is, cceteris
paribus, inversely as the cube of his distance ; so that when
the earth is in its perihelion this force is the greatest, and
at the aphelion the least, its effect varying at the same rate
with the equation of the sun’s centre, or having everywhere
the same ratio to that equation. Hence this equation is
nearly (11' 12") X sin. sun’s mean anomaly, with a con¬
trary sign to the equation of the sun’s centre.
40. These inequalities are all phenomena which were
observed before the explanation of them was known. To
them may be added a fourth inequality, known by the
name of the moon’s acceleration. It appeared to astro¬
nomers as a continual increase in the velocity of the moon,
or in the rate of her mean motion, amounting to about
10" in a century, and its effect, like that of all other con¬
stant accelerations, accumulating as the squares of the
times. It did not seem to be periodical, like the other
lunar inequalities, but to be a constant increase of the ve-
locity, and a corresponding diminution of the periodical
time of the moon, which must in the end change entirely
the relation of that body to the earth.
It is but within these few years that Laplace discover¬
ed it to be a periodic inequality, though requiring, in or¬
der to accomplish the series of its changes, a length of
time which science has not yet ventured to calculate.
For many centuries to come it may be expressed by this
formula, taking n to denote the number of centuries reck¬
oned from the year 1700, viz.
10"-7232 X «2 + 0"‘019361 x n\
The first term includes all that was known from obser¬
vation previously to the discovery of Laplace. This,
however, must be considered not as the true form of the
equation, which must include the sines or cosines of cer¬
tain angles, but merely a provisional formula, to serve till
the true one can be rigorously assigned.
I his inequality has in its cause a great affinity to the
annual equation.
Whatever changes the form of the earth’s orbit, has an
effect on the disturbing force of that body on the moon,
which is in the inverse ratio of the cube of the distance
VOL. iv.
between the sun and earth. But it is found that though Physical
the mean distance remains invariable, the eccentricity ofAstronom7*
the earth’s orbit changes, on account of the action of the
other planets, and in fact has been diminishing, from a
more remote antiquity than that to which the history of
astronomy extends. From this cause Laplace has deduced
the supposed acceleration of the moon’s mean motion.
41. All these inequalities have been pointed out by ob¬
servations, and have been explained in the most satisfac¬
tory manner by the principle of universal gravitation.
But when all these were reduced into equations and ar¬
ranged in tables, yet the places of the moon calculated
from them were never quite exact; and there seemed a
cause of error or a mass of small inequalities unknown in
their magnitude and form, to which this inaccuracy was
to be ascribed, and which operated, as it may be said, like
a mist which concealed the true place of the moon from
the calculator, and prevented his results from agreeing
completely with those of the observer. The most likely
way to discover these inequalities, if they arose from gra¬
vity, was to push the approximation to the moon’s place
still farther, and to try if the terms hitherto neglected in
the approximation would not, when taken into account,
afford a complete analysis of the circle of confusion
which might be said to surround the moon on all occa¬
sions.
The problem on which mathematicians now entered,
and which Clairaut, already mentioned, Euler, and D’Alem¬
bert, all three resolved nearly about the same time, has
been called the Problem of Three Bodies. The thing
proposed is, three bodies which attract one another with
forces directly as their quantities of matter, and inversely
as the squares of their distances, being given, and any
motions whatever being impressed on them, to find the or¬
bits which they will describe round their common centre
of gravity. It is, however, only in certain cases that this
general problem admits of solution, and one of these is,
when one of the bodies is at a vast distance from the
other two. This is exactly the case with the moon and
earth in respect of the sun, the orbit of the earth being
nearly the same as if there only existed the sun and earth,
and the orbit of the moon relative to the earth being
nearly the same if there were only the moon and earth.
This solution of the problem, however, in this direct way,
leads to far more exact conclusions than can be obtained
from the more simple but more indirect method which
Newton followed. The general view which leads to the
most exact estimate of the merit of the two solutions is,
that the motions of the moon, when analytically and fully
expressed, necessarily form a number of different series,
each of which converges with more or less rapidity. The
prosecution of the direct method allows the terms of these
series to be computed to an indefinite extent, or till the
quantities omitted are too small to affect observation. The
method of Newton can go no farther than to compute the
first, or at most a few of the leading terms of each of the
series. Its accuracy is therefore limited; that of the
other knows no limits. Though this be a true estimate
of the value of the methods, yet that of the original in¬
ventor possesses infinite merit, as having first led the way
to this arduous investigation, and as still serving to carry
the imagination better along with it than the other, and
to keep the mechanical principles more directly in view.
Ihe complete solution of the problem of the three
bodies has accordingly discovered a great number of new
equations, each individually small, which would sometimes
nearly destroy one another, and, at other times, having
many of them the same sign, would accumulate to a
considerable amount. This was the triumph of the the¬
ory, and the strongest evidence of its truth. The effect
o
106 ASTRO
Physical of these irregularities varied so much, and depended on
Astronomy. g0 many elements, that it may be doubted whether the
'^~v-^^/most accurate and most constant observation would ever
have enabled astronomers to discover their precise quan¬
tities, and to separate them from one another.
The tables of the moon, in the state to which they are now
brought, contain twenty-eight equations for the longitude,
twelve for the latitude, and thirteen for the horizontal
parallax of the moon. Of the first of these, twenty-three
have been deduced from theory alone; of the second, nine;
and of the third, eleven. This applies to the tables of
Burg ; those since published by Burckhardt contain more
equations, and are still more accurate.
2. Of the Disturbance in the Motion of the Primary Planets,
produced by their action on one another.
42. It is evidently necessary, in this inquiry, to know
the quantities of matter in the different planets, or, which
comes to the same, the intensity of the attraction of each
at a given distance from its centre. With respect to those
planets which have satellites, the Earth, Jupiter, Saturn,
and Uranus, their masses or quantities of matter have been
already determined. The masses of Venus and Mars have
been estimated by Laplace, from the effects which they
appear to produce on the earth’s motion. The mass of
Mercury has been estimated on the supposition that the
densities of that planet and of the earth are inversely as
their mean distances from the sun. This law holds with
respect to the Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn, and analogy
renders it probable that the same law includes the other
planets. Thus, the mass of the Sun being 1, that oUMer-
CUry is 2025810’ °f VenUS 405871’ and °f MarS 2546320 ;
the masses of the other planets being as already stated.
43. The effects of the action of the planets on one an¬
other is more difficult to be investigated than the effects
of the sun’s action on the moon, because the disturbing
forces are not only more numerous, but because the dis¬
tance of the disturbing from the disturbed body is not so
great that the quantities divided by higher powers of that
distance can be so safely rejected. The general principle,
however, according to which the solar action on the moon
was resolved into forces either in the direction of the radius
vector or at right angles to it, is applicable to both questions.
Thus, supposing P and P' (fig. 119) to be two planets
revolving in orbits, nearly circular, about the sun at S ; in
order to find how the motion of P' is affected by the action
of P, let PP, PS, and PS be drawn, and let the line A
denote the force with which P attracts a particle of matter
at the distance PS, then the force with which it attracts
PS2
a particle at the distance PP, will be A x pp- Let
PS2
PR = A x fTTTo; and if PP he resolved into two forces,
P'P-
PM and PN, the one in the direction of the radius vector
P'S, and the other parallel to PS, take NO = A ; then the
remaining forces OP and PM are those which disturb the
motion of P, as was proved in the case of the moon. The
former of these, OP, may be resolved into OQ and PQ, of
which PQ diminishes the gravity of the planet to the sun,
and OQ accelerates its motion in a direction perpendicular
to the radius vector. Therefore, as the force PM always
increases the planet’s gravity to the sun, PM—PQ is the
whole force increasing or diminishing the gravity of P to
S; and the force directly employed in increasing or dimi¬
nishing the angular motion of P about S, is OQ or P'I.
The analytical values of these quantities may be found, as
in the theory of the moon, though not with equal simpli¬
city, because SP cannot always be supposed great in re¬
spect of SP.
N o M Y.
44. In consequence of these actions, the orbit of every Physical
planet may be considered as an ellipsis, which is under- Astronomy,
going slowly certain changes in its form, magnitude, and
position, or in what are called its elements. By the ele¬
ments of the orbit of any heavenly body, are meant the
quantities that determine the position and magnitude of
that orbit, viz. the position of the line of the nodes, the
inclination of the plane of the orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic, the position of the line of the apsides, the eccen¬
tricity, and the mean distance. These are all quantities
independent of one another, and from them may be de¬
duced all other circumstances with respect to the elliptic
orbit. Of these five elements, which would be invariable
if the planet only gravitated to the sun, all except the
mean distance are subject to slow but perpetual changes.
45. The line of the nodes, in every one of the planets,
has a retrograde angular motion, which goes on continual¬
ly, and of which the amount, when calculated as due to
each planet, agrees very well with observation. The plane
of the orbit also varies its inclination, by certain small
periodical changes, which alternately increase and dimi¬
nish it, as in the case of the moon. The line of the ap¬
sides, from the same cause as in the planet just mention¬
ed, has a continued motion forward, or according to the
order of the signs. Thus, in Mercury the node goes back
about 7"*82 annually. The aphelion goes forward about
5,,-84 in a year, and the inclination of the orbit in the course
of a century increases about ISMS, which, in the course
of succeeding ages, will be compensated by an equal di¬
minution, so as to preserve it always nearly of the same
quantity. In the same planet the equation of the centre,
which depends on the eccentricity, increases about 1"'6
in a century, indicating a small increase of eccentricity.
These variations in the orbit of Mercury arise from the
action of Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn;
the effects of the first of these planets, on account of its
vicinity, being by much the most considerable. The mean
distance, however, of Mercury from the Sun, does not, any
more than that of the other planets, undergo any change
whatever.
46. Similar conclusions apply also to the orbit of Venus.
The orbit of the earth also is subject to similar changes,
the line of the apsides moving forward annually at the rate
of 11"-8, in respect to the fixed stars. The earth’s eccen¬
tricity is also diminishing, and the secular variation of the
greatest equation of the centre is — 17"*66.
The motion of the earth is subject to another inequali¬
ty on account of the action of the moon ; for, to speak
strictly, it is not the centre of the earth, but the centre of
gravity of the moon and earth, which describes equal areas
in equal times about the centre of the sun. It is evident
that, on this account, the earth will be sometimes ad¬
vanced before, and sometimes will fall behind, the point
which describes the circumference of the ellipsis, in con¬
formity with the general law of the planetary motions.
From the same cause also, as the moon does not move in
the plane of the ecliptic, the earth will be forced out of
that plane, in order to preserve a position diametrically
opposite to the mopn. These irregularities, however, are
inconsiderable. By observers on the earth’s surface, they
are transferred to the sun, but in an opposite direction.
The sun, therefore, has a motion in longitude, by which
he alternately advances before the point which describes
tbe elliptic orbit in the heavens, and falls behind it; and
also a motion in latitude, by which he alternately ascends
above and descends below the plane of the ecliptic. As
the mass of the moon, however, is not more than — part of
that of the earth, the distance of the centre of gravity of
the moon and earth from the centre of the latter must be
ASTRONOMY. 107
Physical jess than a semidiameter, and therefore the inequality thus
Astronomy, pro(juce(j jn tjle sun’s longitude must be less than his
horizontal parallax. The alteration in latitude can hardly
amount to a second. This inequality in the sun’s motion
is called the menstrual parallax, and was first mentioned
by Smeaton, Phil. Trans. 1768.
47. In the orbit of Mars the node moves backward 23"-3
annually, and the line of the apsides moves forward
15"*8, both in respect of the fixed stars. The eccentricity
of the orbit is increasing, and the secular variation of the
greatest equation of the centre is -j- 37".
In the case of this planet, however, the elliptic orbit
is not only changed b> these quantities, but the place of
the planet in that orbit is sensibly affected by the ac¬
tion of Venus, Jupiter, and the Earth. The effect of
the action of Venus is expressed by this formula, 5"*7 sin.
(long. $ — 3 long. J ) ; of the earth, 7"*2 sin. (long. 0 —
long. $ ). Several inequalities are produced in Jupiter.
48. The inequalities of the small planets Vesta, Juno,
Ceres, and Pallas, have also been computed. The dis¬
turbances which they must suffer from Venus, Mars, and
Jupiter are considerable, and, on account of their vicinity,
though their masses are small, they may somewhat disturb
the motions of one another. Their action on the other
bodies in the system is probably insensible.
As Pallas and Ceres have nearly the same periodic time,
they must preserve nearly the same distance and the same
aspect with regard to one another. This offers a new
case in the computation of disturbing forces, and may pro¬
duce equations of longer periods than are yet known in our
system.
The motion of the apsides and the change of eccen¬
tricity in the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are chiefly pro¬
duced by their action on one another, but a part also de¬
pends on the action of the other planets. The node of
Jupiter moves backward annually 15"*8, and his aphelion
forward 6"*96. The secular change in the inclination of
the orbit is 22",6, and in the first and last of these inequa¬
lities the action of Venus has the principal share. The
equation of the centre increases 56"*25 in a century, of
which nearly the whole arises from the action of Saturn.
In Saturn again the node goes back at the rate of 19"*4
annually, and the aphelion forward at the rate of 19"*4;
the secular change of the inclination is — 15"*5, and the
secular diminution of the equation of the centre 2'T.
There i^, besides these variations in the orbits, an ine¬
quality in the motion of each of these planets, which for a
long time was difficult to explain, and was ultimately fully
accounted for, according to the theory of gravity, by the
profound investigations of Laplace. These inequalities
are both of a long period, viz. 918’76 years, which is the
time that they take to run through all their changes. If
n express a number of years reckoned from the beginning
of 1750, S the mean longitude of Saturn, and I that of Jupi¬
ter, reckoned from the same time, then the equation which
must be applied to the mean longitude of Jupiter, or the
amount of this inequality, is
+ (20'49"-5—-rc x 0"-042733) x
sin. (58 — 21 + 5° 34' 8" —w x 58"-88);
and that which must be applied to S is
— (48'44"—n x 0"*1) x
sin. (5 S — 2 1 + 5° 34 8"—n x 58"-88). .
These two equations are to one another nearly in the
ratio of 3 to 7. The reason of the long period above men¬
tioned is, that the argument 5S — 21 —n x 58"'88 re¬
quires all that time to increase from 0 to 360°.
Uranus, on account of his great distance, suffers hardly
any disturbance in his motion, but from Saturn and Jupi¬
ter. The node moves backward at the rate of 36" annu¬
ally, and the aphelion forward at that of 2"’55. The ec¬
centricity is diminishing, and the secular variation of the Physical
greatest equation of the centre is li"*03. Astronomy.
There is also an inequality in the longitude of thisv^~v-^'
planet, depending on the action of Saturn. If S be the
longitude of this last planet, U the longitude of Uranus,
and A the longitude of the aphelion of Saturn, the inequa¬
lity in question amounts to 2' 30" X sin. (S — 2 U + A).
49. Of all these inequalities, and of many other smaller
ones which theory has discovered, it must be observed that
they are periodical, each returning after a certain time to
run through the same series of changes which it had former¬
ly exhibited.
Another remark is, that one element in every orbit, viz.
the mean distance, is exempted from all excepting perio¬
dical changes; and since on the mean distance depends
the time of revolution, that time remains also unchanged.
From the invariability of the mean distance, and the
periodical revolution of all the inequalities, it follows that
the actual condition of the planetanj system can never devi¬
ate far from the mean, about which we may, therefore, con¬
ceive it to be continually making small oscillations, which
in the course of ages compensate one another, and therefore
produce nothing like disorder or permanent change. It is
in this manner that the stability of the planetary system is
provided for by the wisdom of its Author.
50. Comets, in describing their elliptic orbits round the
sun, have been found to be disturbed by the action of the
larger planets, Jupiter and Saturn; but the great eccen¬
tricity of their orbits makes it impossible, in the present
state of mathematical science, to assign the quantity of
that disturbance for an indefinite number of revolutions,
though it may be done for a limited portion of time, by
considering the orbit as an ellipsis, the elements of which
are continually changing. This is the method of Lagrange,
and is followed in the Mecanique Celeste, Part ii. chap,
ix. Dr Halley, when he predicted the return of the
comet of 1682, took into consideration the action of Ju¬
piter, and concluded that it would increase the periodic
time of the comet a little more than a year; he there¬
fore fixed the time of the re-appearance to the end of the
year 1758, or the beginning of 1759. He professed, how¬
ever, to have made this calculation hastily, or, as he ex¬
presses it, levi calamo. (Synopsis of the Astronomy of
Comets.)
The effects both of Jupiter and Saturn on the return of
the same comet were afterwards calculated more accu¬
rately by Clairaut, who found that it would be retarded
511 days by the action of the former planet, and 100 by
the action of the latter; in consequence of which, the re¬
turn of the comet to its perihelion would be on the 15th
of April 1759. He admitted at the same time that he
might be out a month in his calculation. The comet ac¬
tually reached its perihelion on the 13th of March, just
33 days earlier than was predicted ; affording, in this way,
a very striking verification of the theory of gravity, and
the calculation of disturbing forces. The same comet ap¬
peared again, according to prediction, in 1835.
In some instances, the effect which the planets produce
on the motion of comets are far more considerable than
in this example. A comet which was observed in 1770
had a motion which could not be reconciled to a para¬
bolic orbit, but which could be represented by an ellip¬
tic orbit of no great eccentricity, in which it revolved in
the space of five years and eight months. This comet,
however, which had never been seen in any former re¬
volution, has never been seen in any subsequent one.
On tracing the path of this comet, Mr Burckhardt found
that between the year 1767 and 1770 it had come very
near to Jupiter, and had done so again in 1779. He
therefore conjectured, that the action of Jupiter may
ASTRONOMY.
108
Physical have so altered the original orbit as to render the comet
for a time visible from the earth; and that the same
cause may have so changed it, after one revolution, as to
restore the comet to the same region in which it had for¬
merly moved. Hiis is the greatest instance of disturbance
which has yet been discovered among the bodies of our
system, and furnishes a very happy, as well as an unex¬
pected, confirmation of the theory of gravity.
Though the comets are so much disturbed by the ac¬
tion of the planets, yet it does not appear that their re¬
action produces any sensible effect. The comet of 1770
came so near to the earth as to have its periodic time in¬
creased by 2’24b6 days, according to Laplace’s computa¬
tion ; and if it had been equal in mass to the earth it
would have augmented the length of the year by not less
than two hours and forty-eight minutes. It is certain that
no such augmentation took place, and therefore that the
disturbing force by which the comet diminished the gra¬
vity of the earth is insensible, and the mass of the comet,
therefore, less than j^jth of the mass of the earth. The
same comet also passed through the system of the satel¬
lites of Jupiter without causing any derangement of their
motions. Hence it is reasonable to conclude, that no ma¬
terial or even sensible alteration has ever been produced
in our system by the action of a comet.
3. Of the disturbances which the satellites of Jupiter suffer
from their action on one another.
51. The same resolution of the forces by which one
satellite acts upon another, into two, one directed to the
centre of the primary, and the other at right angles to it,
serves to explain the irregularities which had been ob¬
served in their motions, and to reduce under known laws
several other inequalities/of which the existence only is
indicated by observation.
An instance of this we have in the.very remarkable re¬
lation which takes place between the mean motions of the
first three satellites; the mean motion of the first satel¬
lite, together with twice the mean motion of the third,
being equal to three times the mean motion of the second.
Laplace has shown that, if the primitive mean motions of
these satellites were nearly in this proportion, the mutual
action of these bodies on one another must in time have
brought about an accurate conformity to it.
The first moves nearly in the plane of Jupiter’s equator,
and the orbit has no eccentricity, except what is communi¬
cated from the third and fourth, the irregularities of one
of these small bodies producing similar irregularities in
those that are contiguous to it. The first satellite has,
beside, an inequality, chiefly produced by the action of
the second, and circumscribed by a period of 437’659
days.
52. The plane of the orbit of the second satellite is in¬
clined to a determinate fixed plane at an angle of 27' 13",
and on which its nodes have a retrograde motion, so that
they complete a revolution in 29-914 years. The motion
of the nodes of this satellite is one of the principal data used
for determining the masses of the satellites themselves,
which are so necessary to be known for computing their
disturbances. This satellite has no eccentricity but that
which it derives from the action of the third and fourth.
The plane of the orbit of the third satellite is inclined to a
determinate fixed plane at an angle of 12' 20", and its nodes
make a tropical revolution backwards in 141-739 years. The
equator of Jupiter is inclined to the plane of his orbit at an
angle of 3° 5' 30". The fixed planes on which the planes
of the orbits move are determined by theory, and could not
have been discovered by observation alone.
The orbit of the third satellite is eccentric, but appears
to have two distinct equations of the centre ; one which
really arises from its own eccentricity, and another which Physical
theory shows to be an emanation from the equatjon of the Astronon,y-
centre of the fourth satellite. The first equation is refer-
able to an apsis which has an annual motion of 2° 36' 39"
forward in respect of the fixed stars; the second equa¬
tion is referable to the apsides of the fourth satellite.
Ihese two equations may be considered as forming one
equation of the centre, referable to an apsis that has an
irregular motion. The two equations coincided in 1682,
and the sum of their maxima, was 13' 16". In 1777 the
equations were opposed, and their difference was 5' 6".
The two last inequalities were perceived by Mr War-
gentin, by observation alone; but their exact amount, and
the law which they observe in their changes, he could not
discover. The plane of the orbit of the fourth satellite is
inclined to a determinate fixed plane at an angle of 14'
58"; and its nodes complete a sidereal revolution back¬
ward in 531 years. The fixed plane on which the orbit
moves is inclined at an angle of 24' 33" to the equator of
Jupiter ; the orbit is sensibly elliptical, and its greater axis
has an annual motion of 42' 58"-7. The motion of this axis
is one of the principal data from which the quantities of
matter of the different satellites have been determined.
If the mass of Jupiter be supposed unity, the mass of
the 1st satellite r= -0000173281
of the 2d = -0000232355
of the 3d z= -0000884972
of the 4th =-0000426591
If the mass of the earth be supposed unity, that of the
third satellite will be found zr -027337 ; and as the mass
of the moon is ^ = -012517, the quantity of matter
in the third satellite is about twice as great as that in the
moon. The fourth satellite is therefore nearly equal to
the moon, the second about one half, and the first some¬
what more than one third.
53. The general result of this investigation concerning
the inequalities in the motion of the planets, both primary
and secondary, is, that in every one of these orbits two
things remain secure against all disturbance, the mean
distance and the mean motion, or, which is the same,
the transverse axis of the orbit, and the time of the
planet’s revolution. Another result is, that all the inequa¬
lities in the planetary motions are periodical, and observe
such laws that each of them, after a certain time, runs
through the same series of changes. This last conclusion
follows from the fact, that every inequality is expressed
by terms of the form A sin. nt or A cos. nt, where A is a
constant co-efficient, and n a certain multiplier of t the
time, so that nt is an arch of a circle, which increases
proportionally to the time. Now, in this expression,
though nt is capable of indefinite increase, yet, since nt
never can exceed the radius, or 1, the maximum of the
inequality is A. Accordingly, the value of the term
A sin. nt first increases from 0 to A, and then decreases
from A to 0; after which it becomes negative, extends
to — A, and passes from thence to 0 again. If, when the
inequality was affirmative, it was an addition to the mean
motion, when negative it will become a diminution of it;
and the sum of all these increments and decrements, after
nt has passed over an entire circumference, or 360°, is
equal to 0; so that at the end of that period the planet is
in the same position as if it had moved on regularly all
the while at the rate of the mean motion. As this hap¬
pens to every one of the inequalities, the deviation of the
system from its mean state can never go beyond certain
limits, each inequality in a certain course of time destroy¬
ing its own effect.
It would be far otherwise if into the value of any in¬
equalities a term entered of the form A X nt, A tan. nt.
ASTRONOMY.
109
Practical A
Astronomy. s-hT^?
The inequalities so expressed would continually
increase with the time, so as to go beyond any assignable
limit, and of consequence to destroy entirely the order of
any system to which they belonged.
Lagrange and Laplace, who discovered and demonstrat¬
ed that no such terms as these last can enter into the
expression of the disturbances which the planets produce
by their action on one another, made known one of the
most important truths in physical science. They proved
that the planetary system is stable, and that it does not in¬
volve any principle of destruction in itself, but is calculat¬
ed to endure for ever, or till the action of an external
power shall put a period to its existence. After the
knowledge of the principle of gravitation, this may be
fairly considered as the greatest discovery to which men
have been led by the study of the heavens.
The accurate compensation, just remarked, depends on
three conditions, belonging to the primitive or original
constitution of our system, but not necessarily determin¬
ed, as far as we know, by any physical principle. The
first of these conditions is, that the eccentricities of the
orbits are all inconsiderable, or contained within very
narrow limits, not exceeding in any instance one tenth or
one eighth part of the mean distance. The second con¬
dition is, that the planets all move in the same direction,
or from west to east. This is true both of the primary
and secondary planets, with the exception only of the sa¬
tellites of Uranus, which may be accounted retrograde;
but their planes being nearly at right angles to the orbit
of their primary, the direction of their motion, whether Practical
retrograde or otherwise, can have little effect. Lastly, ^s,ronom-v
the planes of the orbits of the planets are not much in-
dined to one another. This is true of all the larger
planets, though it does not hold of some of the new and
smaller ones ; of which, however, the action on the whole
system must be altogether insensible.
Unless these three conditions were united in the con¬
stitution of the solar system, terms of the kind just men¬
tioned, admitting of indefinite increase, might enter into
the expression of the inequalities, which would indicate a
gradual and unlimited departure from the original order
and constitution of the universe. Now, the three condi¬
tions just enumerated do not necessarily arise out of the
nature of motion, or of gravitation, or from the action of
any physical cause with which we are acquainted. Neither
can they be considered as arising from chance; for the
probability is almost infinity to one, that, without a cause
particularly directed to that object, such a conformity could
not have arisen in the motions of so large a number
of bodies, scattered over the whole extent of the solar
system. The only explanation, therefore, which remains is,
that all this is the work of intelligence and design, directing
the original constitution of our system, and impressing such ,
motions on the parts as are calculated'to give stability to
the whole. (J* p-)
For some further discussions connected with Physical
Astronomy, see the articles Comets ; Earth, Figure of;
Precession of the Equinoxes ; and Tides.
PART IV.
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. .
INTRODUCTION.
Practical Astronomy may he considered as comprehend¬
ing the observations which must originally have been made
to determine the facts which have now been embodied in
a system, as well as those which are constantly being made
for its further extension and improvement; the observa¬
tions which are required to make the science useful in the
affairs of life ; and the rules and calculations which must be
applied to the observations, to obtain from them the required
results.
Of the first class of observations mentioned above, the most
important are those which relate to general surveys of the
heavens, and the extension of cosmical research amongst those
bodies that lie beyond the solar system. The sweeps pf the
stars, and the observations of the nebulae begun by Sir W.
Herschel in the last century, have been carried forward with
additional vigour in this. Star maps and star catalogues for
almost every portion of the heavens have been accumulating dur¬
ing the present century, till the places and magnitudes of very
nearly one hundred thousand stars have been accurately laid
down; speculation has closely followed practice; and not only has
our own position with respect to the star cluster of which our solar
system forms a part, been pretty accurately defined, but clearer
views have been obtained of the probable distances and even of
the constitution of some others of those systems which, though
seen by us under the aspect of a feeble nebulous light, scarcely
larger than the apparent disk of a planet of our system, yet
probably occupy individually a space equivalent to that of our
galaxy, and fill the firmaments of other worlds like our own,
with their light and their glory.
Even with regard to observations connected with the solar
system merely, observation and theory combined have achieved
conquests, since the last edition of this work was published, not
inferior in interest or importance. Since the beginning of
the present century, the telescope, aided by the improved me¬
thods of modern research, has discovered twenty-two of those
small fragmentary bodies moving in planetary orbits between
Mars and Jupiter; and theory alone, without the aid of the tele¬
scope, using only the laws of mechanical action and the results
of previous observation, has extended the bounds of the known
solar system, by predicting the place of a new body, and calling
in the aid of the observer only to verify the fact, and to assist
in the inquiry. The assumed well-marked distinction between
the planetary and cometary orbits has been disproved by the
discovery of several comets moving in ellipses with a periodical
term shorter than that of Jupiter ; curious physical facts have
been elicited by the motions of some of them, while several new
members of this class of bodies are yearly added to the list,
and their orbits eagerly computed by new aspirants for astro¬
nomical fame.
Yet while the science has been thus followed up in its more
speculative departments with all the success that the united zeal,
talent, and energy of a highly intellectual age would give us
reason to expect, and with an accuracy of detail in the observa¬
tions which brings into play all the resources of mere practical
astronomy, it has been cultivated with equal ability in those de¬
partments to which the term practical more peculiarly belongs,
and has lent its aid to the kindred and dependent science of navi¬
gation in a way which will soon render the art of guiding a ship
through the trackless ocean as perfect both in theory and practice
as anything depending upon human casualties can possibly be.
The problem of determining the position of a ship at sea depends
upon three things mainly, namely, Isf, an accurate knowledge of
the lunar orbit, and the consequent motions of the moon ; 2dly,
upon the indisputable accuracy of the places of certain funda¬
mental stars and bright planets with which her place is com¬
pared ; and, 3dly, upon the accuracy of performance of chrono¬
meters and nautical observing instruments. Now, in all these
departments, the progress towards perfection during the last
twenty years has been immense. The lunar orbit has been nearly
cleared of all its theoretical irregularities, or those depending
110
ASTRONOMY.
Practical upon unlmown causes of perturbation, and, very recently, im-
Astronomy portant errors in the tables ordinarily in use have been detected,
and corrected; ephemerides of the motions of the moon are com¬
puted with all attainable accuracy both in England and America;
and fin ally, by the extra-meridional observations begun at Green¬
wich in 1847, and continued without intermission to the present
time, the errors due to want of observations in certain parts of
the orbit (those near conjunction namely) will be altogether got
rid of. Again, the Greenwich Catalogues alone furnish the places
of large numbers of stars with an accuracy indispensable for
lunar purposes only in the case of a few, and every fundamental
result of observations connected with the theory of the moon is
supplied from the Greenwich Observatory with an accuracy and
a steadiness even now unrivalled. Finally, the construction of
chronometers and of nautical instruments has been brought to
almost as much perfection as the case will admit of. Our go¬
vernment has encouraged the artists to place in competition
every year a certain number of chronometers; and the ingenuity
of this whole class of persons, brought to bear upon this branch
of art, has been the means of eliciting some important improve¬
ments in the methods of compensating for temperature and in
general construction, at the same time that their rivalry has
been the means of reducing the price of the article, and bring¬
ing it more within the reach of the ordinary merchant captains
of vessels. Various improvements have been at the same time
made in surveying instruments and hydrographical methods.
The sextant has been simplified and improved ; charts have
been made of almost every shore in our dominions ; the tides
have been studied with that attention to the union of high
analytical investigations, and the practical results of observa¬
tions, which have put astronomy on so sound a basis ; the laws
of the currents of various seas have recently been made the sub¬
ject of special investigation on a scale equal to its importance ;
and, in fact, there is not a single branch of nautical astronomy
which has not been benefited in an equal degree with the more
theoretical or elevated branches of the science.
The science of electricity, in its application to the electric
telegraph, has been already of considerable service to astro¬
nomy, by affording the opportunity of making simultaneous
signals at any two observatories situated on a line of railway,
however distant they may be from each other. By this means
the differences of longitude of three principal British observa¬
tories—namely, Greenwich, Cambridge, and Edinburgh—have
already been obtained with an accuracy unattainable by any
other method, and the difference of longitudes of Greenwich and
Oxford will shortly be determined. The galvanic connexion
between Greenwich and Paris is also complete, by means of the
submarine communication between Dover and Calais ; and ex¬
periments will shortly be tried for the determination of the dif¬
ference of longitudes of these two observatories; and, after this
has been accomplished, there will be no difficulty whatever in
determining the longitudes of all the continental observatories
situated near the grand lines of railroad or telegraph wires.
Hopes are beginning to be entertained also of carrying a wire
across the Atlantic, and thus bringing the American observa¬
tories into connexion with Europe ; and the project is not in
reality very chimerical.
We need not dwell specifically upon the means by which
these great results have been attained. Our two supplements
historical and theoretical will have given ample information
concerning every available source of improvement in the me¬
thods of making observations, and of the chief improvements
which have been devised by the eminent men conducting the
establishments which have been described. There is scarcely
a discovery of importance, or a new method deserving of ex¬
planation, in any one of the branches of pure astronomy, con¬
cerning which the reader will not find information, and guid¬
ance for future research; many of the books which the ac¬
complished astronomer, as well as the student, will require for
his pursuit of the science are indicated, and some account of the
contents of some of them, where it is necessary to elucidate the
subject, has been given.
Such information, indeed, as relates exclusively to the allied
sciences of surveying and navigation, must of course be sought
for under their respective titles, since the space allotted us would
not allow of the extension which such subjects would have re¬
quired ; but, in everything that relates to the observations made
in fixed observatories, and to the results deduced from them as
applied to the use of these sciences, it is hoped that some in- Practical
struction has been given. Astronomy
There is one subject which we hoped to have entered into
with more minuteness, but which we are prevented from doing
through want of space, namely the method of reducing as well
as making the observations necessary for the determination of
the position of a body in the heavens ; and we were the more
reluctant to relinquish our design because it is a subject on which
most elementary books are either deficient or silent. It has
been stated again and again, that the two elements which deter¬
mine the position in question, are the right ascension and decli¬
nation of the body, and the instruments which ordinarily deter¬
mine these elements are the transit instruments (assisted by
an astronomical clock) and the mural circle, if two instruments
be used, or the transit circle, if only one instrument be em¬
ployed. Under this head it has been deemed sufficient to re¬
tain the accounts of the transit instrument constructed by
Troughton for Sir James South, which is still mounted and in
excellent condition ; and of Troughton’s mural circle, erected at
the Royal Observatory of Greenwich, in 1812, which was used
with excellent effect till the end of the year 1850, when it was
replaced by the great transit circle now in use. Each of these
instruments is probably one of the best existing specimens of
its class, and neither has been excelled in perfection of work¬
manship even to the present time. In addition to the instru¬
ments which determine the place of a body by observations made
on the meridian, a third instrument, namely the equatorial, is
necessary for various purposes, but especially for comparing
planets and comets, of which a sufficient number of observations
cannot be obtained on the meridian, with neighbouring stars ;
of this class of instruments we have retained the accounts of the
celebrated Dorpat telescope already mentioned in the account
of that observatory, and of the three-foot equatorial in the pos¬
session of Sir James South, which was used with such effect by
him and Sir John Herschel in the measurement of double stars.
With regard to the tables printed in this department, we
have retained those relating to the calculation of eclipses, as in¬
teresting to the student, though it must be borne in mind that
much better elements exist at present for such calculations than
those which were used in these tables.
The catalogue of stars has been replaced by a more modern
catalogue accurately compiled, by the use of the best elements,
from the Green wich Twelve-Year Catalogue of 2156 stars. This
list includes all the stars down to the fifth magnitude inclusive,
which are found in that catalogue, and the places are reduced to
the epoch 1850, by the use of the geometrical precessions given
in th.Q British Association Catalogue, and by the proper motions
given in Mr Main’s paper on Proper Motions, (Memoirs of
the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xix.) Where no proper
motion is given by Mr Main,—that is for stars not observed by
Bradley or not given in the Fundamental—the annual varia¬
tion is taken altogether from the British Association Catalogue,
except in a few cases specified in the notes.
Finally, we have retained, as useful to the student, the small
table of refractions given in the former edition, not as insist¬
ing upon its accuracy (since the whole subject has been since
revised by Bessel), but as enabling the student to see by com¬
pendious tables and examples how this element of correction
is taken account of in the reduction of observations.
A few problems given in the former edition have been re¬
tained, as being good exercises for the students, and amongst
the most interesting and important that belong to the science of
plane astronomy, though it is evident that in the systematic
study of the science they should be read in their proper order
in works treating of the details of the science.
CHAP. I.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.
Problem I.— Given the right ascension and declination of
a star or planet, together with the obliquity of the ecliptic,
to find the star’s longitude and latitude.
Let P (fig. 120, Plate XC.) be the pole of the equator
O T Q> E the pole of the ecliptic IT L, and S the place of
the star. Let PR, the circle of latitude passing through
ASTRONOMY.
Ill
Practical S, meet the equator in R; and EM, the circle of declina-
Astronomy. ti0n, meet the ecliptic in M ; also let fY1 E, <y> P, be arcs of
great circles passing through the equinoctial point w and
the poles of the ecliptic and equator respectively. Let
us now make
L = <y> M the longitude of S,
l =z SM the latitude,
^R. zr R the right ascension,
D = SR the declination,
u = LtQ the obliquity of the ecliptic.
Since <Y' M rr <y>L — ML rr 90° — ML, and ML is the
measure of the angle SEP, we have cy>M=L=: 90° — SEP,
and, consequently, sin. L = cos. SEP. Again, since •Y'R
— fy^Q — RQ — 90° — RQ, and RQ is the measure of the
angle RPQ, we have </* R = 90° — RPQ; whence
sin. AR = cos. RPQ = —'Cos. EPS. In like manner we
have l = SM = 90° — ES, whence sin. I — cos. ES; and
also D = SR = 90° — PS, whence sin. D = cos. PS. Thus
the problem depends on the solution of the oblique angled
spherical triangle PES.
From the known properties of spherical triangles, we
have
cot. PS sin. EP = cot. PES sin. EPS + cos. EP. cos. EPS;
therefore, by substituting the values just found, and ob¬
serving that EP = «, we have
tan. D sin. w = tan. L cos. AR — cos. « sin. AR ;
whence
tan. L =
tan. D sin. « + sin. AR cos. w
cos. AR
Assume an angle <p such that tan. <p — sin. AR cot. D,
then
sin. D tan. <p = sin. AR cos. D,
^ sin. AR sin. AR cos. ©
or tan. D =   = : ;
tan. p sin. <p
whence, by substituting,
T /sin. u \
tan. L = tan. AR b cos. w ,
\tan. <p 1 /
and by reducing,
_ sin. (u + ©) ,, .
tan. L = t — tan. AR (1.)
sin. <p ' '
a formula from which the longitude L is easily computed
by means of the logarithmic tables.
To find the latitude I, we have
cos. ES = cos. EP cos. PS + sin. EP sin. PS cos. EPS,
which gives
sin. I = cos. u sin. D — sin. w cos. D sin. AR.
Assume as before, tan. <p = cot. D sin. AR, then, by
substituting,
sin. / = sin. D (cos. u — sin. u tan. <p),
that is,
sin. I =z sin. D
whence
’cos. « cos. <p — sin. u sin. p'
cos. p
sin. I =
sin. D cos. O + e)
cos. p
(2.)
Problem II.— Given the longitude and latitude of a star
or planet, together with the obliquity of the ecliptic, to de¬
termine its right ascension and declination.
The spherical triangle EPS gives the relation
cot. ES sin. EP = cot. EPS sin. PES + cos. EP cos. PES,
that is,
tan. I sin. w = — tan. ^R cos. L -j- cos. w sin. L,
whence
tan. AR =
cos. u sin. L — tan. I sin. u
cos. L
Assume tan. %}/ = sin. L cot. I; then
, sin. L sin. L cos. -vh
tan. I =   = ; ,—- ;
tan. -vp sin. sp
and by substituting this value of tan. I in the above equa¬
tion, it becomes
tan. AR = tan. L "" '■C0S’ ^
that is,
tan,
whence
tan
Practical
Astronomy
■sin. u
os. -vlA
sin.
✓n * t (c°s- w sin. -vL — sin. u cos. -vlA
. AR = tan. L  ; IA
sin.
. AR = tan-L sin- (^—w)
sin. -vj/  ' '''
To find the declination, we have
cos. PS = cos. EP cos. ES + sin. EP sin. ES cos. PES;
that is,
sin. D. = cos. u sin. I + sin. u cos. I sin. L,
= (cos. u + sin. u cot. I sin. L) sin. I,
and by substituting -an‘ ^ for cot. I,
° sin. L
sin. D = ( cos. co -j- sin. to tan. sin l,
 (cos. 60 cos, -v]/ + sin. 60 sin. '4/) sin. I
cos. 4, ’
therefore
. „ cos. (4/—u} . , , v
COS. 4' v y
Corollary—In the case of the sun, the latitude l becomes
zero, and the formulae are considerably simplified. Thus,
let T be the sun’s place in the ecliptic; the relations sub¬
sisting between the longitude, right ascension, declination,
and obliquity, are given by means of the right-angled
spherical triangle cy> TR. The following are the formulae :
. T sin. D ->
sin. L =— ,
sin. 60
tan. AR
tan. L=
cos. 60
sin. AR — cot. 60 tan. D
tan. AR = cos. 60 tan. L
sin. D—sin. 60 sin. L I
tan. D=tan. 60 sin. AR, j
•(!•)
.(2.)
.(3.)
Problem III.— Given the latitude of the observatory, the
polar distance of a star, and its hour-angle at the pole,
to find its zenith distance, azimuth, and angle of varia¬
tion.
Let P (fig. 121) be the pole of the equator, A the zenith
of the place, and V the position of the star: we have then
given the two sides, AP and PV, of an oblique angled
spherical triangle, together with the included angle APV,
to determine the third side and the remaining angles.
Make A=AP the complement of the latitude,
A=PV the polar distance of the star, which is here
supposed to be north,
P—APV the hour-angle at the pole,
Z=AV the zenith distance,
A—VAP the azimuth,
V—AVP the angle of variation.
1. To find Z we have
cos. Z=cos. ~K cos. A + sin. A sin. A cos. P.
Assume tan. p=:tan. A cos. P; then by substituting,
cos. Z=cos. A (cos. A + sin. A tan. p) ;
whence, by reducing,
/
112
ASTRONOMY.
Practical
Astronomy.
„ COS.(X—©) .
COS. Z=COS. A    (1.)
cos. <z>
COS. V
sin. x —
2. To find A, we have from spherical trigonometry the
formula
cot. A=
cot. A sin. X
sin. P
cot. P cos. X.
tan. L, tan. D (!•)
Sm- D  (2.)
 (O
 (O
cos. L'”
cos. y — cot. L, tan. D.
. sin. D
sm. z
sin. L
Practical
Astronomy,
The hour-angles v and y must be converted into time
. ^ , cot. A , . . . i 13 bv allowing 15° to one hour.
Assume cot.-J/= whence cot. A—cot.cos. P, j °
cos. P
and, by substituting,
cot. A = cot. P (cot. sin. X — cos. X)
„ /cos. 4/ sin. X — sin. -v}/ cos. X
— COt. P (   7
V si
whence
sin. ^
. cot. P sm. (X — 4/)
cot. A = — -A —,
sm. 4
.(2.)
3. To find V we have
. -rr cot. X sin. A A 4. T>
cot. Y = 7—— cos. A cot. P.
sin. P
Assume cot. y = or cot. X = cot. y cos. P, then,
^ cos. P ^
by substituting and reducing as above, we have
cot v^cot-Psin.CA-x) (3 )
sm. y
Problem IV.— Given the declination and zenith distance
of a star, and the latitude of the observatory, to determine
the hour-angle.
This is the case in the solution of spherical triangles?
in which the three sides are given to find one of the an¬
gles. The formula, therefore, from which P is computed
(see Spherical Trigonometry) is
tfln 2 ip — sin. 1(Z + X—A) sin. -|(Z —X+A)
2 sin. i(Z-f X+A) sin. 1(X + A — Z)
Problem VI.— To find how much the rising of the sun or
a star is advanced by refraction.
Let ZPB be the meridian (fig. 123), Z the zenith, P
the pole, and OB the horizon. Let SS', the parallel de¬
scribed by the sun, meet the horizon in S. Were it not
for the effect of refraction, the sun or star would appear
to rise at S, and at rising the hour-angle from midnight
would be SPB ; but it is elevated by refraction (which
takes place in a vertical circle), and appears to rise at D,
while in fact it is below the horizon at S' somewdiere in
the vertical circle ZD produced downward, and the time
of rising is accelerated by the small angle SPS'.
Let L denote the latitude of the place = 90 — PZ ; D
the declination of the star = 90 — PS ; H the hour-angle
BPS, reckoned from midnight; r the arc DS of the ver¬
tical ZS, the effect of refraction ; and x the angle SPS,
the acceleration of time of rising.
In the spherical triangle ZPS',
cos. ZS' = cos. ZP cos. PS' + sin. ZP sin. PS' cos. ZPS',
Now, cos. ZS' = cos. (90 + r) = — sin. r,
and cos. ZPS' = — cos. BPS' = — cos. (H — x);
therefore
— sin. r = sin. L sin. D — cos. L. cos. D cos. (H — x).
In like manner, in the triangle ZPS, in which cos. ZS
= cos. 90° = 0,
0 = sin. L sin. D — cos. L cos. D cos. H;
hence, by subtraction,
sin. r = cos. L cos. D [cos. (H—x)—cos. H],
Problem V.—Given the latitude of a place, and the sun s
declination, to find, ls£, the time of sunrise; 2d, the suns
amplitude at rising; 'id, the time when the sun is dice east;
4tth, the sun’s altitude when in that position.
and cos. (H — a;) — cos. H —
cos. L cos. D’
but cos. (H — x) — cos. H = 2 sin. £ x sin. (u —
In fig. 122 let AZP be the meridian, in which Z is the
zenith, and P the pole ; let ZO be the prime vertical, and
AOB the horizon, A being the south, O the east, and B
the north points; let SS' be the part of the parallel de¬
scribed by the sun between his rising and passing the
prime vertical, and PS PS' hour circles.
Let L = the latitude of the place = PB,
D = the sun’s declination = 90° — PS,
v = the time from midnight to sunrise = hour
angle SPB,
x = the sun’s amplitude at rising = OS,
y = the time from midnight to the sun’s coming
on the prime vertical = hour-angle S'PB,
* = the sun’s altitude when in the prime vertical
= OS'.
In the spherical triangle PBS, right angled at B,
cos. SPB =
tan. PB
tan. PS’
cos. BS =
cos. PS
cos. PB
and in the spherical triangle PZS', right angled at Z,
cos. ZPS =
tan. PZ
tan. PS'’
cos. ZS' =
cos. PS'
cos. PZ’
Now PB=L, PZ = 90° — L, PS=PS' = 90° — D, BS
= 90° — x, ZS' = 90° — z; hence we have these four
formulae:
(Algebra, § 240, D);
(t€\ sin T
H_2j=^rL^s7T>-
Now, x and r being small angles, we may consider
2 sin. ± x = x, sin. r = r, and sin. =: s'n*
We have then x =
sm. H cos. L cos. D ’
and here H is determined by the formula
cos. H = tan. L tan. D.
The value of x just found is only a near approximation ;
let it be denoted by x', and let H' = H -f x', and we shall
have more nearly
x =
sin. H' cos. L cos. D
sin. L sin. D
Since cos. H = tan. L tan. D = = ^,
cos. L cos. D
„ . o tt cos*2 L cos.2 D — sin.2 L sin.2 D
therefore, sin.2 H = ^   .
cos.2 L cos.2 D
Again, cos.2 L cos.2 D — sin.2 L sin.2 D
= (cos. L cos. D—sin. L sin. D)(cos. L cos. D + sin. L sin. D )
= cos. (L + D) cos. (L-D).
ASTRONOMY.
113
Practical
Astronomy
Therefore, sin.2 H =
cos. (L + D) cos. (L — D)
cos.2 L cos.2 D
<\/[cos. (L + D) cos. (L-D)]-
The value of r is variable; but in general it is about
33 minutes of a degree, or 132 seconds of time. There¬
fore the acceleration by refraction is nearly, in time,
132s
<y/[cos. (L -f D)cos. (L — D)]’
Problem VII.— To find the length of the twilight.
Let ZPB (fig. 123) be the meridian, Z the zenith, P the
pole, and SDB the horizon. Let S'S be the arc of the pa¬
rallel described by the sun between the beginning of the
twilight, when he is at S', and its end at sunrise, when he
reaches the horizon at S.
The twilight begins when DS', the sun’s depression be¬
low the horizon, is about 18°.
Let a denote the arc, DS the depression, L the lati¬
tude of the place — 90° — ZP, D the sun’s declination
—1 90° — PS, H the hour angle SPB (from midnight),
x the angle SPS'.
Then, cos. ZS' = cos. ZP cos. PS' + sin. ZP sin. PS'
COS. ZPS';
that is, because cos. ZS' =: — sin. a, and cos. ZPS =
— cos. SPB,
— sin. a— — sin. L sin. D — cos. L cos. D cos. (H — x)-,
hence we obtain
cos. (H — a?) = tan. L tan. D + —^ a .
cos. L cos. D
Now, by Problem V. cos. H = tan. L tan. D (1)
Let <p be such an angle, that
sin. a
c°s. p = j ^5
cos. L cos. D
Then cos. (H — x) = cos. H + cos. p
= 2 cos. l (H + p) cos. i (H — p) (2)
Now H is determined by formula (1); therefore x, the
angle described about the pole while the twilight lasts, is
determined by formula (2).
Problem VIII.— Given the right ascensions and declina¬
tions of two celestial bodies, to compute their angular
distance.
Let S and M (fig. 124) be the two stars (for example the
sun and moon), and let Z be the zenith, and P the pole of
the equator. In the triangle SPM, the side SM represents
the angular distance of the two stars ; PS and PM are re¬
spectively their polar distances, or the complements of
their declinations, and therefore given; and the angle
SPM is also given, being the difference of ZPS and ZPM,
the right ascensions of the given stars. Let PS = A,
-PM ~ A', the angle SPM = P, and SM, the distance
sought, —d. We have then
cos. d — cos. A cos. A'+ sin. A sin. A' cos. P.
Assume tan. p = tan. A cos. P; then, by substituting and
reducing, as in Problem II., we obtain
cos. A cos. (A'—
cos. d — i l!'
cos. p
Problem IX.— To determine the latitude of a place.
1. Of the various methods which are employed for de-
teimining the latitude, that which depends on the obser¬
vation of the double transits, or upper and lower culmina¬
tion of a circumpolar star, is perhaps the best, being inde-
VOL. IV.
pendent of the star’s declination, and of the effects of Practical
aberration and nutation. The accuracy of the result de- Astronomy,
pends, indeed, on the allowance made for refraction; but
unless the observed star at the lower culmination passes
within 15° or 20° of the horizon, the errors of the tables
will be very inconsiderable.
Let Z be the observed zenith distance, and R the re¬
fraction of the star at its lower culmination ; Z' and R' the
same quantities at its upper culmination, and X the cor¬
rect zenith distance of the pole, or the co-latitude; then
x = i(Z + Z') + A(R + R').
The quantities R and R' must be taken from the tables,
regard being had to the state of the barometer and ther¬
mometer.
2. Another method of determining the latitude, which,
by reason of the facility of observation and computation,
is extremely commodious, and therefore much employed,
especially by voyagers, depends on observations of the
meridional zenith distances of the sun or a star. Let P
(fig. 125) be the pole, Z the zenith, C the intersection of
the meridian and equator, and S the sun or star; then, l
being the required latitude,
/ = ZC = ZS Z±= SC = Z D,
according as the star is situated S or S', that is, above or
below the equator.
If the star is to the north of the zenith, and above the
pole, as at a, then
/ = ZC = Ca — Za = D — Z,
and if below the pole, at a', then Ca' = 180° — D, and
l = ZC = Ca' — Za' = 180° — (Z + D).
Problem X.— To determine the difference of longitude be¬
tween two points on the earth's surface.
The different methods which have been proposed for
the solution of this problem, one of the most difficult in
practical astronomy, are the following: ls£, The eclipses
of Jupiter’s satellites; 2tf, the eclipses of the moon ; 3c?,
the eclipses of the sun ; \th, the occultations of fixed stars
by the moon ; and, bth, the comparison of the moon’s
transits over the meridian with those of certain fixed stars
selected for the purpose. Of these five methods, the two
first give results affected by many causes of uncertainty;
and the third can seldom be practised, because solar
eclipses occur very rarely for any given point on the
earth’s surface. Of the remaining two, the last (which
is recommended by Mr Baily) seems entitled to the pre¬
ference, on account of its being independent of great ac¬
curacy in the rate of the clock or the position of the
transit instrument.
The difference of the longitudes of the two stations is
supposed to be nearly known from the chronometer, or
by other means; and the object is to correct or deter¬
mine the error of the first approximation.
Let A and B be the two stations, of which A is sup¬
posed to be the most westerly, and put
r = the difference (in sidereal time) of the transit
of the moon’s limb and the star previously
agreed on at A ;
r' z= the same difference at B;
t — the apparent Greenwich time of the culmina¬
tion of the moon at A ;
f — the apparent Greenwich time of the culmina¬
tion of the moon at B ;
d — ]) s true declination) computed for the time
^ = j) ’s true radius j t;
d, d — the same quantities computed for the time?';
s — the length of the true solar day in seconds;
w = D s motion in AR in half that interval, ex¬
pressed in seconds of space ;
p
114
ASTRONOMY.
Practical ^ — the assumed difference of longitude, in time ;
Astronomy. _j_ = the correct difference of longitude.
The angle comprised between the two horary circles
which pass respectively through the centre and limb of
the moon, at the station A, is —* which being reduced
cos. a
to time, becomes -r-— and expresses the sidereal time
15 cos. d r
in which the moon’s semi-diameter passes the meridian.
. is the observed difference of the /R
Hence r z±z -r-—.
15 cos. d
of the star and moon’s centre at A, the upper sign being
taken when the first or western limb of the moon is ob¬
served, and the under when it is the eastern limb, the
star being supposed to precede the moon. In the same
manner  —^ is the sidereal time in which the semi-
15 cos. a
diameter of the moon passes the meridian at B, and
r nt:    the observed difference of the /R of the
15 cos. d'
star and moon’s centre. We have, therefore, by subtract¬
ing these two expressions,
r r1
r 15 cos. d 15 cos. d!
for the observed difference of the JR of the moon s centre,
during the time elapsed between the two observations.
Put this difference equal to a, then -f- A is the differ¬
ence between t and t' in sidereal time, which becomes
_j_ a) when expressed in mean solar time.
Hence we have
tTicrcforG Practical
2 sin. | (Z' — Z) sin. I (Z' + Z) z= 2 / COS. D sin.21 P. Astronomy,
But Z' — Z — x, and Z' + Z zz 2 Z -p #,
therefore,
2 sin. £ x sin. (Z -p a?) = 2 cos. I cos. D sin.2 £ P,
that is,
2 sin. £ x cos. \ x sin. Z -p 2 sin.2 % x cos Z
= 2 cos. I cos. D sin.2 ^ P,
or 2 sin. | x cos. £ a; + 2 sin.2 i x cot. Z
2 cos. I cos. D . n , „
_   —  sin.2 t P.
sin. Z ^
In order to resolve this equation, make cot. Z — a,
cos. I cos. D gjn 2 l — b, and divide both sides by
<=*' + (%+ A)
8640
sin. Z
2 cos.2 ^ x ; it then becomes
tan. x -p a tan.2 \ x z=.
Whence
tan.2 h x -{■ v
and, consequently,
cos/ % %
= 6 (1 -p tan.2 \ x).
tan. ^ a.1 —
a — 6 ’
tan. x —
1
consequently, when the apparent Greenwich time at one
of the observatories is known, it is also known at the other
observatory. Now, let a and «' be the moon’s .ZR in space,
computed for the times t and t' respectively (taken from
the ephemeris); then the formula for the correction of
the assumed difference of longitudes will evidently be
c= {is A-(«-«')} gA;
and this added to ^ gives ^ .p e, the corrected difference
of longitudes.
Problem XL—To find the meridional zenith distance of the
sun (or a star), from observations made near the me¬
ridian.
Let P (fig. 124) be the pole, Z the zenith, and S the
sun. Make
l — 90° — PZ — the latitude of the place ;
D r= 90° — PS — the declination ;
P — ZPS the hour angle ;
Z = l — D z: the true zenith distance;
Z' = ZS the observed zenith distance;
x — Z' — Z the correction.
The triangle PZS gives
cos. ZS zz cos. ZP cos. PS + sin. ZP sin. PS cos. ZPS,
or cos. Z' zz sin. I sin. D + cos. I cos. D cos. P ;
but cos. (I — D) zz cos. I cos. D -p sin. I sin. D,
and cos. P zz 1 — 2 sin.2 i P,
therefore,
cos. Z' zz cos. (I — D) — 2 cos. I cos. D sin.2 £ P,
or cos. Z’ zz cos. Z — 2 cos. I cos. D sin.2 1 P.
Now, by the trigonometrical formula (Algebra, p. 240),
cos. Z — cos. Z' zz 2 sin. £ (Z' — Z) sin. ^ (Z' -p Z),
2(a — b) 2(a — b) V\ + 4 b(a — bf
Developing this expression, and rejecting all the powers
of b higher than the cube, we have
tan. \x — b — G&2 + (1 + 2a2) bz —, &c.
Now the series which expresses the arc in terms of its
tangent (see art. Algebra, p. 270), gives
\x — tan. \x — } tan.3 %x + } tan.5 ±x —, &c.
Therefore, by substituting, and rejecting the terms con¬
taining higher powers of b than the cube,
±x = b — aVi + (§ + 2a?)P —, &c.
that is,
x = 2b — 2aV2 + (% + 4a^3 —, &c.
and therefore, on restoring the values of a and b, and di¬
viding by sin. 1", 2
/cos. I cos. D\ sin.2 0 _ rjfcos,. I cos. D\
* = \ 3tnTZ / • -siTr - 2 C0‘- Z( sin. Z )
sin^ +cot_2 Z) /'cos. l cos.py jinqp
sin. P ^ y V sm. Z / sin. 1"
The last term of this series is scarcely sensible in any
case; it is therefore only necessary to compute the first
two.
If, instead of eliminating Z' by means of the equation
Z' — Z = a?, we had eliminated Z, the resulting ex¬
pression would have been
„/cos. I cos. D\
x = -\ Sin:zr-J
i n rr./cos. ^ cos. D\2 sin.4 ^P
+ 2 cot. Z'( . -v/ ) .~r —, &c.
\ sm. Z' / sm. V
Problem XII.—Given the times of two observed equal alti¬
tudes of the sun, to find the true time of his meridional
passage.
Let P (fig. 126) be the pole, Z the zenith, ZPM the
meridian, and A and C the places of the sun, before and
after his meridional passage, when his zenith distances
ZA and ZC are observed to be equal. In consequence
of the variation of the sun’s declination while he passes
from A to C, the hour angles APM and MPC are un¬
equal. Make BPM = APM = P, and let BPC be de¬
noted by <p. Now, APC =: 2P -p p; half of which is
P + ip; therefore the true time of the meridional pas¬
sage will be found by subtracting ip from the mean of
the times of observed equal altitudes.
To find the value of p, we have the equation
cos. ZA — cos. ZP cos. PA + sin. ZP sin. PA cos. APM,
sin.2 iP
sin. 1"
ASTRONOMY.
115
Practical that is (employing the denominations of last problem),
cos. Z = sin. I sin. D + cos. I cos. D cos. P (1)
Now, let A = B Z> be the small change of declination
corresponding to the variation of the hour-ande from P
to P + p, and let D + A be substituted for D^and P + p
for P in this equation. It then becomes
cos. Z =sin. I sin. (D + A) + cos. I cos. (D + A) cos. (P + 9).
But as A and p are very small arcs, their cosines may be
made equal to the radius, and their sines equal to the
arcs themselves ; therefore, on expanding the above equa¬
tion, it becomes
cos. Z — sin. I sin. D -pcos. I cos. D cos. P.
+ (sin. I cos. D — cos. I sin. D cos. P) a
— cos. I cos. D sin. P. <p. + cos. I sin. D sin. P. A. p;
whence, in consequence of equation (1), and rejecting the
term multiplied by A. p,
(sin. I cos. D — cos. I sin. D cos. P) A=cos. I cos. D. sin. P.®;
therefore,
A/tan. I \
p = A[-.—- — tan. D cot. P).
\sin. P J
Let i be the sidereal time of the first observation, t
that of the second, and f — t — 26. Also let the diurnal
variation of D be denoted by v, expressed like the arcs <p
and A in seconds; we have then 24h : 26 :: v : A, whence
A = -yzdv, and consequently
<p = — tan. D cot. p).
Now, to convert <p into seconds of time, it is only neces¬
sary to divide the number to which it is equal by 15;
therefore, expressed in time, <p becomes
, . /tan. I ^
9 - lio^(-7p — tan. D cot. Pj.
For the angle P we may substitute 6 (half the time
elapsed between the two observations) converted into de¬
grees, and suppose D to be the value of the declination
at the instant of the meridional passage; the value of <p
being so small as not to be affected by these substitutions.
Therefore, ultimately,
iP — — tan. D cot. 6^,
which, subtracted from 6, gives the true time of the me¬
ridional passage.
But - tan. ACM, and
x
fix Practical
— tan. ADM tan. I; Astronomy
therefore tan. ACM = —5 tan. /. Now ZMV — DMC
nr
= ADM — ACM, therefore tan. ZMV = tan. (ADM
a n]\/r\ _ tan- ADM — tan. ACM
^ “ 1 + tan. ADM tan. ACM 5
that is,
tan. v —
(>-5)
tan. I
1 +
tan.2 I
_ (m2 — w2) tan. I
m2 -f- n2 tan.2 I
_ (m2 — n2) sin. I cos. I (m2—n2) sin. I cos. /
— m2 cos.2 I n2 sin.2 I m2— (ni2 — n2) sin.2 /"
Now, let m—n — \, or n — m — 1; then, by substituting,
(2m — 1) sin. I cos l
tan v = ^     . ,
nr — (2 m — 1) sin.2 I
or, neglecting the terms multiplied by —2, and recollect¬
ing that sin. I cos. 1= l sin. 2 l,
sin. 2 l
tan. v —
whence
tan. vrr
that is,
tan. v —
2 m
sin. 2 l
2 m
sin. 2 l
m
sin. 2 l
(2-4)-Y-77
m
(2~) (
1 _i_ 2
1 H sin
m
in.2;
in.2
(l — o 1 cos.2 / H—— sin.2 A
\ 2 m m m m J
but cos.2 I — sin.2 I = cos. 2 1; therefore,
tan. v —
sin. 2 l
m
(. , 1 — 2 cos. 2 A
V + 2~m )''
and 2 sin. 2 l cos. 21 — 4 sin. 4 l, therefore,
. sin. 2 l . sin. 21 — sin. 4 l
tan. v —   4- .
m 2 m2
The last term of this expression cannot in any case
amount to 2'', so that the angle of the vertical is very nearly
proportional to the sine of twice the latitude.
Problem XIII.— To compute the angle of the vertical, or the
difference between the apparent and geocentric latitude
arising from the spheroidal figure of the earth (fig. 127).
Let AMP be a quadrant of the elliptic meridian, C be¬
ing the centre, and P the pole. The straight line VME,
perpendicular to the ecliptic in M, determines the appa¬
rent zenith V of the place M, while ZMC drawn through
C determines the true zenith Z. Hence the angle ADM
is the apparent latitude of M, and ACM its geocentric
latitude ; and the angle ZMV between the true and appa¬
rent zenith is the angle of the vertical.
Let x and y be the rectangular co-ordinates of the point
M, the origin being at C, and make AC — m, CP = n,
ADM = l, and ZMV = v.
The equation of the ellipse gives
n2
y2=n2   a?2,
nr
whence
ydy = — —2 xdx;
therefore,
^ n2 dx
x ~ m2 ' dy"
Problem XIV.— To compute the parallax of the moon, or
a planet, in altitude.
Let P = the horizontal parallax,
p — the parallax of altitude,
Z = the apparent zenith distance.
It was shown in Chap. I. Sect. 2 of Theoretical As¬
tronomy that sin. p = sin. P sin. Z ; now let Z' = the true
zenith distance, then Z — Z' + jo, and consequently
sin. p = sin. P sin. (Z'+jo)
= sin. P (sin. Z' cos. jt> + cos. Z' sin. jo),
therefore
tan./? = sin. P (sin. Z' + cos. Z' tan./))
tan. /> (1 — sin. P cos. Z') = sin. P sin Z',
whence
. sin. P sin. 71
tan. p —   ; .
1 — sm. P cos. 71
But by a well-known series,
p = tan.p — \ tan.3/) + £ tan.5/) —, &c.
Substituting therefore the above expression for taxi, p, and
reducing the powers to series, we find
 sin. P sin. Z' sin.2 P sin. 2Z' , sin.3 P sin. 3Z'
sin. 1'
sin. 2"
sin. 3"
116
ASTRONOMY.
Practical The first two terms of this series are in every case suffi-
Astronon^y. cient for the computation ofp.
Problem XV.— To compute the parallax in right ascen¬
sion.
In fig. 128 let P be the pole, Z the zenith, A the true
place of the moon or a planet, depressed on the vertical
circle through the effects of parallax to B. Having join¬
ed PA and PB by arcs of great circles, the corresponding
variation in right ascension will be represented by the
angle APB. Make
P = the horizontal parallax;
p — AB, the parallax of altitude ;
n = APB, the parallax in right ascension;
l — 90° — ZP, latitude of place ;
A = PA, the polar distance;
N = ZA, the true zenith distance ;
^ ZB, the apparent zenith distance;
H = ZPA the hour angle.
In the parallactic triangle APB we have
sin. PA : sin. AB : : sin. ABP : sin. APB ;
that is,
sin. A : sin. p : : sin. ABP : sin. n,
but sin. p — sin. P sin. (N -H p'). See Theoretical
Astronomy, Chap. I. Sect. 2.
Therefore,
sin. P sin. (N + p) sin. ABP
sin. n —  .   '
sin. A
Now, in the triangle ZBP, we have
sin. ZB ; sin. ZP : : sin. ZPB : sin. ZBP (ABP);
that is,
sin. (N + p) : cos. I: : sin. (H + II) : sin. ABP.
Therefore,
• * t">_ cos. I sin. (H + n)
sm. ABP —  :—ttt-—r—>
sin. (N + p)
whence
that is (retaining the notation of last problem), Practical
cos. A — sin. I cos. N _ cos. (A + w) — sin. I cos. (N +p)
sin. N — sin. (N + p)
whence
. , . cos. A sin. (N + »)
cos. (A + ff) = 7—^ —
v J sin. M
sin. I [cos. N sin. (N+p) — sin, N cos. (N+p)]
sin. N
_ cos. A sin. (N + p)   sin. I sin, p
= sin. N sin. N
cos. A sin. (N + p) sin. I sin. P sin. (N + p) .
= sin. N sin. N.
therefore
cos. (A+*r) = -in’sinNK~ [c°S' A~ shl*1 sin‘
Now, from the property of spherical triangles,
Sin. ZA: sin. PA :: sin. ZPA : sin. AZP,
therefore
sin. PA sin. ZPA
sin. AZP = :—77-7 .
sm. ZA
For the same reason
sin. PB sin. ZPB
i.BZP =
sin. ZB
therefore
. sin. P cos. I . /TT . ^
sin. n =  t : sin. (H + n).
Make
sin. P cos. I
sin. A
sin. A
= A; then
sin. n = A sin. (H + n) = A (sin. H cos. n + cos. H sin. n);
whence
tan. n = A (sin. H + cos. H. tan. n),
and
tan. II (1 — A cos. H) = A sin. H;
that is,
A sin. H
tan. II — *7 7 t i,
1 — A cos. H
whence we have the following series,
sm- H + A2sin^H +,
sin. PA sin. ZPA _ sin. PB sin. ZPB
sin. ZA sin. ZB
that is,
sin. A sin. H _ sin. (A + tt) sin. (H +II)
sin. N — sin. (N+p)
whence
sin. (N +p) _ sin. (A + ff) sin. (H + n)
sin. N — sin. A sin. H
By substituting this in equation (1) there results
sin. (A + ir) sin. (H + n)
cos. (A + w) =  :  —•—• Tj—
v sin. A sm. H
[cos. A — sin. I sin. P],
whence
, . , sin. (H + n) ( . . sin. I sin. P |
cot. (A + ^r) = s>; h {cot. A- sin<A }•
, sm. I sin. P .
Make ; = cot. a, then
sm. A
cot. (A + ff) = ——£—fr—^ (cot. A — cot. a),
n = A
sin. 1"
sin. 2"
Problem XVI.— To compute the parallax in declination.
Make ir = PB — PA (fig. 129) = the parallax in de¬
clination.
From the triangle ZPA we get
cos. AP — cos. PZ cos. AZ
cos. PZA =
and from ZPB
cos. PZB =
sin. PZ sin. AZ
cos. BP — cos. PZ cos. BZ
sin. PZ sin. BZ.
therefore
cos. AP — cos. PZ cos. AZ
sin. AZ
cos. BP — cos. PZ cos.BZ
sin. BZ *
sin. H
that is,
, , x sin. (H + II) sin. (a — A)
COt^A + tf) — : 7-7—: 7   ,
v ' sm. H sin. a sm. A
from which, as A is known, cot. (A + <r) maybe comput¬
ed, and thence cr. A more convenient formula, however,
may be obtained by proceeding as follows. (See De-
lambre, Abrege d’Astronomic, p. 154).
From the equation
. . \ sin. (H + n) / t . sin. I sin. P^
cot. (A + 'ff) = sin.H— (cot- sin. a )
we have
sin. H cot. (A + +) , sin. I sin. P
C0t- A ~ sin. (H + n) + sin. A J
.whence
. , , sin.H cot. (A + w) , \
cot. A-cot. (A+^)= -iSTCH+Ii)- c ( + }
sin. I sin. P cot> ^ — cott
sin. A
ASTRONOMY.
117
Practical sin. (A +“t) cos. A—cos. (A +or) sin. A sin. cr
sin. (A + g-) sin. A — sin. (A + ^sin. a’
therefore
sin. cr  sin. I sin. P
sin. (A + t) sin. A- sin. A.
— cot. (A + 7r)[sin. (H + n) — sin. H]
sin. (H + n)
Now, by the trigonometrical formulae, the difference of
the sines of two arcs is equal to twice the sine of half their
difference multiplied by the cosine of half their sum,
therefore
sin. (H+n) — sin. H 2 sin. 1 n cos. (H+^n),
whence
sin. ir sin. I sin. P
sin. (A + -ff) sin. A- sin. A
2 sin. i n cos. (H +1 n) cot. (A +
sin. (H + n)
and sin cr sin. I sin. P sin. (A +cr)
2 sin. -I- nsin. A cos. (H + -| n) cos. (A + cr)
sin. (H + n) f
_ . . „ sin. n
or, since 2 sm. ^ n =  ;—,
2 cos. i n
sin. it — sin. I sin. P sin. (A + cr)
sin, n sin. A cos. (H + £ n) cos. (A + cr)
cos. ^ n sin. (H + n)
But it was shown in the last problem that
. „ sin. P cos. I . /xt i \
sm. n = :—: sin. (H + n),
sin A.
whence
sin.n sin. A
zr sin. P. cos. Z;
sin. (H + n)
consequently,
sin. cr — sin. I sin. P sin. (A + cr)
 sin. P cos. I cos. (H + ^ n) cos. (A + ft)
cos. 4 n
Ar i ^ cos.(H + in)cot./ , , , . .
Make tan. a? —   ; then, by substituting,
COS. 2 Xl
sin. ?r = sin. Z sin. P [sin. (A+cr)—tan. a? cos. (A + cr)],
or sin. cr —
sin. Z sin. P
cos. x
sin. ft =
sin. cr =
sin.Zsin.P
cos. x
whence,
tan. ft —
sin.Zsin.P
[sin. (A + cr) cos. x — cos. (A + cr) sin. a:],
sin. Z sin. P
cos. x
sin. (A + cr — x),
[sin. (A — x) cos. cr + cos, (A — a:) sin. cr];
cos. a;
[sin. (A — a?) + cos. (A—x) tan. cr] ;
therefore (making S'n' — B),
B sin. (A — x)
tan. cr =   —  consequently
1 — B cos. (A — x) ^ J
cr - B sin- O —*) . B2 sin. 2 (A —x)
sin. 1" sin. 2"
+ B3 sin‘ 3. — +, &C.
sin. 3"
Problem XVII.—To compute the altitude and longitude
of the nonagesimal.
The nonagesimal is the point of the ecliptic where that
circle intersects the vertical plane passing through its
pole. It is consequently the highest point of the ecliptic Practical
above the horizon, or 90° from the horizon measured on Astronomy
the ecliptic. ^
Let HH' (fig. 129) be the horizon, EO the ecliptic, EQ
the equator, Z the zenith, P the pole of the equator, and
P' the pole of the ecliptic. The great circle passing
through P and P intersects EO and EQ at right angles in
C and D, whence EC = ED = 90° = MQ, and therefore
EM = DQ. In like manner PD rz 90° rz P'C, conse¬
quently P'P z= CD the obliquity of the ecliptic.
The great circle PZNI which passes through the pole
of the ecliptic and the zenith is a circle of latitude and
also a vertical circle; hence the angles at N and I are
right angles, and O is the pole of PZNI; consequently
01 zz ON zz 90°. Now since ON z= 90°, the point N is
the nonagesimal, and its altitude IN z= 90° — ZN zz ZP'
= the complement of the altitude of the pole of the eclip¬
tic, or the co-latitude of the zenith. In like manner its
longitude EN zz 90° — NC zz 90° — ZPP. Now in
order to compute ZP' and the angle ZP'P, we have given,
in the triangle ZPP', the side ZP zz the co-latitude, PP
zz the obliquity, and also the angle ZPP, for ZPP' zz 180°
— ZPD zz 180° — MD zz 180° — (ED — EM) zz 180°
— 90° + EM zz 90° + EM, and EM (which is the
right ascension of the zenith, or as it is technically called,
the right ascension of the mid-heaven) is given, being
equal to the sidereal time of observation converted into
degrees.
Let R zz EM the right ascension of the zenith, X zz PZ
the co-latitude of the place (reduced by problem XIII.), wzz
PP' the obliquity of the ecliptic, K zz P'Z the co-latitude of
the zenith or altitude of the nonagesimal, N zz 90° — ZP'P
the longitude of the nonagesimal.
By the trigonometrical formulae,
cos. K zz cos. X cos. w + sin. X sin. w cos. (90° +R)
zz cos. X cos. co + sin. X sin. co sin. R.
Assume tan. <p zz tan. X sin. R, then, by substituting and
reducing, we obtain
T_ cos. X /i\
cos. K zz  cos. (co + ©).
cos. p v r/
To find the longitude L, we have
cot. X sin. u
tan. N zz -7—/ - — cot. (90 + R) cos. «
sm. (90°+R) v 1 '
cot. X sin. co „
zz   — + tan. R cos. co,
cos. R
T, . t , tan. <p , . . sin. R
But tan. X zz ——a whence cot. X zz ,
sin. R tan. p
whence, by substituting
tan. N. z
and on reducing,
tan. N
/’sin. co \
tan. R I  + cos. co 1,
<tan. <p
tan. R
sin. <p
sin. (co + p),
Problem XVIII.— To compute the parallax in longitude
and latitude.
Let A (fig. 129) be the place of the star situated on
the vertical ZAR ; Ea is its longitude, and P'A the com¬
plement of its latitude, or its distance from the pole of
the ecliptic. Suppose that, through the effects of parallax,
it is depressed from A to B ; its longitude then becomes
E&, and its distance from the pole of the ecliptic P'B, so
that ah is the variation in longitude, and P'B — PA the
variation in latitude, which it is required to compute.
Now it is evident that these quantities will be given in
terms of the different parts of the triangle AP'B, exactly
in the same manner as the parallax in right ascension
and declination has been found from the triangle APB
118
ASTRONOMY.
Practical (fig. 128). The angle ZPA, which was before denoted by
Astronomy. ^ now becomes ZP'A — Na =rEa — EN — longitude
of the star — longitude of the nonagesimal, and ZPB be¬
comes ZP'B Ni = Na -f- ab. Retaining, therefore, the
notation employed in the three last problems, and making
L := Ea the longitude of the star, A' — PA its distance
from the pole of the ecliptic, k — ZP' — 90° — K, n' — ab
its parallax in longitude, cr' — P'B — P'A its parallax in
latitude, wre shall have IT and tt' from the same formulae
as n and tt in Problems XV. and XVI., by changing l into
k, H into L — N, and A into A'. Hence (Problem XV.)
sin. P cos. k . ,T . ..
sin. n = ^ r—, sin. (L — N 4- II),
sin. A'
,, . sin. P cos. k , .
and by putting C = ^  —, we deduce
J r ° sin. A
, C sin. (L — N) ,
tan. n =   ^ and
1—Ccos.(L — N)
ir= sin. C +, &c.
sin. 1" sin. 2"
In like manner the formula for the parallax in decli¬
nation given in Problem XVI., viz.
, . sin. (H + n)r , sin. I sin. P"
cot. (A-j-w) rr  ^  cot. A -
v 1 y sin. H L_
sin. A
becomes
cot. (A' +‘7r') =
sin.(L — N + IT)
[cot. A'-
i.Asin.P~j
sin. A' J ’
sin.(L — N)
from which, by proceeding in the same manner as in Pro¬
blem XVI., and making
cos. (L — N + b n') cot. k
tan. ^ =    r=r--" 
cos. ^ n
we deduce tan. v’
sin. k sin. P P . / N / A,
r=  sin. (A' — ^ ) + cos. (A' — xr) tan. cr
cos. ar
, , . sin. k sin. P
whence, on making -= :— =r D,
tan. tt' r=
consequently
y = D sin'(A’
y)
sin. 1"
cos. af
D sin. (A — xf)
1 — Dcos.(A' — a/)’
8sin.2Ci__y) c.
sin. 2"
Problem XIX.— Given the apparent altitudes of the moon
ami the sun, or a star, and the apparent distance between
them, to find the true distance.
This is a problem of great importance in Practical
Astronomy, because the observed distance between the
moon and the sun or a star is the surest means the navi¬
gator has to determine his longitude.
To obtain the apparent distance and altitudes, it is con¬
venient to have three observers : one, the most expert,
takes the apparent distance of the limb of the moon from
that of the sun, or from the star; another observes the
moon’s altitude at the moment of the observation of the
distance ; and a third takes the star’s altitude. For greater
accuracy, these simultaneous operations ought tobe repeat¬
ed several times, and a fourth assistant may, by a good
watch, note the intervals of time between them. A mean of
the whole will then be obtained, and the corresponding time
by the watch, by which the true time at that place will be
nearly known. If there be only one observer, he must
take the altitudes immediately before and after the dis¬
tance, and endeavour to allow for the change of altitude
during the time between the observations.
The observed distance between the limbs of the moon
and sun must be increased by their semidiameters to ob¬
tain the distance of their centres. If the distance from a Practical
star is taken, because its diameter is insensible, the dis- Astronomy
tance is to be increased by the moon’s semidiameter only.
The observed altitudes thus found are affected by pa¬
rallax and refraction. The moon’s horizontal parallax is
given in the Nautical Almanac: from this the parallax at
the time of observation may be found by Prob. XIV., but
the navigator avails himself of aid from The Requisite Tables,
which shorten the process of calculation. The sun’s pa¬
rallax is almost insensible, but it may be taken into ac¬
count ; that of a star is accounted nothing. The alti¬
tudes are diminished by the parallaxes, but they are in¬
creased by refraction. The sun’s altitude is more increas¬
ed by the latter than diminished by the former; but the
reverse happens with the moon. At sea the altitudes
must be also corrected for the dip of the horizon (that is, for
the height of the observer above the surface of the sea),
and the refraction for the height of the thermometer.
Supposing all this done, let S and M be the true places
of the sun or star and moon (fig. 130), Z the zenith ; be¬
cause parallax and refraction take place only in vertical
circles, the apparent place of the sun, s, will be in the ver¬
tical ZS above S, and that of the moon, m, in ZM below
M. The apparent distance will be sm.
Let A = 90° — ZM be the moon’s true altitude ; a
— 90° — ZS the star’s true altitude ; H = 90° — Zm the
moon’s apparent altitude ; h — 90° — Zs the star’s appa¬
rent altitude; D = SM the true, and d — sm the appa¬
rent distance.
By spherical trigonometry, in the triangles SZM, «Z»i,
cos. D — sin. A sin. a
- szm{_ co, r_
A cos. a
sin. H sin. h
cos. H cos. h
From these equal values of cos. SZM wre find
„ . . . .cos. A cos. a . . .
cosD = (cos.a—sin. Hsin. A)  7 + sin. A sin. a
v /cos. H cos. h
__ r J \ /TT I L\ TT 7.-1 COS. A cos. a
= [cos. d + cos. (H + h) — cos. H cos. hi  ^ r
L J cos. H cos. h
+ sin. A sin. a
= 2 cos. £ (H + A + <0 cos.a (H + A — d)C°*' „ -C0-S--^
v 7 x 7 cos. H cos. h
— (cos. A cos. a — sin. A sin. a).
But the last term =: cos. (A + a); subtract now both
sides from 1; then, observing that by the calculus of sines
(see Algebra)
1 — cos. D = 2 sin.2 ^ D,
1 + cos. (A + a) = 2 cos.2 ^ (A + ot),
we have, after dividing by 2, and putting
p _ cos. A cos. a
cos.H cos. A’
sin.2 £ D =: cos.2 ^ (A + a)
— cos. £ (H + A + (?) cos. ^ (H + A — d) X F
cos.£(H+A+e?)cos.£(H-t-A—d)
cos. 2 il (A + a) J’
Let 6 be such an angle that
. s __ cos.^ (H + A + c?) cos.i(H-pA — (?) cos. A cos. a
Sin' cos.2^ (A + a) cos. H cos. A
and in this expression the value of F is put instead of it,
then we have
sin.2 ^ D = cos.2 £ (A + a) cos.2 0;
and sin. A D = cos. ^ (A + «) cos. J.
The value of cos. D in the first formula may serve to
determine D, but not conveniently; by the various steps
of the analytic process it is transformed into another, viz.
ASTRONOMY.
Practical the last, which gives sin. £ D, and consequently D readily
logarithmic calculation.
The final result is the rule found by Borda: as a prac¬
tical rule it is very convenient, because no attention is ne¬
cessary to the signs of the trigonometrical quantities. On
this account it is well adapted to seamen.
Problem XX.— To find the longitude of a ship at sea by
an observation of the distance of the moon from the sun or
a star.
From the observed distance, the true distance qs it
would appear if it could be seen from the earth’s centre,
may be found by the last problem : Now by the Nautical
Almanac this is given for every third hour, Greenwich time,
therefore, by an easy calculation, the time at which the ob¬
servation was made, as it would be given by a watch show¬
ing Greenwich time, may be obtained. But the time of
observation as reckoned at the ship may be found from
the ship’s latitude, the moon’s or star’s zenith distances
(found by the observation), and their polar distances as
given by the Almanac. Therefore the difference between
the time of the observation as estimated at the ship and
the corresponding Greenwich time becomes known : This
difference is the ship’s longitude.
Example. At sea, June 5,. 1793, about an hour and a
half after noon, in 10° 46' 50" south latitude, and 149°
longitude, by account, by means of a set of lunar observa¬
tions made at a height of about 20 feet above the surface
of the sea, it was found that
Distance of nearest limbs of © and ]) ...83° 26' 46"
Altitude of lowest limb of © 48 16 10
Altitude of upper limb of ]) 27 53 30.
Hence the longitude of the ship is required.
Reduction of the apparent to the true altitude.
Dist. of nearest limbs of © and J) 83° 26' 46"
Semidiam. of Q from Nautt Almanac  { 0 14 54
Augmentation of the latter, prop, to altitude... 0 0 7
Apparent distance (fi) of centres 83° 57' 33"
Altitude of sun’s lower limb 48° 16' 10"
Subtract for dip of horizon  0 4 24
48° 11' 46"
Semidiameter  0 15 46
Apparent altitude of sun’s centre {h) 48° 27' 32"
Refr. — par correct, for therm — 0 0 43
True altitude of sun’s centre (a) .48° 26' 49"
Altitude of moon’s upper limb  27° 53' 30'
Correct for dip     0 4 24
27° 49' 6"
Semidiameter   0 15 1
Apparent altitude of moon’s centre (H) 27° 34' 5"
Par. — refr. 4- corr. for therm  0 46 43
True alt. of moon’s centre (A) 28° 20' 48"
Reduction of the apparent to the tr ue distance by Prob. XIX.
d 83° 57' 33"
h 48 27 32 ar. com.
FI 27 34 5 ar. com.
sum 159° 59' 10"
cos.
cos.
£ sum
79
d— F sum 3
a 48
A 28
59 35 cos.
57 58 cos.
26 49 cos.
20 48 cos.
•1783835
•0523390
9-2399686
9-9989587
9-8217187
9-9445275
^(A-f-a) = 38 23 48 2 log. cos. 19-7883324
2)19-4475636
<) = 31 57 33 cos. 6 9-7237818
119
Practical
Astronomy
sin. 9-9285875
£(A + a)z= 38 23 48 cos.9-8941662
£ D = 41 40 27§ sin. 9-8227537
D — 83 20 55 nearly.
Computation of time at Greenwich.
By Nautical Almanac for 1793
tv . „ .r ^ fat 15 hours 83° 6' 1"
DM. i, from © -> at J8   M g8 26
Increase of dist. in 3 hours — 1° 22' 25"
D  = 83° 20' 55"
Dist. 5 from © at 15 hours 83 6 1
0° 141 54"
Hence it appears that in 3 hours the distance of the moon
from the sun was increased by 1° 22' 25" = 4595", and
that between the time of making the observation, and the
15th hour, Greenwich time, the increase of distance was
0° 14' 54" z= 894." Now for small intervals the distances
will increase nearly as the times, therefore we have
4945" : 894" : : 3h. : Oh. • 5425 = 32m. 33s.
Thus it appears that the observation must have been made
32 minutes 33 seconds after the 15th hour, Greenwich
time.
We have yet to find the correct time of the observation
as estimated at the ship. To determine this, we know
the sun s altitude 48° 26' 49", and the sun’s declination,
which is given in the Almanac for Greenwich, noon ; and
from this the declination at the time of the observation
is found by making allowance for the difference of longi¬
tude and the hour from noon at the ship, both known near¬
ly. , The declination thus found is 23° 22' 48" north. The
ship s latitude, 10° 16' 40", is also known. Hence to find
the hour angle by Problem IV. we have
X the colat. = 79° 43' 20",
A the pol. dist. = 113 22 48,
2 the zenith dist. = 41 33 11.
To find P the hour angle, the computation (see formula
of Prob. IV.) may stand thus:—•
sin. L (z 4- x_ a) 3° 56' 51" 8-8378559
A + a = 76° 47' 37". 39-2358960
sin. a- (z — X -j- A) 37 36 19 9-7854851
sin. L (A 4- A 4- z) 117 19 39 ar. comp. 0-0513929
sin. g- (X -j- A — z) 75 46 28 ar. comp. 0-0135256
2)18-6882595
tan. (X P - 12° 27' 174") 9-3441297
P = 24° 54' 35" = lh 39m ggs-s
time at Greenwich — 15 32 33 -0
Long, from Greenwich westward 13h 52m 54s-7
Therefore, longitude east of Greenwich is 10h 7m 4s-3
We have put down the result to seconds, as it comes out
by the calculation ; but such accuracy is not attainable in
nautical practice. Delambre says, “ even with the best
instruments, the most skilful navigators find anomalies for
which they cannot account. The lunar tables are in a
state of continual improvement, yet we cannot be sure that
there is not an error of 20" in a distance, which will pro¬
duce an error of 40" of time. To this possible error of
theory must be joined that of the observation, which may
be still greater, ihe error of the time may therefore
amount to 80", which is equivalent to 20', or ^d of a de¬
gree. I his should be the maximum of the error ; and, in
general, this degree of accuracy is sufficient. Indeed a
greater accuracy than ^d or ^th of a degree may some¬
times be obtained, but still it is uncertain.
120
ASTRONOMY
CHAP. II.
CALCULATION OF NEW AND FULL MOON, AND ECLIPSES.
Sect. I.— Tables for Computing New and Full Moon, and the Elements for Eclipses.
TABLE I.
The Mean Time of New Moon in January, New Style, with the Mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and the Moon’s Mean Distance
from the Ascending Node from 1801 to 1900 inclusive.
1801
1802
1803
1804B.
1805
180G
1807
1800B.
1809
1810
MeanNewMoon
in January.
H. M. S.
14 7 39 9
3 16 27 43
22 14 0 21
11 22 48 55
29 20 21 32
19 5 10 7
8 13 58 41
27 11 31 18
15 20 19 52
5 5 8 27
1811 24 2 41 4
1812B. 13 11 29 38
1813
1814
1815
1816B.
1817
1818
1819
1820B.
1821
1822
1823
1824B.
1825
1826
1827
1828B.
1829
1830
1831
1832B.
1833
1834
1835
1836B
1837
1838
1839
1840B.
1841
1842
1843
1844B.
1845
1846
1847
1848B.
1849
1850
1 20 18 13
20 17 50 50
10 2 39 25
0 12 2
9 0 36
17 49 11
15 21 48
0 10 23
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
3 8 58 57
22 6 31 34
11 15 20 8
1 0 8 43
18 21 41 20
8 6 29 54
27 4 2 31
16 12 51 5
4 21 39 40
23 19 12 17
13 4 0 51
2 12 49 25
20 10 22 3
9 19 10 37
28 16 43 15
1 31 49
10 20 23
7 53 1
16 41 35
1 30 10
21 23 2 47
11 7 51 21
30 5 23 59
19 14 12 33
7 23 1 8
26 20 33 45
16 5 22 19
5 14 10 54
23 11 43 31
12 20 32 6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
- 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
i. D.
0 26
11 5
10 11
8 21
M. S.
7 39
55 49
33 0
21 11
u S
rt O
3'3
S 3
“w
7 26 58 22
6 6 46 32
4 16 34 42
3 22 11 53
2 2 0 4
0 11 48 14
11 17 25 25
9 27 13 35
8 7 1 46
7 12 38 57
5 22 27
4 28 4 18
3 7 52 29
1 17 40 39
0 23 17 50
11 3 6 1
9 12 54 11
8 18 31 22
6 28 19 32
5 8 7 42
4 13 44 53
2 23 33 4
I 29 10 15
0 8 58 25
10 18 46 35
9 24 23 46
8 4 11 56
6 14 0 6
5 19 37 13
3 29 25 28
3 5 2 39
1 14 50 49
11 24 39 0
II 0 16 11
9 10 4 21
7 19 52 32
6 25 29 43
5 5 17 53
4 10 55 5
2 20 43 15
1 0 31 25
0 6 8 36
10 15 56 47
8 25 44 5?
8 1 22 8
6 11 10 19
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
AscendingNode.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
10
S. D. M. S.
0 14 16 42
0 3 32 33
0 21 54 43
0 11 10 35
0 29 32 45
0 18 48 36
0 8 4 27
0 26 26 38
0 15 42 29
0 4 58 20
0 23 20 31
0 12 36 22
0 1 52 13
0 20 14 24
0 9 30 15
0 27 52 26
0 17 8 17
0 6 24 8
0 24 46 19
0 14 2 10
0 3 18 1
0 21 40 12
0 10 56 3
0 0 11 54
0 18 34 4
0 7 49 56
0 26 12 6
0 15 27 57
0 4 43 49
0 23 5 59
S. D. M. S.
9 10 35 50
9 18 38 37
10 27 21 37
11 5 24 24
0 14 7 24
0 22 10 11
1 0 12 57
2 8 55 58
2 16 58 44
2 25 1 31
4 3 44 31
4 11 47 18
4 19 50 4
5 28 33 5
6 6 35 51
7 15 18 52
7 23 21 39
8 1 24 25
9 10 7 26
9 18 10 12
9 26 12 59
11 4 55 59
11 12 58 46
11 21 1 32
0 29 44 33
1 7 47 19
2 16 30 19
2 24 33 6
3 2 35 52
411 18 53
0 12 21 49
0 1 37 42
0 19 59 52
0 9 15 43
0 27 37 54
0 16 53 45
0 6 9 36
0 24 31 47
0 13 47 38
0 3 3 29
0 21 25 40
0 10 41 31
0 29 3 41
0 18 19 33
0 7 35 24
0 25 57 34
0 15 13 26
0 4 29 17
0 22 51 27
0 12 7 19
4 19 21 39
4 27 24 26
6 6 7 26
6 14 10 13
7 22 53 13
8 0 56 0
8 8 58 47
9 17 41 47
9 25 44 34
10 3 47 20
11 12 30 21
11 20 33
0 29 16
1 7 18 55
1 15 21 41
2 24 4 42
3 2 7 28
3 10 10 15
4 18 53 15
4 26 56
MeanNewMoon
in January.
1851
1852B
1853
1854
1855
1856B.
1857
1858
1859
1860B.
1861
1862
1863
1864B.
1865
1866
1867
1868B.
1869
1870
1871
1872B.
1873
1874
1875
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
D. H. M. S.
2 5 20 40
21 2 53 17
9 11 41 52
28 9 14 29
17 18 3 3
7 2 51 38
25 0 24 15
14 9 12 49
3 18 1 23
22 15 34 1
11 0 22 35
29 21 55 12
19 6 43 4?
8 15 32 21
26 13 4 58
15 21 53 33
5 6 42 7
24 4 14 44
12 13 3 18
1 21 51 53
20 19 24 30
10 4 13
28 1 45 42
17 10 34 16
6 19 22 50
187GB.
1877
1878
1879
1880B.
1881
1882
1883
1884B.
1885
1886
1887
1888B.
1889
1890
1891
1892B.
1893
1894
1895
1896B
1897
1898
1899
1900C.
25 16 55 27
14 1 44 2
3 10 32 36
22 8 5 13
11 16 53 48
29 14 26 25
18 23 14 59
8 8 3 34
27 5 36 11
15 14 24 46
4 23 13 20
23 20 45 57
13 5 34 32
I 14 23 6
20 H 55 44
9 20 44 18
28 18 16 55
17 3 5 30
6 11 54 4
25 9 26 42
14 18 15 16
3 3 3 50
22 0 36 28
II 9 25 2
30 6 57 39
- 6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
16
16
16
17
17
18
18
18
19
19
20
20
20
21
21
21
S. D. M. S.
4 20 58 29
3 26 35 40
2 6 23 50
1 12 1 2
11 21 49 12
10 1 37 22
9 7 14 33
7 17 2 43
5 26 50 54
5 2 28 5
3 12 16 15
2 17 53 26
0 27 41 36
11 7 29 47
10 13 6 58
8 22 55 8
7 2 43 18
6 8 20 29
4 18 8 40
2 27 56 50
2 3 34 1
0 13 22 11
11 18 59 22
9 28 47 33
8 8 35 43
S 3
14 12 54
24 1 5
3 49 15
9 26 26
19 14 37
0 24 51 48
11 4 39 58
9 14 28 8
8 20 5 20
6 29 53 30
+ 10
10
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
21
22
22
23
23
24
25
25
26
26
27
28
5 9 41 40
4 15 18 51
2 25 7
1 4 55 12
0 10 32 23
10 20 20 33
9 25 57 44
8 5 45 54
6 15 34
5 21 11 16
0 59 26
10 47 36
16 24 47
26 12 58
1 50
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
S. D. M. S.
0 1 23 10
0 19 45 20
0 9 1 12
0 27 23 22
0 16 39 13
0 5 55 5
0 24 17 15
0 13 33 6
0 2 48 58
0 21 11 8
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
AscendingNode.
D. M.
4 58 48
13 41 49
21 44 35
0 27 36
8 30 22
8 16 33 9
9 25 16 10
10 3 18 56
10 11 21 43
11 20 4 43
0 10 26 59 11 28 7 30
0 28 49 10
0 18 5 1
0 7 20 52
0 25 43 3
0 14 58 54
0 4 14 45
0 22 36 56
0 11 52 47
0 1 8 38
0 19 30 49
0 8 46 40
0 27 8 50
0 16 24 42
0 5 40 33
1 6 50 31
1 14 53 17
1 22 56 4
3 1 39 4
rt O
3
QJ 3
C/7 O’
H
9 41 51
17 44 37
26 27 38
4 30 24
12 33 11
6 21 16 11
6 29 18 58
8 8 1 58
8 16 4 45
8 24 7 31
0 24 2 43 10 2 50 32
0 13 18 35
0 2 34 26
0 20 56 36
0 10 12 27
0 28 34 38
0 17 50 29
0 7 6 20
0 25 28 31
0 14 44 22
0 4 0 13
0 22 22 24
0 11 38 15
0 0 54 6
0 19 16 17
0 8 32 8
0 26 54 19
0 16 10 10
0 5 26 1
0 23 48 12
0 13 4 3
0 2 19 54
0 20 42 4
0 9 57 56
0 28 20 6
10 10 53 18
10 18 56 5
11 27 39 5
0 5 41 52
1 14 24 52
1 22 27 39
2 0 30 25
3 9 13 26
3 17 16 12
3 25 18 59
5 4 2 0
5 12 4 46
5 20 7 33
6 28 50 33
7 6 53 20
8 15 36 21
8 23 39 7
9 1 41 54
10 10 24 54
10 18 27 41
10 26 30 27
0 5 13 28
0 13 16 14
1 21 59 15
ASTRONOMY.
121
TABLE II.
Quantities to be added to the Epochs in Table I. for the Nineteenth Century, in order to obtain the Epochs of the
corresponding Years in other Centuries. The sign — indicates the past Centuries, and + the future, in respect
to the Nineteenth Century.
Years.
Old Style.
— 2600
— 2500
— 2400
— 2300
— 2200
— 2100
— 2000
— 1900
— 1800
— 1700
— 1600
— 1500
— 1400
— 1300
— 1200
— 1100
— 1000
— 900
— 800
— 700
— 600
— 500
— 400
— 300
— 200
— 100
New Style.
— 300
— 200
— 100
+ 100
-f 200
Mean New Moon.
22 20 36 13
27 4 43 18
15
19
8
12
0 6 19
8 13 24
10 16 20 29
23 16
28 0
2 20 11 49
27 33
34 38
41 42
48 47
7 4
11 12
15 20
20 4
18 54
25 59
33
40
28 20
3 16
21
25
0
4
0
8
4
12
8 20
13 4
24
5
9
4
8
16 14
24 12 47 13
54 18
17 20
24 25
31 29
16 16 38 34
45 39
52 43
15 45
22 50
29 54
36 58
14 12 22 50
18 20 29 54
36 58
7 5
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
10 25 47 43
7 11 18 23
3
11
8
4
1
10
6
3
1 0 2
16 30 42
2 1 22
17 32
3 2
9
24
10
11 25
8 11
4 26
0 16
2
17
3
10 18
7 4
2
11
7
4
11
7
4
23
9
24
10
2
42
9 18 33 22
6 4 4 2
1 23 45 42
16 22
47 2
17 42
48 22
19 3
49 43
31 22
2 2
32 42
3 22
34
4
2
42
46 21
17 1
47 41
18 21
9 17 1
24 47 41
10 18 21
8 15 30 40
5 1 1 20
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
S. D
1
2
1
1
1
M. S.
10 40
29
2
6
10 2 9
13 21 25
29 56
42 53
16 40 41
19 59 57
23 19 13
1 26 38 29
1 0 51 26
4
7
11
14
17
1 20
0 24
0 28
1
4
8
11
0 15
0 19
0 22
0 25
10 42
29 58
49 14
8 30
27 46
47 2
59 59
19 16
38 31
57 47
17 3
36 18
49 15
8 31
27 47
47 3
0 19 8 31
0 22 27 47
0 25 47 3
0 3 19 16
0 6 38 32
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending Node.
D.
8
M. S.
0 22
26 33
12 30
38 42
4 53
31 4
57 15
23 26
49 37
8 1 35 34
8 27
0 16
5 5
9 25
14
3
11 23
4 12
0 21
5 10
29
19
8
11 28
3 16
8 6
0 25
10
2
6
11
3
11
3
1 45
27 57
54 8
20 19
46 30
12 41
58 38
24 49
51 0
5 15 17 11
4
24
12
2
21
8 11
43 22
9 33
55 30
21 41
47 52
14 3
2 21 41
21 47 52
8 11 14
19 26 11
8 52 22
TABLE III.
Secular Equations.
Years.
B. C.
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
A. C.
1
101
201
301
401
501
601
Time of
Mean New
Moon.
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
h. m. s.
-3 52 5
3 34 54
3 18 21
3 2 27
2 47 11
2 32 33
2 18 35
2 5 16
52 36
40 35
29 14
18 33
8 31
0 59 10
0 50 30
+ 6
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
56 7
25 19
55 39
27 7
59 45
33 32
8 29
44 36
21 53
0 21
39 59
20 50
2 52
46 6
30 32
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
Moon’s Mean
Distancefrom
Ascending
Node.
18 44
17 20
15 59
14 41
13 17
12 16
11 8
10 3
9 2
8 4
7 9
6 17
5 29
4 44
4 2
D. M. S.
1 22 19
1 16 13
1 10 21
1 4 42
0 59 18
0 54 6
0 49 9
0 44 26
0 39 56
0 35 40
0 31 39
0 27 51
0 24 18
0 20 59
0 17 54
Years.
A. C.
701
801
901
1001
1101
1201
1301
1401
1501
1601
1701
1801
1901
2001
Time of
Mean New
Moon.
h. m. s.
-0 42 30
0 35 10
0 28 32
0 22 35
0 17 19
0 12 44
0 8 51
0 5 41
0 3 12
0 1 25
0 0 21
0 0 0
0 0 21
0 1 26
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
D. M. S.
+ 1 16 11
1 3 4
0 51 9
0 40 29
0 31 2
0 22 50
0 15 53
0 10 11
0 5 44
0 2 32
0 0 38
0 0 0
0 0 38
0 2 34
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly-
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending
Node.
M.
- 3
2
2
1
1
23
48
16
48
23
1 1
0 42
0 27
0 15
». M. S.
— 0 15 4
0 12 28
0 10 7
0 8 0
0 6 8
0 4 31
0 3 9
0 2 1
0 1 8
0 0 30
0 0 8
0 0 0
0 0 8
0 0 30
Q
122
ASTRONOMY.
TABLE IV.
Mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and Moon’s Mean Distance from Ascending Node for Mean Lunations.
No.
Mean Lunations.
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
Moon’s Mean Distance
from Ascending Node.
January 29
February 28
March 29
April 28
May 27
June 26
July 25
August 24
September 22
22
H. M. S.
12 44 3
1 28 6
14 12 9
2 56 11
15 40 14
10 October
11 ;November 20
12 December 20
4 24 17
17 8 20
5 52 23
18 36 26
7 20 29
20 4 31
8 48 34
14 18 22
S. D. M. S.
0 25 49 1
1 21 38 2
2 17 27 3
3 13 16 3
4 9 5 4
4 54
0 43
26 32
22 21
8 18 10
9 13 59 9
10 9 48 10
6 12 54 30
S. D.
0 29
1 28
2 27
3 26
4 25
5 24
6 23
7 22
8 21
9 21
10 20
11 19
M. S.
6 19
12 39
18 58
25 17
31 37
37 56
44 16
50 35
56 54
3 14
9 33
15 52
0 14 33 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0
0 40 14
1 20 27
2 0 41
2 40 54
3 21 8
1 21
41 35
21 48
2 2
42 15
7 22 29
8 2 42
6 15 20
TABLE V.
First Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon.
Argument. Moon’s Mean Anomaly.
CM.
1.8.
II.S.
III.s.
IV.s.
V.s.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
H. M. S.
0° 0 0 0
0 9 28
0 18 56
0 28 24
0 37 52
0 47 19
0 56 45
1 6 10
1 15 35
1 24 59
1 34 21
1 43 42
1 53 2
2 2 20
2 11 37
2 20 51
2 30 4
2 39 15
2 48 23
2 57 29
3 6 33
15 34
24 33
33 28
42 21
51 10
3 59 56
4 8 39
4 17 18
4 25 54
4 34 26
+
XI.s.
H. M. S.
4 34 26
42 54
51 18
59 38
7 54
16 4
24 10
32 12
40 9
48 1
55 48
3 29
11 5
18 36
26 1
33 20
6 40 33
6 47 40
6 54 41
7 1 36
7 8 24
15 6
21 41
28 9
34 30
40 44
46 52
52 50
58 42
4 26
8 10 3
H. M. S.
8 10 3
8 15 32
8 20 52
8 26 5
8 31 9
8 36 6
8 40 53
8 45 32
8 50 2
8 54 24
8 58 36
9 2 40
9 6 34
9 10 20
9 13 55
9 17 22
9 20 38
9 23 46
9 26 43
9 29 30
9 32 8
9 34 36
9 36 53
9 39 0
9 40 57
9 42 44
44 20
45 46
47 1
48 5
48 59
H. M. S.
9 48 59
9 49 42
9 50 14
9 50 35
9 50 45
9 50 44
9 50 33
9 50 10
9 49 36
9 48 51
9 47 55
9 46 48
9 45 29
9 43 59
9 42 18
9 40 26
9 38 22
9 36 8
9 33 42
9 31 4
9 28 16
9 25 16
9 22 5
9 18 44
9 15 10
9 11 26
9 7
9 3
8 59
8 54 39
8 50 0
31
25
8
H. M. S.
8 50 0
8 45 11
8 40 10
8 34 59
8 29 36
8 24 5
8 18 23
8 12 30
8 6 27
8 0 14
7 53 50
7 47 17
7 40 35
7 33 42
7 26 40
7 19 28
7 12 7
7 4 37
6 56 58
6 49 11
6 41 14
6 33 9
6 24 55
6 16 33
6 8 3
5 59 26
5 50 39
5 41 47
5 32 46
5 23 38
5 14 24
H. M. S.
5 14 24
5 5 2
4 55 34
4 45 59
4 36 18
4 26 31
16 38
6 40
36 3
46 27
36 13
3 25 54
3 15 31
3 5 3
2 54 31
2 43 56
2 33 16
2 22 34
2 11 48
2 0 59
1 50 8
1 39 14
1 28 18
1 17 20
1 6 20
0 55 19
0 44 17
0 33 13
0 22 9
0 11 5
0 0 0
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
+
x>
+
IX.s.
4"
VIILS-
+
VII.s.
YI.s.
Argument. Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
ASTRONOMY.
123
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Multiply the Secular Variations by the number of years between the given time and the year 1801, and divide the product by 100. If the given time be before 1801,
124
ASTRONOMY
TABLE VII.
TABLE VIII.
Third Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon, Fourth Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon.
Argument. Moon’s Mean Anomaly plus Sun’s
Mean Anomaly.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
O.s.
VLs.
+
M. S.
0 0
0 7
0 15
0 22
0 30
0 37
0 44
0 52
0 59
1 7
1 14
21
29
36
43
1 50
57
5
12
19
26
33
40
46
53
0
7
13
20
26
33
+
XI.s-
Y>
Is;
VII.s.
+
II.s.
VIII.s
+
M. S.
3 33
3 39
3 46
3 52
3 58
4 4
4 10
4 16
4 22
4 28
4 34
4 39
4 45
4 50
4 56
5 1
6
12
17
21
26
31
36
40
45
49
53
57
1
5
9
M. S.
6 9
+
X.s.
iV.s.
13
16
6 20
6 23
6 26
6 29
6 32
35
38
40
43
45
6 47
6 49
6 51
6 53
6 55
57
58
59
1
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
+
IX.s-
III.S.
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
I Argument. Moon’s Mean Anomaly minus Sun’s
Mean Anomaly.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
o>
+
VII.s.
M. S.
0 0
11
22
33
44
0 55
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4 18
4 28
4 38
4 48
4 58
5 7
5 17
6
18
29
40
50
1
12
23
33
44
55
5
16
27
37
48
58
8
XI. s-
. +
\ V.s.
I.S
+
VII.s.
M. S.
5 17
27
37
46
55
4
13
22
31
39
48
6 56
7 5
13
21
29
37
45
52
59
7
14
20
27
34
8 40
8 46
8 52
8 58
9 4
9 10
II.s-
+
VIII.s.
M. S.
9 10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
X.s.
+
IV.s
15
20
9 25
9 30
9 36
41
45
9 49
9 53
9 57
1
4
7
11
14
16
19
10 21
10 23
10 25
10 27
10 29
10 30
10 32
10 33
10 33
10 34
10
10
35
35
10 35
IX.S-
+
III.S.
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
ASTRONOMY.
125
TABLE IX.
TABLE X.
Fifth Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon. Sixth Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon.
Argument. Moon’s Mean Distance from Ascending
Node.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
CM-
+
YI.s.
+
M. S.
0 0
0 4
0 8
0 12
0 16
0 20
0 24
0 28
0 32
0 36
0 40
0 43
0 47
0 51
0 54
0 58
1
5
8
11
15
1 18
1 21
1 23
26
29
1 31
1 34
1 36
1 38
1 40
XL*.
V.s.
I.».
+.
V1I.S.
+
M. S.
1 40
1 42
1 44
1 46
1 48
1 49
50
51
53
53
1 54
1 55
1 55
56
56
1 56
1 56
1 56
1 55
1 55
1 54
1 53
1 53
1 51
1 50
1 49
1 48
1 46
1 44
1 42
1 40
X.s.
IV.s.
II...
+
VIII.S
+
M. S.
1 40
1 38
1 36
34
31
29
1 26
1 23
1 21
1 18
1 15
1 11
l 8
1 5
1 1
0 58
0 54
0 51
0 47
0 43
0 40
0 36
0 32
0 28
0 24
0 20
0 16
0 12
0 8
0 4
0 0
IX.s.
III>
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
126
ASTRONOMY.
TABLE XL TABLE XIII.
Seventh Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon. Ninth Equation for the Time of Full Moon only.
Argument- Twice the Moon’s Mean Anomaly
•plus the Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.S-
YI.s.
+
s.
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
+
XI.*•
V.s.
I.s.
VII.s-
18
21
23
25
28
29
31
+
X.s
IV.s
II.s.
VII1.S-
4-
31
33
34
35
35
36
36
+
IX.s
III.*
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
TABLE XII.
Eighth Equation for the Times of New and Full Moon.
Argument. Twice the Moon’s Mean Anomaly
minus the Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s.
VI.*
+
+
XI.s.
V.s.
I.s.
VII.S
+
+
X.s.
IV.s.
II.s.
VIII.s
+
s.
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
+
IX.s.
III.S.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
Argument. Moon’s Mean Anomaly.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
O.s-
+
VI.s.
M. S.
0 0
0 9
0 11
0 12
0 14
0 15
0 17
0 18
0 20
0 21
0 22
0 24
0 25
0 27
0 28
0 30
0 31
0 33
0 34
0 35
0 37
0 38
0 39
0 41
0 42
0 43
XI.s.
+
V.s.
I.s.
+
VII.S-
M. s.
0 43
0 45
0 46
0 47
0 4)9
0 50
0 51
0 52
0 54
0 55
0 56
0 57
0 58
0 59
0
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
15
X.s
+
IV.s
II.s.
+
VIII.s.
m. s.
1 15
16
17
17
18
19
19
20
21
1 21
1 22
1 22
23
23
24
24
24
25
25
25
26
1 26
1 26
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
26
26
27
27
27
27
27
27
IX.s.
+
III.S.
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
TABLE XIV.
Tenth Equation for the Time of Full Moon only.
Argument. Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s.
+
VI.S.
s.
0
3
6
9
11
14
16
XI.s
+
V.s
I.S.
+
VII.S.
II.s.
+
VIII.s
s.
16
19
21
23
25
27
29
X.s-
+
IV.s.
s.
29
30
31
32
32
33
33
IX.s.
+
III.S.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
ASTRONOMY.
127
TABLE XV.
Sun’s Mean Motion from the Moon’s Perigee and Ascending Node, and Variation of the Sun’s
Mean Anomaly, for Hours, Minutes, and Seconds.
For Hours.
H.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Sun’s Mean
Motion from
Moon’s
Perigee.
m. s.
2 11
4 22
6 33
8 44
10 55
13 7
15 18
17 29
19 40
21 51
24 2
26 13
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
m. s.
2 28
4 56
7 23
9 51
12 19
14 47
17 15
19 43
22 11
24 38
27 6
29 34
Sun’s Mean
Motion from
Ascending Node.
D. M. S.
0 2 36
0 5 12
0 7 47
0 10 23
0 12 59
0 15 35
0 18 10
0 20 46
0 23 22
0 25 58
0 28 34
0 31 9
H.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19'
20
21
22
23
24
Sun’s Mean
Motion from
Moon’s
Perigee.
m. s.
28 25
30 36
32 47
34 58
37 9
39 20
41 31
43 43
45 54
48 5
50 16
52 27
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
M. S.
32 2
34 30
36 58
39 26
41 53
44 21
46 49
49 17
51 45
54 13
56 40
59 8
Sun’s Mean
Motion from
Ascending Node.
D. M. S.
0 33 45
0 36 21
0 38 57
0 41 33
0 44 8
0 46 44
0 49 20
0 51 56
0 54 32
0 57 7
0 59 43
1 2 19
For Minutes and Seconds.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Sun’s Mean
Motion from
Moon’s
Perigee.
0 9
0 11
0 13
0 15
0 17
0 20
0 22
0 24
0 26
0 28
0 31
0 33
0 35
0 37
0 39
0 42
0 44
0 46
0 48
0 50
0 52
0 55
0 57
0 59
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
T.
2
5
7
0 10
0 12
0 15
0 17
0 20
0 22
0 25
0 27
0 30
0 32
0 34
0 37
0 39
0 42
0 44
0 47
0 49
0 52
0 54
0 57
0 59
2
4
6
9
11
14
Sun’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending
Node.
M. S.
S. T.
0 3
0 5
0 8
0 10
0 13
0 16
0 18
0 21
0 23
0 26
0 29
0 31
0 34
0 36
0 39
0 41
0 44
0 47
0 49
0 52
0 54
0 57
0
2
5
7
10
13
15
18
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Sun’s Mean
Motion from
Moon’s
Perigee.
M.
s.
S. T.
1 8
1 10
1 12
1 15
17
19
21
23
25
1 27
1 30
1 32
34
36
38
41
43
1 45
1 47
1 49
1 51
54
56
1 58
0
2
4
6
8
11
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
1 16
1 19
1 21
24
26
29
1 31
1 34
1 36
1 39
1 41
1 43
46
48
1 51
1 53
1 56
1 58
2 1
2 3
2 6
8
11
13
15
18
20
23
25
28
Sun’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending
Node.
M. S.
S. T.
1 20
1 23
1 26
1 28
1 31
1 33
1 36
1 39
1 41
1 44
1 46
1 49
1 52
1 54
1 57
59
2
5
7
10
12
15
18
20
23
25
28
31
33
36
128
ASTRONOMY.
TABLE XVI.
Equation of the Sun’s Centre for 1801, with the Secular Variation.
Argument. Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
O.s-
I.*-
c
2 .2
3.2
01 u
m &
ir.s.
CC a
>
III.*-
IV>
V.s.
sc 3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
M.
0
0 2 4
0 4 7
0 6 10
0 8 14
0 10 17
0 12 20
0 14 22
0 16 25
0 18 27
0 20 28
0 22 30
0 24 31
0 26 31
0 28 31
0 30 30
0 32 29
0 34 27
0 36 25
0 38 21
0 40 17
0 42
0 44
0 46
0 47 53
0 49 45
13
7
0
0 51 35
0 53 25
0 55 14
0 57 2
0 58 48
XI.S.
D. M. S.
0 58 48
0 34
2 18
1
43
23
1 9 3
1 10 41
1 12 17
1 13 52
1 15 26
1 16 58
1 18 29
1 19 58
1 21 26
1 22 53
1 24 17
1 25 40
1 27 2
1 28 21
1 29 39
1 30 56
1 32 10
1 33 23
1 34 34
1 35 44
1 36 51
1 37 57
1 39 1
1 40 3
1 41 3
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
X*.
D. M. S.
1 41 3
1 42 1
1 42 57
1 43 52
1 44 44
1 45 34
1 46 23
1 47 9
1 47 54
1 48 36
1 49 17
l 49 55
1 50 31
1 51 5
1 51 37
1 52 8
1 52 36
1 53 2
1 53 25
1 53 47
1 54 7
1 54 24
1 54 40
1 54 53
1 55 4
1 55 13
55 20
55 25
55 28
55 28
1 55 27
IXs.
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
D. M. S.
1 55 27
1 55 23
1 55 18
1 55 10
1 55 0
1 54 48
1 54 34
1 54 18
1 54 0
1 53 39
1 53 17
1 52 53
1 52 26
1 51 58
1 51 27
1 50 55
1 50 20
1 49 44
1 49 6
1 48 25
1 47 43
1 46 59
1 46 13
1 45 25
1 44 35
1 43 43
1 42 49
1 41 54
1 40 57
1 39 58
1 38 57
VIII.s.
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
D. M. S.
1 38 57
1 37 54
1 36 50
1 35 44
1 34 36
1 33 27
1 32 16
1 31 3
1 29 49
1 28 33
1 27 16
25 57
24 37
23 15
21 52
20 27
1 19 1
1 17 33
1 16 4
1 14 34
1 13 2
1 11 29
1 9 56
1 8 20
1 6 44
1 5 6
1 3
1 1
1 0
0 58 25
0 56 42
28
48
7
VII.s
s.
15
14
14
14
14
14
14
13
13
13
13
13
12
12
12
12
12
11
11
11
11
10
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
8
D. M. S.
0 56 42
0 54 58
0 53 13
0 51 27
0 49 41
0 47 53
0 46 5
0 44 16
0 42 26
0 40 35
0 38 44
0 36 52
0 34 59
0 33 6
0 31 12
0 29 17
0 27 23
0 25 27
0 23 31
0 21 35
0 19 39
0 17 42
0 15 45
0 13 47
0 11 49
0 9 51
7 53
5 55
3 57
1 58
0 0
VI.s.
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Multiply the secular variations by the number of years between the given time and the year 1801, and divide the product by 100.
If the time is before 1801, change the sign of the secular variation.
A S T R O N
TABLE XVII.
For the Moon’s Latitude and Inclination of her relative
Orbit to the Ecliptic in Eclipses.
Argument. Moon’s True distance from Ascending
Node.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Latitude.
Inclination.
O.s.
+
increasing.
VI.s.
increasing.
D.
0
M.
0
0
0 5 17
0 10 33
0 15 49
0 21 5
0 26 21
0 31 36
0 36 50
0 42 4
0 47 17
0 52 30
0 57 41
2
8
13
51
0
8
18 14
I 23 19
1 28 23
1 33 24
1 38 24
1 43 23
decreasing.
V.s.
decreasing.
XI.s.
30°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
O.s-
left.
VI.s-
right.
44
44
44
43
43
43
42
41
41
40
39
38
37
35
34
32
31
29
27
25
23
right.
V.s.
left.
XI>
In Lunar Eclipses change the designation “ right” or
“ left” of the Inclination.
TABLE XVIII.
For the Moon’s Latitude in Eclipses.
Argument. Moon’s True Anomaly minus True
Distance from Ascending Node.
0C
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s.
VI.s.
+
+
XI.s.
V.S.
I.s.
VII.s.
+
6
7
8
9
10
10
11
X.s.
IV.S.
II.S.
VIII.s.
+
S.
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
f
IX.s.
III.S.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
O M Y.
TABLE XIX.
For the Moon’s Latitude in Eclipses.
Argument. Preceding argument, plus Moon’s
True Anomaly.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s.
+
VI.s.
0
2
4
7
9
11
13
XL's-
+
V>
I.s.
+
VII.s.
13
15
17
18
20
21
22
X.s.
+
IV.s.
II.S.
+
VIIlA
S.
22
23
24
25
25
26
26
IX.s.
+
III.S.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
TABLE XX.
For the Moon’s Latitude in Eclipses.
Argument. Moon’s True Anomaly plus True
Distance from Ascending Node.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s.
+
VI.s.
I.s.
+
VII.s.
s.
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
XI.s.
+
V.s.
X.S-
+
IV.s.
II.S.
+
VIII.S.
15
15
16
16
17
17
17
IX.s.
4$
III.s.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
TABLE XXL
For the Moon’s Latitude in Eclipses.
Argument. Sun’s True Anomaly plus Moon’s
True Distance from Ascending Node.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s.
+
VI.s.
s.
0
2
3
5
7
8
10
XI.s.
+
V.S.
I.s.
+
VII.s.
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
X.s.
+
IV.s.
II.S.
+
VIII.s.
S.
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
IX.s.
+
III.s.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
129
VOL. IV.
R
130
ASTRONOMY,
TABLE XXII.
TABLE XXIII.
For the Moon’s Latitude in Eclipses.
Argument. Sun’s True Anomaly minus Moon’s
True Distance from Ascending Node.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
O.s-
+
VI.s.
0
3
6
8
11
14
16
XI>
+
V.s.
I.S-
+
VI1.S.
16
19
21
23
25
27
28
X.s.
+
I V.s.
I I.S.
+
VIII.s.
28
30
31
31
32
32
33
IX.s.
+
III.S.
30°
25
20
15
10
5
0
TABLE XXIV.
Diminution of the Moon’s Equatorial Horizontal Parallax,
and of the Latitude of a Place, on account of the Sphe¬
roidal Figure of the Earth.
Arguments. Latitude at the Side, and
Moon’s Horizontal Parallax at the Top.
0°
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Diminution of
Parallax.
I Diminution
of Latitude.
M. M. M.
53 57 61
s. s.
0 0
9 10 10
10 10 11
10 11 12
10 11 12
11 12 12
11 12 12
M.
0-0
2-0
4- 0
5- 8
7- 5
8- 9
10-1
11*0
11-5
11-7
11-5
11*0
10-1
9- 0
7-5
5-9
4-0
2-0
0-0
The Moon’s Equatorial Horizontal Parallax, Semidiameter,
and Horary Motion in her Orbit, at New and Full Moon ;
and the Semidiameter and Horary Motion of the Sun.
Argument. Moon’s True Anomaly, or Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
Argu¬
ment.
Moon’s
Equato¬
rial Hori¬
zontal
Parallax.
O. 0°
6
12
18
24
I.
0
6
12
18
24
II. 0
6
12
18
24
III. 0
6
12
18
24
IV. 0
6
12
18
24
V. 0
6
12
18
24
VI. 0
Moon’s
Semi¬
diameter.
m. s.
61 23
61 22
61 18
61 12
61 4
60 53
60 41
60 26
60 9
59 51
59 31
59 10
58 49
58 26
58 3
57 39
57 16
56 53
56 30
56 8
55 47
55 28
55 10
54 53
54 38
54 25
54 15
54 6
54 0
53 57
53 55
16 44
16 43
16 42
16 41
16 38
16 35
16 32
16 28
16 23
16 19
16 13
16 7
16 2
15 55
15 49
15 43
15 36
15 30
15 24
15 18
15 12
15 7
15 2
14 57
14 53
14 50
14 47
14 45
14 43
14 42
14 42
Moon’s
H orary
Motion.
m. s.
38 13
38 11
38 7
37 59
37 49
37 36
37 21
37 3
36 43
36 21
35 58
35 33
35 7
34 40
34 14
33 46
33 19
32 53
32 27
32 2
31 39
31 17
30 56
30 38
30 22
30 8
29 56
29 47
29 40
29 36
Sun’s
Semi¬
diameter.
Sun’s
Horary
Motion.
M. S*
16 18
16 18
16 17
16 17
16 16
16 15
16 15
16 13
16 12
16 11
16 9
16 8
16 6
16 4
16 3
10 1
15 59
15 58
15 56
15 55
15 53
15 52
15 51
15 49
15 48
15 48
15 47
15 46
15 46
15 46
29 35 15 46
33
33
33
33
32
2 32
2 32
2 32
2 31
2 31
2 30
2 30
2 29
2 29
2 28
2 28
2 27
2 27
2 26
2 26
2 25
2 25
2 25
2 24
2 24
Argu¬
ment.
24
23
23
23
23
2 23
XII. 0°
24
18
12
6
XL 0
24
18
12
6
X. 0
24
18
12
6
IX. 0
24
18
12
6
VIII.O
24
18
12
6
VII. 0
24
18
12
6
VI. 0
ASTRONOMY
131
TABLE XXV.
TABLE XXVI.
Epochs of the Mean Longitude of the Sun’s Perigee, in- Mean Motion of the Sun’s Perigee in Years, Months, and
eluding the Secular Variation of the Precession of the Days.
Equinoxes.
Years.
B. C.
Old Style.
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
A. C.
Old Style.
1
101
201
301
401
501
601
701
801
901
1001
1101
1201
1301
1401
1501
1601
1701
A. C.
New Style.
1501
1601
1701
1801
1901
2001
Longitude of Sun’s
Perigee.
D. M. S.
25 1 10
26 43 20
28 25 33
7 47
0
1 50 4
3 32 24
5 14 45
6 57 9
8 8 39 35
8 10 22 3
8 12 4 34
8 13 47 7
8 15 29 43
8 17 12 20
8 18 55 0
8 20 37 43
8 22 20 28
8 24 3 15
8 25 46 4
8 27 28 56
8 29 11 51
9 0 54 47
9 2 37 46
9 4 20 48
6 3 52
7 46 58
4 20 46
6 3 50
7 46 56
9 30 5
11 13 16
12 56 30
Secular
Variation
of Preces¬
sion of
Equinoxes
— 60
57
56
53
— 50
49
46
44
42
39
37
34
33
30
27
25
23
21
18
15
14
11
8
6
4
1
— 6
4
— 1
+ 1
Years.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Motion of
Sun’s
Perigee.
6 11
7 13
0 10 19
0 20 38
0 30 57
0 41 16
0 51 35
1 1 54
1 12 13
1 22 32
l 32 51
1 43 10
Months.
January,
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
August,
September,
October,
November,
December,
Motion
of Sun’s
Perigee.
m. s.
0 0
0 5
0 10
0 15
0 20
0 26
0 31
0 36
0 41
0 46
0 52
0 57
Days.
7
13
19
25
31
Motion
of Sun’s
Perigee.
132
ASTRONOMY.
TABLE XXVII.
The Sun’s Declination for the Year 1801, with the Secular Variation.
Argument. Sun’s True Longitude.
O.s.
+
YI.s.
Secular
Variation.
I>
+
VII.s.
Secular
Variation.
II.s.
4*
VIII.s.
Secular
Variation.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
0
M.
0-0
0 23-9
0 47-8
1 11-6
1 35-5
1 59-3
23-1
46*9
10*6
34-3
57*9
21-5
44-9
8-4
31-7
54-9
18-1
41-1
4-1
26-9
49-7
8 12-3
8 34-7
8 57-1
9 19-3
9 41-3
10
10
10
11
11
3*2
24-9
46-5
7*9
29'1
M.
0-0
■ 0-0
0-0
0-0
0-1
0-1
■ 0-1
0-1
0-1
0-1
0-1
-0*1
0-2
0-2
0-2
0-2
-0-2
0-2
0-2
0-2
0-3
-0-3
0-3
0-3
0-3
0-3
-0-3
0-3
0-4
0-4
0-4
D. M.
11 29-1
11
12
12
12
13
15
15
50-1
10-9
31-5
52-0
12*2
13 32-2
13 51-9
14 11*5
14 30-8
14 49-8
8-6
27'2
15 45-5
16 3*5
16 21-2
16 38-7
16 55-9
17 12-8
17 29-4
17 45*6
18
18
1-6
17-3
18 32-6
18 47-6
19
19
19
19
19
20
2-3
16-6
30-6
44-2
57-5
10-4
31.
0-4
■ 0-4
0-4
0-4
0-4
0-4
-0-4
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
-0*5
0-5
0-5
0-5
0*5
-0*6
0-6
0-6
0*6
0-6
-0*6
0-6
0*6
0*6
0-6
-0*6
0*7
0-7
0*7
0*7
20 10*4
20
20
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
22*9
35*1
20 46*9
20 58*3
21 9-3
19*9
30*2
21 40-0
21 49*4
21 58*4
7*1
15*2
23-0
30*3
37*3
22 43-7
22 49*8
22
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
55*4
0*6
5-3
9*6
13*4
16*8
19*8
22*3
24*3
25*9
27*0
27-7
27*9
M.
0-7
0*7
0*7
0*7
0*7
0*7
0-7
0*7
0*7
0-7
0*7
■ 0*8
0-8
0-8
0-8
0-8
-0-8
0*8
0*8
0*8
0-8
-0*8
0-8
0-8
0*8
0*8
-0*8
0*8
0-8
0-8
0*8
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
XI.s
+
V.s.
X.S,
+
IV.s.
IX.S.
+
III.3.
Multiply the secular variation by the number of years between the given time and the year 1801,
and divide the product by 100. If the given time" be before 1801, change the sign of the secular
variation.
Argument. Sun’s True Longitude.
»
ASTRONOMY.
133
03
>
u
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^3
©
CO
be
C
S
H
cH
W
Secular.
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Valiation.
Secular
V ariation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
Secular
Variation.
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Multiply the secular variation by the number of years between the given time and the year 1801, and di vide the product by ICO. If the given time be before 1801, change the sign
of the secular variation.
ASTRONOMY.
134
Practical
Lstronomy.
Sect. II.—Application of the
Problem I.— To calculate the time of true new or full
moon for any period within the limits of the nineteenth cen¬
tury.
Precept 1. Write out the time of mean new moon in
January for the proposed year from Table I., together
with the mean anomalies of the moon and sun, and the
moon’s mean distance from her ascending node, applying
to each of these quantities the secular equation found by
its side by addition or subtraction, according as it has
the sign + or —. If you want the time of full moon in
January, add the half-lunation at the foot of Table IV.,
with its anomalies, &c. to the former numbers if the new
moon falls before the 15th of January; but if it falls after,
subtract the half-lunation, with the anomalies, &c. belong¬
ing to it, from the former numbers, and write down the
respective sums or remainders.
2. In these additions or subtractions, observe that 60
seconds make a minute, 60 minutes make a degree, 30
degrees make a sign, and 12 signs make a circle. When
you exceed 12 signs in addition, reject 12, and set down
the remainder. When the number of signs to be sub¬
tracted is greater than the number you subtract from,
add 12 signs to the lesser number, and then you will have
a remainder to set down. In the tables, signs are marked
S, degrees D, minutes M, and seconds S.
3. When the required new or full moon is in any
given month after January, write out from Table IV.
such one of the mean lunations, with the anomalies, &c.
as, added to the time of mean new or full moon in Janu¬
ary, will make the mean new or full moon to fall within
the given month, setting them below the number taken
out for January.
4. Add all these together, and in leap-years (which
in Table I. have the letter B annexed to them) subtract
one day from the time of mean new or full moon when it
happens after 28th February. You will then have the
time of the required mean new or full moon, with the
mean anomalies, and the moon’s mean distance from the
ascending node, which are the arguments for finding the
proper equations.
5. With the signs and degrees of the moon’s mean
anomaly enter Table V., and therewith take out the first
equation for reducing the mean syzigy to the true ; taking
care to make proportions in the table for the odd minutes
and seconds of anomaly, as the table gives the equation
only to whole degrees.
Observe in this and every other case of finding equa¬
tions, that, if the signs are at the head of the table, their
degrees are at the left hand, and are reckoned down¬
wards ; the equation being in the body of the table under
or over the signs in a collateral line with the degrees.
The signs + and — at the head or foot of the tables
where the signs are found, show whether the equation is
to be added to the time of mean new or full moon, or to
be subtracted from it.
6. With the signs and degrees of the sun’s mean ano¬
maly enter Table VI. and take out the second equation
for reducing the time of mean to that of new or full moon,
Practical
Astronomy.
Tables, and Projection of Eclipses.
with a proportional part of its secular variation in the co¬
lumn adjoining, corresponding to the number of years
elapsed since 1801, the whole variation being adapted for
a period of 100 years.
7. Add together the mean anomalies of the sun and
moon, and with the sum enter Table VII. and take out
the third equation. For this and the following equations
it will be sufficient to compute the arguments to minutes,
neglecting the seconds.
8. Subtract the sun’s mean anomaly from the moon’s
mean anomaly, and with the remainder enter Table VIII.
and take out the fourth equation.
9. Subtract the moon’s mean anomaly from twice the
moon’s distance from the ascending node, and with the
remainder enter Table IX. and take out the fifth equation.
10. The moon’s mean distance from the ascending node
is the argument of Table X., with which take out the sixth
equation.
11. To twice the moon’s mean anomaly add the sun’s
mean anomaly, and with the sum enter Table XI. and take
out the seventh equation.
12. From twice the moon’s mean anomaly subtract
the sun’s mean anomaly, and with the remainder enter
Table XII. and take out the eighth equation.
13. These are all the equations for reducing the time
of mean new moon to the time of true new moon ; but for
full moon other two equations are required, the argument
for equation ninth being the moon’s mean anomaly, which
equation is exhibited in Table XIII.; and the argument of
the tenth equation being the sun’s mean anomaly, the
equation being exhibited in Table XIV.
14. Add together the equations which have the sign
of addition, and also those which have the sign of sub¬
traction, and subtract the lesser sum from the greater,
giving to the remainder the sign of the greater; and add
or subtract the remainder, according as its sign denotes,
to or from the time of mean new or full moon, and you
have the time of true new or full moon required.
These tables are adapted to the meridian of Greenwich
observatory; and for any other place, its longitude in time
is to be added to or subtracted from the time given by
the tables, according as it is to the east or west of Green¬
wich, and the time as reckoned at the given place is ob¬
tained. The tables begin the day at noon, and reckon
forward from thence to the noon following. Thus January
the 31st, at 22 hours 30 minutes 25 seconds of tabular
time, is February 1st (in common reckoning), at 30 minutes
25 seconds after 10 o’clock in the morning. It is to be
further observed, that the time obtained from the tables is
mean time, or that shown by a well-regulated clock or
watch. But to make it agree with solar or apparent
time, or that given by a sun-dial, which is necessary in
the computation of solar eclipses, you must apply the
equation of time contained in Table XXVIII. as after¬
wards directed.
The method of calculating the time of any new or full
moon, without the limits of the nineteenth century, will
be shown farther on; and a few examples compared with
the precepts will make the whole work plain.
ASTRONOMY.
Practical
l-tronomy.
135
Example I.
Required the Time of True New Moon in May 1836 at Edinburgh, long. 0 hours 12 minutes 44 seconds west of
Greenwich.
Practical
Astronomy
1836. B 
Secular equations.
Four lunations 
Sum 
Subtract 1 day for leap-year..
Sum of equations 
Time of true new moon at
Greenwich 
Subtract for Edinburgh...
True time of new moon at
Edinburgh 
April.
May.
May.
May.
May.,
Time of
New Moon.
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
D. H. M. S.
18 1 31 49
— 3
28 2 56 11
16 4 27 57
1
15 4 27 57
— 2 24 2
15
2 3 55
12 44
15
1 51 11
S. D. M. S.
1 14 50 49
+ ^
3 13 16 3
4 28 6 57
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
s. d. ji. s-
0 16 53 45
3 26 25 17
4 13 19
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending Node.
s. n. m. s.
8 0 -56 0
— 1
4 2 40 54
0 3 36 53
Equations.
Argument I. ]) mean anomaly 
II. © mean anomaly 
Secular variation 
III. ]) mean anomaly -j- O mean anomaly 
IV. }) mean anomaly — © mean anomaly 
Twice ]) mean distance from ascending node.
V. Do. — j) mean anomaly 
VI. j) mean distance from node 
Twice ]) mean anomaly 
VII. Do. -J- 0 mean anomaly 
VIII. Do. — © mean anomaly 
Sum of equations.
S. D. M. s.
4 28 6 57
4 13 19 2
9 11 26
0 14 48
0 7 14
7 9 7
0 3 7
9 26 14
2 9 33
5 12 55
+
H. M. S.
3 0 15
6 58
2 42
12
+ 3 10 7
H. M. S.
5 31 43
10
1 39
34
3
5 34 9
+ 3 10 7
2 24 2
Example II.
Required the Time of True Full Moon in September 1830 at Greenwich.
1830 
Secular equations 
Subtract a half-lunation.
Full moon 
Eight lunations.
Sum of equations
True full moon...
Jan.
Aug.
Sept.
Time of
Full Moon.
D. H. M. S.
23 19 12 17
— 2
14 18 22 1
9 0 50 14
24 5 52 23
2 6 42 37
+ 3 54 10
2 10 36 47
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
9 24 23 46
+ 3
6 12 54 30
S. D. M. S.
0 23 5 59
4 11 18 53
— 1
0 14 33 10 I 6 15 20 7
Moon’s Mean
Distance fro-m
Ascending Node.
S. D. M.
3 11 29 13
6 26 32 7
10
1 20
0 8 32 49
7 22 50 35
8 1 23 24
9 25 58 45
8 5 21 48
1 20 33
136
Practical
Asironomy.
ASTRONOM Y.
supposed to be reckoned according to the Julian calendar, practical
or old style. Between it and the nineteenth century they Astronomy,
may be reckoned according to either the Julian or Grego- '•»—-y—.-
rian calendar, or old or new style.
Precept 1. Find a year of the same number in the nine¬
teenth century, with that of the year in the century propos¬
ed, and take out the time of mean new moon in January for
that year, with the mean anomalies, and the moon’s mean
distance from the node at that time, as already taught, ne¬
glecting the secular equations contained in Table I.
Precept 2. Take from Table II. as many complete cen¬
turies of years having the sign — prefixed, and titled
either old style or new style, according to the given date, as,
when subtracted from the above said year in the nineteeth
century, will answer to the given year, and take out the
time of mean new moon and its anomalies, &c. belonging
to the said centuries, and add them to those for the year in
the nineteenth century, and the sums, after applying to them
the secular equations taken from Table III., making pro¬
portions for the odd years, will be the times and anomalies,
&c. of mean new moon in January or February, according
Problem II.-—To calculate the time of new and full moon as the time is less or more than 31 days,in the given year
in a given year and month of any particular century 0f the century proposed. Then work in all respects tor
between the Christian era and the nineteenth century. the time of true new or full moon, as shown in the above
Note.—Prior to the sixteenth century the times are precepts and examples.
Equations.
S. D. 31. s.
Argument I. 10 8 1 20
II. 8 1 23 24
Secular variation 
III. 6 9 24
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX. 10
X. 8
2 6 38
1 24 40
0 1 21
4 17 25
0 14 39
8 1
1 23
Sum of equations.
4*
H. M. S.
7 21 32
10
1 10
9 43
2 8
5
+ 7 34 48
— 3 40 38
+ 3 54 10
H. 31. S.
3 38 33
24
3
1 9
29
— 3 40 38
Example III.
1839
500
1339
Secular equations.
Five lunations.
Required the True Time of New Moon in July 1339, Old Style.
Equations 
Time of true new moon.
Time of New Moon.
D. H. 31. S.
14 16 41 35
25 8 52 43
40
1 34 18
— 7 39
May...
July...
July..
40 1 26 39
27 15 40 14
6 17 6 53
+ 8 26 6
1 32 59
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
s. D. 31. s.
9 10 4 21
7 4 4 42
4 14 9 3
+ 13 44
4 14 22 47
4 9 5 4
8 23 27 51
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
s. d. m. s.
0 13 47 38
1 11 36 18
1 25 23 56
— 36
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending Node.
S. D. 31. S.
9 25 44 34
2 24 9 33
0 19 54 7
— 2 43
1 25 23 20
4 25 31 37
6 20 54 57
0 19 51 24
5 3 21 8
5 23 12 32
Equations.
S. D. 31. s.
Argument I. 8 23 27 51
II. 6 20 54 57
Secular variation 
III. 3 14 23
IV. 2 2 33
V. 2 22 57
VI. 5 23 13
VII. 0 7 51
VIII. 10 26 1
Sum of equations,
+
H. 31. S.
9 50 21
9 23
2 36
H. 31. S.
1 27 56
1 0
6 52
27
5
6
+ 10 2 26
—1 36 20
+ 8 26 6
1 36 20
Problem III.— To calculate the true time of new or full
moon in any given year and month before the Christian
era.
Precept 1. Find a year in the nineteenth century which,
being added to the given number of years before Christ
diminished by one, shall make a number of complete
centuries.
2. Find this number of centuries in Table II. and add the
time and anomalies belonging to it to those of the above-
found year of the nineteenth century, applying the secu¬
lar equations for the given year in Table III., and the sums
will denote the time and anomalies, &c. of mean new moon
in January or February of the given year before Christ.
Then for the true time of new or full moon proceed as above
taught, for any year between the Christian era and the
nineteenth century, observing that the given year before
Christ is or is not leap-year, according as the above-men¬
tioned year in the nineteenth century is leap-year or not
ASTRONOMY
Practical
Astronomy
Example IV.
Required the True Time of New Moon in September 610 before Christ.
137
Practical
Astronomy.
189i.
2500.
610 b. c 
Secular equations.
Eight lunations.
Equations 
Time of true new moon.
August
Sept...
Sept...
Time of New Moon.
9 20 44 18
27 4 43 18
37 1 27 36
—-3 20 0
36 22 7 36
24 5 52 23
30 3 59 59
— 8 41 51
29 19 18 8
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
s. d. m. s.
10 20 20 33
7 11 18 23
6 1 38 56
+ 5 58 37
6 7 37 33
6 26 32 7
9 40
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
D. M. S.
8 32 8
2 29 56
2 11 2
— 16
2 10 45 57
7 22 50 35
10 3 36 32
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending Node.
s. d. m. s.
7 6 53 20
8 27 26 33
4 4 19 53
— 1 10 56
3 8 57
5 21 48
0 8 30 45
Equations.
Problem IV.— To calculate the time of true new or full
moon, according to the Gregorian calendar or new style,
in any given year or month of the 20th or 2lst century.
Precept 1. Find a year of the same number in the nine¬
teenth century with that of the year proposed, and take
out the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon for
that year in Table I., omitting the secular equations.
2. Take so many years from Table II. having the sign
-|- prefixed, as, when added to the above-mentioned year
in the nineteenth century, will answer to the given year in
which the new or full moon is required ; and take out the
time of new moon, with its anomalies, for these complete
centuries.
3. Add these together, and to the sum apply the se¬
cular equations for the given year found in Table III.,
then work in all respects as above shown.
Example V.
Required the Time of True New Moon in August 1999.
1899
+ 100
1999
Secular equations.
Seven lunations
Equations,
Time of true new moon.
July....
August
Time of New Moon.
D. H. M. S.
11 9 25 2
5 8 7 5
16 17 32 7
— 1 25
16 17 30 42
25 17 8 20
11 10 39 2
— 11 37 28
10 23 1 34
Moon’s Mean
Anomaly.
S. D. M. S.
11 26 12 58
8 15 30 40
8 11 43 38
+ 2 32
8 11 46 10
6 0 43 6
2 12 29 16
Sun’s Mean Anomaly.
S. D. M. S.
0 9 57 56
0 3 19 16
0 13 17 12
— 7
0 13 17 5
6 23 44 16
1 21
Moon’s Mean
Distance from
Ascending Node.
0 13 16 14
4 19 26 11
2 42 25
— 30
2 41 55
4 41 35
0 7 23 30
VOL. IV.
s
138 ASTRONOMY.
Practical
Astronomy
v ItiQUATIONS,
Problem V.— To find the true anomalies of the sun and Practical
moon, and the moons true distance from the ascending^s'irmow'i•
node at the true time of new or full moon.
With the sum of equations already found for reducing
the time of mean new or full moon to that of the true,
enter Table XV., and take therefrom the sun’s mean mo¬
tion from the moon’s perigee, the change of the sun’s mean
anomaly, and the sun’s mean motion from the ascending
node, and apply these quantities to the mean anomalies
and mean distance from the node at the time of mean new
or full moon by addition or subtraction, according as the
sum of the equations has the sign -j- or —. Then with
the sun’s corrected mean anomaly as argument, take from
Table XVI. the equation of the sun’s centre, correcting it
for the secular variation as directed at the bottom of the
table, and add or subtract the same to or from the correct¬
ed mean anomalies and mean distance from the node, and
there will be obtained the true anomalies of the sun and
moon, and the moon’s true distance from the ascending
node at the time of true new moon or full moon.
Example VI.
Required the True Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and the Moon’s True Distance from the Ascending Node at the
time of True New Moon in 1836.
The Sum of Equations is — 2h. 24m. 2s.
2 Hours...
24 Minutes.
2 Seconds.
Mean anomalies, &c.
Equation of sun’s centre.
Secular variation 
Sun’s Mean Motion
from Moon’s Perigee.
0 0
M. S.
4 22
52
0
— 5 14
4 28 6 57
4 28 1 43
+ 1 22 57
— 4
4 29 24 36
Moon’s True
Anomaly,
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
s. o.
0 0
M. S.
4 56
59
0
— 5 55
4 13 19 2
4 13 13 7
+1 22 57
— 4
4 14 36 0
Sun’s True
Anomaly,
Sun’s Mean Motion
from Ascending Node.
0 0
M. S.
5 12
1 2
0
0
— 6 14
3 36 53
0 3 30 39
+ 1 22 57
— 4
0 4 53 32
Moon’s True Distance
from Ascending Node,
At True New Moon.
Elements for the Projection of Solar Eclipses.
When at the time of true new moon the moon’s true
distance from the ascending node is between 11s 11° 50'
and 0s 18° 10', or 5s 11° 50' and 6« 18° 10', there may at
that time be an eclipse of the sun to some place on the
earth’s surface; but if it is beyond those limits there can
be no eclipse. At the new moon in May 1836, the moon’s
distance from the node being within the limits, there may
be an eclipse of the sun at that time.
It being ascertained that there may be an eclipse, the
elements for predicting it are to be obtained as explained
in the following example of the solar eclipse in May
1836, which is to be predicted, as it will happen at Edin¬
burgh, in latitude 55° 57' N.
J. The moons latitude at the true time of new moon. The
moon’s true distance from the ascending node at the time
of true new moon is the argument of Table XVII.; the
moon’s true anomaly minus her true distance from the
ascending node is the argument of Table XVIII.; this
argument plus the moon’s true anomaly is the argument
of Table XIX.; the moon’s true anomaly plus her true
distance from the ascending node is the argument of
Table XX.; the sun’s true anomaly plus the moon’s true
distance from the ascending node is the argument of
Table XXL ; and the sun’s true anomaly minus the moon’s
true distance from the ascending node is the argument of
Table XXII. With these arguments enter the respective
tables, and take out the proper quantities, and add toge¬
ther such as have the sign and also such as have the
sign —, and the difference of the two sums is the moon’s
latitude required, north if the greater sum has the sign
-f, south if it has —.
ASTRONOMY.
139
Example.
riie Moon’s Latitude at the time of true New Moon in
May 1836.
Arg. Table XVII.
 XVIII.
  XIX.
  XX.
  XXL
  XXII.
D. M. S.
4 53 32
24 31
23 56
4 18
19 30
9 42
Moon’s latitude north.
+
D. M. S.
0 25 47
7
13
25
+ 0 26 32
— 30
+ 0 26 2
7
23
— 30
II. The inclination of the moon's relative orbit to the
ecliptic is found in Table XVIL, with the moon’s true dis¬
tance from the ascending node for argument. In the pre¬
sent instance the inclination is 5° 43', left, signifying that
the axis of the moon’s orbit is to the left hand of the
northern axis of the ecliptic.
III. The semidiameter of the earth's dish is equal to the
difference of the moon’s horizontal parallax corrected for
the latitude of the given place, and the sun’s horizontal pa¬
rallax, which may always be assumed equal to nine seconds.
The moon’s equatorial horizontal parallax is found in
Table XXIII., with her true anomaly for argument; and
the correction to be subtracted therefrom is obtained in
Table XXIV., with the latitude of the place and equatorial
parallax as joint arguments. Thus, in the present instance,
the moon’s equatorial horizontal parallax is 54' 26''
The correction to be subtracted  8"
Leaving for reduced horizontal parallax 54' 18"
which being again diminished by the sun’s horizontal pa¬
rallax, there remains 54' 9" for the semidiameter of the
earth’s disk.
IV. The sun's semidiameter is also obtained in Table
XXII., with his mean anomaly as argument. We have,
therefore, sun’s semidiameter 15' 51".
V. The moons semidiameter is likewise obtained in Ta- Practical
ble XXII., with her true anomaly as argument. Hence, Astronomy
moon’s semidiameter = 14' 50".
VI. The moon's horary motion from the sun is equal to
the difference of the sun’s and moon’s horary motions; both
of which are found in Table XXII., with the sun’s mean
anomaly and the moon’s true anomaly as arguments.
Hence
Sun’s horary motion  2' 25"
Moon’s horary motion SO7 9"
Moon’s horary motion from the sun 27' 44"
VII. The sun's true longitude at the true time of new
moon is equal to the longitude of the sun’s perigee added
to his true anomaly. The longitude of the perigee is
obtained by taking from Table XXV. the epoch of the
first year of the century to which the given year belongs,
and adding thereto the motion in Table XXVI. answering
to the remaining number of years, months, and days, but
subtracting therefrom a proportional part of the secular
variation of the precession of the equinoxes found in
Table XXV. opposite the first year of the given century,
corresponding to the remaining number of years.
Example.
Longitude of
Perigee.
S. D. M. S.
1801  9 9 30 5
30 years  30 57
5 do  5 9
May    20
15 days  2
Longitude of perigee... 9 10 6 33
Sun’s true anomaly  4 14 36 0
Sun’s true longitude  I 24 42 33
VIII. The sun's declination is found in Table XXVIL,
with the sun’s true longitude for argument, and is to be
corrected by the secular variation given in the same table,
as directed at the bottom. The declination is north or
south according as it bears the sign + or —, and, in the
table, is given to tenths of a minute.
Example.
s.
Sun’s true longitude 1
Secular variation 
Sun’s declination, north 
D.
M. S.
24 42 33
— 0-6 X 35
100
D. M.
Declination +18 SS’O
— 0-2
  +18 57*8
IX. The apparent time of new moon. The mean time
of new moon, already found and reduced to the place for
which the prediction is to be made, is to be converted into
apparent time, by applying thereto, according to the sign,
the equation of time found in Table XXVIIL, with the
sun’s true longitude for argument, and corrected for the
secular variation given in the same table, as in the follow¬
ing example;
Example.
Mean time of true new moon at Edinburgh on May 15, 1836,
M.
Equation of time, +3
H.
1
X.
51
11
S. D. M.
Sun’s true longitude 1 24 43
c , ... —10X35
Secular variation 
100
S
. + 3 56
Apparent time of true new moon  1 55
X. The reduced latitude of the given place is obtained by Edinburgh being in north latitude 55° 57'
subtracting from the true latitude the correction in the The correction is    10',8
last column of Table XXIV. answering to the latitude.  
In this particular case, Reduced latitude 55° 46'-2
L
140
ASTRONOMY.
Practical
Astronomy
To Project an Eclipse of the Sun geometrically.
Take from a scale of any convenient length as many
equal parts as the semidiameter of the earth’s disk con¬
tains minutes of a degree, which for Edinburgh at the
time of the eclipse in May 1836 is 54<' 10", or 54<^r. Then
with this quantity as a radius describe the semicircle
AHB upon the centre C (Plate XCI. fig. 136); which
semicircle shall represent the northern half of the earth’s
enlightened disk as seen from the sun. If the given
place were in south latitude, the southern half of the
earth’s disk must be represented.
Upon the centre C raise the straight line CH perpen¬
dicular to the diameter ACB; so ACB shall be a part of
the ecliptic, and CH its axis.
Being provided with a sector,1 * open it to the radius
CA in the line of chords; and taking from thence the
chord of the sun’s greatest declination or the obliquity of
the ecliptic for the given time (in the present instance
23° 28') in your compasses, set it off both ways from H to
g, and to h in the periphery of the semi-disk; and draw
the straight line gV h, in which the north pole of the disk
will be always found.
When the sun’s longitude is between 0s. and VIs. the
north pole of the earth is enlightened by the sun; but
whilst the sun is in the other six signs, the south pole is
enlightened and the north pole is in the dark.
And when the sun’s longitude is between IX*. and III*,
the northern half of the earth’s axis C XII. P lies to the
right hand of the axis of the ecliptic as seen from the sun;
and to the left hand while the sun is in the other six
signs. It is evident that a contrary rule prevails with re¬
gard to the southern half of the earth’s axis.
Open the sector till the radius of the sines be equal to
the length of Vh, and take the sine of the difference of
the sun’s longitude from III.8 or IX.*, whichever it is near¬
est (in the present instance 35° 17'), in your compasses
from the line of the sines, and set off that distance from
V to P in the line gVh, because the northern half of the
earth’s axis lies to the right hand of the axis of the eclip¬
tic in this case ; and draw the straight line C XII. P for the
earth’s axis, of which P is the north pole. If the earth’s
axis had lain to the left hand of the axis of the ecliptic,
the distance VP would have been set off from V towards g.
To draw the parallel of latitude of the given place,
Edinburgh, or the path of that place, on the earth’s en¬
lightened disk, as seen from the sun from sunrise till sun¬
set, take the following method :—
Find the sum and difference of the reduced latitude
55° 46' and the sun’s declination 18° 58', which are 74°
44' and 36° 48'. Take these arcs from the line of sines
on the sector, CA being radius, and set them off from C
to the two points, each marked XII. in the line of the
earth’s axis.
Bisect XII. — XII., and through the point K draw the
line VI. K VI. perpendicular to the axis. Then, making
CA or CB the radius of a line of sines on the sector, take
the co-latitude of Edinburgh, 34° 14', from the sines in
your compasses, and set it both ways from K to VI. and
VI. These hours will be just in the edge of the disk at
the equinoxes; but at no other time in the whole year.
With the extent K VI. taken into your compasses, set
one foot in K as a centre, and with the other foot de¬
scribe the semicircle VI., 7, 8, 9, 10, &c., and divide it
into 12 equal parts. Then from these points of division
draw lines parallel to the earth’s axis C XII. P.
With the extent K XII. as a radius, describe the qua* Practical
drantal arc XII. ^ and divide it into six equal parts, as Astronomy
XII. a, ab, be, cd, de, and ef and through the division
points, a, b, c, d, e, draw the lines VII. e V., VIII. d IV.,
IX. c III., X. b II., and XI. a I., all parallel to VI. K VI.,
and meeting the former lines in the points VII., VIII., IX.,
X. , XL, V., IV., III., II., and I.; which points shall mark
the several situations of Edinburgh on the earth’s disk, at
these hours respectively as seen from the sun; and the
elliptic curve VI., VII., VIII., &c. being drawn through
these points, shall represent the parallel of latitude, or
path of Edinburgh, as seen from the sun from six in the
morning to six in the afternoon. On continuing the lines
VII. p, VIII. o, &c. IV. u, V. x, &c. on the other side of
VI. K VI., and setting off p V. equal to VII. p, o IV. equal
to VIII. o, &c., and continuing the elliptic curve through
the points V. IV. &c., VII. VIII. &c., the path of Edin¬
burgh, as seen from the sun before six in the morning
and after six in the afternoon, will be had; but it is need¬
less to draw the curve farther than the points where it
meets the periphery of the earth’s disk, which represent
the times of sunrise and sunsetting.
N. B. If the sun’s declination had been south, the diur¬
nal path of Edinburgh would have been on the upper
side of the line VI. K VI. If the latitude of the given
place were south, in which case the southern half of the
earth’s disk would be represented, the diurnal path be¬
tween six in the morning and six in the afternoon would
be between the line VI. K VI. and the centre of the disk,
when the sun’s declination was south, and the contrary
when north. It is requisite to divide the horary spaces into
quarters as in the figure, and if possible into minutes also.
In the present case the northern half of the axis of the
moon’s relative orbit lies to the left hand of the axis of the
ecliptic. Make CB the radius of a line of chords on the
sector, and taking therefrom the chord of 5° 43', the in¬
clination of the moon’s relative orbit to the ecliptic, set
it off from PI to M on the left hand of CH, the axis of the
ecliptic ; then draw CM for the axis of the moon’s orbit,
and take the moon’s latitude 26' 2" from the scale CA in
your compasses, and set it from C to in the line CH,
and through y draw the straight line NyS at right angles
to the axis of the moon’s orbit CM for the path of the
penumbra’s centre over the earth’s disk.
Take the moon’s horary motion from the sun, 27' 44", in
your compasses, from the scale CA (every division of
which is a minute of a degree), and with that extent
make marks along the path of the penumbra’s centre, and
divide each space from mark to mark into 60 equal parts
or horary minutes by dots; and set the hours to every
60th minute in such a manner that the dot signifying the
instant of new moon by the tables may fall into the point
Z, half-way between the axis of the moon’s orbit and the
axis of the ecliptic; and then the rest of the dots will
show the points of the earth’s disk, where the penumbra’s
centre is at the instants denoted by them in its transit
over the earth.
Apply one side of a square to the line of the penumbra’s
path, and move the square backwards and forwards, until
the other side of it cuts the same hour and minute (as at
3 hours and 2^ minutes) both in the path of Edinburgh
and in the path of the penumbra’s centre; and the parti¬
cular minute or instant so pointed out is the instant of
the greatest obscuration of the sun, at the place for which
the construction is made, namely, Edinburgh in the pre¬
sent example.
1 Although a sector be a convenient instrument in these projections, yet it is not absolutely necessary. The intelligent student
will be able to lay off an arc of any number of degrees, also to make an angle of a given number of degrees, in various ways.
ASTRONOMY.
141
Practical Take the sun’s semidiameter, 15’ 51", in your compasses,
Asuonomy. from the scale CA, and setting one foot on the path of
Edinburgh, at the point answering to the instant of the
greatest obscuration, namely, at 21 minutes past three,
with the other foot describe the circle UY, which repre¬
sents the sun’s disk as seen from Edinburgh at the great¬
est obscuration. Then take the moon’s semidiameter, 14’
50", in your compasses, from the same scale, and setting
one foot on the path of the penumbra’s centre at the point
21 minutes past three, describe the circle TX for the
moon s disk as seen from Edinburgh at the time when the
eclipse is at the greatest, and the portion of the sun’s disk
which is hid or cut off by the moon’s will show the quan¬
tity of the eclipse at that time; which quantity may be
measured on a line equal to the sun’s diameter, and divid¬
ed into 12 equal parts for digits. As the moon’s disk is
entirely contained within the sun’s, the eclipse as seen from
Edinburgh will be annular.
Lastly, take the sum of the semidiameters of the sun
and moon, 30' 41", from the scale C A, in your compasses;
and setting one foot in the line of the penumbra’s centre
path, on the left hand from the axis of the ecliptic, direct
the other foot toward the path of Edinburgh, and carry
that extent backwards and forwards till both the points of
the compasses fall into the same instants in both the paths,
and these instants will denote the time when the eclipse
begins at Edinburgh. Then do the like on the right
hand of the axis of the ecliptic; and where the points
of the compasses fall into the same instants in both the
paths, they will show at what time the eclipse ends at Edin¬
burgh.
These trials give 351 minutes after one in the afternoon Practical
for the beginning of the eclipse at Edinburgh at the points Astronom.v-
N and O, 21 minutes after three for the time of greatest
obscuration, and 231 minutes after four at R and S for
the time when the eclipse ends, according to apparent
time. To have the mean time, or that shown by well-re¬
gulated clocks and watches, apply the equation of time in
the contrary manner to that used for converting the mean
time of new moon into apparent time. Therefore, in the
present instance, subtract 3 minutes 56 seconds, or 4
minutes approximately, from the apparent times, and we
have
Beginning of eclipse at Edinburgh,
Greatest obscuration  
End of eclipse 
all according to mean time.
H. M.
1 311 p.
2 581 _
4 191 _
The Projection of Lunar Eclipses.
When the moon’s mean distance from either of her
nodes at the time of mean full moon is less than 13° 21'
there may be an eclipse of the moon ; but if greater, there
cannot be an eclipse.
We find by Example II. that at the time of mean full
moon in September 1830, the moon’s mean distance from
the descending node is only 1° 20' 33", which being so
much less than the limit, there will then be an eclipse.
By Problem V. find the true anomalies of the sun and
moon, and the moon’s true distance from the ascending
node, at the true time of full moon.
Sum of Equations, -f- 3h. 54m. 10s.
3 Hours...
54 Minutes.
10 Seconds.
Mean anomalies, &c.
Equation of sun’s centre.
Secular variation 
Sun’s Mean Motion
from Moon’s Perigee
s. o. m. s.
0 0 6 33
1 58
0
-f. 8 31
10 8 1 20
10 8
— 1
9 51
40 30
+ 4
10 6 29 25
Moon’s True
Anomaly,
Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.
s. o. m. s.
0 0 7 23
2 13
0
+ 9 36
8 1 23 24
8 1 33 0
— 1 40 30
+ 4
7 29 52 34
Sun’s True
Anomaly,
Sun’s Mean Motion
from Ascending Node
s. o. m. s.
0 0 7 47
2 20
0
+ 10 7
6 1 2C 33
1 30 40
1 40 30
+ 4
5 29 50 14
Moon’s True Distance
from Ascending Node,
At True Full Moon.
The elements for constructing an eclipse of the moon
are eight in number, as follows :
L The true time of full moon, and at that time; 2.
the moon’s horizontal parallax; 3. the sun’s semidiame¬
ter ; 4. the moon’s; 5. the semidiameter of the earth’s
shadow at the moon; 6. the moon’s latitude; 7. the
angle of the moon’s visible path with the ecliptic; 8.
the moon’s true horary motion from the sun. Therefore,
1. To find the true time of full moon. Work as already
taught in the precepts. Thus we have the true time of
full moon in September 1830 (see Example II.) to be the
2d day at 10h. 36m. 47s. mean time at Greenwich.
2. To find the moons horizontal parallax. Enter Table
XXIII. with the moon’s true anomaly 10s. 6° 29' 25", and
thereby take out her horizontal parallax; which, by
making the requisite proportions, will be found to be
59' 52".
3. 4. To find the semidiameters of the sun and moon.
Enter Table XXIII. with the sun’s mean anomaly and
moon’s true anomaly (8s. 1° 33' 0" and 10s. 6° 29' 25"), and
thereby take out their respective semidiameters, the sun’s
15' 54", and the moon’s 16' 19".
5. To find the semidiameter of the earth's shadow at the
moon. Add the sun’s horizontal parallax, which is al¬
ways 9", to the moon’s, which in the present case is 59'
52" ; the sum is 60' 1", from which subtract the sun’s semi¬
diameter, 15' 54", and the remainder, 44' 7", being increas¬
ed by 50" for the effect of the earth’s atmosphere, we have
44' 57" for the semidiameter of the earth’s shadow, which
the moon then passes through.
142
ASTRONOMY.
Practical 6. Tojind the moon's latitude. Proceed as already direct-
Astronomy e(j un(jer the prediction of solar eclipses. Thus,
s. ° ' " + s. — s.
Argument, Table XVII. 5 29 50 14 52
XVIII. 4 6 39  10
XIX. 2 13 9 25
XX. 4 6 20 14
XXL 1 29 43 17
XXII. 2 0 2 28
+ 2 16 — 10
—10
Moon’s latitude north -{-2 6
7. To find the angle of the moons visible path with the
ecliptic. Enter Table XVII. with the moon s true distance
from the ascending node for argument, and the angle is
found to be 5° 44', left, signifying that the axis of the
moon’s orbit is to the left hand of the northern axis of the
ecliptic.
8. To find the moons true horary motion from the sun.
With the true anomaly of the moon and the mean ano¬
maly of the sun, take out their horary motions from Table
XXIII., and the sun’s horary motion subtracted from the
moon’s leaves remaining the moon s true horary motion
from the sun; in the present case 33' 58".
These elements being found for the construction of the
moon’s eclipse in September 1830, proceed as follows:
Draw the line ACB for part of the ecliptic, and CD
perpendicular thereto for the northern part of its axis, the
moon having north latitude. (Plate XCI. fig. 137.)
Add the semidiameters of the moon s and earth s sha¬
dow together, which in the eclipse make 61' 16 ; and
take this in your compasses, from a scale of equal parts,
and setting one foot on the point C as a centre, with the
other foot describe the arch ADB, in one point of which
the moon’s centre will be at the beginning of the eclipse,
and in another at the end thereof.
Take the semidiameter of the earth’s shadow, 44' 57",
in your compasses, from the scale, and setting one foot in
the centre C, with the other foot describe the semicircle
KLM for the northern half of the earth’s shadow; because
the moon’s latitude is north in this eclipse.
Subtract the semidiameter of the moon from the semi¬
diameter of the earth’s shadow, and the remainder is 28'
38", which take in your compasses from the scale, and
setting one foot on the point C as a centre, with the other
foot describe the arch OPQ; in one point of which the
moon’s centre will be at the beginning of total darkness,
and in another at the end thereof.
Draw the line CE on the left hand of the northern axis
of the ecliptic, and making an angle of 5° 44' therewith, Practical
which line represents the northern part of the axis of the Astronomy
moon’s orbit, the moon’s latitude being north. -y-w
Take the moon’s latitude, 2' 6", from the scale writh your
compasses, and set it from C to G in the axis of the eclip¬
tic, and through the point G draw the straight line
RSGTU, at right angles to the axis of the moon’s orbit,
for the path of the moon’s centre. Then F, in the line
CE, is the point in the earth’s shadow where the moon’s
centre is at the middle of the eclipse ; G, the point where
her centre is at the instant of her ecliptical conjunction;
and the middle between them, the point where her centre
is at the time of true full moon by the tables.
Take the moon’s horary motion from the sun, 33' 58", in
your compasses, from the scale, and with that extent make
marks along the line of the moon’s path ; then divide each
space from mark to mark into 60 equal parts or horary
minutes, and set the hours to the proper dots, in such a
manner, that the dot signifying the instant of full moon
(36 minutes and 47 seconds after ten) may be midway
between the points F and G.
The point U, where the moon’s path intersects on the
right hand the arch described with the sum of the semi¬
diameters of the moon and earth’s shadow, denotes the in¬
stant when the eclipse begins, namely, at 52 minutes after
eight; the point T, where the moon’s path intersects on
the right hand the arch described, with the difference of
the semidiameters, denotes the instant when the moon’s
total darkness begins, namely, at 48 minutes after nine;
the point F denotes the middle of the eclipse at 39
minutes after 10; the point S, where the moon’s path in¬
tersects on the left hand the arch described, with the dif¬
ference of the semidiameters, denotes the end of the
moon’s total darkness at 30 minutes after eleven ; and the
point R, where the moon’s path intersects the arch de¬
scribed, with the sum of the semidiameters, denotes the
end of the eclipse at 26 minutes after 12, all mean time
according to the meridian of Greenwich. If the times
reckoned by any other meridian are required, apply the
longitude from Greenwich to the Greenwich times, by ad¬
dition or subtraction, according as the place is east or
west of Greenwich.
On F as a centre, with a radius equal to the moon’s
semidiameter, describe a circle which represents the
moon’s disk at the middle of the eclipse.
The line VX denotes the quantity eclipsed at the mid¬
dle of the eclipse, which may be measured on a line equal
to the moon’s diameter, and divided into equal parts for
digits. In the present case, the eclipse being total, the
quantity eclipsed is said to be greater than the moon’s
diameter, and is found to be 21^ digits.
ASTRONOMY.
143
CHAPTER III.
CATALOGUE OF FIXED STARS, AND TABLE OF REFRACTIONS.
arf.NTh Po}a:£ist<™ces 0/652 Stars, extracted from the Greenwich Twelve-Year Cataloaue
of 2156 Stars, and reduced to the epoch 1650, January 1 ; with the Annual Variations, including the Geometrical Preces-
sions given in the Jyritish Association Catalogue, and the Proper Motions given in Mr Main's Paper in vol. xix of the
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. J
Star’s Name.
21 Andromedaj, a.
11 Cassiopeise, /3
8 Ceti, /  
15 Cassiopeias, *...
17 Cassiopeiae,
30 Andromedse, s
18 Cassiopeiae,
16 Ceti, /3 
58 Piscium ...
34 Andromedae, £
24 Cassiopeiae, »j.,.
63 Piscium, 2..
35 Andromedae, y
27 Cassiopeiae, y
2>1 Andromedae. ^
2 Ursae Majoris
Sculptoris, «...
71 Piscium, s..
42 Andromedae, q
43 Andromedae, yS
33 Cassiopeiae, 6
lUr. Min.,« (Polaris)
86 Piscium, U •••
34 Cassiopeiae, <p.
36 Cassiopeiae,
37 Cassiopeim, 2 .
45 Ceti, 6  
48 Andromedae, u
98 Piscium,  
99 Piscium, >j 
50 Andromedae...
51 Andromedae...
106 Piscium, v 
54 Andromedae...
110 Piscium, o 
53 Ceti, ^ 
45 Cassiopeiae, t...
46 Cassiopeiae 
2 Trianguli, «,...
111 Piscium, | 
6 Arietis, fZ 
48 Cassiopeiae 
50 Cassiopeiae 
Andromedae, y
13 Arietis, « 
4 Trianguli, fi ..
65 Ceti, f 
65 Andromedae..
Bradley 332  
73 Ceti, f 
78 Ceti, y 
12 Persei 
13 Persei, ^  
86 Ceti, y 
38 Arietis 
87 Ceti, ^ 
39 Arietis 
15 Persei,   
41 Arietis 
18 Persei, r 
22 Persei, a- 
48 Arietis, t 
Mag.
2
2- 3
3- 4
4- 5
4
4
var.
2
5
4
4-3
4-5
4-5
2
4
4- 5
5- 4
4
4-5
2'3
4- 5
2
5- 4
5
5
3
3
5
5
4-3
4-5
4- 3
5- 4
4
4
5-4
3-4
5
4'3
4
3- 2
5-4
4
3
2
2
4- 5
5
4
4
5
5
4
3- 4
5
4
5
4- 3
4
4
5
4-5
Mean E. A.
1850, Jan. 1.
0 0 38-57
0 1 12-32
0 11 46-85
0 24 30-69
0 28 38-43
0 30 38-27
0 32 1-57
0 36 3-42
0 39 12-15
0 39 23-77
0 40 3-39
0 40 54-20
0 41 33-34
0 47 41-79
0 48 26-29
0 49 9-48
0 51 22-51
0 55 9-68
0 49-09
1 20-96
1 59-95
5 0-53
5 53-82
10 41-17
15 24-12
16 2-87
16 31-58
18 42-27
22 19-71
23 27-76
28 0-80
28 48-67
33 37-68
34 17-23
37 28-66
42 13-11
43 39-68
44 25-83
44 32-54
45 47-52
46 21-73
49 43-95
50 44-28
54 42-62
58 43-67
0 37-98
5 3-17
15 38-72
16 46-70
20 11-32
28 0-41
32 47-98
33 58-79
35 31-92
36 47-51
36 50-36
38 59-26
39 47-50
41 9-97
43 39-02
49 11-20
50 38‘61
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
+ 3-082
+ 3-145
+ 3-053
+ 3-339
+ 3-295
+ 3-139
+ 3-350
+ 3-012
+ 3-116
+ 3-163
+ 3-561
+ 3-102
+ 3-272
+ 3-539
+ 3-292
+ 6-709
+ 2-899
+ 3-108
+ 3-435
+ 3-342
+ 3-592
+ 17-521
+ 3-124
+ 3-704
+ 4-111
+ 3-851
+ 2-995
+ 3-546
+ 3-134
+ 3-194
+ 3-485
+ 3-635
+ 3-111
+ 3-705
+ 3-158
+ 2-937
+ 4-240
+ 4-523
+ 3-395
+ 3-094
+ 3-291
+ 4-776
+ 4-939
+ 3-642
+ 3-360
+ 3-541
+ 3-166
+ 3-948
+ 4-808
+ 3-177
+ 3-132
+ 3-752
+ 4-047
+ 3-098
+ 3-255
+ 3-229
+ 3-546
+ 4-312
+ 3-507
+ 4-193
+ 3-803
+ 3-413
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
61 44 16-61
31 40 4017
99 39 22-07
27 53 48-17
36 55 46-16
61 30 13-14
34 17 10‘17
108 48 38-93
78 50 42-28
66 32 59-82
32 58 48-61
83 13 57-28
49 44 20-34
30 5 47-78
52 18 54-19
4 33 2-44
120 10 8-62
82 55 7-32
43 33 34-38
55 10 33-72
35 38 58-53
1 29 24-85
83 13 9-00
32 33 31-49
22 39 17-23
30 32 47-50
98 57 32-58
45 22 10-70
84 37 53-77
75 25 45-41
49 20 48-42
42 8 2-65
85 16 25-28
40 4 8-61
81 35 57-83
101 25 50-03
27 4 18-24
22 3 17-77
61 9 15-07
87 33 19-98
69 55 38-45
19 49 26-45
18 18 28-81
48 23 33-62
67 14 58-23
55 43 30 35
81 51 33-31
40 24 13-96
23 16 34-39
82 12 54-08
85 3 50-94
50 26 36-71
41 24 35-47
87 23 58-02
78 11 19-13
80 31 20-65
61 22 44-31
34 43 53-32
63 21 40-01
37 51 20-43
50 56 28 90
69 15 47-05
Annual
Variation
in N. P. D.
-19-91
-19-87
-19-97
-19-95
-19-89
-19-64
-19-82
-19-83
-19-76
-19-65
-19-26
-19-69
-19-72
-19-64
-19-66
-19-59
-19-52
-19-48
-19-34
-19-25
-19-31
-19-25
-19-16
-1910
-19-00
-18-91
-18-73
-18-77
-18-60
-18-74
-18-20
-18-43
-18-36
-18-33
-18-28
-17-97
-18-02
-17-98
-17-78
-17-88
-17-82
-17-80
-17-78
-17-49
-17-27
-17-29
-17-10
-16-58
-16-57
-16-40
-15-99
-15-58
-15-56
-15-42
-15-44
-15-47
-15-31
-15-25
-15-20
-15-13
-14-82
-14-73
No.
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
Star’s Name.
23 Persei, y 
Persei, k 
92 Ceti, « 
Persei, i  
26 Persei, fZ 
27 Persei, *  
57 Arietis, 5 
12 Eridani 
58 Arietis, £ 
Bradley 448  
13 Eridani, £ 
Piazzi, iii. 32 
61 Arietis, r1 
16 Eridani, r4....
33 Persei, « 
Piazzi, iii. 51 
Piazzi, iii. 54 
2 Tauri, |....
35 Persei, a- ...
5 Tauri, f ...
37 Persei, f...
20 Eridani 
39 Persei, § ...
38 Persei, o ...
41 Persei, y....
17 Tauri 
19 Tauri 
20 Tauri 
23 Tauri 
25 Tauri, « 
27 Tauri 
28 Eridani, r7.
44 Persei, ^....
45 Persei, s ...
34 Eridani, y .
35 Tauri, A. ...
47 Persei, A ...
37 Tauri, A1...
48 Persei, c ....
51 Persei, (*,....
53 Persei, d ....
54 Tauri, y 
41 Eridani, i>i .
61 Tauri, o1 ....
69 Tauri, t/1 ....
74 Tauri, e 
77 Tauri, t1....
78 Tauri, ....
Bradley 619 ...
86 Tauri, o 
58 Persei, e....
87 Tauri, «(Aldeb.)
Groom bridge 856
94 Tauri, <r  
9 Camelopard 
3 Arfirigse, < 
9 Orionis, «2 
8 Aurigse, £ 
102 Tauri, <  
11 Orionis 
10 Aurigae,  
2 Leporis, s 
Mag.
3
5
2- 3
4
var
4-5
4-5
3- 4
4- 5
5
4-5
5
5
4- 3
2
5- 4
4
4-3
5
4
5
5
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
3
4
5
3
3-4
3
3- 4
4- 5
5- 4
4
4-5
5
4
4- 3
4
5- 4
4-3
4-5
4-5
5
5
5
1
5
4-5
4
3
5
4
5
5
4-3
4-3
Mean R. A.
1850, Jan. 1.
2 53
2 54
2 54
58
58
59
3
5
6
6
8
11
12
12
13
16
17
19
20
22
25
29
32
34
35
35
36
36
37
38
40
41
44
47
51
52
55
55
57
3
10
11
12
14
17
19
20
20
21
25
26
27
32
33
39
47
47
52
54
56
56
59
57-67
18-41
26- 56
14- 38
25-54
2400
3-47
42-06
17-10
51-25
3307
16-61
34- 38
50-66
38-36
57- 92
58- 42
2-66
1-28
35- 90
50- 99
27- 45
15- 83
55-45
1-06
58-59
17-16
54-45
25-89
34-55
15-00
12- 55
42- 82
48- 04
1-95
22-48
25-81
49- 98
47-20
53-96
43- 17
15-69
12-86
17- 26
20-25
51- 81
0-51
6T2
58-62
20-36
18- 47
19- 12
3016
14-81
9-48
13- 83
56-46
0-09
800
0-10
0-29
6-72
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
+ 4-289
+ 4-440
+ 3-125
+ 4-151
+ 3-867
+ 4-016
+ 3-413
+ 2-546
+ 3-427
+ 5-152
+ 2-907
+ 3-632
+ 3-444
+ 2-661
+ 4-236
+ 4-789
+ 4-725
+ 3-238
+ 4-189
+ 3-300
+ 4-222
+ 2-726
+ 4-230
+ 3-733
+ 4-039
+ 3-544
+ 3-551
+ 3-550
+ 3-546
+ 3-547
+ 3-548
+ 2-573
+ 3-751
+ 3-994
+ 2-792
+ 3311
+ 4-429
+ 5-530
+ 4-319
+ 4-367
+ 4-306
3-404
+ 2-264
+ 3-445
+ 3-576
3-489
+ 3-410
+ 3-415
+ 3-427
3-396
+ 4-132
+ 3-432
+ 10-841
+ 3-589
+ 5-906
+ 3-890
+ 3-366
+ 4-176
+ 3-576
+ 3-420
+ 4-192
+ 2-534
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
37
33
86
40
49
45
70
119
69
24
99
61
69
112
40
30
31
80
42
77
42
107
42
58
47
66
66
66
66
66
66
114
58
50
103
77
40
68
42
41
43
74
124
72
67
71
74
74
74
75
49
73
9
67
23
57
76
49
68
74
48
112
5 8-83
53 16-76
30 7-61
57 51-56
37 34-85
42 54-35
50 39-80
34 53-43
30 53-32
54 8-53
22 48-83
29 57-72
23 49-96
18 24-89
40 39-24
35 16-94
38 48-99
47 37-60
31 38-78
34 53-08
18 40-67
58 1-42
41 50-24
11 26-65
54 1-64
21 43-94
0 28-41
6 19-13
31 23-65
21 46-98
24 34-40
20 34-48
33 59-71
25 43-95
56 19-81
56 15-98
3 42-14
19 57-76
41 36-92
58 38-96
51 55-25
44 21-24
10 6-88
48 50-13
31 53-07
9 24-69
22 31-61
28 0-12
8 13-92
28 32-94
2 55-59
47 49-55
4 15-33
20 8-48
55 14-26
4 37-57
43 38-03
8 56-89
37 45-28
48 35-15
58 27T0
34 34-24
Annual
Variation
in N. P. I) j
-14-56
-14-61
-14-41
-14-29
-14 29
-14-07
-13-99
-14-44
-13-72
-13-71
-13-66
-13-41
-13-35
-13-39
-13-26
-13-13
-13-06
-12-91
-12-89
-12-69
-12-43
-12-23
-12-00
-11-96
-11-83
-11-75
-11-71
-11-67
-11-64
-11-55
-11-42
-11-44
-11-11
-10-91
-10-58
-10-58
-10-32
-10-25
-10-13
- 9-68
- 9-14
- 9-13
- 9-07
- 8-90
- 8-64
- 8-46
- 8-46
- 8-45
- 8-28
- 8-01
- 7-96
- 7-72
- 7-47
- 7-39
- 6-91
- 6-24
- 6-15
- 5-85
- 5-63
- 5-50
- 5-45
- 5-20
j sei. The proper motion of this star in It. A. given in the British Association Catalogue, is + 05"129 ; this probably results from some error,
and is not included in the annual variation.
144
ASTRONOMY.
RIGHT ASCENSIONS AND NORTH POLAR DISTANCES OF 6o2 STARS.
No.
Stae’s Name.
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
Mag.
13 Aurig. a(Capel.)
5 Leporis, p ....
19 Orionis,  
15 Aurigas, A 
22 Orionis, o 
112 Tauri, jS 
24 Orionis, y  
25 Aurigae, x
34 Orionis, $ 
11 Leporis, a 
41 Orionis, ....
46 Orionis, t 
40 Orionis, <p2 ...
123 Tauri, £ 
49 Orionis, d 
50 Orionis, £ 
Columbae, a ..
13 Leporis, y....
136 Tauri  
54 Orionis, x1 ••
Columbae, /3...
58 Orionis, a 
33 Aurigae, S 
34 Aurigae, (3 
37 Aurigae,  
16 Leporis, « 
Columbae, y....
1 Geminorum ...
62 Orionis, ••••
67 Orionis,   
Piazzi, v. 335  
44 Aurigae, * 
7 Geminorum, >j
2 Lyncis 
46 Aurigae 
13 Geminorum, p
2 Canis Maj. )3
18 Geminorum,
Cephei 5](Hevel.)
24 Geminorum, }
55 Aurigae 
27 Geminorum, i
31 Geminorum, |
43 Camelopard...
9 Can. Maj. ee (Sir.)
58 Aurigae 
34 Geminorum, 6
13 Canis Maj. * ...
15 Lyncis 
21 Canis Maj. j...
43 Geminorum, £
Piazzi, vi. 292 ...
63 Aurigae 
46 Geminorum, r
25 Canis Maj. S ...
54 Geminorum, A
55 Geminorum, S
60 Geminorum, ;
31 Canis Maj. » ...
62 Geminorum, g
66 Gem. «2 (Castor)
69 Geminorum, v
24 Lyncis 
10 C. Min. *(Procy.)
77 Geminorum, *
78 Gem. |3 (Poll.)
3 Navis, t 
7 Navis, | 
83 Geminorum, <p
11 Navis, e 
6 Cancri  
27 Lyncis   
15 Navis, i 
Mean R. A.
1850, Jan. L
1
3-4
1
5
5
2
2
5
2
3
4
2
5-4
3- 4
5
2
2
4
5
5-4
3
var.
4- 5
2
3
4- 3
4
5
5
5- 4
5-4
5-4
3-4
5-4
5
3
3-2
5-4
5
2- 3
5
3- 4
4- 3
5
1
5
3- 4
4
5
2-1
4
5
5
5'4
2
4- 3
3-4
4
3- 2
5
2-1
4- 5
5
1
4-3
1-2
4
4-3
5
5 36-96
6 11-56
7 19-85
8 35-59
14 6-35
16 48-79
17 5-29
22 57-59
24 20-70
26 6-96
27 54-38
28 36-22
28 40-14
5- 28 40-93
5 31 37-70
5 33 11-47
5 34 1314
5 38 12-59
5 43 53-99
45 30-01
45 40-62
47 3-12
47 10-41
48 31-46
49 29-57
49 34-46
52 13-04
55 0-10
Annual
V ariation
in R. A.
0-75
0-47
18-53
49-09
49-43
23-18
13 20-46
13 53-13
16 5-78
20 3-31
28 32-17
29 2-76
32 9-65
34 4210
36 52-21
37 3014
6 38 32-43
6 40 9-28
42 53-84
44 14-31
44 16-55
52 43-90
55 12-54
59 11-75
1 19-77
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
Annual
Variation
in N. P. D,
4-417
2-685
2- 878
4-206
3- 059
3-786
3-216
3-901
3062
2-644
2- 943
3- 039
3-292
3-580
2- 899
3- 026
+ 2-177
2- 496
3- 766
3-547
2- 109
3- 244
4- 930
4-404
4- 088
2- 731
2127
3- 643
3-561
3-424
6-623
3-823
3- 619
5- 303
4- 625
3-631
+ 2-641
+ 3-561
+ 30-723
5-4
5
5-4
3
1 35-15
2 17-59
9 28-20
11 9-66
16 24-19
18 9-70
19 27-35
25 1-29
26 40-39
30 17-22
31 26-78
35 23-16
36 7-82
37 47-25
42 59-26
44 18-57
50 24-49
54 17-66
57 9-04
1 9-41
3- 465
4- 373
3-695
3- 370
6-522
2- 645
4- 249
3- 959
2-238
5- 225
2- 356
3- 562
+ 13-146
+ 4-141
3-826
2- 438
3- 454
3-592
3-737
2- 368
3- 866
3-843
3-709
+ 5-120
+ 3-144
+ 3-629
3-681
2-405
2- 523
3- 682
2- 576
3- 695
4- 551
2-553
44 9 39-70
106 23 12-36
98 22 44-92
50 2 26-03
90 32 6-55
61 31 29-71
83 47 28T6
57 55 27-35
90 24 53-09
107 56 0-71
95 29 33-77
91 18 8-23
80 47 44-80
68 57 14-70
97 18 4-17
92 1 37-42
124 9 27-27
112 30 2-93
62 25 44-80
69 45 24-66
125 49 42-97
82 37 32-78
35 44 3-64
45 4 27-72
52 48 12-36
104 11 56-39
125 18 10-78
66 44 0-86
69 51 47-94
75 13 7-31
20 38 13-13
60 27 8-75
67 27 18-31
30 56 34-19
40 38 32-21
67 24 53-28
107 53 8-22
69 41 53-16
2 44 38-19
73 28 39-00
45 20 15-48
64 43 32-87
76 56 52-28
20 56 48-41
106 30 52-79
48 2 53-64
55 51 49-21
122 20 22-11
31 23 18-05
118 46 17-11
69 12 52-48
7 19 2-04
50 26 25-62
59 30 51-93
116 9 31-12
73 11 37-90
67 44 47-57
61 54 32-66
119 0 49-92
57 55 21-20
57 47 16-85
62 46 33-09
30 56 44-26
84 23 40-46
65 14 49-00
61 36 58-90
118 35 57-05
114 29 12-40
62 51 3-13
112 29 0-37
61 47 23-69
38 3 59-81
113 52 30-04
No.
Stae’s Name.
4-28
4-65
4-55
3-76
3-97
3-56
3-69
3-25
3-07
2-95
2 83
2-73
2-40
2-68
2-41
2-31
2-25
1-53
1-34
1-17
1-53
1-13
0-99
0-97
0-81
105
0-61
0-33
0-42
007
0-29
0-80
0-53
0-53
1-24
1-35
1-43
1- 76
2- 58
2-58
2- 83
3- 05
3-43
3- 27
4- 60
3-63
3-78
3- 88
4- 03
4-59
4- 80
5- 14
5-30
5-38
5- 37
6- 03
615
6-65
6- 70
6-62
7- 35
7-52
7- 78
8- 87
8-16
8-23
8-27
8-69
8- 87
9- 28
9-66
9-82
+10-06
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
Mag.
Mean R. A.
1850, Jan. 1.
16 Cancri, ^1....
Piazzi, viii. 40 .
31 Lyncis .......
I Ursae Maj. «..
4 Ursae Maj. v
4 Hydrae, 3 
Pixidis Naut. fh
47 Cancri, 3..
Pixidis Naut. a
11 Hydrae, s 
9 Ursae Maj. / ...
65 Cancri, « 
10 Ursae Maj 
12 Ursae Maj. x...
II Ursae Maj. a1
Piazzi, viii. 245 ..
13 Ursae Maj. a-2
76 Cancri, x 
77 Cancri, | 
16 Ursae Maj. c ...
36 Lyncis 
18 Ursae Maj. e ...
Piazzi, ix. 37 
23 Ursae Maj. h...
30 Hydrae, « 
24 Ursae Maj. d..
31 Hydrae, r1 ....
25 Ursas Maj. 6 .
4 Leonis, A 
26 Ursae Maj oris
2 Sextantis 
14 Leonis, « 
28 Ursae Maj oris
17 Leonis, s 
29 Ursae Maj. u ..
30 Ursae Maj. p..
24 Leonis, p 
19 Leonis Minoris
27 Leonis, i> 
29 Leonis,   
21 Leonis Minoris
30 Leonis, » 
31 Leonis, A 
32 Leo. « (Reg.)
33 Ursae Maj. A...
41 Leonis, y1 ....
34 Ursae Maj. p..
36 Ursae Maj or is
29 Sextantis 
47 Leonis, g 
37 Ursae Majoris
Piazzi, x. 126 ...
53 Leonis, l 
44 Ursae Majoris
45 Ursae Maj. u...
48 Ursae Maj. /3...
58 Leonis, d 
59 Leonis, c 
50 Ursae Maj. «...
63 Leonis, x 
52 Ursae Maj. ^ ..
69 Leonis, p5 
68 Leonis, S 
74 Leonis, <p 
55 Ursae Majoris
12 Crateris, 3 
77 Leonis, <r 
78 Leonis, i  
84 Leonis, r 
1 Draconis, A ...
87 Leonis, e 
91 Leonis,   
63 Ursae Maj. x •
5-4
5
5
3- 4
5-4
4- 5
5
4
4
3-4
3
4
4
3-4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
3- 4
2
5-4
5
3
5-4
5
5
4- 3
5
3
4- 3
5- 4
4
5
5
5
4- 5
3-4
5
1-2
3-4
2
3
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
2-3
5
5
2
5
3
5
2- 3
5- 4
5
3- 4
4
4
5
3-4
5
5-4
4
8 3 36-26
8 12 25-34
8 12 32-92
8 17 45-43
8 27 2-91
8 29 42-62
8 34 14-14
8 36 9-30
8 37 34-13
8 38 49-77
8 48 54-78
8 50 16-70
8 50 53-05
8 53 21-51
8 55 9T7
8 56 58-42
8 57 7-35
8 59 37-18
9 0 43-59
2 26-12
3 58-47
5 21-42
15 15-65
19 38-49
20 12-94
21 7-67
9 21 32-00
9 22 47-69
9 23 9-17
9 24 30-98
9 30 37-79
9 33 8-39
9 34 19-04
9 37 19-69
40 16-97
41 51-83
44 13-40
48 28-63
50 8-80
52 16-99
58 34-12
9 59 8-81
9 59 56 30
10 0 22-72
10 8 184
10 11 41-70
10 13 22-33
10 20 59-83
10 21 51-45
10 24 54-57
10 25 27-84
10 32 15-30
10 41 22-05
10 44 27-36
10 45 19-42
10 52 45-39
10 52 48-70
10 52 58-08
10 54 25-69
10 57 16-57
11 1 12-65
11 6 4-94
11 6 7-45
11 9 207
11 10 56-49
11 11 50-65
11 13 23-99
11 16 5-75
11 20 13-28
11 22 26-40
11 22 38-94
11 29 16-10
11 38 6-50
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
+ 3-450
+ 4-592
+ 4-137
+ 5-059
+ 5-354
+ 3-179
+ 2-363
+ 3-420
+ 2-410
+ 3-183
+ 4-148
+ 3-288
+ 3-927
+ 4-133
+ 5-396
+ 3-855
+ 5-404
+ 3-257
+ 3-462
+ 4-835
+ 3-961
+ 4-375
+ 9-258
+ 4-825
+ 2-946
+ 5-472
+ 3-046
+ 4-058
+ 3-436
+ 4-165
+ 3135
+ 3-207
+ 4-717
+ 3-421
+ 4-350
+ 4-144
+ 3-425
+ 3-706
+ 3-234
+ 3177
+ 3-567
+ 3-279
+ 3-188
+ 3-202
+ 3-655
+ 3-318
+ 3-608
+ 3-911
+ 3-047
+ 3166
+ 3-936
+ 4-435
+ 3-158
+ 3-690
+ 3-486
+ 3-680
+ 3-099
+ 3-112
+ 3-780
+ 3*098
+ 3-407
+ 3-075
+ 3-203
+ 3-047
+ 3-297
+ 2-992
+ 3-094
+ 3-129
+ 3-085
+ 3-666
+ 3061
+ 3-068
+ 3-202
Annual
V ariation
in N. P. D
71 54 1511
36 18 8-62
46 20 7-68
28 47 11-23
25 9 15-51
83 46 36-21
124 46 49-80
71 17 52-78
122 38 55-40
83 2 3-74
41 22 24-45
77 33 53-86
47 37 37-61
42 15 15-52
22 31 48-07
50 57 6-98
22 15 44 04
78 43 52-81
67 21 4-46
27 57 51-29
46 10 3-66
35 21 46-87
8 1 6-43
26 17 12-12
98 0 40-28
19 30 54-71
92 6 58-48
37 38 32-91
66 22 25-38
37 17 4-64
84 40 33-57
79 25 40-47
25 39 37-66
65 32 16-27
30 15 33-34
35 14 17-42
63 17 21-34
48 13 57-49
76 50 31-10
81 14 18-58
54 1 35-02
72 30 29-16
79 16 9-51
77 18 6-78
46 20 20-35
69 24 6-87
47 44 53-32
33 15 7-98
91 58 22-55
79 55 24-52
32 8 49-29
20 8 28-71
78 39 44-51
34 37 8-66
46 0 46-31
32 48 53-67
85 34 41-79
83 5 37-44
27 26 25-89
81 51 16-12
44 41 20 05
89 15 14-53
68 39 19-36
92 49 57-33
50 59 32-24
103 58 3-07
83 8 57-94
78 38 41-56
86 19 5 81
19 50 30-27
92 10 36-23
89 59 46-26
41 23 20-70
+ 10-41
+ 10-99
+ 11-08
+ 11-47
+ 11-98
+ 12-19
+ 12-60
+ 12-87
+ 12-64
+ 12-85
+ 13-76
+ 13-61
+ 13-88
+ 13-86
+ 13-94
+ 14-05
+ 14-11
+ 14-16
+ 14-22
+ 14-42
+ 14-48
+ 14-46
+ 15-13
+ 15-23
+ 15-35
+ 15-39
+ 15-48
+ 16-09
+ 15-58
+ 15-63
+ 15-99
+ 16-12
+ 16-13
+ 16-31
+ 16-62
+ 16-54
+ 16-70
+ 16-85
+ 16-93
+ 17-05
+ 17-30
+ 17-33
+ 17-42
+ 17-38
+ 17-77
+ 18-01
+ 17-89
+ 18-20
+ 18-24
+ 18-38
+ 18-40
+ 18-65
+ 18-91
+ 19-00
+ 19-06
+ 19-17
+ 19-23
+ 19-26
+ 19-33
+ 19-38
+ 19-48
+ 19-50
+ 19-64
+ 19-60
+ 19-69
+ 19-43
+ 19-67
+ 19-76
+ 19-7
+ 19-85
+ 19-82
+ 19-85
+ 19-94
No. 220, Piazzi, ix. 37. The proper motion in R. A. included in the annual variation, is - 0-063; this is very questionable.
ASTRONOMY.
EIGHT ASCENSIONS AND NORTH POLAR DISTANCES OF 652 STARS.
145
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
Star’s Name.
3 Virginis, v
94 Leonis, /3 ..
5 Virginis, p>
28 Crateris
64 Ursae Major, j/..
8 Virginis, v ...
67 Ursas Majoris „
9 Virginis,«
Bradley 1634
69 Ursae Majoris, 3
15 Virginis, «
16 Virginis, c
9 Corvi, # 
8 Can. Venat. /3..
5 Draconis, x ...
29 Virginis, y ...
35 Comae   
40 Virginis, .
77 Ursae Majoris, e
Bradley 1730 ....
43 Virginis, S  
Bradley 1731 ....
12 Can. Ven.(2dst.)
14 Canum Venat.
41 Comae  
51 Virginis, 6 ..
53 Virginis  
43 Comae, /3  
Piazzi, xiii. 27 ..
61 Virginis  
20 Canum Venat.
67 Virg. K (Spica
79 Ursae Maj. J1
80 Ursae Maj. g....
74 Virginis, l2 ..
76 Virginis, h ..
78 Virginis  
79 Virginis, £ ..
24 Canum Venai
1. Centauri, i .,
4 Bootis, t .....
2 Centauri, g ..
85 Ursae M aj or is,»
89 Virginis ...
3 Centauri, k
4 Centauri, h
10 Draconis, i.
8 Bootis, « 
5” Centauri, ^ 
11 Draconis, a ...
12 Bootis, d  
98 Virginis, x ...
17 Bootis, x2 
99 Virginis,/ 
Boot, a, (Arct.)
19 Bootis, x  
21 Bootis, /  
100 Virginis, .
23 Bootis, 4 .
25 Bootis, f .
27 Bootis, y .
5 Ursae Minoris..
30 Bootis, £ ..
107 Virginis, g.
36 Bootis, s ...
57 Hydrae 
9 Librae, « .. 
7 Ursae. Min., /3...
19 Librae, 2 .
20 Librae ....
41 Bootis, 6/ .
42 Bootis, /3 .
44 Bootis, i2 .
47 Bootis, k .
24 Librae, A .
2 Lupi, $ 
27 Librae, /3 .
Mag.
4-5
2
3- 4
4
23
4- 5
5
4
5- 4
3-4
3- 4
5
2- 3
4- 5
3- 4
3- 2
5
5
2
5'4
3
5- 4
3
5
5
4- 5
5
4
5
5
5- 4
1
Mean R. A.
1850, Jan. 1.
2
5
5
5
5
3- 4
5
4- 5
5- 4
5
2
5
4-5
4-5
5
3
3
3- 4
5
4- 5
4-5
4
1
4
4- 5
5- 4
4-3
4- 3
3-2
5- 4
3-4
4
2-3
5
2- 3
2
3
3- 4
5-4
3
5
5
5-4
5-4
2
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
15
38 8-88
41 24-28
42 52-90
45 20-43
45 55-05
53 1113
54 28-83
57 34-01
5 6-39
7 58-68
12 13-92
12 44-05
26 30-99
26 36-38
27 3-11
34 3-66
45 54-41
46 33-39
47 24-85
47 57-94
48 2-90
48 5-55
49 0-16
58 43-15
59 58-68
2 11-17
4 4-78
4 51-97
6 54-62
10 33-96
10 48-54
17 17-78
17 52-72
19 12-47
24 10-25
25 4-37
26 31-80
27 3-23
28 18-96
37 10-60
40 8-02
40 46-45
41 37-48
41 43-71
43 10-97
44 35-40
47 3-13
47 32-53
57 51-54
0 19-76
3 33-48
4 53-96
8 6-38
8 9 31
8 49-26
10 40-69
10 50-99
10 59-93
20 5-17
25 21-83
26 2-17
27 54*47
33 59-35
35 9-61
38 26-14
39 11-59
42 35-30
51 12:00
52 57-82
55 18-02
55 32 19
56 17*78
58 50-79
0 27-92
3 40-76
8 42-93
8 56-46
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
3088
3-065
3-123
3-007
+ 3-197
+ 3-076
+ 3-070
3-060
2-932
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
+ 3-012
+ 3063
+ 3-046
+ 3-127
+ 2-861
2-611
+ 3-036
+ 2-960
+ 3-110
+ 2-664
+ 0-315
+ 3-020
+ 0-299
+ 2-817
+ 2-820
+ 2-885
+ 3-096
+ 3-175
+ 2-807
+ 2-734
+ 3-123
+ 2-700
+ 3-147
+ 2-434
+ 2-421
+ 3-111
+ 3-147
+ 3-025
+ 3-050
+ 2-461
+ 3-380
4- 2-851
+ 3-448
+ 2-373
+ 3-241
+ 3-436
+ 3-425
+ 1-754
+ 2-857
+ 3-491
1-607
+ 2-739
+ 3-189
+ 2-156
+ 3-137
+ 2-733
+ 2-285
+ 2-126
+ 3-231
+ 2-040
+ 2-586
+ 2-423
- 0-235
+ 2-859
+ 3-151
+ 2-618
+ 3-483
+ 3-304
- 0-271
+ 3-192
+ 3-489
+ 2-624
+ 2-260
+ 1-972
+ 2-000
+ 3-403
+ 3-624
+ 3-214
82
74
87
123
35
82
46
80
11
32
89
85
112
47
19
90
67
98
33
5
85
5
50
53
61
94
105
61
49
107
48
100
34
34
95
99
85
89
40
122
71
123
30
107
122
121
24
70
125
24
64
99
37
95
70
43
37
102
37
58
51
13
75
95
62
116
105
15
97
114
64
49
41
41
109
119
98
37 49-40
35 22-73
23 24-71
4 28-54
28 16-72
32 57-58
7 19-45
26 1-35
33 0-15
8 1-70
49 58-75
51 6-64
33 59-84
49 35-50
23 4-81
37 34-29
56 19-44
43 23-28
13 30-63
45 58-38
47 11-21
46 16-65
52 13-70
23 50-70
34 8-43
44 12-83
23 16-77
21 37-41
3 5-74
28 31-65
38 10-54
22 36-21
17 23-97
13 43-85
28 47-02
23 25-39
34 7-60
49 37-93
12 5577
16 59-91
47 36-60
42 0-67
56 11-47
23 5-85
14 54-53
11 5-61
32 5-23
50 54-39
37 49-48
54 21-16
11 43-21
34 24 77
30 23-95
16 55-15
2 3-85
13 16-07
56 21-16
40 41-18
27 15-17
58 4-19
2 0-02
38 14-35
37 31-63
0 12-24
17 27-30
0 50-63
24 54-15
13 53-74
55 13-08
41 19-45
23 47.-34'
0 55*47
45 35-27
16 1-78
13 13-52
35 35-15
49 33-23
Annual
Variation
in N. P. D.
VOL. IV.
+ 20-17
+ 20-09
+ 20-28
+ 20-06
+ 20-02
+ 20-09
+ 2000
+ 2003
+ 20-02
+ 20-08
+ 20-06
+ 20-10
+ 19-99
+ 19-62
+ 19-95
+ 19-88
+ 19-71
+ 19-68
+ 19-68
+ 19-60
+ 19-71
+ 19-58
+ 19-54
+ 19-40
+ 19-46
+ 19-36
+ 19-58
+ 18-37
+ 19-27
+ 20-15
+ 19-08
+ 18-97
+ 18-95
+ 18-90
+ 18*76
+ 18-72
+ 18-66
+ 18-57
+ 18-58
+ 18-50
+ 18-12
+ 18-32
+ 18-15
+ 18-14
+ 18-16
+ 18-06
+ 17-95
+ 18-25
+ 18-10
+ 17-35
+ 17-26
+ 17-13
+ 17-02
+ 17-41
+ 18-90
+ 16-73
+ 16-79
+ 16-85
+ 16-83
+ 16-01
+ 15-96
+ 16-04
+ 15-70
+ 15-96
+ 15-44
+ 15-43
+ 15-28
+ 14-75,
+ 14-63
+'14-50
+ 14-50
+ 14-47
+ 14-23
+ 14-15
+ 13-99
+ 13-71
+ 13-63
No.
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369'
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
1415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
Star's Name,
49 Bootis, $  
5 Serpentis ....
11 Ursae Minoris
51 Bootis, g1 
32 Librae,  
13 Ursae Min. y...
12 Draconis, z 
37 Librae 
38 Librae, y 
39 Librae,  
5 Coronae, « 
40 Librae 
6 Coronae,  
54 Bootis, f> 
43 Librae,   
24 Serpentis, a....
27 Serpentis, X...
5 Lupi, A  
1 Scorpii, b 
Piazzi, xv. 198...
2 Scorpii, A 
46 Librae, 6  
5 Scorpii, ^ 
16 Ursae Min. £...
6 Scorpii, v 
48 Librae 
13 Coronae, i...
7 Scorpii, 2 ..
8 Scorpii, [i1..
Lupi, 0 
6 Herculis, u
10 Scorpii, u?
13 Draconis, 6.
13 Scorpii, c2
14 Scorpii, v2..
1 Ophiuchi, 2
2 Ophiuchi, i
26 Scorpii,
4 Ophiuchi ...
22 Herculis, r
20 Coronae, U ..
21 Coronae, >2 ..
3 Ophiuchi, u.
21 Scor. a- (Antares)
22 Scorpii...
Normae, a
21 Ursae Minoris,/)
14 Draconis, »
8 Ophiuchi, <p ...
10 Ophiuchi, A ...
23 Scorpii, r 
15 Draconis;, A ...
13 Ophiuchi, £ ...
35 Herculis, a- ....
16 Draconis  
17 Drac. (1st star)
24 Scorpii 
42 Herculis  
40 Herculis, £ ...
44 Herculis, » ...
26 Scorpii, s 
20 Ophiuchi 
52 Herculis   
25 Ophiuchi, i ...
53 Herculis  
27 Ophiuchi, x ...
30 Ophiuchi 
58 Herculis, t ....
HazzijOtyi. 268...
19 Draconis, hl...
59 Herculis, d ...
22 Ursae Minoris, s
35 Ophiuchi, » ...
21 Draconis, g. ...
36 Ophiuchi, A1..
64 Herculis, u ...
22 Draconis, £ ...
Mag.
3
5
5
4-3
4
3
3
5
4-5
4-5
2
4-5
5
5
5
2-3
4- 5
5
5
5
5
5- 4
5-4
4-5
3
4-5-
4
2- 3
2
4-5
4-5
4-5
4-3
5
4
3
3 4
3- 4
5
3- 4
5
5
5
1-2
5
4
5
3 2
5
4- 3
3-4
5
3- 2
4
4- 5
4- 5
5
5- 4
3*2
3
3
5
4-5
4- 5
5
3-4
5-
3-4
5
5
Mean R. A.
1850, J an. 1.
4- 5
2-3
5- 4
5
var.
3
15 9 27-43
15 11 39-63
15 17 15-31
15 18 49-40
15 19 48-25
15 21 0-37
15 21 36-00
15 25 59 18
15 27 8-47
15 27 55-80
15 28 20-28
15 29 27-26
15 29 44-70
15 32 26-35
15 33 18-75
15 36 52-93
15 39 10-13
15 41 26-52
15 41 57-88
15 44 23-50
15 44 36-94
15 45 17-45
15 47 37-90
15 49 31-59
15 49 47 06
15 49 47-74
15 51 22-72
15 51 28-31
15 56 43-33
15 56 45-38
15 58 7-42
15 58 36-83
15 59 5-24
16 3 4-43
16 3 17-06
16 6 29-33
16 10 23-40
16 12 4-63
16 15 19-89
16 15 13-94
16 16 42-67
16 16 50-23
16 19 41-73
16 20 13-07
16 21 5-99
16 21 35-41
16 21 57-22
16 21 58-29
16 22 33-59
16 23 21*10
16 26 33-12
16 28 18-09
16 28 54-20
16 29 16-09
16 32 38-69
16 32 41-38
16 32 54-16
16 34 40-64
16 35 37-98
16 37 45-29
16 40 27-40
16 41 32-37
16 44 50-79
16 46 54-74
16 47 16-84
16 50 3418
16 53 9-09
16 54 33-08
16 54 57-65
16 55 12-75
16 56 4-01
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
1 31-86
1 46-75
2.13-77
6 7-73
7 48-52
8 21-93
+ 2-419
+ 3-042
- 0-086
+ 2-263
+ 3-370
- 0-146
+ 1-332
+ 3-266
+ 3-340
+ 3-620
+ 2-537
+ 3-657
+ 2-198
+ 2-151
+ 3-441
+ 2-948
+ 2-907
+ 3-789
+ 3-586
+ 0-917
+ 3-583
+ 3-405
+ 3-682
- 2-316
+ 3*609
+ 3-346
+ 2-483
+ 3-531
+ 3-473
+ 3-921
+ 1-858
+ 3-503
+ 1-124
+ 3-683
+ 3-472
+ 3133
+ 3-165
+ 3-629
+ 3-496
+ 1-799
+ 2-261
+ 2-269
+ 2-254
+ 3-663
+ 3-629
+ 3-899
- 1-839
+ 0-820
+ 3-425
+ 3-021
+ 3-719
- 0-148
+ 3*295
+ 1-929
+ 1-407
+ 1-403
+ 3-457
+ 1-629
+ 2-261
+ 2-051
+ 3-868
+ 3-308
+ 1-744
+ 2-832
+ 2-266
+ 2-832
+ 3-161
+ 2-290
+ 3-926
+ 0-304
+ 2-205
- 6-458
+ 3-430
+ 1:233
+ 3-678
+ 2-729
+ 0-159
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
56 7
87 39
17 37
52 5
106 11
17 37
30 30
99 32
104 17
117 38
62 46
119 16
50 29
49 9
109 11
83 5
82 10
123 9
115 17
26 56
114 52
106 17
118 46
11 44
115 40
103 50
62 41
112 11
109 23
126 23
43 32
110 27
31 1
117 31
109 3
93 18
94 19
115 13
109 40
43 19
55 50
55 56
98 1
116 5
114 46
124 22
13 54
28 8
106 16
87 41
117 53
20 54'
100 15
47 15
36 47
36 46
107 26
40 46
58- 7
50 47
124 0
100 30
43 45
79 35
58 2
80 23
93 59
58 50
123 54
24 38
56 12
7 43
105 32
35 19
116 22
75 26
24 6
21- 84
49-33
53-31
3903
22- 93
55-84
24-70
46- 74
7-47
1-78
3906
47- 97
20-78
19- 63
17-81
55- 81
23- 95
56- 38
26-16
7-69
29-21
5:35
17-73
48 50
39- 04
33 02
4-88
24- 93
24-94
20- 16
40- 61
31-15
58-94
55-09
58- 66
14-42
22-16
40- 16
53-69
37- 12
41- 19
40-96
55-35
38- 88
44-47
24-76
4-34
42- 40
50-88
0-26
59- 33
26-74
31-26
2-98
47- 84
20-15
48- 93
33-36
20-25
22-63
58-30
46-58
9-97
1- 24
48- 50
15-80
36-42
58-46
22-98
8-53
41-13
28-04
2- 47
49- 60
35-57
4-70
1-33
Annual
Variation
in N. P. D.
+ 13-67
+ 13-98
+ 13-04
+ 12-88
+ 12-95
+ 12-76
+ 12-74
+ 12-72
+ 12-39
+ 12-35
+ 12-39
+ 12-33
+ 12-22
+ 11-96
+ 12-10
+ 11-68
+ 11-60
+ 11-46
+ 11-38
+ 11-24
+ 11-18
+ 11-00
+ 10-98
+ 10-89
+ 10-83
+ 10-89
+ 10-72
+ 10-68
+ 10-30
+ 10-35
+ 10-25
+ 10-17
+ 9-77
+ 9-80
+ 9-81
+ 9-66
+ 9-19
+ 9-09
+ 8-90
+ 8-82
+ 8-82
+ 8-7 5
+ 8-50
+ 8-49
+ 8-34
+ 8-43
+ 8-06
+ 8-24
+ 8-30
+ 8-26
+ 7-97
+ 7-77
+ 7-73
+ 7-68
+ 7-44
+ 7-45
+ 7-43
+ 7-29
+ 6-77
+ 7-11
+ 7-15
+ 6-81
+ 6-53
+ 6-33
+ 6-26
+ 5-96
+ 5-85
+ 5-61
+ 5-67
+ 5-56
+ 5-49
+ 5-05
+ 4-92
+ 4-94
+ 5-79
+ 4-49
+ 4-41
146
ASTRONOMY.
EIGHT ASCENSIONS AND NORTH POLAR DISTANCES OF 652 STARS.
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
66 Herculis ....
40 Ophiuchi, | .
53 Serpentis, » .
42 Ophiuchi, 6 .
44 Ophiuchi, b .
Piazzi, xvii. 99 .
49 Ophiuchi, a .
51 Ophiuchi, c2.
76 Herculis, X ..
23 Draconis, j3 .
55 Ophiuchi,« .
55 Serpentis, |.
24 Draconis, v1.
25 Draconis, v2.
56 Serpentis, a
58 Ophiuchi ....
85 Herculis, /
60 Ophiuchi, [&
28 Draconis, a
3 Sagittarii...
62 Ophiuchi, y
30 Draconis ...
Piazzi, xvii. 294 ..
4 Sagittarii..
64 Ophiuchi,»
32 Draconis, |
94 Herculis, v ...
33 Draconis, y ...
93 Herculis  
9 Sagittarii 
35 Draconis  
10 Sagittarii, y...
70 Ophi. (1st star)
72 Ophiuchi .
103 Herculis, a
13 Sagittarii, «,...
I 15 Sagittarii 
i 19 Sagittarii, § ...
| 36 Draconis  
58 Serpentis, « ...
20 Sagittarii,
1 Lyrae, * 
21 Sagittarii  
Groomb. 2555 ..
22 Sagittarii, X..
Bradley 2313 ..
23 UrsseMinoris,
39 Draconis, b...
42 Draconis  
1 Aquilae 
45 Draconis, d...
3 Lyrae, ae 
3 Aquilae 
27 Sagittarii, <p.,
6 Aquilae 
4 Lyrae, £1(N.st
5 Lyrae, £2(lstst
10 Lyrae, /5 
32 Sagittarii, v1.
34 Sagittarii, a-.
35 Sagittarii, ,v2.
63 Serpentis, 4.
37 Sagittarii, |2.
47 Draconis, a...
13 Lyrae  
13 Aquilae, £ ....
38 Sagittarii,
39 Sagittarii, a.
40 Sagittarii, r.
17 Aquilae, £....
41 Sagittarii, *
5
5
5-4
34
5
5-4
5
5
5
3-2
2
43
4
4
5-4
3- 4
3
5
5
4- 3
5
5
5
4-3
3- 4
4- 5
2,3
5
5- 4
5
3- 4
4- 5
3- 4
4- 3
4
5
3-4
5
3
3- 2
5- 4
5
5
3
5-4
4- 5
5
5
4-5
5
1
5
4- 3
5- 4
4
4
var.
5
2- 3
I '5
4- 3
4
5- 4
5-4
4
3- 4
4
4- 3
3
3
H. M. S.
17 11 33-98
17 12 1-02
17 12 23-52
17 12 47-97
17 17 12-63
17 18 40-49
17 19 4-46
17 22 16 06
17 24 40-61
17 27 2-67
17 27 58-36
17 28 59-95
17 29 13-38
17 29 18-80
17 32 59-13
17 34 26-60
17 35 14-07
17 36 3-68
17 37 50-06
17 38 6-98
17 40 22-20
17 45 29-31
17 49 27-22
17 50 38-14
17 50 46-20
17 50 56-33
17 52 45-78
17 53 7-44
17 53 22-66
17 54 40-50
17 56 10-36
17 56 10-52
17 57 52-35
18 0 14-40
18 1 41-51
18 4 47-59
18 6 15-83
18 11 23-38
18 13 1-88
18 13 33-12
18 14 12-91
18 14 36-36
18 16 24-92
18 17 42-50
18 18 42-70
18 20 38-96
18 20 43-69
18 21 42-91
18 25 33-01
18 27 2-61
18 29 59-24
18 31 51-57
18 35 21-03
18 36 16-88
18 39 13-22
18 39 22-10
18 39 24-44
18 44 32-50
18 45 6-56
18 45 57-67
18 46 2-94
18 48 45-52
18 48 46-68
18 48 58-85
18 50 46-27
18 52 48-75
18 53 3-69
18 55 41-45
18 57 34-20
18 58 30-90
19 0 50-33
+ 2-815
+ 3-588
3-366
3-674
3-654
3-186
2- 973
3- 653
2-419
1- 349
2- 777
3- 429
1-188
1179
+ 3-364
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3-587
1- 704
2- 958
0-362
3- 761
2- 999
1-426
3- 852
3-655
3-299
1- 036
2- 291
1- 390
2- 664
3- 670
2- 696
3- 860
3-028
2-841
2- 336
3- 582
3-571
3-837
0-342
3-100
3-982
2-099
78 58 8-16
110 56 48-00
102 41 23-08
114 50 39-26
114 1 54-77
94 56 58-13
85 43 30-24
113 50 28-06
63 46 22-40
37 35 8-28
77 19 36-02
105 17 55-82
34 42 41-46
34 43 23-70
102 47 24-61
111 36 17-62
43 54 4103
85 21 56-46
21 10 23-36
117 46 4-41
87 13 55-35
39 10 54-23
120 13 55-85
113 47 48-54
99 45 1-22
33 6 8-27
59 47 42-30
38 29 29-35
73 14 12-20
114 21 29-32
13 1 16-37
120 25 12-36
87 27 38-71
80 27 13-12
61 15 16-88
111 5 33-44
110 46 5-63
119 53 9-91
25 39 10-78
92 56 0-49
124 27
54 0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3-569 110 37
1-535
3-701
3-419
19-275
+ 0-871
0-169
3-261
1- 042
2- 029
3- 266
3-751
3-233
1-982
1- 982
2- 211
3-621
3-723
3-629
1-89
0-32
0-13
7-87
+ 2-976
3-579
0-883
1-821
2- 717
3- 820
3-595
3-748
+ 2-751
+ 3-569
40 57
115 29 57-97
104 39 23-98
3 24 10-02
31 17 5-79
24 31 45-49
98 20 39-58
33 4 4-26
51 21 13-69
98 25 7-21
117 8 22-62
94 54 14-06
50 29 2-41
50 32 28-00
56 48 30-41
112 55 26-09
116 28 38-82
112 51 9-82
85 59 14-26
111 17 55-53
30 47 37-72
46 14 57-57
75 7 53-88
120 5 20-72
111 57 20-78
117 53 2-83
76 21 19-92
111 15 23-51
4-30
4-38
4-09
4-08
3-84
3-71
3-54
3-34
3-05
2-87
2-99
2-74
2-63
2-67
2-40
2-19
215
1-92
1-63
1-93
1-80
1-08
1-00
0-86
0-82
0-72
0-62
0-64
0-55
0-49
o-io
0-57
1-28
0-08
0-16
0-41
0-53
0-96
1-15
0-51
1-10
1-30
1-42
1-55
1-40
1-78
1-84
1- 95
2- 17
. 2-03
. 2-58
. 2-50
- 3 09
- 3-17
- 3 34
- 3-47
- 3-52
- 3-84
- 3-91
- 3-92
- 4-01
- 4-32
- 4-21
- 4-26
- 4-41
- 4-48
- 4-57
- 4-78
- 4-73
- 5-00
- 5-23
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
5
4- 5
3
5
4
5- 4
4
3-4
5
43 Sagittarii, d..
21 Lyrae, 0 
57 Draconis, 2...
26 Aquilae, / 
44 Sagittarii, g1
46 Sagittarii, u .
1 Cygni, * 
30 Aquilae, 2 —
2 Cygni  
32 Aquilae, v....
4 Vulpeculae .
58 Draconis, sr .
6 Cygni, £ ....
10 Cygni, <2 ....
38 Aquilae, /&....
52 Sagittarii, A2
44 Aquilae, a-....
13 Cygni, 4 ....
55 Sagittarii, e2
56 Sagittarii,/...
50 Aquilae, y 
18 Cygni, 2 ......
53 Aquilae, a 
58 Sagittarii, tv...
59 Aquilae, | 
59 Sagittarii, b...
60 Aquilae, jS 
63 Draconis, i—
60 Sagittarii, A..
62 Sagittarii, c ..
Piazzi, xix. 366..
15 Vulpeculae ..
67 Draconis,£ ....
65 Aquilae, 6 
28 Cygni, 62 
31 Cygni, a2 
5 Capricorn!, ac1.
6 Capricorn!, o?
33 Cygni  
32 Cygni   
8 Capricorni, v..
9 Capricorni, /3...
Ursae Minor. X
1 Cephei, x 
37 Cygni, y   
10 Capricorn!, <7t..
11 Capricorni, g..
2 Delphini, £ ...
2 Cephei, 6 
4 Delphini, £ ...
6 Delphini, /3 ...
14 Capricorni, t2
9 Delphini,a....,
50 Cygni, a 
16 Capricorni,
2 Aquarii, £ 
3 Aquarii  
3 Cephei,  
18 Capricorni, u>
6 Aquarii, p ..
58 Cygni, v  
Bradley 2727 ...
23 Capricorni, 6..
62 Cygni, \  
13 Aquarii, v 
64 Cygni, t  
8 Equulei, « ....
65 Cygni, r 
4 Piscis Austral.
32 Capricorni.
5 Cephei, «..
5
5
5
3
4
5-4
5-4
5
5-4
5
5
3
3
1-2
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
3
5
4
3-4
3- 4
4- 5
4-5
5
3
5
4- 5
3-2
5
'5
4
4
5- 4
3- 4
5
4- 3
2-1
4-5
4-3
4-5
4-3
4- 5
5- 4
4
5
4
4
4-5
3
4
4
5
4-5
3-2
19 8 51-17
19 11 9-62
19 12 30-36
19 12 32-31
19 12 58-18
19 13 7-97
19 13 37-92
19 17 56-07
19 18 12-75
19 18 50-75
19 18 53-58
19 19 53-25
19 24 40-33
19 25 55-41
19 26 45-65
19 27 34-31
19 31 47-33
19 32 25-17
19 33 56-10
19 37 36-47
19 39 7-66
19 40 17-23
19 43 27-82
19 46 38-60
19 48 58-65
19 47 44 13
19 47 56-71
19 48 39-66
19 49 48-30
19 53 25-51
19 54 48-47
19 54 55-38
20 2 7-70
3 33-70
3 51-41
8 54-58
9 19-79
9 43-67 j
9 54-47
29 10 49-96
20 12 20-27
20 12 34-72
20 13 1-91
20 13 50-42
20 16 50-79
20 18 43-68
20 20 17-88
20 26 2-64
20 27 3-32
20 28 17-70
20 30 30-83
20 30 52-76
20 32 40-24
20 36 19-13
20 37 12-25
20 39 33-14
20 39 49-04
20 42 13-98
20 42 51-53
20 44 33-58
20 51 35-03
20 52 16-14
20 57 30-49
20 59 28-67
+ 3-512
+ 2-076
+ 0-039
20,
20
20
20
20
20
3-203
3-483
3-438
1- 386
3-023
2- 364
3- 070
2-627
0-332
2-416
1- 512
2- 930
3- 657
2- 960
1-610
3- 434
3-504
2-852
1- 875
2- 927
3- 684
2- 908
3- 700
2- 957
0-162
3- 661
3-699
3-794
2-466
+ 0'301
+ 3-097
+ 2-224
+ 1-889
+ 3-329
+ 3-332
+ 1-399
+ 1-851
+ 3-331
+ 3-375
-53-177
1- 859
2- 150
3- 441
3-427
2-863
1-018
2-802
+ 2-810
+ 3-365
+ 2-787
+ 2-040
1 25-02
6 33-23
8 19-35
8 48-33
8 49-67
21 13 53-15
21 14 59-77
3-564
3-251
3-167
1- 233
3-595
3-240
2- 232
1-605
3- 382
+ 2-178
3-271
2-546
2-999
2- 389
3- 657
3-350
1-437
109 12 53-44
52 7 50-67
22 36 812
95 41 29-62
108 7 28-85
106 13 54-46
36 54 22-98
87 10 48-48
60 40 7-73
89 57 22-85
70 29 31-23
24 34 26-19
62 21 7-53
38 35 16-37
82 56 8-64
115 12 34-01
84 56 24-71
40 7 28-57
106 28 13-62
110 7 1-00
79 44 54-55
45 13 58-90
81 31 26-29
116 41 33-95
81 55 23-25
117 33 44-88
83 57 50-95
20 6 51-41
116 35 49-18
118 7 19-25
122 28 23-13
62 39 28-60
22 33 14-08
91 15 44-89
53 35 56-95
43 42 41-11
102 58 4 01
103 0 20-73
33 53 22-57
42 44 39-34
103 13 36-65
105 15 2-97
1 8 22-07
12 44 34-27
50 13 15-37
108 41 56-86
108 18 19-35
79 12 11-31
27 30 32-09
75 50 24-03
75 55 25-12
105 28 38-46
74 36 49-36
45 15 12-29
115 48 18-44
100 2 28-67
95 34 24-33
28 44 32-26
117 28 35-70
99 32 32-51
49 24 29-00
33 41 18-52
107 49 30-24
46 40 6-09
101 58 32-90
60 23 9-39
85 22 10-10
52 35 32-82
122 47 45-87
107 28 11-82
28 2 55-57
Ho. 468, Groombridge 2555. The annual variations do not include proper motions.
No. 470, Bradley 2313. The annual variation in R. A. does not include proper motion.
No. 557, Bradley 2727. The annual variation in R. A. does not include proper motion.
147
ASTRONOMY.
RIGHT ASCENSIONS AND NORTH POLAR DISTANCES OF 652 STARS.
No.
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
Star’s Name.
34 Capricorni, g
22 Aquarii, /3 
71 Cygni, g  
8 Cephei, /5 
73 Cygni, ? 
39 Capricorni, s...
23 Aquarii, | 
40 Capricorni, y..
43 Capricorni, x...
9 Piscis Aust. /
80 Cygni, tr1 
8 Pegasi, s
Mag.
78 Cygni, g} \
78 Cygni, g? J
49 Capricorni, 2..
11 Cephei 
10 Cephei, v 
81 Cygni, <r2 
Groomb. 3590  
51 Capricorni, g.
34 Aquarii, a 
33 Aquarii,
17 Cephei, g1 )
17 Cephei, J
27 Pegasi, ir1 
26 Pegasi, 6 
29 Pegasi, ?r2 
21 Cephei, £ 
43 Aquarii, 6 .. .
23 Cephei, s 
48 Aquarii, y....
32 Pegasi 
2 Lacertae 
52 Aquarii, vr....
3 Lacertae, /3 ....
55 Aqua. £ (N. st.)
57 Aquarii, o’...
17 Piscis Austr
27 Cephei, S2...
7 Lacertae 
62 Aquarii, » .
63 Aquarii, x..
9 Lacertae  
31 Cephei 
4
3
5
3
4- 5
5- 4
5-4
4-3
5
5
5’4
2- 3
4-5
3
5
5
4- 5
5
5
3
4
5- 4
5
3- 4
4
4- 3
4- 5
5- 4
4- 3
5
5- 4
5-4
4’5
3- 4
5-4
4
var.
4
4- 3
5
5
5
Mean R. A.
1850, Jan. 1.
18 5-57
23 39*50
23 54-76
26 42-34
28 20-59
28 40-34
29 45-80
31 46-30
34 16-46
36 0-00
36 46-17
36 49-10
37 26-16
37 26-57
38 45-22
39 42-90
41 7-52
41 15-37
44 21-69
45 6-72
58 4-64
58 19-69
59 16-04
59 26-94
2 35-10
2 37-93
3 19-75
5 39’53
8 54-77
9 31-12
13 54-42
14 24-00
14 50-22
17 36-97
17 40-37
21 6-35
22 42-11
22 57-89
23 36-64
25 7-35
27 38-70
29 59-02
31 13-20
32 3-92
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
+ 3-438
+ 3-162
+ 2-201
+ 0-805
+ 2-248
+ 3-369
+ 3-197
+ 3-335
+ 3-358
+ 3-595
+ 2-117
+ 2-947
+ 2-681
+ 2-681
+ 3-318
+ 0-914
+ 1-729
+ 2-207
+ 1-096
+ 3-280
+ 3-080
+ 3-246
+ 1-738
+ 1-701
4- 2-651
+ 3-029
+ 2-655
+ 2-071
+ 3-170
+ 2-196
+ 3-100
+ 2-759
+ 2-463
+ 3064
+ 2-346
+ 3-087
+ 3-173
+ 3-431
+ 2-211
+ 2-456
+ 3-082
+ 3-108
+ 2-452
4- 1-490
Mean N. P. D.
1850, J an. 1.
113 3
96 13
44 7
20 5
45 4
110 8
98 31
107 20
109 32
123 42
39 29
80 48
61 55
61 56
106 48
19 22
29 34
41 22
20 32
104 15
91 2
104 35
26 6
26 6
57 33
84 32
57 33
32 32
98 31
33 42
92 8
62 25
44 13
89 22
38 31
90 47
101 26
123 6
32 21
40 29
90 53
95 0
39 13
17 8
28-40
41- 74
9-09
49-54
10-18
6-99
27- 87
13-82
49-84
26-62
36- 70
37- 09
58-66
0-84
18-83
42- 77
12-21
58-42
37-12
18-52
47-27
41- 89
6-28
6-99
31-19
17-34
22-10
13- 08
42- 32
11-28
28- 37
24-31
2-06
55-93
16-87
8-23
37-21
51-25
5-44
14- 37
20-61
0-84
41-39
4-94
Annual
Variation
in N. P. D,
15-28
15-57
15-47
15-69
15-73
15-84
15-86
15- 98
16- 13
16-12
16-25
16-27
16-04
16-04
16-09
16-49
16-45
16-47
16-65
16- 70
17- 26
17-23
17-42
17-34
17-43
17-52
17-51
17-59
17-72
17-79
■ 17-97
■ 17-97
17- 99
■ 18-08
• 17-88
. 18-25
. 18-33
• 18-21
■ 18-29
18- 36
18-39
■ 18-42
- 18-46
• 18-64
No.
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
Star’s Name.
Mag.
18 Piscis Austr. s
42 Pegasi, £ 
43 Pegasi, a 
44 Pegasi, * 
71 Aquarii, t2 —
48 Pegasi, g. 
32 Cephei,   
73 Aquarii, X 
76 Aquarii, S 
Bradley 3038  
24 Pis. Austr. «-i
(Fomalhaut) J
1 Andromedae, a
4 Piscium, /3 
53 Pegasi, (i  
54 Pegasi, ee ......
33 Cephei, sr 
7 Andromedae...
90 Aquarii, q> 
91 Aquarii, ^ ...
6 Piscium, y.
Sculptoris, y...
95 Aquarii, •vp ...
62 Pegasi,   
68 Pegasi,   
8 Piscium, * 
10 Piscium, 6 
16 Andromedae, X
17 Andromedae, /..
17 Piscium, / 
19 Andromedae, x
35 Cephei, y 
18 Piscium, X 
20 Andromedae, \p
5 Cassiopeiae, r.,
Sculptoris, §...
7 Cassiopeiae, »...
8 Cassiopeiae, a-..
28 Piscium, a.
Bradley 3195.
30 Piscium ....
2 Ceti 
33 Piscium ....
4
3- 4
5
3
4
4
4- 3
4
3
5
1-2
4- 3
3- 4
2- 3
2
5- 4
5
4- 5
5- 4
4
5-4
5
5-4
5-4
5-4
4-5
4
4
4-5
4
3- 4
5
5
5
4- 5
5
5
4
5
5
4-5
5
Mean R. A.
1850, Jan. 1.
22 32
22 33
22 34
22 35
22 41
22 42
22 44
22 44
22 46
22 47
20- 99
58-88
43-24
58-55
38-64
46- 09
21- 26
47- 02
40-80
55-55
22 49 21-07
22 55
22 56
22 56
22 57
23 3
23
23
23
23
23 10
23 11
23 13
23 17
23 19
23 20
23 30
23 30
23 32
23 33
23 33
23 34
23 38
23 39
23 41
23 46
23 51
23 51
23 53
23 54
23 56
23 57
1-78
14-66
30-52
17-51
8- 54
41- 49
33-11
1-54
23-39
42- 65
9- 28
13- 17
53- 89
14- 62
21-59
14-42
47-55
14-22
1-99
14- 00
23-58
36-97
44-76
6-39
54- 85
25-58
36-59
59-60
15- 93
3-10
39-28
Annual
Variation
in R. A.
+ 3-333
+ 2-985
+ 2-807
+ 2-800
+ 3-182
+ 2-885
+ 2-112
+ 3-128
+ 3-189
-0-006
+ 3-331
+ 2-742
+ 3-052
+ 2-896
+ 2-981
+ 1-883
+ 2-723
+ 3-109
+ 3-146
+ 3-105
+ 3-260
+ 3121
+ 2’957
+ 2-982
+ 3-074
+ 3-037
+ 2-911
+ 2-914
+ 3-082
+ 2-926
+ 2-387
+ 3-057
+ 2-944
+ 2-889
+ 3-141
+ 2-952
+ 2-998
+ 3-075
+ 3-009
+ 3-077
+ 3-077
+ 3-070
Mean N. P. D.
1850, Jan. 1.
117 49
79 57
61 28
60 33
104 22
66 11
24 35
98 22
106 37
7 38
29-04
0-63
25-93
43-19
58-54
21-44
15-18
35-79
1-58
32-07
120 24 57-91
48 28
86 59
62 43
75 36
15 25
41 24
96 51
99 54
87 32
123 20
100 25
67 4
67 25
89 33
84 26
44 21
47 33
85 11
46 29
13 12
89 2
44 24
32 11
118 57
33 20
35 4
83 58
29 36
96 50
108 10
96 32
44-70
12-12
46- 87
3-27
22-01
44- 56
24-71
15-18
11-58
54-34
48-20
47- 38
15-63
54-17
40-00
15- 03
42-83
10-70
45- 48
16- 77
42-85
44-71
0-38
33-43
6-68
47- 75
2-62
44-60
5210
14-18
48- 93
Annual
Variation
in N. P. D.
-18-57
-18-66
-18-65
-18-68
-18-87
-18-89
-18-83
-18-96
-19-04
-19-12
-18-93
-19-24
-19-26
-19-44
-19-29
-19-40
-19-59
-19-32
-19-52
-19-56
-19-52
-19-61
-19-63
-19-75
-19-62
-19-70
-19-46
-19-91
-19-46
— 19-93
-20-07
-19-76
-19-96
-20-04
-19-89
-20-01
-20-07
-19-91
-20-04
-2001
-20-05
-20 08
No. 590, |2 Cephei. The annual variations do not include proper motion.
No. 649, Bradley, 3195. The annual variation in B,.A. does not include proper motion.
148
ASTRONOMY.
Sect. II.— Table of Atmospherical Refractions, with Corrections for the Height of the Barometer and Thermometer.
App. Refr. B.30 Diff. for Diff. for Diflf. for I App.  
Altitude. Th. 50°. 1'Alt. +18. — l°Fa. Altitude. Th.50°.
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
1 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
2 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
3 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
33 51
32 53
31 58
31 5
30 13
29 24
28 37
27 51
27 6
26 24
25 43
25 3
24 25
23 48
23 13
22 40
22 8
21 37
21 7
20 38
20 10
19 43
19 17
18 52
18 29
18 5
17 43
17 21
17 0
16 40
16 21
16 2
15 43
15 25
15 8
14 51
14 35
14 19
14 4
13 50
13 35
13 21
13 7
12 53
12 41
12 28
12 16
12 3
11-7
11-3
10-9
10-5
10-1
9?7
9-4
9-0
8-7
8-4
8-0
7;7
7-4
7’1
6-9
6-6
6-3
61
5-9
5-7
5-5
5-3
5-1
4-9
4-8
4-6
4-4
4-3
4-1
4-0
3-9
3-7
3-6
3-5
3-4
3-3
3-2
31
30
2-9
2-8
2-7
2-7
2-6
2-5
2-4
2-4
2-3
74
71
69
67
65
63
61
59
58
56
55
53
52
50
49
48
46
45
44
43
42
40
39
39
38
37
36
36
35
34
33
33
32
32
31
30
30
29
29
28
28
27
27
26
26
25
25
25
8-1
7-6
73
7-0
6-7
6-4
61
5-9
5-6
5-4
5-1
4-9
4-7
4-6
4-5
4-4
4-2
4-0
3-9
3-8
3-6
3-5
3-4
3-3
3-2
31
3-0
2-9
2-8
2-8
2-7
2-7
2-6
2-5
2-4
2-3
2-3
2-2
2-2
2-1
2-1
2-0
20
2-0
1-9
1-9
1-9
1-8
4 0
10
20
30
40
50
5 0
10
20
30
40
50
6 0
10
20
30
40
50
7 0
10
20
30
40
50
8 0
10
20
30
40
50
9 0
10
20
30
40
50
10 0
10
20
30
40
50
11 0
10
20
30
40
50
Refr. 8.30 DifF. for DitF. for Diff. for
11 52
11 30
11 10
10 50
10 32
10 15
9 58
9 42
9 27
9 11
8 58
8 45
8 32
8 20
8 9
7 58
7 47
7 37
7 27
7 17
7 8
6 59
6 51
6 43
6 35
6 28
6 21
6 14
6 7
6 0
1' Alt.
2-2
2-1
2-0
1-9
1-8
1-7
1-6
1-5
1-5
1-4
1-3
1-3
1-2
1-2
M
11
1-0
1-0
1-0
0-9
0-9
0-8
0-8
0-8
0-7
07
0-7
0-7
0-7
0-6
0-6
0-6
0-6
0-6
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-4
0-4
0-4
0-4
0-4
0-4
0-4
+ 1 8.
241
23-4
22-7
220
21-3
20-7
20-1
19 6
19-1
18-6
18-1
17-6
17-2
16-8
16-4
16-0
15-7
15-3
15-0
14-6
14-3
14-1
13-8
13-5
13-3
13-1
12-8
12-6
12-3
121
11-9
11-7
11-5
11-3
11-1
11-0
10-8
10-6
10-4
10-2
10-1
9-9
9-8
9-6
9-5
9-4
9-2
91
— 1° Fa. Altitude.
1-70
1-64
1-58
1-53
1-48
1-43
1-38
1-34
1-30
1-26
1-22
M9
M5
Ml
1-09
1-06
1-03
1-00
0-98
0-95
0-93
0-91
0-89
0-87
0-85
0-83
0-82
0-80
0-79
0-77
0-76
0-74
0-73
0-71
0-71
0-70
0-69
0-67
0-65
0-64
0-63
0-62
0-60
0-59
0-58
0-57
0-56
0-55
App.
12 0
10
20
30
40
50
13 0
10
20
30
40
50
14 0
10
20
30
40
50
15 0
30
16 0
30
17 0
30
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Refr. 8.50
Th. 50°.
28-1
24-4
20-8
173
13-9
10-7
4 7-5
4 4-4
4 1-4
3 58-4
3 55-5
3 £2-6
3 49-9
3 47 1
3 44-4
3 41-8
3 39-2
3 36-7
3 34-3
3 27 3
3 20-6
3 14-4
3 8-5
3 2-9
57-6
477
38-7
30-5
23-2
16-5
2 10-1
2 4-2
1 58-8
1 53-8
l 49-1
1 44-7
1 40-5
1 36-6
1 33-0
1 29-5
1 261
1 23-0
20-0
17-1
14-4
11-8
9-3
6-9
Diff. for Diff. for Diff. for
1' Alt.
0-38
0-37
0-36
0-35
0-33
0-32
0-31
0-31
0-30
0-30
0-29
0-29
0-28
0-28
0-27
0-26
0-26
0-25
0-24
0-22
0-21
0-20
0-19
0-18
0-17
0-16
0-15
0-13
012
0-11
0-10
0-09
0-09
0-08
0-08
0-07
0-07
0-06
0-06
0-06
0-05
0-05
0-05
0-05
0-05
0-04
0-04
0-04
+ B.
9-00
8-86
8-74
8-63
8-51
8-41
8-30
8-20
8-10
8-00
7-89
7'79
7-70
7-61
7-52
7-43
7-34
7-26
7-18
6-95
6-73
6-51
6-31
6-12
5-98
5-61
5-31
5-04
4-79
4-57
4-35
4-16
3-97
3-81
3-65
3-50
3-36
3-23
3-11
2-99
2-88
2-78
2-68
2-58
2-49
2-40
2-32
2-24
— l°Fa. Altitude
0-556
0-548
0-541
0-533
0-524
0-517
0-509
0-503
0-496
0-490
0-482
0-476
0-469
0-464
0-458
0-453
0-448
0-444
0-439
0-424
0-411
0-399
0-386
0-374
0-362
0-340
0-322
0-305
0-290
0-276
0-264
0-252
0-241
0-230
0-219
0-209
0-201
0-193
0-186
0-179
0-173
0-167
0-161
0-155
0-149
0-144
0-139
0-134
App.
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
91
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
Refr. 8. 30 Diff. for Diff. for
Th. 50°.
1' Alt.
1 4-6
1 2-4
1 0-3
0 58-1
56-1
54-2
52-3
50-5
48-8
47-1
45-4
43-8
42-2
40-8
39-3
37-8
36r4
350
33-6
32-3
310
29-7
28-4
27-2
25-9
24-7
23-5
22-4
21-2
19-9
18-8
17-7
16-6
15-5
14-4
13-4
12-3
11-2
10-2
9-2
8-2
7-1
6-1
5-1
4-1
3-1
2-0
1-0
0-038
0-036
0-034
0-034
0-033
0032
0-031
0-030
0-029
0028
0-027
0-026
0-026
0025
0025
0-025
0-024
0-024
0023
0022
0-022
0-021
0021
0-020
0020
0 020
0-020
0-020
0-020
0-020
0019
0-018
0018
0018
0018
0-017
0-017
0017
0-017
0-017
0-017
0-017
0-017
0-017
0-017
0-017
0-017
o-oi7
+ 18.
2-16
2-09
202
1-94
1-88
1-81
1-75
1-69
1-63
1-58
1-52
1-47
1-41
1-36
1-31
1-26
1-22
M7
1 12
1-08
104
0-99
0-95
0-91
0-87
0-83
0-79
0-75
0-71
0-67
0-63
0-59
0-56
0-52
0-48
0-45
0-41
0-38
0-34
0-31
0-27
0-24
0-20
0-17
0-14
0-10
0-07
0-03
Diff. for
— l0Fa.
0-130
0125
0-120
0-117
0-112
0-108
0-104
0-101
0-097
0-094
0-090
0-088
0-085
0-082
0-079
0 076
0-073
0-070
0067
0-065
0 062
0-060
0-057
0055
0-052
0 050
0-047
0-045
0043
0-040
0-038
0-036
0-033
0-03!
0-029
0-027
0-025
0-023
0-021
0-018
0 016
0-014
0-012
0-010
0-008
0-006
0-004
0 002
Explanation of the Table of Refractions.
This table is computed upon principles explained by the late Dr Young in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1819; and it appears to agree more perfectly
with the latest observations than any other table before published.
The apparent altitude being found in the first column, the second shows
the refraction when the barometer stands at 30 inches, which is its mean
height on the level of the sea, and the thermometer at 50° of Fahrenheit.
The third column contains the difference to be subtracted or added for every
minute of altitude, reckoned from the nearest number in the first column.
The fourth shows the number of seconds to be added for every inch that the
height of the barometer exceeds 30, or to be subtracted for each inch that it
wants of 30: and the last contains the number of seconds to be subtracted
for each degree that the thermometer stands above 50°, or to be added for
each degree that its height wants of 50°.
If great accuracy be required, we must also deduct from the observed height
of the barometer -003 inch for each degree that the thermometer near it is above
50°, and add an equal quantity for an equal depression. In fact, however, the
table, as it now stands, is found to require the temperature to be estimated
from the height of the thermometer within; and if we employed the height
of the thermometer without, which would be more consistent with the theory,
it would probably be necessary to suppose the standard temperature of the
table 48° only (or rather 47°), instead of 50°.
Examples.
1. At 7° 18' 13", barometer 29-87, thermometer 66°, the refraction is 6'52"-26,
from twenty-two observations of Bradley.
2. At 19° 18' 19", barometer 30 045, thermometer 34°, the refraction is 2' 51"-5,
from three observations of Bradley.
3. At 13° 43', barometer 29-85, thermometer 45°, the refraction is 3' 55"-85,
from 156 observations of Mr Pond.
1. Alt. 7° 20' B. 7'
+
8"
1-62
DifF. Alt. "-9
•8
1' 47''
1'
9-62
16-74
52-88
52-26
+ 1 -62
Error  0-62
2. Alt. 19° R. 2' 47"-7
— 2 -93
2 44
5
Diff. Alt. "-16
18' 19" = 18 -3
— 2-93
Error l"-0 2 50 -46
3. Alt. 13° 40' R. 3' 55"-5
+ -36
Diff. Alt. "-29
3
-86
•85
87
Error.
•01
B. 14"-3
— -13
1 -86
B. 5"-61
+ -045
•252
B. 7"-89
•15
_ 1
•18
•87
2 05
Th. "-93
— 16
14-88
1-86
16-74
Th. "-34
+ 16
5'44
Practical
Astronomy
ASTKONOM
CHAl'. IV.
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
149
There are two principal objects to be accomplished by
astronomical instruments; the one is the extension and
improvement of the science; and the other its applica¬
tion to geography5 navigation, and the ordinary wants of so*
dety. Here we give the name astronomical instruments to
such as in their application are directed to the heavenly
bodies, as a telescope is directed to a star, and the axis of
a sun-dial to the pole; but we do not consider as astro¬
nomical instruments orreries, and machines composed of
wheels and pinions, sych as exhibit imperfectly represen-
tations of the celestial motions. Globes are indeed appro¬
priate furniture in an observatory, because thev truly ex¬
hibit the relative positions of the stars and the different
countries; and they serve to resolve approximately the
different problems of the sphere. But complex orreries,
and planetary clocks are mere playthings. They excite
admiration by the ingenuity displayed in their construc¬
tion, but they are of no practical use. Showmen pretend
to teach astronomy by their assistance; but their inutility
in giving just notions of the dimensions and magnitudes
of the bodies which form the solar system may be easily
conceived by reflecting, that if in an orrery the earth be
represented by a sphere one inch in diameter, the repre¬
sentation of the sun should be nine feet; also, that if the
representation of Mercury describe a circle of about four
inches radius, then the orbit of Uranus should have its
radius sixteen feet.
Judicious teachers of astronomy may, however, employ
with advantage simple contrivances to facilitate the ac¬
quiring of correct notions of the celestial motions; but
they will direct the attention to a single object at a time,
and not attempt to exhibit all the phenomena of the
heavens at once. "W ooden wheels and catgut bands are
just as useful for the purpose in question as metallic
wheels and pinions. A globe moved by the hand round a
candle will serve to show the changes of the seasons; and
in like manner the phases of the moon, her nodes and
their motion, and the nature of eclipses, may be all ex¬
plained by simple and easy contrivances.
1. Astronomical Telescope.
In a subsequent part of this work the theory of the te¬
lescope, and the various kinds of telescopes, will be fully
explained. As, however, the telescope forms an essential
part of almost all complex astronomical instruments, it
will be proper to explain here in a general way its prin-
ciples and use.
fhe astronomical telescope is composed of two princi¬
pal parts, the object-glass, and the eye-glass or eye-piece.
these are in opposite ends of a tube; and in its applica¬
tion the former is next the object, and the latter next the
eye. In telescopes of the best construction the object-
glass is composed of two and sometimes of three pieces.
(See Achromatic Glasses.) We shall here, however,
suppose it of the simplest form; that is, a very thin double
convex glass, the opposite sides being portions of spheri¬
cal surfaces.
Let ABDE (Plate XC. fig. 131) be a lens of this
torm, C being the centre of a sphere, of which ABE is
a portion of the surface. Let L be any point in an object
to be viewed with the telescope, and let a ray of light
proceeding from L fall perpendicularly on the convex
surface in B: it will pass through the glass without being
turned out of its direction, and will proceed straight for¬
ward on the prolongation of the line LBD.
Let another ray LI fall obliquely on the convex surface
at Iby the principles of optics this will be refracted, Practical
that is, turned out of the direction LI, and take a new Astrononi3r
direction IPP. Draw Cl to the centre; the new direc-
tion will be such that the sine of the angle of incidence
MIL or GIL will be to the sine of the refracted angle
CIP or CIP in the constant ratio of a given number n to 1.
We have therefore
^ sin. CIL _ sin. CIL sin. ICP_ CL IP
sin. CIP sin. ICL * sin. CIP~1lT ’ ■CP*
Let us suppose the point I to be near B; then IP=BP
nearly, and IL — BL nearly, and we have
CL • BP
n —
BL • CP’ near'y-
•O)
When the ray arrives at the concave surface ADE, it
suffers a second refraction in passing into the air, and
changes its direction from PP into a new direction PL'.
Let C' be the centre of a sphere, of which ADE is a part
of the surface: draw the radius C'P, and we shall have
sin. C'I'L': sin. C'PP :: n : I; and therefore
n = sin- C' P L' _ sin. C'PL' sin. PC'P_ C'L' PP
sin. G P P — sin. PC'!/ sin. C'PP ~ PL7' C'P*
We suppose the arcs IB, PD, to be small; therefore PP
— PD nearly, and PL' = DL' nearly; hence
_ C'L'-PD
” ^ DL' • C'P’ near1^
Since the thickness of the lens is supposed to be incon¬
siderable, we may assume that PD = PB nearly, and that
DL' = BL nearly, and then we have
C'L' - PB
n ~ BL' • C'P 
Let r = CB, r1 = C'B, a = BL, A' = BL',
and equations (1) and (2) become
„-V(r + A) t,(V+A')
A(v — ry A'(v + r/)'
= PB,
from these we obtain
n n—1
v
and hence
1 , n
~ j and
A v
A'
n—1
When a ray of light passes out of air into glass, the sine
of the angle of incidence is to the sine of the angle of re¬
fraction as 3 to 2 nearly, or as 4 to 1. In this case
n = It, and
A ^ A' * \r+ r'J’
This expression will be the very same if we put r in¬
stead of /, and P instead of r,- also, if we put A for A',
and A for A. Hence we may infer, that whichever of the
two convex sides of the object-glass be turned towards
the object L, the value of A' will be the same for a given
value of A; also, that if L' be the focus to which rays is¬
suing from L converge after refraction, then L will be the
locus to which rays issuing from L' would converge after
passing through the obj’ect-glass.
If A, the distance of L from the object-glass, be very
great, then —will be very small in respect of -^7; and in
the case of the heavenly bodies vanishes, and we have
simply
If we suppose both sides of the object-glass to be alike
convex, that is, r = P, then A! = r; hence we learn, 1st,
tlmt all rays which come from any point whatever of a
150
ASTRONOMY.
Practical very remote object, and which traverse a double convex
Astronomy. g.]ass 0f eqUai curvature on both sides, are united by re-
fraction about its centre of sphericity, which is called its
principal focus ; 2d, that rays which proceed from a point
at the centre of sphericity do, after refraction, proceed
in lines which may be considered as parallel. All these
conclusions are only true approximately. They suppose
the convex arcs ABE ADE small, and the thickness of
the glass very little; nevertheless they differ but little
from truth: the focus L is not indeed a mathematical
point, but has a certain magnitude, which varies with the
distance of the object and the breadth of the lens.
If we now suppose that two lenses, BD, bd (fig- 132),
are adapted to the extremity of a tube, so that their cen¬
tres of sphericity coincide at the same point F, and that
this point and the centres of the lenses are in the same
straight line, then, from what has been explained, it fol¬
lows that rays coming from a distant object L, after pass¬
ing through the lens BD or object-glass, will be collect¬
ed at F (which is therefore called the focus of parallel
rays), and will there form an image of the object L .
also, that all the rays, after crossing in the focus F, will
proceed forward; but in passing through the second lens
or eye-glass bd, they will be again refracted, and emerge
on the other side in parallel lines ; and if they enter an eye
now situated at O, these parallel rays will produce distinct
vision.
The eye does not see directly the remote object AL,
but only its image formed at the focus F, and this in re¬
spect to the object is inverted; for the rays proceeding
from A and falling on the object-glass at B, are by refrac¬
tion turned into the direction BF, and meet the glass at
5. In like manner, the rays which are emitted from C,
and pass through the object-glass at D, meet the eye-gla.ss
on the opposite side at /3: thus the object AC and its
image formed at F have opposite positions.
The astronomical telescope, then, differs from the com¬
mon telescope for viewing objects at a distance, in revers¬
ing the position of objects seen through it, also the direc¬
tion of their motions, the upper limb of the sun or moon
appearing the lower, and all the heavenly bodies appear¬
ing to move from west to east. This, which would be an in¬
convenience with terrestrial objects, is of no consequence
in viewing the stars.
The surface of the object-glass being always much
greater than that of the eye-glass, which has a shorter
focus, and all the rays which fall on the surface BD of
the former being collected on the surface bd of the latter,
they are there condensed, and the illumination is increas¬
ed in the inverse proportion of the areas of the glasses;
so that if the intensity of the light which falls on the ob¬
ject-glass be represented by 1, that on the eye-glass will
more luminous and more easily distinguished. They also
magnify objects; for let A be the centre and B the bor¬
der of an object (fig. 133). The point A is visible to
the eye O, by the ray ADaEO which traverses the object-
glass D and eye-glass E, but suffers no refraction. (We here
do not consider the oblique rays, which, proceeding from
A, are collected at the principal focus.) The border B
is visible by the ray BD6 at the focus b of the object-
glass. This ray meets the eye-glass at d, and is there turn¬
ed by refraction into the direction de ; and, in emerging
from the glass at e, is again refracted to O, its focus, so
that OE is parallel to E£>. The image is seen under the
angle eOE = 6Ea: but ab = Da tan. D, therefore
Da 1 f -p. T-.  1 i T'v
tan. E := tt- tan. D — — tan. D, or E = — D ;
Ea r r
R being the radius of sphericity of the object-glass, and r Practical
that of the eye-glass. The angle under which the object ^tronomy.
is seen is therefore increased in the proportion of the two
radii, and the magnifying power is the greater, as the ra¬
dius of the eye-glass is less than that of the object-glass.
Common astronomical telescopes generallymagnify from
70 to 100 times; some even magnify 300 times. This, how¬
ever, must not be understood in a rigorous sense; if, for
example, we expect to see the moon 100 times larger with a
telescope which is said to magnify 100 times, we may be
disappointed. To produce this effect, the telescope ought
to magnify more: it only represents the moon under an
angle 100 times greater; but it is not by the visual angle
alone that we judge of magnitude ; our opinion is greatly
influenced by the distance at which we suppose the ob¬
ject. When we see an object under the angle AKB (fig.
134) , nothing determines whether this object is truly AB,
or CD, or EFF; and according as we judge it to be in the
first, or second, or third of these positions, or in one more
remote, we assign to it magnitudes always increasing al¬
though the angle is still the same. But this judgment
being uncertain, and such as cannot be subjected to cal¬
culation, the magnifying power of a telescope is in prac¬
tice estimated by the angle of vision, which can always be
exactly determined.
Let F be the principal focus of the object-glass C (fig.
135) . If the angle HCG is such, that HG (—2 HF)=2 CF
tan. HCF is equal to the diameter of the interior tube of
the telescope, the angle HCG is called the field of view :
every object whose focal image is greater than HG cannot
be seen entirely in the telescope. This happens in the
case of the sun and moon when viewed with telescopes of
\ feet, such as are used in considerable observa-
In these, the sun’s image will be about 9^ inches.
hence telescopes in general render objects
about feet,
tories. I. , — - u .
This exceeds the diameter of the tube. But the opening
is yet more contracted by a perforated diaphragm, which,
besides other purposes, serves to cut off the rays irregu¬
larly reflected from the inside of the tube, also those
which produce colour in the image. To determine the
field in view as limited by the diaphragm, then, we have
HG 2 HF
this equation ; 2 tan. HCF =-^ = —. If we put r
for HF, the radius of the diaphragm, and R for CF, the
radius of sphericity of the object-glass, the field of view
in seconds is ,5—:—rr,.
R sin. 1"
2. Dorpat Telescope.
The late Joseph Fraunhofer of Munich, a most skilful
artist and experimenter in optics (whose demise in 1826,
in the prime of life, was a great loss to science), con¬
structed a magnificent refracting telescope for the obser¬
vatory of the Imperial University at Dorpat. It was re¬
ceived by Professor Struve in the year 1825, and has since
been found to fulfil most satisfactorily his expectation and
the intentions of the maker. As this is one of the most
magnificent instruments of the kind that has hitherto been
constructed, and described by a figure, we have given an
engraving of it, copied from the Memoirs of the Astrono¬
mical Society. (See Plate XCII.)
The object-glass of this telescope is about inches in
diameter, and its focal length about 14 English feet. The
main tube is 13*8 feet; and, in addition, there is the small
tube which holds the eye-pieces. Of these there are four;
the least magnifying power is 175, and the greatest 700.
After the telescope was received at Dorpat, a perfect mi¬
crometrical apparatus was ordered to be made for it. This
was to consist of four annular micrometers, of which two
were to be double; a lamp circular micrometer, with four
ASTRONOMY.
151
Practical eye-pieces ; a refracting lamp net micrometer, with posi-
Astronomy. tion circles, and four eye-pieces.
The frame-work of the stand is made of oak, and the
tube of deal, veneered with mahogany. The whole weight
of the telescope and its counterpoises is supported at one
point, namely, at the common centre of gravity of all the
ponderous parts. These weigh 3000 Russian pounds, of
which the frame-work contains 1000 ; the remaining 2000
are so balanced in every position, that the telescope may
be turned, with ease and certainty, in every direction to¬
wards the heavens.
The basis of the frame is formed of two cross beams,
each nine feet seven inches long. The ends of these are
seen in the figure at A, B, C, D. They are braced by
four smaller bars forming a square, one of which is seen
at E. This braced cross is fastened to the floor by eight
screws, six of which are seen in the figure. A perpendi¬
cular post, about six feet high and seven inches square, is
fixed over the centre of the cross, and is propped at the
north, east, and west sides by three curved stays, de¬
noted by G, G', G", which are fixed at their lower ends to
the beams of the cross, and at the upper to the vertical
post. An inclined beam H of the same thickness rests
on the southern end of the meridian beam of the cross,
and is attached to the vertical beam in a position paral¬
lel to the polar axis. This axis, shown in the figure at I,
is a cylinder of steel 39 inches long, and proportionally
thick. It turns in two collars, and its lower end, which
is rounded and polished, rests on a steel plate attached to
the bearing piece K, which is secured to the inclined beam
H, and has therefore very little friction, the weight being
supported by friction rollers near the common, centre of
gravity; and a counterpoise L is applied to support the
axis in any position. There is a circle 13 inches in dia¬
meter, graduated to minutes of time, fixed to the lower
end of the axis, and furnished with verniers. The axis
of vertical motion of the telescope, which has nearly the
dimensions of the polar axis, passes through a brass tube
at right angles to the latter; the tube, which is seen at
M, forms a part of the frame, and is fastened to the upper
end of the polar axis by twelve screws. This axis car¬
ries the circle of declination, which is 19 inches in dia¬
meter, and is divided to every 10', with a vernier reading
10" or 5" by estimation. The tube of the telescope is
fixed to the frame-work nearer to the eye end than the
middle, and has two counterpoises attached to levers,
which balance the two ends, and prevent the natural ten¬
dency of the longer end to bend. The brass frame hold¬
ing the two axes appears on the figure clamped to the
tube by two strong rings, one at eacli end of the centre
of motion. A bent lever, carrying the weight O, em¬
braces by a double ring the near end of the axis of the
declination circle. The axis itself carries another weight;
and by this and the weight O it is counterpoised. The
slow motion in altitude is given to the telescope by a
Hooke’s joint applied to the screw of the clamp, which
has a spring urging it against a strong iron bar P, at¬
tached to the end of the cylinder M, that forms a stop to
the circle; and a slow equatorial motion is given by a
second Hooke’s joint taking hold of an endless screw,
acting with the racked edge of the hour circle, while a
spring presses it into action uniformly, and a lever is em¬
ployed to raise it out of the rack when necessary. The
handles taking hold of these screws extend to the reach of
the observer, who can thus point his telescope in right
ascension and declination with the same certainty as the
best meridian instrument.
A regular sidereal motion is communicated to the in¬
strument by clock-work, which keeps a star apparently
at rest in the centre of the field of view; and there is a
contrivance by which the sidereal can be changed into a Practical
solar, also to a lunar angular motion. Astronomy
This almost invaluable instrument cost 10,500 florins
(about 950 pounds sterling). The price, although it may
appear considerable, yet barely covered the expense of the
workmanship of its construction. This relinquishment of
the profit of trade does great credit to the ingenious and
liberal-minded artists, Fraunhofer, and Utzchneider, the
chief of the optical establishment at Munich.
3. Lord Rosse’s Reflecting Telescope.
This celebrated telescope has two object-mirrors of 6 feet
in diameter, and of 53 feet focal length. The preparations
for the casting were commenced in 1842, and many experi¬
ments were necessary before the best proportions of tin and
copper, of which the alloy for the mirrors was composed,
were discovered. The respective weights of the specula
are 3^ and 4 tons, and the most refined precautions were
necessary in the construction of the furnaces for fusing
these immense masses of metal, in transferring it to the
moulds prepared for the casting, and in cooling it with the re¬
quisite degree of slowness, to prevent flaws or cracks. The
polishing process was performed by causing the polishers
to make strokes backwards and forwards in imitation of the
manner in which the hand would perform the same process
by means of the action of a small steam-engine. This
engine gave motion to a beam, which, by the intervention of
a crank and connecting rods, gave motion to the polishers.
A very ingenious system of levers was devised for the sup¬
port of the mirror, so that it should remain in every re¬
quired position without strain. Three similar systems of
these levers rest on fulcra immediately under the centres
of gravity of the three equal sectors into which the surface
of the mirror may be supposed to be divided. Each sys¬
tem consists of one triangle with its point of support
directly under its centre of gravity, on which it freely oscil¬
lates, and each triangle carries at its angles other three tri¬
angles similarly supported; and finally, at each angle of
these last-named triangles, are placed three balls rotating
freely, on which the mirror ultimately rests.
The tube of the telescope provided for the use of these
enormous mirrors is of wood, fixed to a cube of 10 feet,
which has in one of its sides folding doors for the admis¬
sion of the specula. The specula themselves are placed
on frames which run on railroads leading into this cube,
these frames being the same on which they were cast and
polished.
The telescope is placed between two immense piers 70
feet long and nearly 50 feet high, which serve as supports
for the apparatus necessary for giving the requisite eleva¬
tions of the tube, and for directing it to a given object, and
also for the galleries which carry the observer near its
upper end. It carries near its upper extremity the appa¬
ratus for the Newtonian small mirror, though provision has
been made in the construction of the observing galleriesfor
its use as a Herschelian telescope, without a second reflexion,
for the purpose of avoiding loss of light.
The observations made with this wonderful instrument
have been chiefly confined to nebulae, in many of which some
remarkable discoveries have been made. In the Phil.
Trans, for 1850, are some beautiful drawings of some of
these mysterious structures, amongst which the spiral forms
of Messier 51 and Messier 99 deserve particular attention.
4. Transit Instrument, Meridian Circle, and Astrono¬
mical Clock.
The primary problem in geography is to determine the
exact position of any proposed point on the earth’s surface
in respect of the equator and some assumed meridian, as
that of Greenwich or Paris ; that is, to find its latitude and
li
152
ASTRONOMY.
Practical longitude. The corresponding problem in astronomy is to
Astronomy determine the position of every fixed star, and in general
of any celestial object, in respect to the equinoctial circle
in the heavens (or else the pole) and a circle passing through
the pole and the intersection of the equator and ecliptic ;
that is, to find its declination or polar distance, and its
right ascension (chap. i. sect, i.) The former of these is
found in great observatories by the mural circle, and the
latter by the transit instrument or transit circle, and the
clock.
The first transit instrument of which we have any ac¬
count was that of Roemer, which he described in 1700.
{Miscel. Ber. tom. iii.) Dr Halley placed a transit instru¬
ment in the Greenwich observatory in 1721. The axis was
iron, and the telescope about five feet in length. This
has been long laid aside, but is still preserved as a relic.
Transit instruments of the present day are of two forms;
one, the most common, is adapted to the determination of
the right ascension only, the other to the determination of
both right ascension and declination, either at once or by
separate observations.
We have selected for description the transit instrument
now in Sir James South’s observatory at Kensington, which
was constructed for him in 1820, by Troughton, with all
the care that artist could bestow on it; and which, as far
as the just proportions of its parts are concerned, he re¬
garded as his happiest production. The instrument, with
its various parts, is represented in Plate XCIII. Figures
1 and 3 represent two views of it. EO is an achromatic
telescope, of which E is the end next the eye ; AA' is its
axis of motion, with which the tubes are closely united at
their junction, so as to form but one body. The extremi¬
ties of the axis rest in notches formed on two cheeks of
metal at A A', which are firmly attached to the inner faces
ot two stone pillars PP'; and B, B', B", B ”, are four braces
connecting the tubes and axis. These are the parts of the
instrument which, on inspection, immediately meet the eye.
When adjusted, the axis of motion of the instrument is
truly horizontal and perpendicular to the plane of the me¬
ridian, and the optical axis of the telescope is in the plane
of the meridian ; the object of the whole construction is to
keep it precisely in that plane, whatever position be given
to the telescope by turning on its axis.
The object-glass of the telescope has four inches of clear
aperture, and its focal length is seven feet two inches. The
body of the telescope and the axis are formed of conical
tubes firmly united in a spherical centre-piece, on which their
wider ends rest, and cover two-thirds of its surface : thus
the tube of the telescope is formed of two pieces, which
taper towards its extremities, where their diameters are
nearly the same as that of the object-glass. The axis in
like manner tapers equally towards its extremities.
The centre-piece is perforated in the direction of the
telescope, and also in that of the axis; the width of the
first opening being a little more than the radius of the ob¬
ject-glass, and that of the second just enough to allow the
light of a lamp placed near the end of the axis to pass un¬
interruptedly to the centre illuminator. The ends of all
the four cones, where they join the sphere, are strengthened
by circular pieces of cast brass, which extend full four inches
into the cones, and are fixed by solder and pins. They are
turned concave in front, so as to fit the surface of the sphere
into which they are rabbeted, and serve to keep the op¬
posite branches of the axis and telescope straight and per¬
pendicular to one another; and to these pieces are at¬
tached rings for the reception of the screws which bind the
whole together. The four branches of the axis and tele¬
scope are solely united by tension bars. These pass through
the sphere, six in the direction of the axis and four in that
of the telescope. They are arranged at equal distances be¬
tween corresponding parts, but so as neither to obstruct Practical
the rays of the object-glass nor the light of the lamp that Astronomy
falls on the illuminator. They screw into the rings of the
brass pieces which enter the cones. The tension bars serve
a most important purpose in giving stiffness and permanence
of form to the instrument; and he that would imitate it
would do well to study Sir James South’s description in the
Phil. Irans. for 1826. Fig. 3 is a section through the
axis, and exhibits the six bars which bind together the cones
of the axis, and also the places of the four which are per¬
pendicular to them, and which connect the tubes of the
telescope. Fig. 4 is a section through the telescope ; the
bars of the telescope are shown lengthwise, whilst those of
the axis are perpendicular. In both figures the illuminator
within the telescope is shown, in one the polished surface,
and in the other the back of the plate. The illuminator
crosses the tube of the telescope at an angle of 45°. This
position requires that the opening in it, through which the
light coming through the object-glass passes, should be an
ellipse. The braces B, B, B", B"’, extending from the
cones of the axis to those of the telescope, are attached to
the former about two inches from the pivots, and to the
latter about ten inches from the centre-piece. They exert
but a very slight pressure, and might have been omitted in
this instrument. They were added in imitation of the
Greenwich transit, to which they are essentially necessary.
The apparatus for giving the telescope any required alti¬
tude is shown at the eye end in figures 1 and 2, but on a
larger scale in fig. 5. It consists of two complete circles,
six inches in diameter, firmly attached to the eye end of the
telescope : each is provided with two opposite verniers, sub¬
dividing its divisions into minutes of a degree. The indexes
have clamps and slow moving screws, and microscopes are
attached to the verniers ; a spirit level is also attached to the
index of each circle. The apparatus is adjusted by setting
the index to the place of the star, and then, the telescope
being moved round till the bubble of the level stands in the
middle of its range, the star will traverse the field between
the two horizontal wires. If two stars differ but little in right
ascension, as Capella and Rigel, so as not to allow time for
changing the index which was set to the altitude of that which
came first, then the index of the other circle may be set to
the altitude of the following star, and both observed. When
the same object is to be observed by direct vision, and also
by reflexion, then one of the indexes may be set to point the
telescope to the direct place of the star, and the other to its
reflected image.
Figures 7 and 8 exhibit the plates or side-pieces, and Ys
in which the pivots of the axis rest. The plates, which are
semicircular, are imbedded in the stone piers, and are firmly
screwed to them. Figure 7 represents the eastern plate, in
which the contrivance for placing the axis truly level is con¬
tained. This adjustment is made by a piece of which the
upper end is formed into a Y, and which may be moved ver¬
tically, but not laterally. To raise or depress it gradually,
there is a piece having a short cylindrical part in the middle ;
also a fine screw at its upper end, which works in the move-
able piece, and a coarse screw at its lower, which works in
the fixed plates. The cylinder has holes by which it can be
turned round by a capstan pin. By the ingenious contri¬
vance of the two screws, the sliding piece is moved vertically,
but slowly ; for the space gone through is only the differ¬
ence of the spaces through which it would have been pushed
or drawn by each screw acting by itself. Fig. 8 shows the
western plate. In this the Y piece admits only of a hori¬
zontal motion for the purpose of placing the instrument in
the meridian. The adjustment is effected by two screws,
which work in the opposite sides of the piece, and whose
heads abut against the fixed plate. To produce motion one
of them must be screwed and the other unscrewed by equal
I
ASTRO
Practical quantities while the observer’s eye is at the telescope ; and
Astronomy to effect this the screws are connected by pinion work put
in motion by a handle hanging down close to the inside of
the western pier. (See fig. 1.)
Fig. 9 is a bird’s-eye view of the head of one of the piers.
This is meant to show the apparatus for relieving the pivots of
the axis and the Ys from a great part of the weight which
would otherwise bear on them. Immediately behind the
adjustable Y piece, but rather broader, is a plain piece of
brass having a Y cut in its upper end: a lever also is seen,
one extremity of which passes into a hole made in this Y
piece, while the other end carries a weight. The bar of the
lever is expanded into a circle whose centre is about one
third of the lever’s length distant from the pivot of the axis.
The circle admits the illuminating lantern. Two steel
screws, with blunted, hard, and polished points, are inserted
in the diameter at right angles to the direction of the lever:
these rest on hardened and polished planes, which are let
into the stone pier, and together form the fulcrum, in the
manner of a balance. The weight is a short cylinder hooked
on the end of the lever : it is hollow to receive small shot,
introduced, as a counterpoise, to relieve, more or less at
pleasure, the instrumental portion of the pivot, and also the
instrumental Y piece, of weight.
Fig. 6 is a perspective view of the eye end of the telescope.
In it a micrometer is shown, which moves a plate contiguous
to that in which the five transit wires are inserted : one wire
is contained in the moveable plate, and is intended to facili¬
tate the observation of the pole-star and others near it.
In fig. 1, on the eastern side of the telescope, a projecting
finger-screw is seen. This gives motion to an apparatus
within the tube of the telescope for regulating the quantity
of light projected by the illuminator on the transit wires.
The Greenwich transit instrument, also the workmanship
of Troughton, and one of his much admired productions, was
placed in that observatory in 1816. In its construction it is
nearly the same as Sir James South’s, but of different dimen¬
sions. The object-glass of the telescope is 5 inches in clear
aperture, and the focal length 10 feet: its horizontal axis,
including the pivots, is 3 feet 10 inches. This instrument
was dismounted in the year 1851, and its use was replaced
by that of the great transit circle. For a more detailed ac¬
count the reader may consult the volumes of the Greenwich
Observations.
All transit instruments have a meridian mark, that is, a
mark on some remote object, by which it may be ascertained
at any time whether the instrument be truly in the meridian.
Transit or meridian circles are in their nature quite ana¬
logous to the instruments we have described ; with, however,
the important addition of a graduated circle of considerable
dimensions as a principal part of their construction. The
meridian circle which Troughton constructed for Mr Groom-
bridge, but which afterwards passed into the hands of Sir
James South, is a fine example of this kind of instrument.
A figure and description of it may be seen in Dr Pearson’s
valuable work on Practical Astronomy. The largest and
finest instrument at present is that which was erected at
Greenwich in 1850.
A clock of the very best construction is an indispensable
companion of the transit instrument. This may be regu¬
lated so as to show either mean solar or sidereal time, ac¬
cording to the principal objects in view, the one being al¬
ways easily convertible into the other. The attention of in¬
genious men has been long directed to the construction of
the astronomical clock; but on this subject we shall have
occasion to treat fully elsewhere in our work.
The transit instruments here described are of the most
expensive kind, and adapted to the higher efforts in the cul¬
tivation of astronomy ; but there are also portable transits
which travellers may use, and which may serve to determine
VOL. IV.
N 0 M Y. 153
true time. In all applications of the instrument, the axis Practical
must be placed truly horizontal by means of the level; the Astronomy
line of collimation, that is, a line between the centre of the
object-glass and the centre of the cross wires, must move in a
great circle, or, which is the same thing, it must be perpen¬
dicular to the axis ; and the vertical circle which it describes
must be the meridian : these are the three principal adjust¬
ments. The Nautical Almanac gives the exact time when
the sun or certain considerable stars pass the meridian. The
observer gives the telescope such a position that the star
must appear in the field of view in its passage. When it is
seen, he notes the exact time, by the beat of the clock, when
it crosses each wire. Of these wires there are generally five
or seven in the focus of the eye-piece, and all transits
(whether perfect or imperfect) are always reduced to the
time of passage over an imaginary line corresponding to the
mean of these.
5. The Mural Circle.
The Royal Observatory at Greenwich has two mural
quadrants, each about eight feet radius; these are fixed
on a massive structure of hewn stone in the form of a paral¬
lelepiped, one on each side, and hence their name. That
whose telescope is directed towards the north is chiefly of
iron, and was erected by Graham in 1725, for the lunar ob¬
servations of Halley: it was, however, redivided by Bird in
1753. The other, for the southern part of the meridian, is
of brass, and was constructed by Bird, and placed in its posi¬
tion in 1750: with this Bradley and Maskelyne successively
made their observations for forty-six years.
Experience had shown, early in the present century, that
entire circles have a great advantage over quadrants; ac¬
cordingly, the use of the Greenwich quadrants was discon¬
tinued, and in their stead a mural circle six feet in diameter,
constructed by Troughton, was placed in the observatory on
12th June 1812. A second mural circle, nearly a copy of
the other, constructed by Thomas Jones (another eminent
artist), was, in 1825, placed in the observatory, fronting the
former, and at a distance of seven feet to the east; and with
these two instruments simultaneous observations were, du¬
ring the administration of Mr Pond, daily made of the zenith
distances of stars, the zenith point being obtained by a com¬
bination of observations made by direct vision and by re¬
flexion in a trough of mercury. Soon after the accession of
Mr Airy, the use of Jones’s circle was discontinued, as we
have before had occasion to mention.
Figs. 1 and 2 of Plate XCIV. give two views of Trough-
ton’s mural circle. In fig. 1 the circle is seen obliquely on
the front or eastern face of the wall, with the greater part
of its apparatus. The breadth of the wall from north to south
is seven feet, its thickness from east to west four feet, and
its height ten feet. It is formed of four stones laid one on
another. The third stone has in its under side a semicircu¬
lar groove, cut in its middle from west to east, of six inches
radius. The upper side of the second stone being worked
level, forms the diameter of this semicircular arch-hole, and
supports the axis-work of the instrument at about five feet
above the floor. The real centre of the instrument is about
five inches higher. The nucleus of the Greenwich circle
is an octagon of eight inches diameter at the corners ; its
depth is three inches, and a circular perforation of six inches
and a half is made through its whole depth. The outward
faces of the octagon, which are each three inches square,
support eight of the circle’s conical radii, to which they are
screwed and steady-pinned. The other eight radii are fitted
in closely, each one between two of the former, so that their
lower ends come down on the corners of the octagon. The
limb of the circle consists of two rings, the interior one
having its plane parallel, and the exterior perpendicular, to
the plane of the circle, so that, when united, their section
u
154
ASTRONOMY.
Practical will be represented by the letter T. The interior or flat
Astronomy r^ng iias }n j}le engraving the appearance of passing through
clefts in the middle of the outer ends of the sixteen radii,
which are there solid. The perpendicular ring is fitted close
on the exterior edge of the other, to which it is screwed,
and also to the ends of the conical radii. The cones are
bound together at half the distance from the double ring to
the centre by a circle of interposed bracing bars. 1 he cir¬
cular aperture of the octagon is shut up by plates before and
behind, which are fastened to the octagon by strong steel
screws. The posterior plate has a large circular hole, and
the anterior a smaller one, both truly wrought. Into these
the axis of motion is fitted, and united to the octagon and
circle by means of screws. The axis is a cone ot brass
nearly seven inches in diameter in front, but behind only
half as much, and nearly four feet long; this works in a
socket, which at each end receives it, and in which it fits
with the greatest possible exactness. I he two parts which
fit the axis are soldered into a strong brass tube, larger than
the tube of the axis, but nearly of the same shape. On the
tube of the sockets in front is soldered a strong perforated
plate or upright bearing piece, at right angles to the axis,
which nearly fills the semicylindrical aperture in the wall;
and at the remote end is soldered a short cylinder, the use
of which will be explained. It is there that the adjustments
for placing the circle in the meridian, and for levelling the
axis, are performed. Two strong horizontal plates are fas¬
tened on the lower surface (which is flat) ot the perforation
through the wall, one . before and the other behind. I he
bearing piece of the socket in front only rests upon the
plate, but behind the bearing cock and plate are screwed
together. In front the plate and bearing piece are con¬
nected by a conical piece of hardened steel, which is fixed
under the middle of this piece, and fits nicely into a hole
in the plate, but so as to revolve. At this end of the axis
these parts do not come quite in contact; for there are fixed
under the bearing piece, at each extremity, about ten inches
apart, two short props, like buttons of hardened steel, the
spherical surfaces of which rest upon planes of hardened
steel fixed in the plate. The central conical piece prevents
the circle from sliding sideways when angular motion is given
round this conical piece to bring the instrument into the
plane of the meridian. It has been stated that a short cy¬
linder was soldered on the remote end of the cone of the
sockets. This passes into a perforation in the cock behind,
which perforation is greater than that of the cylinder. I wo
fine-threaded screws at right angles to each other work in
the cock, one vertically for levelling, and the other horizon¬
tally for meridian adjustment. The two screws only press
with their points against the sides of the short cylinder;
but opposite to them are the ends of two small cylinders
standing in the same line, which are urged forward with
spiral springs, and thus force the short cylinders into con¬
tact with the screws. The telescope is seen on the face of
the instrument; its focal length is six feet two inches, which
is the exact outer diameter of the circle ; the aperture is
four inches, and its common magnifying power about 150.
The telescope is attached to the circle at the centre by a
steel axis, which passes through the proper axis of motion
from end to end, and was indeed the arbor on which the
axis was turned. The weight of the telescope is supported
on its own axis, and it may be fixed to the circle in any
position by means of two clamps which keep hold of the
border of the circle. The graduation of the instrument is
on the convex cylindrical surface of the exterior ring, there¬
fore the reading microscopes have their direction parallel to
the plane of the instrument. The divisions on Troughton’s
circle are made on a narrow ring of white metal composed
of four parts gold to one of palladium ; and the figures which
count the degrees are engraved on a like ring of platina.
In Jones’s circle the divisions are on gold. None of these Practical
metals tarnishes in the least degree. The divisions are by Astronomy
lines, and suited to wires which cross at an acute angle in
the reading microscopes. The degrees are cut into 5' spaces,
and are numbered from the pole southward to the same pole
again, viz. from 0° to 360°. The 5' spaces are subdivided
by the microscopes to single seconds; and a division re¬
presenting this quantity on the micrometer head may be
easily estimated to the tenth of a second. There are six
reading microscopes ; which, during Mr Airy’s direction,
were always used.
In order that the circle may move easily round on its
axis, there is an apparatus for counterpoising it, or for lift¬
ing the whole weight, without which the load would press
altogether on the lower side of the front socket. This is
effected by means of two large rollers, shown below the
axis in fig. 1. The rollers, set in a double frame, act on
the edge of the centre flanch, nearly in contact with the
radial cones. Two perpendicular bars of steel, at about the
height of the centre, are connected with the frame of the
rollers by hook and eye ; and these bars are in a similar
manner suspended by two beams, each resembling a com¬
mon balance, at the top of the wall. The part which appears
in front is shown in fig. 1, and one of the beams, its fulcrum
and counterpoising weight, near the top of the wall, in fig.
2. This apparatus produces a simple lift, without any ten¬
dency to affect the due motion of the circle’s axis.
There is another flat, circular ring, somewhat larger than
the graduated one, fastened at several places to the wall,
and nearly touching it. On this ring the clamp and screw
for slow motion slide, and may be clamped to it at any part
of the ring.
The plumb-line of the mural circle, seen in fig. 2, is for
placing the axis truly horizontal. The apparatus by which the
plummet is suspended was applied by dovetail fittings occa¬
sionally to the wall near its top, see fig. 1. The apparatus
itself is shown in fig. 2. In fig. 1 fixed microscopes are seen
on the telescope, near its end, for viewing the plumb-line.
The wires of the telescope are illuminated by a diagonal
reflecting plate in the middle of the tube, which receives the
light by a circular aperture, seen in fig. 1, in a line with the
centre of the circle. A lantern, at four or five feet distance,
placed in the line of the axis, throws light on the field of
view.
The instrument seen in a vertical position on the back of
the wall is a zenith tube. It was erected to discover, if pos¬
sible, the parallax of a star that passes very near the zenith ;
but was never used.
The mural circle has as an accompaniment a clock; and
since all observations made with it require to be corrected for
refraction, which depends on the state of the atmosphere (see
table in page 148), every recorded observation must have
annexed to it the height of the barometer and thermometer.
We have now described the instruments which constitute
the principal furniture of an observatory, and which are all
that the present state of the science absolutely requires. We
proceed next to describe some others which are extremely
convenient, and almost equally necessary in the science.
6. Equatorial Instruments.
An equatorial instrument is of great value to a practical
astronomer, for by means of it he can direct his telescope at
once to any object, however minute, whose right ascension
and declination are known; and conversely, he can deter¬
mine the right ascension and declination of any object to
which it is directed, although out of the meridian.
Plates XCV. and XC VI. give a representation of Sir James
South’s five-foot equatorial instrument. The greater part of
this instrument is composed of tinned iron plate; and its
ASTRONOMY.
Practical characteristics are lightness, steadiness, promptness in an- declination circle is quite flat; but the opposite face is articu-
Astronomy swering to its adjustments, and capability of retaining them, lated, showing how the parts are united. It is on this side
Fig. 1 of Plate XCV. represents the instrument as viewed that the levels would be seen ; one of them is parallel to the
at right angles to the declination circle. The polar axis is telescope, and the other to the declination axis,
about 10£ feet long; the lower end is a pivot attached to a The clamps and screws for slow motion are unusual, but
cone, which, reckoning upwards, is about a fourth of the whole remarkably good. Instead of the common mode of clamp-
length. The higher side of the cone is cut in a sloping di- ing the circle, in this instrument the clamp is made to grasp
rection, as seen in the figure, for the purpose of more con- the axis. There is soldered on each axis a ring of brass, the
veniently observing the vicinity of the pole. From the upper outer edge of which is broad and cylindrical. On this fixed
end of the cone the polar axis branches into two parts, be- ring a moveable one is fitted, and afterwards cut into three
tween which is room for the declination circle and the head equal parts: these are again united in two of the three sec-
of the observer. 1 hese two branches are again united at the tions by joints, like those which bind the different parts of a
top by an open frame of bell metal, represented in fig. 2, to watch chain together. At the third juncture the clamping
which the upper pivot is attached. This frame, as well as the takes place, a projecting part of the ring having been there
iron- work which composes it, is so contrived as to present the cut through, leaving one half on each side of the section,
least possible surface to obstruct the telescope ; for the same Here the ring gapes, but a screw passes through the pro¬
reason the pivot at the top of the telescope is made as small jecting pieces or ears on each side of the disjunction, and
as possible, whilst that at the lower end is considerably larger, in bringing them together, grasps the axis with a firm em-
Both ends of the axis are supported on stones, the northern brace. To the middle of the tripartite rings are attached
end rising within about four inches of the level of the de- long arms of tinned iron plate, at the extremities of which
chnation circle, the rest of the support being of wrought iron, the slow-moving screws have their places. The fixed stud
At the southein end the stone rises very little above the floor, is in the lower screw, planted in the iron support; that of
but a cast-iron fiame supports the pivot at the height of about the upper one is in the polar axis. The long screw for slow
two feet. The 1, or angle which supports the lower pivot, motion in right ascension is acted on by a contrate wheel
is p aced upon the fiame, and provided with two screw ad- and a pinion at right angles to the plane of the circle, as shown
justments, one for giving the axis its due elevation, and the in fig. 1, Plate XCV.; a long handle is attached to it, and
#or bringing the instrument to the meridian. The form shown leaning against the northern pier. A similar screw
o t e iron-work will be understood by consulting the differ- for declination, but without the contrate part, is seen in Plate
ent figures. The two branches of the polar axis on their XCVI. fig. 1.
upper sides are formed of broad planes, making one continued The illumination of the wires of the telescope is made by
p ane. On these the axis and reading microscopes of the a small lantern placed at one end of the declination axis ;
declination circle are fixed. 1 he instrument is self-balanced and there is a contrivance between the nozle of the lantern
by the position and figure of its parts, and the addition of a and the end of the axis, by which the light is adapted to dif-
weight fixed to the conical part of the polar axis. The dia- ferent observations.
meter of the declination circle is four feet, the length of the The eye-piece of the telescope is represented in Plate
telescope five feet, and of the axis about thirty-two inches. XCVI. fig. 2, in which there is seen the edge of a gradu-
n Plate XCV. fig. 1, the declination circle appears quite ated circle, the front of a quadrant, and two small spirit-levels,
plain, like the head of a drum, with the telescope directed There is likewise shown, but partially, a double parallel line
towards the equator. In Plate XCVI. fig. 1, the polar axis micrometer, which also measures angles of position,
is considerably fore-shortened, from the position of the This instrument, when first constructed, was designed to
raughtsman in making the drawing of the instrument. In be placed where a meridian mark could not be obtained. A
t is figure the edge of the declination circle is shown as a mark, however, could be placed and seen to the westward ;
short cylinder, with the telescope protruding beyond it. In and to take advantage of this, the axis of the declination circle
this figure, also, the shape of the declination axis, and the was converted into a telescope with two object-glasses of
two principal microscopes for reading the declination, are equal focus, two sets of cross wires, and an eye-glass that
shown. I here is a third microscope, which indicates zenith might be placed in either end; a mark was then built up to
distances. Ihis is seen in Plate XCV. fig. 1, between the the level of the axis, and in a line at right angles with the
eye end of the telescope and the instrument’s elevated pole, meridian, and this formed a substitute for a meridian mark.
In the same figure is shown a narrow brass ring, whereon The instrument bears no maker’s name, but the scheme of
the graduation is made. its fabric was devised by the late Captain Huddart, F.R.S.
I he hour-circle, two feet in diameter, is fastened to the The brass-work, &c., was made by J. and E. Troughton,
lower end of the polar axis ; its edge is seen in Plate XCV. under his direction ; and the object-glass for the telescope
fig. 1, and its under side in Plate XCVI. fig. 1 and fig. 3. of 3f inches aperture by P. and J. Dollond. To preserve
Uneot the reading microscopes is well seen in fig. 1 of Plate the tinned work from oxidation, it is well covered with white
ACV., and both of them less perfectly in the other two paint, and varnished; thus it has not only a neat appearance,
ngures. 1 he circle is of brass, and the divisions (fine lines) but can be easily cleaned at any time,
are on an inlaid ring of platina, corresponding to twenty With this instrument, and another equatorial of seven-feet
seconds each; these are subdivided by the microscopes to focal length, the object-glass being made by Tulley, Sir
en iso secon s. I he declination circle is divided to spaces James South and Sir John Herschel made observations on
ot five minutes, which are subdivided by the micrometer the apparent distances and positions of 380 double stars; a
screw of the microscopes to single seconds. The instrument work of which we have had occasion previously to make
is furnished with two ground levels The divided side of the mention. (w. w.) ^x< Hi) (R< M 
155
Practical
156
Astruc
II .
Asturias.
AST
ASTRUC, Jean, a celebrated physician, born in 1684
at Sauves, in Languedoc. His father, a Protestant clergy¬
man, bestowed particular pains upon his early education ;
after which he studied at the university of Montpellier,
where, having commenced the study of medicine, he took
his degree as doctor of physic in 1703. He now applied to
the study of medical authors, both ancient and modern, with
uncommon assiduity, and in 1710 published a treatise on
muscular motion, from which he acquired very high repu¬
tation. In that year he was appointed to the chair of ana¬
tomy at Toulouse. In 1717 he was appointed to teach
medicine at Montpellier. Rising rapidly into fame, he was
successively appointed superintendent of the mineral waters
of Languedoc ; first physician to the king of Poland ; and,
in 1731, regius professor of medicine at Paris. Here he
taught the practice of physic with so great applause, as to
draw students from other universities, and from foreign
countries. He was not more celebrated as a professor than
a practitioner. Even at an advanced age he prosecuted his
studies with unwearied assiduity ; and was thus enabled to
transmit to posterity so many valuable monuments of his
medical erudition. He died on the oth of May 1166, in the
82d year of his age. .
Of his numerous works, that on which his fame principally
rests, is the treatise entitled De Morbis Venereis, libri sex,
1736, 4to ; afterwards enlarged to 2 vols. 4to, and translated
into French by Jault, 4 vols. 12mo. Besides these, he pub¬
lished some treatises not connected with medicine, one with
the title of Conjectures sur les Memoires originaux qui ont
servi d Moisepour ecrire la Genese, Bruxelles (Paris), 1753,
12mo ; and two dissertations on the Immateriality, Immor¬
tality, and Liberty of the Soul, Paris, 175o. _
ASTURIAS, one of the ancient provinces of the Spanish
monarchy, distinguished by the title of a principality, and
under that name conferred on the heir apparent to the
throne of Spain. By the new division of Spain, however, in
1833, the old province of Asturias took the name of Oviedo.
It is bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, on the S. by
Leon, on the W. by Galicia, and on the E. by Santander.
This part of Spain was known to the Romans by the name
of the Ultramontane provinces, being bounded on every side
but the N. by high mountains, which are passable with diffi¬
culty by horses, and nearly impassable by wheel-carriages.
The principal road through the province is the Cumino real
or royal highway from Gijon and Leon to Madrid. I his
magnificent road, which cost so much that Charles IV. in¬
quired if it were paved with silver, is carried by means of
bridges and embankments over every impediment of a rugged
and mountainous territory. In winter, however, it is in some
places almost impassable. A railroad is now in progress from
Aviles to Madrid, through Leon and Oviedo. Asturias con¬
tains 3460 square miles, and its population in 1849 amounted
to 510,000. It is divided into 77 audiencias, which vary
greatly as to their extent and productions. The face of
the country is excessively irregular and mountainous; the
higher elevations are not cultivated ; and even in the valleys,
which are irrigated by numberless streams, though there is
abundant pasture for cattle, there is a great deficiency of corn.
The flour of maize constitutes the principal food of all but the
higher classes of inhabitants. Wheat is not much grown.
The humidity weakens the plant; and though at first it
appears to flourish, and looks well till it is in blossom, the
crop frequently fails. Rye grows better, and constitutes part
of the food, especially when mixed with maize. Chesnuts,
as elsewhere in Spain, form an important part of the suste¬
nance of the inhabitants. They are very abundant on the hills,
and the nuts as well as the wood are very valuable products.
Other kinds of timber well calculated for shipbuilding are
found in the mountains ; and several medicinal plants, such
as hellebore, valerian, angelica, and others, which form tri¬
fling branches of commerce. Cows and horses are reared in
this province, and considerable numbers of them are sent to
AST
Galicia, Leon, and the two Castiles. Vines, for want of due Asturias,
attention, do not flourish. Very little wine is made, and that
little of bad quality ; but to compensate for this deficiency,
there is abundance of apples, and cider forms the common
drink of the people. In some parts of the province there are
very valuable mines of coal, some of which is transported to
Cadiz, Carthagena, and other ports in the Mediterranean.
The quantity yielded in 1847 was 472,000 quintals, being
three times the amount in 1835. In the lower parts of the
country, especially on the sea-coast, at a distance from coal¬
mines and forests, the inhabitants use turf or peat for firing.
In the vicinity of the river Aviles, some mines of copper and
iron are worked. The other mineral productions are gold,
lead, zinc, magnesia, arsenic, cobalt, lapis-lazuli, alum, anti¬
mony, jet, marble, and rock-crystal. Fuel being plentiful,
several manufactories of copper utensils have been establish¬
ed, which supply some parts of Leon and Castile with bra¬
ziers’ kettles, pots, and other similar articles. Besides these,
there is a royal manufactory near Oviedo, where, in blast¬
furnaces, cannon-balls, grenades, bombs, and cannon of all
calibres are cast. Some coarse cloths are made, but not suffi¬
cient to supply the inhabitants.
The province is generally mountainous, especially in the
S., where it is intersected by numerous ramifications of the
Pyrenees. These gradually decline in height as they ap¬
proach the ocean, along the border of which is a narrow stripe
of the best and most populous portion of the principality.
From the narrowness of this tract, it must be seen that the
courses of all the rivers are necessarily short and rapid, and
that they are very apt to overflow the country when the rains
descend on the mountains. The Nalon, its principal river,
passes the city of Oviedo, before which it receives the river
Caudal, formed by the junction of two others, namely the P ola
de Leon and the Aller. After passing Oviedo, the rivers
Trubia and Narcea contribute their streams, when, after a
course of 62 miles, it falls into the ocean. Along the whole
extent of the coast of Asturias, a distance of 130 miles, there is
not one good port. In that of Ribadesella, a large frigate may
anchor; but it is difficult of access. Gijon will admit a vessel
drawing 16 or 17 feet water, but the entrance here is also very
narrow and dangerous. The principal city of the province is
Oviedo. (See Oviedo.) At a league from the city are the
warm baths of Caldas. The spring issues from a calcareous
rock of secondary formation : it is much resorted to, being
found highly beneficial in many diseases. Gijon is honoured
by having been the native place of Jovellanos, one of the wisest
and best men that Spain has recently produced. He founded^
here the Asturian Institution, destined for the instruction of
youth in mathematics, mineralogy, and navigation, which con¬
tinues to flourish, though the building is still unfinished. He
also projected the road for wheel-carriages from Gijon to
Leon. The cabildo of Oviedo has done honour to his memory
by erecting at the gate of their city, through which this road
passes, a stone with an inscription to perpetuate the obliga¬
tions which his country owes to him. At 10 leagues to the
E.S.E. of Oviedo stands the collegial church and sanctuary
of Coyadonga, famous in the history of the period when the
remains of the Goths were collected in the mountains of
Asturias, and commenced that struggle against the Moors
which continued doring seven centuries, till the last of that
wonderful people were finally driven out of the peninsula.
The sea-coasts, as well as the small rapid streams, abound with
fish of various kinds, the latter especially with salmon and
lampreys, which are sent to supply the markets of Madrid.
The Asturians are principally employed in agriculture. Their
character is marked by the qualities which generally distin¬
guish the inhabitants of mountainous regions ; and they have
been called the Swiss of Spain. They are robust, patient,
and hardy; unenterprising but laborious; hospitable to stran¬
gers,and enthusiastic lovers of their country. Naturally prone
to meditation, their imaginative spirit delights to dwell on
A S Y
Astyages the romantic traditions of the past, which their mountain-
11 homes on every side call to remembrance. Among all the
s^m" inhabitants of Spain they hold the first place in the compara-
i, jr y^_j tive scale of morals, as is shown by the fact that in the pro¬
vince of Oviedo the proportion of crimes to the number of in¬
habitants is as 1 to 898, while in Madrid it is as 1 to 137.
Their idiomatic dialect, called Bable, has suffered little
changes since the days of Alonso X.; preserving more of the
primitive type than the other dialects derived from the Latin.
The important events of the early history of this principality
will be found under the article Spain.—Historia Natural
de Asturias, por Don Mariano Lagasca; Viage de Ponz ;
Geografia de Espana, por Antillon ; Madoz, Diccionario
Geographico de Espana ; Ford’s Handbook of Spain.
ASTYAGES, son of Cyaxares, and the last king of Media,
began to reign in the year 594 b.c., and was dethroned by
his grandson Cyrus, b.c. 559. Herodotus and Xenophon
differ materially in the relation of this story: according to
the latter, Cyrus peaceably succeeded to the throne on the
death of Cyaxares II., the son of Astyages. See Cyrus.
AS TY AN AX or Scamandrius, was the only son of
Hector and Andromache. After the taking of Troy he was
thrown headlong from a tower by order of Ulysses.
ASTYNOMI (acrTvvopoi), in Grecian Antiquity, magis¬
trates in Athens, corresponding to the aediles of the Ro¬
mans. They were ten in number.
ASYLUM, a sanctuary or place of refuge where crimi¬
nals shelter themselves from the hands of justice. The word
is compounded of the privative particle a, andoYAr/, vio¬
lence ; because no person could be taken out of an asylum
without sacrilege. The asyla of altars and temples were
very ancient, and likewise those of tombs, statues, and other
monuments of distinguished personages. Thus, the temple
of Diana at Ephesus was a refuge for debtors, the Theseium
at Athens for slaves. At Rome a celebrated asylum was
opened by Romulus between the mounts Palatine and Ca-
pitoline, for all sorts of persons indiscriminately, fugitive
slaves, debtors, and criminals of every kind, in order to
people the city. The Jews had their asyla, the most remark¬
able of which were the six cities of refuge, the temple, and
the altar of burnt-offerings. It was customary among the
heathens to allow refuge and impunity even to the vilest
and most flagrant offenders ; some out of superstition,
and others for the sake of peopling their cities. We even
read of asylums at Lyons and Vienne among the ancient
Gauls; and there are some cities in Germany which still
preserve the ancient right of asylum. Hence, on the
medals of several ancient cities, particularly in Syria, we
meet with the inscription A2YAOI, to which is added EPAI.
This quality of asylum was given them, according to M.
Spanheim, in regard to their temples, and to the gods re¬
vered by them. The Emperors Honorius and Theodosius
granting the like immunities to churches, the bishops and
monks laid hold of a certain tract or territory, without which
they fixed the bounds of the secular jurisdiction ; and so
well did they manage their privileges, that convents in a
little time became the next thing to fortresses, where the
most notorious villains braved in safety the power of the
magistrate. These privileges were extended not only to
the churches and churchyards, but also to the bishops’
houses, whence the criminal could not be removed without
a legal assurance of life, and an entire remission of the crime.
The reason of the extension was, that they might not be
obliged to live altogether in the churches, &c., where several
of the occasions of life could not be decently performed.
But at length these asyla or sanctuaries were also stripped of
most of their immunities, because they served to make guilt
and libertinism more bold and daring. In England, parti¬
cularly, they were entirely abolished. See Sanctuary.
ASYMMETRY, the want of proportion between the
parts of anything; being the contrary of symmetry. Or, it is
A T H 157
the relation of two quantities which have no common mea- Asymptote
sure, as 1 and a/2, or the side and diagonal of a square. II
ASYMPTOTE, in Geometry, a line which continually Ath‘
approaches nearer to some curve, but which, though con-
tinued infinitely, would never meet it. This property be¬
longs to the hyperbolic curve and its asymptotes, which
are in relation to each other as a repeating decimal fraction
and unity. The term is derived from the Greek axjvp-KT<&-
ros (from a, priv., crvv and ttititw), “not falling together.”
ASYNDETON (a and truvSew, to bind), in Grammar,
a figure which omits the conjunctions in a sentence ; as
in veni, vidi, vici, where et is left out; or in that of Cicero
concerning Catiline, abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit.
ATACAMA, a division of Bolivia in South America,
remarkable for a vast desert tract along the Pacific.
ATACAMITE, a mineral found in that desert in some
quantity. It is an oxychloride of copper, of a rich green
colour, massive, or pulverulent.
ATAHUALIPA, the last of the Incas. See Peru.
ATALANTA, in Grecian Fable, the most swift-footed
of mortals, promised her hand in marriage to him who should
outstrip her in the race, on the condition, however, that the
unsuccessful competitor should suffer the penalty of death.
Milanion at length succeeded in obtaining her for his wife,
by the stratagem of dropping during the race three golden
apples, whose beauty so charmed Atalanta that she stopped
to gather them, and thus suffered herself to be defeated.
After their nuptials they were metamorphosed into lions for
profaning a sanctuary by their embraces.
ATAMELIK, a learned native of Khorassan, who was a
prefect of Baghdad under Hulaku, and author of a history
of the Moguls, said to exist in MS. in the National Library
at Paris. He was born in 1226. The period of his death
is uncertain.—See Mines de VOrient, vol. i.
ATCHAFALYA, a river of Louisiana, in North Ame¬
rica, or more properly a secondary channel of the Mississippi,
by which a portion of its waters flows off from the main trunk
into the Mexican Gulf. Its mouth is 100 miles W. of the
principal embouchure of the Mississippi.
ATE, in Pagan Mythology, the goddess of mischief.
When Jupiter was deceived by Juno, after he had sworn
to her that the next descendant of Perseus should reign over
that race, his vengeance fell upon his daughter Ate, on the
supposition that it was through her interference that Her¬
cules was deprived of his heritage by the earlier birth of
Eurystheus; whereupon she was hurled from Olympus, and
banished lor ever from the abodes of the celestials. In the
tragic writers the character of Ate resembles that of Ne¬
mesis and Erinnys.
ATELLAN/E FabeL-R, in Roman Antiquity, a species
of low comedy, invented by the people of Campania, and
adopted by the Romans. They seem to have consisted of
metrical effusions, in burlesque imitation of the manner and
dialect of the peasantry, with satirical humour.
ATERG ATIS, in Mythology, a goddess of the Syrians,
supposed to be Derceto, the mother of Semiramis. She was
represented with the face and breasts of a woman, but the rest
of her body resembled a fish. It has been conjectured that
she is perhaps the female counterpart to the Dagon of the
Philistines.—See Lucian, De Dea Syria, xiv.; Diodorus, ii.
A TESTE, a town in Austrian Lombardy, now Este.
ATH, or Aeth, a city of Belgium, province of Hainaut,
situated on the river Dender. It is well built, and was
strongly fortified by Vauban; has an arsenal, with several
bomb-proof magazines; a church dedicated to St Julian, a
town-house, college, school of design, orphan asylum, theatre,
&c. It contained in 1850, exclusive of the garrison, 8437
inhabitants, chiefly employed in refining sugar and salt, in
making soap, beer, and gin, and in the cotton and linen
manufactures. It is 25 miles from Brussels. Long. 3.
46. 32. E. Lab 50. 42. 17. N
158
Athabasca
II
Athana¬
sius.
A T H
ATHABASCA, or Athapescow, a river in the north¬
western territory of British North America, which flows into
a lake of the same name. It rises in the Rocky Mountains,
and has a long and tortuous course in a north-eastern direc¬
tion, during which it receives the Lesser Slave River, the
Red Deer, and several others. The lake is about 230 miles
in length, with a breadth varying from 30 to 14 miles, lying
in a direction almost E. and W., in Lat. 59. N. Long. 110 W.
ATHALIAH, the daughter of Ahab and wife of Jeho-
ram king of Judaea, who, after the death of King Ahaziah,
her son, butchered all the seed-royal of the house of Judah,
that she might usurp the throne. Among the victims were
her own grandchildren, except the youngest, whom the aftec-
tionate pity of his aunt Jehosheba concealed in the Temple,
where he was protected by the high priest Jehoiada for six
years. At the end of that time the priest showed their in¬
fant king to the nobles, and exhorted them to put this infa¬
mous woman to death ; which was promptly done, as soon as
she was without the precincts of the Holy Place. The story of
Athaliah forms the subject of one of Racine’s best tragedies.
ATH AN ASIAN Creed, a formulary or confession of
faith, long supposed to have been drawn up by Athanasius,
bishop of Alexandria in the fourth century, to justify him¬
self against the calumnies of his Arian enemies: but it is now
generally admitted among the learned that he was not the
author. Dr W aterland, in his Critical History of the Atha-
nasian Creed, ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of Arles, for the
following among other reasons :—1. Because Honoratus of
Marseilles, the writer of his life, tells us that he composed
an Exposition of the Creed—a more proper title for the
Athanasian than that of Creed simply, which it now bears.
2. Hilary was a great admirer and follower of St Austin;
and the whole composition of this creed is in a manner upon
St Austin’s plan, both with respect to the Trinity and incar¬
nation. 3. It is agreeable to the style of Hilary, as far as
we can judge from the little that is left of his works. Upon
the whole, he concludes that Hilary, bishop of Arles, about
the year 430, composed the Exposition of Faith which
now bears the name of the Athanasian Creed, for the use
of the Gallican clergy, and particularly those of the diocese
of Arles ; that about the year 570, it became famous enough
to be commented upon ; but that all this while, and for se¬
veral years longer, it had not yet acquired the name of
Athanasian, but was simply styled The Catholic Faith ;
that before 679 Athanasius’s admired name came in to re¬
commend it, being in itself an excellent system of the Atha¬
nasian principles of the Trinity and incarnation, in opposi¬
tion chiefly to the Arians, Macedonians, and Apollinarians.
This creed was received in France in the time of Hincmar,
or about 850 ; in Spain and Germany about 100 years later.
We have clear proofs of its having been sung alternately
in our churches in the tenth century. It was in common
use in some parts of Italy, particularly in the diocese of Ve¬
rona, about the year 960, and was received at Rome about
the year 1014. It has been questioned whether any of the
Greek and oriental churches ever received this creed at all,
though some writers of authority are of a contrary opinion.
It appears, then, that the reception of this creed has been
both general and ancient, and that it may vie with any in that
respect, except the Nicene or Constantinopolitan, the only
general creed common to all the churches. As to its mat¬
ter, it is given as a summary of the true orthodox faith, and
a condemnation of all heresies, ancient and modern. Un¬
happily, however, it has proved a fruitful source of unprofit¬
able controversy and unchristian animosity.
ATHANASIUS, St., bishop of Alexandria, and one of
the greatest defenders of the faith against the Arians, was
born at Alexandria in Egypt, about the year 296. He fol¬
lowed St Alexander to the Council of Nice in 325, where
he disputed against Arius, and the following year was made
bishop of Alexandria. In 335 he was deposed by the coun-
A T H
cil of Tyre ; when, having recourse to the Emperor Con¬
stantine, the Arian deputies accused him of having hindered
the exportation of corn from Alexandria to Constantinople;
on which the emperor, without suffering him to make his
defence, banished him to Treves. The emperor, two years
after, gave orders that he should be restored to his bishop¬
ric ; but, on his return to Alexandria, his enemies brought
fresh accusations against him, and chose Gregory of Cappa¬
docia to his see, which obliged Athanasius to go to Rome
to reclaim it of Pope Julius. He was there declared inno¬
cent, in a council held in 342, and in that of Sardica in 347,
and two years after was restored to his see by order of the
Emperor Constans; but after the death of that prince he
was again banished by the Emperor Constantius, which
obliged him to retire into the deserts. The Arians then
elected in his stead one George, who was killed in a popular
sedition under Julian in 360. St Athanasius then returned
to Alexandria, but was again banished under Julian. His
successor Jovian, however, being a Christian, restored him
to his see. To that emperor he addressed a letter, in which
he proposed that the Nicene creed should be the standard
of the orthodox faith, and condemned those who denied the
divinity of the Holy Ghost. He was afterwards banished
by Valens in 367, but again returned from what has been
termed his fifth exile. He died in 373. His works prin¬
cipally contain a defence of the mysteries of the Trinity, and
of the incarnation and divinity of the Word and Holy Spirit.
There are three editions of them which are esteemed: that
of Commelin, printed in 1600; that of Peter Nannius, in
1627; and that of Father Montfaucon. The most complete
edition, however, is that published at Padua in 1777, in four
vols. folio. As to the creed which bears the name of Atha¬
nasius, see the preceding article.
ATHANATI, (dOdvaroi, immortals'), in Persian Anti¬
quity, a body of cavalry, consisting of 10,000 men, always
complete. They were called athanati, because when one
of them happened to die another was immediately appointed
to succeed him.
ATHANERIK, a valiant leader of the Visigoths, who,
though defeated once by the generals of the Emperor Va¬
lens in 369, was afterwards raised to the head of his nation, and
when he died in 381, left behind him a reputation for forti¬
tude and sagacity.—Ammianus; Gibbon.
ATHEIST (from a, priv., and ©eos,; God), one who de¬
nies or disbelieves the existence of a Deity. Many, both an¬
cient and modern, have pretended to atheism, or have been
reckoned atheists by the world ; but it may justly be ques¬
tioned whether any man ever seriously adopted such a prin¬
ciple. Vulgar prejudice and bigotry also, from the time of
Socrates downwards, have frequently fastened the charge of
atheism where it was least of all appropriate. Among us, the
greatest philosophers have been the principal advocates for
the existence of a Deity. So true is the saying of Lord Bacon,
that though a smattering of philosophy may lead a man into
atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again
to the belief of a God and providence.—See Reimann’s
Historia Atheismi, &c., 8vo, Hildesh. 1725; and Sylvain
Marechal’s Dictionnaire des Athees, 8vo, Paris, 1799.
ATHELING, Adeling, Edeling, Ethling, or Ethe-
ling, among the Anglo-Saxons, was a title of honour, pro¬
perly belonging to the heir-apparent or presumptive to
the crown. It was first conferred by King Edward the
Confessor on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, when,
having no issue of his own, he intended to make him his
heir.
ATHELINGEY, or Nobles’ Island, a fastness in So¬
mersetshire, in which King Alfred concealed himself when
the Danes overran his country. It is now a gentle emi¬
nence in a cultivated district; it was then a jungle of about
100 acres, surrounded by a deep morass, from which he is¬
sued in many successful assaults on his astonished enemies.
Athanati
II
Athelin-
gey.
A T H
Atbelstan Jt is commonly called Athelney, and is now occupied by a
^ single farm-house.
v J er^' j ATHELSTAN, a Saxon king of England, natural son
' of Edward the Elder, and grandson of the great Alfred. He
succeeded to the crown in 925, and reigned 16 years. A
remarkable law passed by this prince, shows his just senti¬
ments of the advantages of commerce, as well as the early
attention to it in this country: it declared that any mer¬
chant who made three voyages on his own account beyond
the British channel or narrow seas should be entitled to the
privilege of a thane or gentleman.
ATHENAEUM (’AOr/vaLov), in Antiquity, a public place
in which the professors of the liberal arts held their as¬
semblies and gave instruction, the rhetoricians declaimed,
and the poets rehearsed their performances. The three
most celebrated Athenaea were those at Athens, at Rome,
and at Lyons ; the second of which was built by the Em¬
peror Hadrian, and continued in high repute till the fifth
century. The name Athenaeum is frequently applied in mo¬
dern times to establishments connected with literature and
art, to public libraries, and the like.
ATHENA1US, a mechanician of Magna Graecia, who
dedicated to Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse, a work
termed Ilept Mi^avr/pmov, “ On Warlike Engines.” It is
extant in Thevenot’s Mathematici Veteres. He must have
flourished about the year 214 b.c.
AtheNvEUS, a physician of Attalia in Asia Minor, the
founder of the Pneumatic sect, in the first century. Some
of his opinions are preserved in Aetius, Oribasius, and
Galen, from which it would appear that he attributed the
movements of the heart and the pulse to a fifth element,
Uveii/xa; and therefore it would seem that he held the doc¬
trine of a vital ’principle.—Le Clerc, Hist, de la Medicine.
AtheN/EUS, a Greek grammarian of great erudition, was
a native of Naucratis in Egypt, and lived about a.d. 230,
first at Alexandria, and afterwards at Rome. The only one
of his works extant is that entitled Deipnosophistce (Aairvo-
o-o^iotcu), or Banquet of the Learned, in 15 books, of which
the first two, and parts of the 3d, 11th, and 15th, exist only
in epitome. This work is an almost inexhaustible store of
A T H
ATHENS ('AOr'ivai, Athence), “the eye of Greece” (to
use Byron’s phrase), the capital of Attica, and the birthplace
of the most distinguished poets, orators, philosophers, states¬
men, historians, and artists of antiquity, is situated in Long.
23. 44. E. Lat. 37. 58. N., in the central plain of Attica,
about four miles from the coast. See Attica. The city
of Athens consisted of three distinct parts: 1. The town
on the rock, or the Acropolis, also simply called p ttoA-is ;
2. The city of Athens below and around the Acropolis,
generally called to aarv; and sometimes r; Karo) ttoAis, or
lower city; and 3. The port towns, including Peiraeus, Muny-
chia, and Phalerum.
% whom The origin of Athens, like that of most other ancient and
founded, renowned cities, is involved in the obscurity of fable. Its
reputed founder was Cecrops, an Egyptian, who brought
A T H 159
anecdotes, facts, quotations, criticisms, and discussions, on Athena-
subjects of the most diversified kind ; and it is valuable for goras
the light it throws on many curious circumstances regarding II
the ancients. Editions: by Aldus, Venice, 1514; Casau- Atliens*
bon, Geneva, 1597; Schweighaiiser, Strasbourg, 14 vols.
8vo, 1801-7; W. Dindorf, 3 vols. 8vo, Lips. 1827, which
is the best. There is also a French translation in 5 vols.
4to, by M. Lefevre de Villbrune.
ATHENAGORAS, an Athenian philosopher who flou¬
rished about the middle of the second century. Originally
a disciple of Plato, he embraced Christianity, and distin¬
guished himself by the zeal and learning which he brought
to its defence. Two of his works are extant—an Apology
for Christianity, addressed to the Emperors Marcus Aure¬
lius Antoninus and Lucius Commodus, and a Treatise on
the Resurrection. The best edition of his works is that of
the Benedictines, published at Paris in 1742, together with
the writings of Justin Martyr, Theophilus of Antioch, and
Hermias, in one vol. folio. There is also an English trans¬
lation by Humphreys, London, 1714.
ATHENODORUS, surnamed Cananites or Sando-
nus, a Stoic philosopher, was born at Tarsus, and went to
the court of Augustus, who made him tutor to Tiberius.
Augustus esteemed him greatly, having proved by expe¬
rience his virtue and probity. He used to speak very freely
to the emperor, and warned him, whenever he found him¬
self giving way to anger, to rehearse the twenty-four letters
of the alphabet before he resolved to say or do anything. He
died at the age of 82. None of his works have survived.
There was another Stoic of this name, surnamed Cordylion,
also of Tarsus, who was keeper of the library at Pergamus,
and died at Rome in the house of Cato the Younger. There
were likewise two sculptors named Athenodorus, one of
whom assisted Agesander in the group of the Laocoon.
ATHENRY, a decayed town of Ireland, county of Gal¬
way, and province of Connaught, 14 miles E. of Galway.
It is a place of antiquity, and traces of its walls, castle, and
an old Dominican friary, are still visible. From the time
of Richard II. till the Union it returned two members to
parliament. Pop. in 1851, 1487.
E N~ S.’
from Sais the worship of the goddess Neith, called by the
Athenians ’AOfir], and who, in the opinion of the learned,
was contemporary with Moses. The new city was built on
the rock of the Acropolis, which originally contained all the
habitations of the Athenians, and received from Cecrops the
name of Cecropia. But in the time of Erechtheus, called
by later writers Erichthonius, the second of the early kings
in succession from Cecrops, and the person who is said to
have instituted the festivals called Athencea, in honour of
’AOrjvrj or Minerva, it lost the name which it had derived
from its founder, and acquired that of ’AOrjvai, Athens, from
the goddess to whose worship it was principally dedicated.
We have received little or no information respecting the Ancient
size or dimensions of Athens under its earliest kings. It is state,
generally supposed, however, that even as late as the time
1 The principal works on the Topography of Athens, which has been discussed at length, and with great accuracy and research, by
modern antiquaries and travellers, are Stuart’s Antiquities of Athens; Dodwell’s Classical Tour, vol. i.; Mr Hawkins’ Dissertation on the
Topography of Athens in Walpole’s Memoirs, vol. i. p. 480; Colonel Leake’s Topography of Athens, with some Remarks on its Antiquities;
P. W. Forchhammer s Topographic von Athen, Kiel, 1841, 8vo; Wordsworth’s Athens and Attica, London, 1836; and Mr Cramer’s
Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, vol. ii. p. 309. These writers, with the exception of Mr Cramer, have in
general followed Pausanias, who, having himself visited Athens, describes, in his first book, its antiquities and most remarkable edi¬
fices. But as it is admitted on all hands that Pausanias has neglected to notice several important buildings pointed out by other authors,
and that his description is, besides, defective in several particulars, we have availed ourselves of the additional information supplied by
Meursius in his Athence Atticce, and by succeeding antiquaries, in order that we might be enabled to form as accurate a list as possible of
the principal edifices and monuments of this celebrated city.
160
Athens.
Effects of
the Persian
invasion.
Age of
Pericles;
popula¬
tion.
ATHENS.
of Theseus the town was almost entirely confined to the
Acropolis and the adjoining hill of Ares or Mars. But during
the six or seven centuries which elapsed between the Trojan
war and the reign of Peisistratus, it appears to have in¬
creased considerably both in extent and population ;1 while
the adminstration of that enlightened and patriotic usurper,
so far from proving an impediment to the prosperity of the
city, operated in aid of its improvement; as has often hap¬
pened when power chances to fall into the hands of a person
of taste and munificence. By establishing a public library,
and by editing the works of Homer, Peisistratus and his
sons fixed the Muses at Athens. Nor in the midst of all this
attention to the cultivation of the arts and the embellish¬
ment of the city, had the means of defence against external
aggression been neglected. For, since Athens was able to
withstand a siege by the Lacedaemonians, during the reign
of Hippias, one of the sons of Peisistratus, we may conclude
that it already possessed walls and fortifications of sufficient
height and strength to ensure its safety.
But the invasion of Xerxes, and the subsequent irruption
of Mardonius, effected the entire destruction of the ancient
city, and reduced it to a heap of ruins; with the exception
only of such temples and buildings as, from the solidity of
their structure, were enabled to resist the action of fire and
the work of demolition. During their temporary ascendancy
in Greece, the Persians displayed the same iconoclastic fury
which had marked their career of conquest in Egypt with
havoc and desolation. But when the battles of Marathon,
Salamis, Platsea, and Mycale, had dissipated the forces of
the invader, and liberated Greece from the danger of sub-
jugation to a foreign power, Athens, restored to peace and
security, soon rose out of its ruins with increased splendour;
and having been provided by Themistocles with the mili¬
tary works necessary for its defence, it attained, under the
subsequent administrations of Cimon and Pericles, to the
highest pitch of beauty, strength, and magnificence. The
former, indeed, is known to have erected the temple of The¬
seus, the Dionysiac Theatre, the Stose, and the Gymnasium,
and also to have embellished the Academy, the Agora, and
other parts of the city, at his own expense ;2 while the latter
completed the fortifications which had been left in an un¬
finished state by Themistocles and Cimon—rebuilt several
edifices which the Persians had destroyed—and, above all,
immortalized himself by the construction of the temple of
Eleusis, the Parthenon, and the Propykea, edifices unrivalled
alike for classical purity of design and perfection of exe¬
cution.
It was, indeed, under the administration of Pericles that
Athens attained to that eminence in art which has excited
the wonder and admiration of all succeeding ages: it was
to this illustrious man that the city was principally indebted
for the splendour of its architectural decorations, and the re¬
public for its prosperity and its power. At the period in
question the whole of Athens, with its three ports of Peirseus,
Munychia, and Phalerum, connected by means of the cele¬
brated Long Walls, formed one great city, inclosed within
a vast peribolos of massive fortifications, extending to not
less than 174 stadia, of which the circuit of the city amounted
to 43, the long walls taken together to 75, and the circum¬
ference of the three harbours to 56.3 There is some diffi¬
culty in ascertaining the amount of the population of Athens
at this period. Xenophon informs us that it contained more
than 10,000 houses, which, at the rate of ten persons to a
house, would give 100,000 souls for the whole population Athens,
of the city. By a census of Pericles, mentioned by Plu-
tarch in his life of that statesman, it, however, appears that
the number of Athenians entitled to exercise the rights of
citizenship was confined to 14,040; and at no subsequent
period does this number appear to have much exceeded
20,000, which indeed may be taken as the average amount
of the free adult male population of Athens, enjoying the
rights of citizenship. See Attica.
From the researches of Colonel Leake and others, it ap- Dimen-
pears that the ancient city considerably exceeded in ex- ^°en^[lg
tent the modern town; for, although the scanty remains of1
the old fortifications are insufficient to enable us to judge
of their circumference, it is nevertheless evident, from the
measurement furnished by Thucydides, that they inclosed
a much larger space than that contained within the present
line of wall, particularly towards the north. It is probable,
indeed, that, on this side, the extremity of the city reached
as far as the foot of Mount Lycabettus; and that, to the
westward, its walls followed the course of the small brook
which terminates in the marshy ground of the Academy,
until they met the point where some of the ancient founda¬
tions are still to be seen near the Dipylum; while, to the
eastward, they approached close to the Ilissus, a little below
the present church of the Mologitades or Confessors. The
entire peribolos of the fortifications, including the walls of
the city, the longimural inclosure, and the defences of the
ports, cannot therefore have been less than 19 miles; but
from the extreme irregularity of the space inclosed, it is im¬
possible to form any accurate estimate of its dimensions.
Ancient writers inform us, however, that Athens was nearly
equal in extent to Rome within the walls of Servius ; and
Plutarch compares it in point of size to Syracuse, which
Strabo estimates at 180 stadia, or upwards of 22 miles in
circumference.
The number of gates in the fortifications of ancient Athens Gates,
is uncertain ; but the names of nine have been preserved by Dipylum,
the classical writers. These are Dipylum (otherwise called &c-
Ceramic*), Diomeim, Diocharis, Melitides, Peiraicae, Achar-
nicae, Itoni*, Hippades, and Heriae*. The Dipylum was
situated in that part of the wall which separated the inner
from the outer Ceramicus, and formed the communication
between them; from which circumstance it was sometimes
called the gate of Ceramicus. A little to the south of the
Dipylum was the Sacred Gate, from its leading into the
Sacred Way; also called the Thriasian gate, or gate of Thria,
from its conducting to or forming the outlet in the direction
of Eleusis and Megara. On the north-west side of the Acro¬
polis, in a hollow adjoining a small church built on a rock
and dedicated to St Athanasius, there still remain some ap¬
pearances of the foundations of a gate; and here, accord¬
ingly, Colonel Leake and others have fixed the site of Dipy¬
lum. The Diomeiae, probably so called from Diomeia, one
of the Attic demi, which itself received its name from the
hero Diomus, was nearly opposite the entrance of the subur¬
ban gymnasium called Cynosarges, a place dedicated to
Hercules, and situated to the north-east of Athens. The
gate of Diocharis fronted the entrance of the Lyceum, near
to the fountain of Panops ; while that called Melitides was
situated in the southern part of the wall, towards the sea
and Phalerum; and the Peiraicae, as its name sufficiently
implies, led to the harbour of the Peiraeus. Traces still exist
of the Melitides and Peiraicae, as well as of the Dipylum.
1 This must have heen true even in the time of Homer, who applies to it the epithets of iiixnpiyri and iv^vctyuiK, which seem to indicate
a place of some consideration. “ Plutarch, in Vit. Cimon.
3 Taking the itinerary stadium at 575 English feet, or the length resulting from the equation of 19 English miles with 174 5 stauia,
it would of course follow that the peribolos of fortifications was just the same number of miles in extent.. But it has heen ascertaine
that the Greek stadium in the time of the Roman emperors exceeded the itinerary stadium by 30 feet, or, in other words, was equa o
605 English feet; which, taken as the true value of the measure, would consequently give 605xl74-j-5280=19’9375 miles as the entire
circumference. (Leake’s Topography, p. 369.)
A T H
Athens. There can be little doubt that the gate called Acharnicae
was so named from its leading to the demus of Acharnae, the
situation of which was probably at or near the modern vil¬
lage of Menidhi, close by the spot where the present road
to that village intersects the line of the ancient walls. The
site of the Itonian gate, mentioned in the dialogue of Axi-
ochus, is placed by Colonel Leake about half-way between
the Ilissus and the foot of the hill of Museum, where the
road leading direct to Phalerum from the modern Inte-kapesi
or Albanian gate cuts the line of the ancient walls. Of the
Hippades we only know that it was the gate on the outside
of which was the sepulchre of the family of the orator Hy-
perides. It seems to have derived its name from some eques¬
trian statues erected near it; and it is not improbable that
the Hippades may have been the gate between Dipylum
and the Peiraic, of which some vestiges still exist on the
north side of the Hill of Nymphs, commonly, but erroneously,
called Mount Lycabettus. Lastly, the Heriae or Heriaeae was
so called from its being the gate through which corpses were
usually conveyed to the burying-ground, but its precise
site cannot now be discovered. Athens, in fact, was sur¬
rounded on every side with an immense cemetery. On the
north-west and north, from the northern long wall to Mount
Lycabettus, generally but falsely called Anchesmus, there
was a continued succession of sepulchres; and the excava¬
tions made in search of sepulchral antiquities have proved
that there were similar burying-grounds on the outside of
the southern long wall.1
andTemT Pausanias commences his description of Athens appa-
of Ceres!' G rently from the Peiraic gate. We shall imitate his example,
and follow nearly the same course: supplying his omissions
as we go along, and conjoining with our accounts of ancient
edifices and monuments notices of their existing state and
condition where any traces or vestiges of them still remain.
On entering the city, the first building remarked by Pau¬
sanias was the Pompeium. This was so called from its being
the depository of the sacred vessels (7ro/A7ma) used in cer¬
tain processions, which, being of great value, had a separate
building appropriated for their safe custody. In the Pom¬
peium there was also a statue of Socrates by Lysippus, to¬
gether with several portraits of eminent individuals, amongst
which that of Isocrates has been particularly mentioned.
Near this edifice stood a temple of Demeter (Ceres), con¬
taining statues of that goddess, of her daughter Persephone,
and of lacchus, executed by Praxiteles ; and beyond it were
several porticoes leading from the city gates to the outer
Ceramicus; while the intervening space was occupied by
some temples, the Gymnasium of Hermes, and the house of
Polytion, where some Athenians of distinction (probably
Alcibiades and his companions) are said to have celebrated
mysteries similar to those of Eleusis.2
Ceramicus. There were two places in Athens known by the name of
Ceramicus;3 one without the walls, forming part of the
suburbs; and the other within, including a considerable and
very important section of the city. The outer Ceramicus
was covered with the sepulchres of the Athenians who had
been slain in battle, and buried at the public expense, with
the exception of those who fell at Marathon, and who were
interred on the spot where they had died so gloriously; and
it appears to have communicated with the inner Ceramicus
by means of the gate Dipylum, which is understood to be
the Ceramic entrance alluded to by Philostratus. The Ce¬
ramicus intra muros probably included the Agora, the Stoa
E N S.
161
Basileios, and the Poecile, besides various other temples and Athens,
public buildings. Antiquaries, it is true, are not decided as
to the general extent and direction of this portion of the
ancient city; but, from the researches and observations of
Colonel Leake, it seems pretty certain that it lay entirely
on the south side of the Acropolis,4 where it was of course
bounded by the city walls, which ran close to the fountain
Callirrhoe, or Enneacrunus; and that, consequently, its
breadth could not have exceeded one-half of its length.5
We shall now give some account of the edifices in this part
of the ancient city, reserving what we have to say of the
outer Ceramicus until we come to describe the suburbs.
The first building mentioned by Pausanias is the Stoa Ceramic
Basileios, so called because the archon basileus held his edifices,
court there, and which probably stood at the western extre¬
mity of the Areiopagus. Its roof was adorned with statues
of baked clay ; and adjoining it were statues of Cimon, and
Evagoras, king of Cyprus. Behind this portico was another,
containing paintings of the twelve gods, and of Theseus
and “ the fierce democracy,”—thus implying that he was the
first to establish equal rights among the citizens of Athens;
together with a picture by Euphranor, representing the
achievements of the Athenian auxiliary cavalry at the battle
of Mantineia. The temple of Apollo Patrous was situated
in the vicinity of the latter portico, and was dedicated to
that god in his capacity of Alexicacus, that is, the averter of
evil, such as the plague and other epidemics. The Me-
troum, a temple consecrated to the mother of the gods, was
the grand depository of the archives of the state, and served
also as a tribunal for the archon eponymus. Adjacent to
the Metroum was the senate-house ((SovXcvTrjpLov), contain¬
ing statues of Zeus the Counsellor, of Apollo, and of the
Athenian demos; and close to the council-wall stood the
Tholus, where the Prytanes usually held their feasts and
sacrifices; while somewhat higher up were the statues of the
eponymi, or heroes, who gave names to the Athenian tribes,
with those of Amphiaraus, Lycurgus the orator, and De¬
mosthenes. Near the latter stood a temple of Ares (Mars),
having several statues within, and around it those of Her¬
cules, Theseus, and Pindar, who was thus honoured for the
praise he had bestowed upon the Athenians; close to which
were the figures of Harmodius and Aristogeiton. All the
statues here mentioned were carried away by Xerxes when
he plundered Athens, but were afterwards restored by An-
tiochus, as we learn both from Pausanias and from Arrian.
Above the Stoa Basileios was a temple of Hephaestus (Vul¬
can), and also one dedicated to Aphrodite (Venus) Urania,
containing a statue of the goddess in Parian marble, exe¬
cuted by the chisel of Phidias ; both of which edifices were
situated near the western extremity of the hill or ridge of
Areiopagus.6
One of the most important of the Ceramic edifices was Stoa Poe-
the Stoa Poecile, so called from the celebrated paintings cite,
with which it was adorned, although its more ancient name
appears to have been Peisianactios. The paintings were al¬
most exclusively devoted to the representation of national
subjects, as the contest of Theseus with the Amazons, the
battle of Marathon, and other achievements of the Athe¬
nians ; and were mostly executed by Polygnotus, Micon,
and Pamphilus, the most celebrated amongst the early Gre¬
cian artists. Here were also suspended the shields of the
Scionaeans of Thrace, together with those of the Lacedae¬
monians taken in the island of Sphacteria; and it was in this
1 Leake’s Topography of Athens, p. 374, 375.
2 Demosthenes in Phorm. ; Diogenes Laertius in Vit. Socrat.; Plutarch in Vit. Alcibiad.; and Thucydides, vi. 27.
So called either from the hero Ceramus, or from potteries which were formerly situated in the neighbourhood
feuxd. v. Kigu/u.i7s.
* Leake’s Topography of Athens, p. 101. 5 Schol. Aristoph. Equit. 772; Plutarch, Syll.-. Hesychiui
Pausanias, Attic. 3-, Plutarch, de Glor. Athen.; Pliny, xxxv. 11; Harpocrates, v. Suidas, v. ant
Attic. 8 y Attumi. de Exped. Alex. iii. 1§. 5 > ^
VOL. IV.
Herod, v. 88;
v. Ki^upuxos.
eiXos; Pausan.
X
162 A T H
Athens, portico that Zeno first opened that celebrated school, which
v'—thence received the appellation of Stoic, and was destined
to exercise a most powerful influence both on the philoso¬
phy and legislation of succeeding times. Ihe Poecile is
also memorable as the scene where no less than 1500 citi¬
zens of Athens are said to have been destroyed by the 1 hirty
Tyrants. Some ancient walls which are still extant near
the church of Panagia Fanaromeni, Colonel Leake supposes,
with some probability, to be the remains of this once cele¬
brated portico. Near the Stoa Poecile was a statue of
Hermes Agoraeus, which, from its position close^ to a small
gate, was sometimes termed 'Ep^s Trpos rfj ttoA/Si.1
Ceramic The epithet Agoraeus naturally leads us to conclude that
Agora. tJjis brazen figure of the god, described by the Roman sa¬
tirist as furum aviumque maxima formido, stood in the
Agora or market-place, by much the largest portion of which
was in the quarter of Ceramicus. Xenophon also informs
us, that at certain festivals it was customary for the knights
to make the circuit of the Agora on horseback, beginning
at the statue of Hermes just mentioned, and paying homage
as they passed along to the statues and temples around it.2
There is sufficient reason to believe, however, that the Agora
never extended to the southward and eastward of the ascent
to the Acropolis ; but it seems to have included a very large
space to the west and north-west of the Propylaea; which
is accounted for upon the supposition, which a number of
circumstances conspire to render probable, that the market¬
place, or at least its most frequented parts, had shifted their
position at different periods of the republic. In the more re¬
mote ages, when Acropolis or Cecropia was almost the only
inhabited part of the site of Athens, it is natural to believe
that the Agora resorted to from the neighbouring country
must have been situated a little below the entrance of Ce¬
cropia, free admission to which could scarcely have been
permitted to strangers in those barbarous ages. But when
the principal sacred edifices were erected on the south side
of the Acropolis, and the city began to spread over the val¬
leys to the south and west of the citadel, the Agora may
have extended into the western side of the same space, with
that most ancient place of popular assembly, the Pnyx, above
the middle of it. It has been supposed by Colonel Leake
and others, that about the time of Augustus, when the city
had been considerably extended in the north of the Acro¬
polis, and when the Agora had been polluted by the mas¬
sacre of the Athenians in the time of Sulla, a new Agora
was built in the north of the Acropolis; and a portal still
existing in that neighbourhood has been generally regarded
as a remnant of this new Agora. But the style of this portal,
as well as the inscriptions on it, show that it was not a gate,
but a portion of a building erected out of the donations of
Julius Caesar and Augustus in honour of Athena Arche-
getis. As for the population of that part of the city, we
know that in the time of Thucydides and Xenophon it was
not occupied by houses, but consisted of gardens.3 There
is accordingly no ground for supposing that Athens ever had
more than one Agora.4
Its sections Our detailed description of the Agora must necessarily
or divi- be brief. It contained a street lined with Hermae, and
sions. forming the communication between the Stoa Basileios and
the Poecile. The Macra Stoa was a range of porticoes ex¬
tending from the Peiraic gate to the Poecile, behind which
rose the hill called Colonus Agoraeus, where Melon erected
a table for astronomical purposes. The Leocorium stood
E N S.
also in the Ceramicus, which, as classical readers know, is Athens,
often used synonymously with Agora. Pausanias makes no
mention of this monument, which was erected in honour of
the daughters of Leos, who had devoted themselves for their
country, and near which the tyrant Hipparchus was slain by
Harmodius and Aristogeiton. The Ceramicus also con¬
tained the Agrippeium or theatre of Agrippa, the Palaestra
of Taureas, and the Stoae of the Thracians and of Attains.
The portion strictly appropriated as a market-place was di¬
vided into sections, distinguished from one another by ap¬
pellatives descriptive of the various articles exhibited for sale.
Thus we read of the ywaiKeta ayopd, where women’s apparel
was usually sold; of the l^dvoirwXis dyopd, or fish-market;
of the i/mrioTroAis dyopd, or clothes-market; and of the dyopd
’ApyetW, ®ed)v, Kepabrcov, where, among other things, stolen
goods were, it seems, publicly disposed of. The quarter
denominated Cyclus from its form, was the slave and pro¬
vision-market. A peculiar stand was allotted to each vender,
who, when he had once chosen his station, was not allowed
afterwards to change it.5 The common-hall of the Athenian
mechanics was situated in the Ceramicus, which seems to
have been the great resort of the lower orders, including
courtesans, who, according to Lucian and the scholiast on
Aristophanes, principally frequented this part of the city. In
the north of the Acropolis, or the district commonly called that
of the new Agora, there was an altar to Pity, and two gym¬
nasia ; one founded by Ptolemy the son of Juba the Libyan,
the other supposed to have been established by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and each denominated Ptolemeium. To the
northward of Fanaromeni there was found among the ruins,6
many years ago, an inscribed pedestal, which had supported
a statue of Ptolemy the son of Juba; and Juba is said by
Pausanias to have been honoured with a statue in the Gym¬
nasium of Ptolemy.7 So much for the Ceramic edifices.
The next structure which demands our attention is the Theseium.
Theseium or temple of Theseus, which stood, and happily
still stands, at no great distance from the site of the monu¬
ments last mentioned. The circumstances which led to the
erection of this noble edifice are deserving of commemora¬
tion. About eight centuries after the death of Theseus, the
Athenians suddenly became ashamed of the ingratitude of
their ancestors towards their great benefactor, in driving him
out of Athens to die by violence in a foreign country. This
tardy fit of remorse is said to have been occasioned by a
rumour, which readily gained belief, that the spectre of the
patriot hero had been seen fighting against the Persian host
at Marathon. The Pythia was consulted in reference to
the supposed apparition, which of course was duly authenti¬
cated ; and generously directed the Athenians to remove
his remains to the city, which even his spirit had defended,
and to honour him as a demigod. His bones, with a brazen
helmet and a sword lying beside them, were discovered in
the island of Scyrus, by Cimon, son of Miltiades. They
were received at Athens with processions and sacrifices.
Games and festivals were instituted in his honour ; a heroum
was erected to him on the Colonus Hippius, and a temple,
the Theseium, in the city. This building was equalled in
sanctity only by the Parthenon and Eleusinium ; its sacred
inclosure was so large as occasionally to serve as a place of
military assembly. It was built about 465 years before the
Christian era, and about 30 years anterior to the erection
of the Parthenon.8 The Theseium is a peripteral hexa-
style, with 13 columns on the sides, and it faces the east.
1 Diogenes Laertius in Vit. Zenonis; Plutarch in Vit. Cimonis; Pausan. Attic. 15; Ailian. Hist. An. vii. 28; iEschines de Fals. Leg.;
Topography of Athens, 118; Description of Ancient Greece, ii. 319. 2 Xenophon, Hipparch. c. 3.
a Thucyd. ii. 17; Xenoph. De Vectig. ii. 6. 4 Forchhammer, Topogr. p. 54. fol.
6 Pausanias, Attic. 2 and 16; Herodot. vi. 108 ; Thucyd. vi. 54, i. 20; Julius Pollux, vii. 18 ,• Plato de Leg. xi.; Cicero de Fin. v. 1.
6 Stuart’s Antiquities of Athens, vol. iii. c. 1. 7 Leake’s Topography of Athens, p 119.
8 Plutarch in Thes. et Cimon.; Diodor. Sicul. 1. iv. c. 62; Pausan. Attic. 17, 30; Plutarch de Exil.; Thucydides, 1. vi. c. 61; Dxodor.
Sic. ubi supra ; Plut. Paral. in Thes.; Hesych. vv. Qrirtiov et Britruorg'r^'; Topography of Athens (additional note), p. 292.
A T H E N S.
163
The cella within measures 40 feet in length and 20 feet in
breadth. It has a pronaos and a posticum, each of which is
formed by a prolongation ot the sidewalls of the cella, having
two columns between the antse ; but the depth of the pro¬
naos is greater than that of the posticum, and the depth of
the portico of the pronaos is greater than that of the portico
at the back of the temple. The side porticoes are only 6
feet in breadth ; but the 34 columns of the peristyle are
nearly 3 feet 4 inches in diameter at the base, and about
19 feet in height, with an intercolumniation of 5 feet 4
inches, except at the angles, where the interval is smaller.
The stylobate is formed of only two steps; and the height
of the temple, from the bottom of the stylobate to the sum¬
mit of the pediment, is 33*5 feet. The eastern or chief
front only of the temple was adorned with sculptures ; and,
accordingly, the ten metopes of that front, with the four ad¬
joining metopes of either flank, are those in which the la¬
bours of Hercules and Theseus are represented in alto-re¬
lievo, while the other metopes are plain.1 The roof of the
cella of the Theseium is modern; the greater part of the
beams and lacunaria of the porticoes are wanting; and the
sculptures have been purposely defaced by the Turks. When
the temple was converted into a Christian church, the two
columns of the pronaos were removed to make room for the
altar; and a door was at the same time pierced in the west¬
ern wall. But when Athens was taken by the Turks, who
were in the habit of riding into the churches on horseback,
this door was shut up, and a smaller one made in the southern
wall. In other respects, however, the temple is complete.
It is formed entirely of Pentelic marble, and stands upon an
artificial foundation constructed of large quadrangular blocks
of ordinary limestone. At the north-western angle of the
temple, where the hill upon which it stands is precipitous,
six courses of the foundation now appear above ground, and
are gradually receiving so much injury from the effect of the
periodical rains as to threaten the safety of this part of the
building. I he sculptures of the Theseium are upon the
18 metopes already mentioned, upon a frieze over the en¬
trance of the pronaos, and upon another over that of the
posticum. All the metopes in the front of the temple which
can be deciphered relate to the labours of Hercules, the
kinsman, friend, and companion of Theseus; whilst those
on the two flanks relate exclusively to the achievements of
the hero to whom the edifice was more immediately dedi¬
cated. The subject of the frieze over the columns and antae
of the posticum or back vestibule was the most celebrated
event in the life of Theseus, his contest with the Centaurs ;
and, from the analogy of the front and flank metopes, it may
reasonably be presumed that the panel over the pronaos,
which has been completely defaced, related to the exploits
of Hercules. 1 he interior of the Theseium, as we learn
from Pausanias, was anciently decorated with paintings, re¬
presenting the achievements of Theseus, particularly his
battle with the Amazons, and the fight of the Centaurs and
Lapithae, where his prowess was most remarkably signalized.2
The stucco upon which they were painted is still apparent,
and shows that each painting covered the entire wall from Athens,
the roof to within 2 feet 9 inches of the pavement. v
Some difficulty exists as to the relative sites of the Ana- Aglau-
ceium and Aglaurium, which Pausanias next proceeds to rium, &c.
describe. We know, however, that the Anaceium stood
below the Aglaurium ; and from comparing the statements
of Herodotus, Pausanias, and Euripides in reference to the
latter, Colonel Leake has made it pretty evident that the
position of this ancient sanctuary of the Athenians was near
the northern foot of the Acropolis, in some part of the pre¬
cipices which are situated to the eastward of the Grotto of
Apollo and Pan. These precipices were called the long
rocks (jiaKpal TreVpai) ; and here it appears to have been
that the Persians under Xerxes ascended the steepest part
of the hill, near the temple of Aglauros, in order to scale
the ramparts of the citadel; an enterprise in which they
were completely successful. The Aglaurium was rather a
sanctuary or sacred inclosure (iepbv Tepcevos) than a temple,
and some traces of its existence are still discoverable near
the centre of the north side of the Acropolis. The Ana¬
ceium,3 or temple of the Dioscuri, a building of great anti¬
quity, stood immediately below the Aglaurium, close to the
rock of the Acropolis, and near the gate which now leads
into an exterior inclosure of the citadel, forming the modern
approach from the town to the Propylaea. It is said to have
contained several paintings by Polygnotus and Micon.
Near to the Aglaurium was the Prytaneium, where the writ¬
ten laws of Solon were deposited. It stood above the level
of the main body of the city, and formed the commence¬
ment of a street called Tripodes, leading to the sacred in¬
closure of Bacchus, near the theatre ; a circumstance which
seems to fix its site at the north-eastern angle of the Acro¬
polis, one of the very finest situations in Athens, command¬
ing a view of the sea, as well as of all the northern part of
the city and its plain. Not far from the supposed site of
the Prytaneium is a church of Panagia Vlastiki, where are
still seen the remains of some important building, probably
the temple of Serapis, which is the first edifice mentioned
by Pausanias upon descending from the Prytaneium into
the lower parts of the city. “ The ruins at the church of
\ lastiki, says Colonel Leake, “ are in a line between
the new Agora and the arch of Hadrian: the building
therefore to which they belonged probably stood in the
street leading from the Agora to the Olympeium and Ha-
drianopolis, of which the arch of Hadrian formed the ter¬
mination.”4 The numerous buildings erected by Hadrian
in this part of the city were denominated Hadrianopolis, as
we learn from an inscription on the remains of the triumphal
arch just mentioned.5
1 he Olympeium, Olympieium, or Olympium, one of the Olym-
most ancient temples in Athens, was supposed to have been peium.
originally founded by Deucalion. But it seems to have fallen
into decay at a very early period; for about the year 530
before the Christian era, Peisistratus commenced a new and
more magnificent structure upon the site of the old build¬
ing. Ihe ancient Athens, however, was not the only place
1 Leake’s Topography of Athens, p. 38 and 392.
2 For an account of the subjects of the sculpture in high relief which adorn the metopes of the front and two flanks of the temple
and the friezes oyer the posticum and pronaos, see Stuart’s Antiquities of Athens, vol. iii., and especially Colonel Leake’s additional
note on the Theseium in his Topography of Athens, p. 392, to which we have been almost exclusively indebted for the above particulars
Pi / was named Av^/av because the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) were commonly called o', by the Athenians.
Piutarch, Vit. Thes } JEAmn Hist. iv. 5; Harpocr. 4 Topography of Athens, p. 134.
. A”°Je ,the. north-west side of the arch there is inscribed AIAEI2A0HNAI0H2En2HnPINnOAI2, that is, uTh £;V, 'A6hou 0„«r^ b
rroX,^, 1 his is Athens, formerly the~ city of Theseus; and, on the opposite side, are the following characters: AIAEI2A APIANOTKAIOTXI-
0H2En 2IIOAI2, dll ur, ’ k\,moZ Xou ob;/, e^s ttoXh, This is the city of Hadrian, not of Theseus. Dr Chandler has supposed that the first
words of the former inscription should be read & ‘Hu; ’Afoui, instead of dih ua, ’Afiw,, or rather da wV ’A*W; hut Spon and Wheler,
btuart, and a multitude of others, including Kavasila (Cabasilas), a modern Greek, have all declared in favour of the former interpreta¬
tion; and where the same contracted form of expression occurs in other inscriptions, Gruter, Crusius, and Meursius invariably resolve it
as we have done. In both cases, however, the meaning is the same. That side of the arch which fronted the ancient city pointed it
out whilst the portion of the monument which looked towards the erections of Hadrian in like manner marked them out to the readers
oi tne legend.
1G4
ATHENS.
Athens, in the world where it was found easier to begin than to
—' finish a temple. The expensive wars in which the Athe¬
nians were not long afterwards engaged put a stop to the
progress of the building ; and nearly four centuries elapsed,
including the most flourishing periods of the republic, before
any attempt was made to complete it. At length, however,
Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, about the year 1 /4
B.c., undertook this task, and a magnificent edifice of the
Corinthian order was begun by Cossutius, a Roman archi¬
tect. But upon the death of Antiochus in 164 b.c. the
work was again interrupted ; and on the capture of Athens
by Sulla, 78 years afterwards, the columns prepared for the
building were carried away by order of the conqueror, and
erected as part of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at
Rome. The Olympeium was in this imperfect and muti¬
lated condition when the kings and states in alliance with
or in subjection to Augustus undertook the completion of
the edifice at their joint expense. But, from various causes,
the work was once more interrupted; and the honour of
completing and dedicating the temple, as well as of erect¬
ing the statue of the divinity, formed (if we may believe
Pausanias) of ivory and gold, was reserved for Hadrian, six
centuries and a half after its foundation by Peisistratus.
There can be little doubt that the cluster of magnificent co¬
lumns of Pentelic marble at the south-east extremity of the
city of Athens, near the Ilissus, belonged to the celebrated
temple of the Olympian Zeus. They are of the Corin¬
thian order, sixteen in number,2 six feet and a half in dia¬
meter, and above sixty feet in height, standing upon an ar¬
tificial platform, supported by a wall, the remains of which
show that the entire peribolos or circuit must have been
about 2300 feet, or little short of half a mile. From the ex¬
isting remains, it appears that the temple consisted of a cella,
surrounded by a peristyle, which had ten columns in front
and twenty on the sides; that the peristyle, being double
on the sides and quadruple at the posticum and pronaos,
consisted altogether of 120 columns ; and that the whole
length of the building was 354 feet, and its breadth 71.
“ Such vast dimensions,” says Colonel Leake, “ would alone
be sufficient to prove these columns to have belonged to
that temple, which was the largest ever built in honour of
the supreme pagan deity, and one of the four most magni¬
ficent ever erected by the ancients, even if Thucydides had
not pointed out this side of the city as the position of the
Olympeium, or if Vitruvius had not left us a description of
this edifice exactly conformable with the existing ruins.”3
Temples of To the taste and munificence of Hadrian Athens was also
Hera and indebted for a temple of Hera (Juno), another dedicated to
Zeus (Jupiter) Panhellenius, and a temple common to all the
gods, or Pantheon. But the most remarkable edifice next
to the Olympeium, erected by this emperor, was that which
has been denominated the Stoa or Gymnasium of Hadrian.
When complete, it was a quadrangle of 376 feet by 252,
adorned at the western end with a portal and colonnade of
Corinthian columns, 120 in number, and each three feet in
diameter; but of these, which were formed of Phrygian
marble, only ten are at present standing. In the centre are
the ruins of a building which now forms part of the church
of Megali Panagia, and consist, on one side of the remains
of an arch, and on the other of an architrave, supported
by a pilaster, and three Doric columns, each one foot nine
inches in diameter, and of a declining period of the arts:
round the inside of the inclosure, at a distance of twenty-
three feet from the wall, are also vestiges of a colonnade ;
and in the northern wall, which still exists, there is one large
quadrangular niche thirty-four feet in length, and two cir¬
cular niches equal to it in diameter.^ The general form and
Athens.
Zeus Pan¬
hellenius,
&c.
distribution of this building, which Pausanias notices as the
most magnificent of Hadrian’s works, are those of a stoa, or
place of resort for walking, conversation, and reading; and
the apartments projecting from the wall of the peribolos ac¬
cord precisely with the ot/oy/xara mentioned by Pausanias,
which were resplendent with alabaster and gilding, and
adorned with pictures and statues. The building at the
church of the great Panagia in the centre answers, Colonel
Leake thinks, to the library with which we know from seve¬
ral ancient authors4 besides Pausanias, that this magnificent
stoa was provided.5 .
Besides the street leading from the Prytaneium to the
Olympeium, there was another which branched off from the Dionysia’c
same place towards the Lenaeum or sacred inclosure of Bac- Theatre,
chus, adjacent to the theatre, which was called the Tripodes, &c.
from the tripods there dedicated by the leaders of the chori
victorious in the scenic contests decided in the Dionysiac
theatre. Several of these tripods were placed upon temples
dedicated to Bacchus and other deities, and erected either in
the quarter of the Tripodes or within the inclosure of the
Lenaeum ; others, again, stood upon columns and rocks near
the theatre, as the remains of the monuments still indicate.
Of the former description was the beautiful little choragic
monument of Lysicrates, vulgarly called the Lantern of De¬
mosthenes, the apex of which proves beyond a doubt that it
once supported a tripod, while its closed construction shows
that the victorious choragus who built this gem of art (vews
vTroKet/xevos toj rpiVoSi) preferred bestowing all the expense
on external decorations.6 From the inscription on this
monument it appears to have been erected in the archonship
of Evaenetus, in the year 335 B.c. ;7 and it is consequently
the oldest known specimen of the Corinthian order, although
considerably posterior to the epoch of its invention.8 Co¬
lonel Leake thinks that the street of Tripodes passed at the
foot of the rocks under the east end of the Acropolis; and
that, after reaching the south-eastern angle of the rocks, it
had one branch leading into the Lenaeum, and another into
the theatre of Bacchus. The Lenaeum, situated on the
western side of the theatre, was a most ancient sanctuary of
Bacchus ; having within its peribolos or inclosure two other
temples similarly dedicated, with a couple of statues, one ot
which was surnamed Eleuthereus,—and containing several
pictures representing different events in which the rosy god
1 Thucyd.l. ii. c. 15; Pausan. Attic. 23; Plutarch, Solon; Vitruv. Procrm. in 1. vii.; Liv. xli. c. 20; Sueton. August. 60; Spartian.
2 There was a seventeenth column belonging to the western front standing until the year 1760, when it was taken down by order
of the governor of Athens, to build a new mosque in the Bazaar. (Stuart’s Antiq. of Athens, vol. in. p. 1 ; C an er s ra
3 Topography of Athens, 43. See also note, p. 401. The other three temples alluded to in this extract were that of Artemis (Diana) at
Ephesus, that of Apollo near Miletus, and the Doric temple sacred to Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis. The first was - ee g
by 220 broad, the second 368 by 165 feet, and the third 216 by 178 feet.
4 Eusebius, Chron. Can.; Cassiodorus, Chron. in Hadrian.; Syncellus, CTiron-p. 349. • „ were
6 Topography of Athens, 120. Spon and Wheler conceived this building to be the temple of Jupiter Olympius, i ^
certainly mistaken; and Stuart thought it the Poecile, which is incompatible with the fact he himself admits, tha e co umn
the work of Roman times.
: so- of Lysitheides, led th, chor-s who- the boys of A—i,
n-ained the victory, when Theon played the flute, when Lysiades wrote the piece, and when Evmnetus was archon. , „ pontnrv
° 8 This order was first employed in the construction of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea about the year 385 B.C., or a J
prior to the period in question. (Pausan. Arcad. c. 45.)
ATHENS.
Athens, was believed to have participated. This is the temple to
which Thucydides alludes as that of Dionysus in Limnis, or
Bacchus in the marshes.1 The Dionysiac Theatre was si¬
tuated near the south-eastern angle of the Acropolis, where
vestiges of it are still to be seen. Like most of the other
theatres of Greece, its extremities were supported by piers
of solid masonry, while the middle of it was excavated in the
side of the hill. From the existing ruins, however, it is
difficult to form any correct estimate of the dimensions of
this theatre ; but if we are to credit Plato’s statement, that
it was capable of containing more than 30,000 spectators,2
it must have descended much lower down into the plain than
has been generally imagined, or than the actual remains
would lead us to suppose. The Hierum of Epidaurus, which
could not have contained more than 15,000 spectators, al¬
lowing only eighteen inches for each person, was 366 feet
in diameter; and the theatres at Argos and Sparta, as well
as that near Dramatzus in Epirus, were about 500 feet in
diameter, yet could not have admitted more than 30,000
spectators, allowing for each the width of seat or room just
mentioned. If Plato’s statement be correct, it seems there¬
fore to follow, that the diameter of the Dionysiac theatre
must have been not less than from 450 to 500 feet, and con¬
sequently that it must have extended quite close to the foot
of the hill, where, indeed, the level space necessary for the
orchestra and the scene could alone have been found.3 This
celebrated theatre contained statues of all the great tragic
and comic poets, the most conspicuous of which were natu¬
rally those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, among
the former, and that of Menander among the latter; and
Dicaearchus informs us that it was accounted the most beau¬
tiful structure of the kind in existence. A little to the east¬
ward stood the Odeium of Pericles, with a roof formed out
of the masts and yards of the Persian ships captured at Sala-
mis, and rising to a point like the pavilion of Xerxes, which
the whole structure indeed was intended to represent. It
was richly decorated with columns; and during the domi¬
nion of the Thirty 1 yrants, was generally occupied by their
satellites. During the siege of Athens by Sulla, Aristion,
general of Mithridates, who was intrusted with the defence
of the city, set fire to this monument of Athenian glory, lest
the enemy should make use of the timber for the purpose
of assaulting the Acropolis ; and although Vitruvius informs
us that it was afterwards restored at the expense of Ario-
barzanes, king of Cappadocia, not a vestige or trace of the
edifice remains. In the immediate vicinity of the citadel
W'ere a temple of Alsculapius, with a fountain; the temples
of Themis, Aphrodite Pandemos, and Persuasion; the monu¬
ment of Hippolytus ; besides the temple of Demeter Chloe,
some remains of which are supposed to exist at the foot of
the Acropolis, near the ascent which formerly led to the
citadel.4
The ancient city of Cecrops is now a fortress or citadel,
with a thick irregular wall inclosing a large area about twice
as long as it is broad, and standing on the outer ledges of
an elevated rock abruptly terminating in precipices on every
side, except the front, which is towards the Peiraeus or west,
and by which alone it is accessible. Some portions of the
ancient wall may still be seen on the outside, particularly at
the two extreme angles; and in many places it is patched
165
Acropolis
with fragments of columns and marbles taken from the ruins. Athens.
1 he physical character of this remarkable rock continues ^ ■ v ~
nearly the same as in the days of the most remote antiquity ;
and notwithstanding all the devastations which war, time,
and fanatical barbarism have committed, it still contains a
large portion of the remaining antiquities of Athens, and con¬
sequently demands a corresponding share of the researches
both of the artist and topographer. Anciently the Acropo¬
lis was filled with monuments of Athenian glory, and exhi¬
bited an amazing concentration of all that was most perfect
in art and most magnificent in architectural decoration. It
appeared, so to speak, as one entire offering to the divinity,
surpassing in excellence, and unrivalled in richness and
splendour. It was the peerless gem of Greece, the glory
and the pride of art, the wonder and envy of the world.
Heliodorus, surnamed Periegetes or the Guide, employed
no less than fifteen books in describing it; the curiosities of
various kinds, with the pictures, statues, and pieces of sculp¬
ture, supplied Polemo Periegetes with matter for four vo¬
lumes ; and Strabo seems to think that as many more would
have been required for a minute description. The number
of statues, in particular, was prodigious. Tiberius Nero,
who had a remarkable taste for appropriating works of art
which the genius and means of others had executed, plun¬
dered the Acropolis, as well as Delphi and Olympia; yet
notwithstanding this spoliation, Athens, in the time of Pliny,
had no fewer than three thousand remaining, of which the
most valuable portion was in the Cecropian city on the rock.
Even Pausanias seems to be distressed by the multiplicity of
objects which here engaged his attention, and uncertain
where to commence his description. Such was the Acro¬
polis. What it is, Stuart and Revett, and Cockerell and
Leake, and other writers, have told us ; and to their learned
and accurate researches we are indebted for the correct
knowledge, which we have at length attained, of those mag¬
nificent buildings which adorned the citadel of Athens. We
do not say that many curious discoveries connected with the
monuments of the Acropolis may not still be made, when its
platform shall have been cleared of the wretched buildings
which now cover its surface and disfigure its appearance ;
but in regard to the three great edifices, namely, the Pro-
pylaea, the Parthenon, and the Erechtheium, it is probable,
from what has been already discovered, that but little re¬
mains to be done.
I he western side of the Acropolis, which, as we have al- Fropylaea.
ready said, furnished, and still furnishes, the only access to
the summit of the hill, was about 168 feet in breadth ; an
opening so narrow that, to the artists of Pericles, it appeared
practicable to fill up the space with a single building, which,
in serving the main purpose of a gateway, should contribute
to adorn as well as to fortify the citadel. This work, the
greatest production of civil architecture in Athens,5 which
rivalled the Parthenon in felicity of execution, and surpassed
it in boldness and originality of design, was begun in the
archonship of Euthymenes, in the year 437 b.c., and com¬
pleted in five years, under the directions of the architect
Mnesicles, at the enormous cost, if we may believe Heliodo¬
rus, of two thousand and twelve talents.6 Of the space which
formed the natural entrance to the Acropolis, 58 feet near
the centre were left, for the great artificial entrance, and the
1 Thucydides, li. 15. 2 P]at Conviv. iii. 173, 175, ed. Serran.
Topography of Athens, 60. . 4 iq2
5 Philostratus, in his Life of Apollonius Tyanaeus, says, n¥<*;ur ■rpi, tp.Xonp.iuv fyxu iW^v, 1. ii. c. 5 : and Demos¬
thenes, in his oration against Androtion, gives a similar indication of the Propylaea having been considered upon a level with the
ar e_non in point 0 architectural skill and decoration : Cl ra n^TVAatK TOV Uo.phvZveu oix.o'hop.rKra.v'n; iKiitoi xui raXXcc vuvra a-vo nrm
liocphupav npu. x.op.wKvris, k. t. X. p. 597, ed. Reiske.
• 61 riv1S in6r6d.ible for many reasons. In particular, it appears, from Thucydides, that the expense of all the works of Pericles,
including the Odeium, the mystic temple at Eleusis, the Parthenon, and one of the long walls, as well as the Propylsea, did not amount'
to three thousand talents; and it is therefore inconceivable that the last-mentioned edifice, one of five of which the Parthenon was the
406 )Ud haVe C°St tW0'thirds of this sum- See a vei7 learned note on this subject by Colonel Leake. {Topography of Athens,
166 A T H
Athens, remainder on either side was closed by wings projecting 32
feet in front of the grand central colonnade. The entire
building received the name of Propylaea from its forming the
vestibule to the five gates or doors, still in existence, by which
the citadel was entered.1 The wall in which these doors w ere
pierced was thrown back about 50 feet from the front ot the
artificial opening of the hill; and the whole may, therefore,
be said to have resembled a modern fortification, the Pro-
pylaeum properly so called representing the curtain, and each
of the two wings presenting a face and flank or gorge like
two adjoining bastions. This incomparable edifice was con¬
structed entirely of Pentelic mai'ble. The Propylaeum or
great vestibule in the centre consisted of a front of six fluted
Doric columns, mounted upon four steps which supported a
pediment, and measuring five feet in diameter and near 29
in height, with an intercolumniation of 7 feet, except be¬
tween the two central columns, which were 13 feet apart in
order to furnish space for a carriage-way. Behind the Doric
colonnade was a vestibule 43 feet in depth, the roof of w hich
was sustained by six Ionic columns in a double row, so as to
divide the vestibule into three aisles or compartments ; and
these columns, although only three feet and a half in diame¬
ter at the base, were, including the capitals, nearly 34 feet
in height, their architraves being on the same level with the
frieze of the Doric colonnade. The ceiling was laid upon
marble beams, resting upon the latei’al walls and the archi¬
traves of the two rows of Ionic columns ; those covering the
side aisles being 22 feet in length, and those covering the
central aisle 17 feet, with a proportional breadth and thick¬
ness. Enormous masses like these, raised to the roof of a
building, standing upon a steep hill, and covered with a ceil¬
ing which all the resources of art had been exhausted to
beautify, might well excite the admiration of even a plain
matter-of-fact topographer like Pausanias, and at once ac¬
count for and justify the enthusiasm with which he expresses
himself when speaking of the roof of the Propylaea..2 Of the
five doors at the extremity of the vestibule, the width of the
central and largest was equal to the space between the two
central columns of the Doric portico in front, which was the
same as that between the two rows of Ionic columns in the
vestibule ; but the doors on either side of the principal one
were of diminished height and breadth, and the two beyond
these again were still smaller in both dimensions. These five
gates or doors led from the vestibule into a back portico 18
feet in depth, which was fronted with a Doric colonnade and
pediment of the same dimensions as those of the western or
outer portico, but placed upon a higher level, there being five
steps of ascent from the level of the latter to that of the former.
From the eastern or inner portico there was a descent of one
step into the adjacent part of the platform of the Acropolis.
Wings. The wings of the Propylaea were nearly symmetrical in
front, each presenting on this side a wall adorned only with
a frieze of triglyphs, and with antae at the extremities. The
extreme simplicity of the wings in this direction was charac¬
teristic of the work of defence of which they formed so im¬
portant a part; while the flanks of the bastions (if we may
be allowed the expression) were also uniform in their con¬
struction, each presenting a Doric front of three columns in
antis, each three feet in diameter, supporting pediments, the
summits of which were on a level with the frieze of the Pro¬
pylaeum properly so called. Besides, the inner or southern¬
most column of each wing stood in a line with the great
E N S.
Doric columns of the Propylaeum ; and as both these co- Athens,
lumns and those of the wings were upon the same level, the
three porticoes were all connected together, and the four
steps which ascended to the Propylaeum were continued also
along the porticoes of the two wings. But here the sym¬
metry of the building ended ; for, in regard to interior size
and distribution of parts, the wings were exceedingly dissi¬
milar. In the northern or left wing, a porch of twelve feet
in depth conducted by three doors into a chamber of 34 feet
by 26, the porch and chamber thus occupying the entire
space behind the western wall of that wing; whereas the
southern or right wing consisted only of a porch or gallery of
26 feet by 16, which, on the south and east sides, was formed
by a wall connected with and of the same thickness as the
lateral wall of the Propylaeum, and, on the west side, had its
roof supported by a narrow pilaster, standing between the
north-west column of the wing and an anta, which termi¬
nated its southern wall. In front of the southern or right
W'ing there stood, so late as the year 1676, a small Ionic
temple, dedicated to Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory).
Wheler informs us that it was built of white marble, and
about fifteen feet in length by eight or nine in breadth ;
and we learn from Spon that it was then used by the 1 urks
as a powder-magazine.3 The left wing of the Propylaea was
decorated with paintings by Polygnotus, representing a se¬
ries of events connected with the siege of Troy ; and the
structure wras ornamented with equestrian statues. After
the ruin of Athens, the Propylaea ceased to be the entrance
of the Acropolis. The passage between the columns ot the
centre was walled up almost to their capitals, and above
was a battery of cannon. The way wound before the front
of the ancient structure; and turning to the left among
rubbish and wretched walls irregularly huddled together,
the stranger proceeded to the back of the vestibule and the
five door-ways, without almost suspecting that he was in the
midst of that celebrated structure which formed the external
glory and defence of the rock of Cecrops.4
The Parthenon, or temple of the Virgin Goddess, was Parthenon,
placed upon the highest platform of the Acropolis, w'hich was
so far elevated above its western entrance that the pavement
of the peristyle of this renowned edifice was upon the same
level as the capitals of the columns of the eastern portico ot
the Propylaea. It was also called Hecatompedon (from its
being a hundred feet broad), and was constructed entirely of
white marble from the quarries of Mount P entelicus. It con¬
sisted of a cella, surrounded with a peristyle, having eight Do¬
ric columns in the two fronts, and seventeen in the sides, or
forty-six in all; each column six feet six inches in diameter
at the base, and thirty-four feet in height, standing upon a
pavement or platform, to which there was an ascent of three
steps. The total height of the temple above its platform was
about 68 feet, its length 228, and its breadth 102 feet Eng¬
lish. Within the peristyle, at both ends, there was an in¬
terior range of six columns, five feet and a half in diameter,
standing before the end of the cella, and forming a vestibule
to its door, two steps above the pavement of the peristyle.
The cella, which was 63 feet in breadth within, was divided
into two unequal chambers, of which the western was about
43^- feet in length, and the eastern 98 feet. The ceiling of
the" former was supported by four columns of about four feet
in diameter, and that of the latter by sixteen columns of about
three feet.
1 Heliod. apud Harpocrat. v. nowvXty.tec. , / _ /-a ■
2 Ta 11 npovruXaiK X'dov Xiixov rvv opo<ph» txl‘> xa‘ x°<rpy tuv Xi6uv 7s tpov neoaxi. ( itic. C. 2 !.) , tqqk
3 This little cem of ancient architecture has lately been almost completely restored; for during the excavations made in > ‘ ^
all the stones of which it had originally consisted were recovered, and under the superintendence of very competent persons i as ee
rebuilt with the original materials and on its original site, where it has the appearance of an entirely new building. _ .
4 In the year 1853 M. Beule, at the expense of the French government, removed the rubbish of the two Turkish batteries , f „„„
up the true entrance to the Athenian Acropolis, and discovered below the unseemly mass the two towers that , e, „ ,iful
of the fate, and between them a marble curtain, with remains of a Doric entablature over a Doric doorway of a simp
style. Vithin this the fine marble stairs that formed the ascent to the Propylaea are still entire.
ATHENS.
Athens.
Since the time of Stuart and Leake, the Greek govern¬
ment has removed the whole of the ruins that encumbered
the existing remains, and the Turkish tower and mosque,
and the ground plan of the Parthenon has been more accu-
lately ascertained. The accurate measurements were made
by Mr Pennethorne in 1837, confirmed in 1838 by two Ger¬
man artists, M. Hofer and M. Schubart, and the plans laid
down by Geo. Knowles in 1850. The singular discoveries
that have been thus brought to light are not unimportant to
architecture. It is discovered that the lines formerly supposed
to be stiaight lines, are regularly formed segmental curves
of a long radius. I hus the lines of the pediment and of the
surface of the pavement are found to be parabolic segments
of large radius.1 The platform is found to be just 233 feet
by 108 feet. The exterior dimensions of the cella = 158 feet
6 inches by 72 feet 6 inches. The cella was divided by a wall
of 4 feet in thickness into the Parthenon proper, the interior
of which is 97 feet 6 inches by 64 feet, and an opisthodomos
of 44 feet 6 inches, by 64 feet. Thickness of the end walls
of the cella, 7*75 feet; of the side walls, 4 feet. The dia¬
meter of the base of the columns is 6 feet 6 inches. The
intercolumniations are 8 feet, except at the angles of the
peristyle on the sides, where these are only one diameter of
the columns. The principal division of the cella had two
interior rows of columns of ten in each row, with three ad¬
ditional at the west end. They were 11 feet from the side
walls of the cella and the septum. The space between the
rows is 23 feet. The statue of the goddess is now' ascer¬
tained to have stood within the columns, 70 feet from the
porch ot the eastern portico, and 34 feet from the septum
dividing the Parthenon from the opisthodomos. The opis¬
thodomos had 4 interior Doric columns of the same dia¬
meter as the columns of the peristyle, placed 17 feet from
the side walls of the cella, and 11 feet from the septum. In
the eastern chamber of the Parthenon, the smallness of the
diameter of the columns leaves little doubt that there was
an upper range, as in the temples of Paestum and TEgina.
But it is to be lamented that no remains of any of them have
been found, as these might have presented new proofs of the
taste and invention of the architects of the age of Pericles.
Such, then, was the simple construction of this magnificent
temple, which, by its united excellencies of materials,2 de-
167
sign, and decoration, internal as well as external, has been Athens
universally considered the most perfect which human genius
and skill ever planned and executed. Its dimensions were
sufficiently large to produce an impression of grandeur and
sublimity, which was not disturbed by any obtrusive subdi¬
vision of parts ; and, whether viewed at a small or a ureat
distance, there was nothing to divert the mind of the specta¬
tor from contemplating the unity as well as majesty of mass
and outline; circumstances which form the first and most
remarkable characteristic of every Greek temple erected
during the purer ages of Grecian taste and genius. Nor
was it until the eye had become satiated with the contempla¬
tion of the entire edifice that the spectator could be tempted
to examine the decorations with which this building was so
profusely adorned; for the statues of the pediments, foe only
decoration which was very conspicuous from its magnitude
and position, being inclosed within frames, which formed an
essential part of the design of either front, had no more
obtrusive effect than an ornamented capital to a single
column.3
It is not our intention, in this place, to attempt any de- Decora-
tailed or minute description of an edifice which would re- tions-
quire a volume for its complete illustration. We may observe,
geneially, that as it was one of the great objects of Pericles
to furnish employment in every branch of art to the ingenious
and skilful artists with whom Athens at that period abound¬
ed, so he had contrived that the temple should be of a de¬
sign the best adapted to the decorations of sculpture, and that
it should be adorned with every species of it which was most
esteemed among the Greeks. Within the cella was a speci¬
men of chryselephantine sculpture, having but one rival in
Greece, and that by the same master ; under the colonnade,
and in other parts of the temple, stood numerous statues in
bronze ; in the reti or pediments were two compositions near
eighty feet in length, each consisting of about twenty entire
statues of colossal size; under the exterior cornice, in har¬
mony with the projecting features of that part of the build¬
ing, were ninety-two groups, raised in high relief, from tab¬
lets about four feet three inches square ; and, lastly, along
the outside of the cell and vestibules ran a frieze of about
three feet four inches in breadth and 520 in length, to which
a relief, slightly raised above the surface of the naked wall
1 This has been found to hold particularly in the Parthenon, Theseium, and also
especially in all the Doric remains.
in the Corinthian temple of Jupiter Olympius, but
, furves are 80 gentle as to be not perceptible to one standing directly in front, unless the eve be nraotised in *•
but if the spectator be placed at one end, and look along the course, it will be seen. ^ P c observations;
This explains an obscure passage in Vitruvius, in which the words scamilli impares had formerly nuzzled the n + , • ,
has been correctly translated by Wilkins. y Puzzlea “e commentators, but which
The following table is given by Mr Penrose in his Investigation of the Principles of Athenian Architecture: 
1. Temple of Jupiter Olympius.
Plank 
2. Surbase of Parthenon, or first temple,
Front 
Flank  
3. Stylobate of Parthenon.
Front 
Flank  
Entablature in front 
Ditto on flanks restored  
4. Theseum.
Front 
Flank 
5. Propylasa.
Entablature from E. portico   
Feet in Length.
354-2
104-2
221-
101-3
228-1
100-2
227-
45-
104-2
Actual Rise.
•25 nearly.
•150
•233
Rise in 100 Feet.
•07
•145
•105
228 _ flank x '225 = | -145 1 very
•156 = -105 j nearly.
•171
•171 = f
•307
•063
•101
•228
135
■140
100
68-1
•119
175
seen that the curvature of
It thus appears, that in the Theseium and the first Parthenon the agreement is remarkable • but it will be
the lines in the Parthenon of Pericles is greater by one-half. “ The effect of the curvature in the temnle T TV 7"
e architect that an increase of curvature would be attended with advantage.” This introduction of o-entlv curved lines nr. rh^6! t T/*
t02t lm}l PeculiarJy hai‘monious blending of the parts of the architecture so observable in all genuine Greciaif buildings U a *
11,6 “CCMSlVe eff°r,S »f "tis‘» «.ei- predecessors
3 Topography of Athens, p. 209, et seq.; Stuart’s Antiq. of Athens, vol. ii. p. 57.
168
ATHENS.
Athens, which it crowned, was peculiarly applicable. This frieze re-
presented the procession to the Parthenon on the grand quin¬
quennial festival of the Panathenaea. No part of the work
is now attached to the temple, but a tolerably correct idea
of it may be formed from the drawings of Carrey, taken be¬
fore the explosion which ruined the building, added to the
designs of Stuart, and the fragments of the original which
have been disinterred from the ruins and are now deposited
in the British Museum. The procession is represented as
advancing in two parallel columns from west to east; one pio-
ceeding along the northern, and the other along the southern
side of the temple, part facing inwards after turning the angle
of the eastern front, and part meeting towards the centie o
that front. Of the metopes on the frieze of the peristyle,
ninety-two in all, viz., fourteen on either front and thirty-two
on either flank of the temple, the greater part on the north¬
ern side and the two fronts have perished by wanton vio¬
lence or by casual destruction ; whilst of those which be¬
longed to the southern side, where the progress of dilapida¬
tion had been less ruinous, fifteen are now in the British
Museum and one in Paris. From these fragments, together
with the drawings of Carrey and Stuart, it has been con"
lectured, with much probability, that the metopes of the
northern side related to the war of the Amazons, whilst those
on the opposite side of the temple related principally to the
other great fabulous Athenian contest with the Centaurs. The
two pediments of the temple were decorated with magnificent
compositions of statuary, one representing the birth of Athena
(Minerva), and the other the contest between that goddess
and Poseidon (Neptune) for the possession of Attica; the
birth being delineated on the western and the contest on the
•eastern pediment. The statue of the virgin goddess stood
in the eastern chamber of the cella, and consisted of ivory and
gold. On the summit or apex of the helmet was placed a
sphinx, with griffins on either side. The figure of the god¬
dess was represented in an erect martial attitude, and clothed^
in a robe reaching to the feet. On the breast was a head of
Medusa wrought in ivory, and a figure of Victory about four
cubits in height. The goddess held a spear in her hand, and
an aegis lay at her feet; while on her right, and near the
spear, was a figure of a serpent, believed to represent that of
Erichthonius. According to Pliny, the entire height of the
figure was twenty-six cubits ; and the artist Phidias had in¬
geniously contrived that the gold with which the statue was
encrusted might be removed at pleasure. The battle of the
Centaurs and Lapithae was carved on the sandals ; the gi-
gantomachia and the battle of the Amazons were represented
on the aegis which lay at her feet; and on the pedestal was
sculptured the birth of Pandora. Pausanias also notices
statues of Iphicrates, Pericles, his father Xantippus, Ana¬
creon, and a brazen Apollo by Phidias. A portion of the
southern wall was adorned with the battle of the giants ; and
here also were represented the conflict of the Athenians and
Amazons, the battle of Marathon, and, lastly, the defeat of
the Gauls in Mysia, sculptured at the expense of Attalus.
The statue of Zeus Polieus stood between the Propylaeaand
the Parthenon; and the brazen colossus of Athena by P hidias,
dedicated from the tenth of the spoils of Marathon, and com¬
monly called Athena Promachos, appears to have occupied
some part of the space between the Erechtheium and Pro-
pylaea, near the Pelasgic or northern wall. The architect of
the Parthenon was Ictinus, who appears to have designed as
well as executed the building ; while Phidias had the con¬
trol of the whole sculptural decorations, and with his own un¬
rivalled hand executed those prodigies of art with which this
great temple was adorned.1
Erechthei- The Erechtheium, or Temple of Erechtheus, so called
um, &c. from its reputed founder Erechtheus, otherwise named Erich¬
thonius, stood on the northern side of the Acropolis, and w as
one of the most ancient structures of Athens, being alluded to
by Homer in the second book of his Iliad. There is, how- —
ever, some confusion respecting this edifice, which seems to
have been of a double construction, or divided into two parts,
from the circumstance of the entire building being often
called the temple of Athena Polias as well as the Erech¬
theium ; a practice which, as Colonel Leake remarks, is not
at all surprising, considering that the temple of Athena Polias
was the most important part of the building, and that the
statue of the goddess here worshipped was the most sacred
in Attica, not even excepting that of the Parthenon. The
truth, however, seems to be, that the Erechtheium con¬
tained two subdivisions; the eastern or more important
forming the temple of Athena Polias, the peculiar protec¬
tress of the citadel; and the western, that of Pandrosos.
The former had a hexastyle front; before the colonnade was
an altar of Zeus, and under it were altars of Poseidon and
Hephaestus ; on the wall of the portico were the pictures
of the Butadae ; and within the cella were the Erechtheian
salt-well, the wooden statue of Athena, with the lamp and
brazen palm-tree before it, the altar of oblivion, the sacred
serpent, the wooden statue of Hermes, the chair of Daedalus,
and the Persian spoils. The Pandrosium, or chapel sacred
to Pandrosos, one of the daughters of Cecrops, consisted of
two chambers, of which the western was narrow, and opened
into the portico at either end. The northern portico con¬
sisted of six Ionic columns, four in the front, with one on
either flank ; and it stood not far from the edge of the pre¬
cipice, at the foot of which was the temenos of Aglauros.
The southern portico was smaller than the northern, and its
roof was supported by six caryatides, standing upon a po¬
dium, and disposed like the columns of the northern por¬
tico, four in front and two on the flanks. In the western
or narrow chamber of this chapel grew the tree of Athena,
and the crooked Pancyphus, which was held in such high
veneration by the Athenians, and which the Persians, dur¬
ing their invasion, had burned but not destroyed. As to
the eastern or interior chamber, which was contiguous to
the cella of Athena Polias, Colonel Leake thinks with Stuart
that it formed the Cecropium,and quotes an inscription which
countenances that opinion. u I hat Cecrops, says he, was
buried in this edifice appears to have been the common be¬
lief; and upon an inscribed marble (brought to England by
Dr Chandler, and presented by the Society of Dilettanti to
the British Museum), wherein different parts of this build¬
ing are specified, we find the Cecropium mentioned in a
manner which leaves no doubt of its having been an inte¬
gral part of the building.” The number of statues in the
Acropolis was prodigious; and there were likewise several
hiera or sanctuaries, such as that of Zeus Polieus, Artemis
(Diana) Brauronia, and the genius of good men. The
whole of the Acropolis was surrounded by walls built on
the natural rock of which the entire hill is composed. But
the most ancient part of these defences was constructed by
the Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, who, in the course of their multi¬
farious migrations, settled in Attica, and were employed by
the Athenians of that early period in the erection of those
ramparts which are often mentioned in the history of Athens
under the name of Pelasgicum. Before the Persian war,
however, they had fallen into decay ; for on that occasion
it was found necessary to erect palisades and other tempo¬
rary defences. At a subsequent period the hill was re-fbr-
tified by Cimon and Themistocles; and it is probable that
the greater part of the existing wall, although disfigured by
the reparations of various ages, consists of the original Hel¬
lenic work hastily raised by these celebrated men, before
the alarm occasioned by the Persian invasion had entirely
subsided. “ A part of the southern wall,” says Colonel
Leake, “ where the profile is not less than 60 feet in height,
Athens.
l Topography of Athens, ubi supra; Pliny, 1. xxxvi. C. 5; Pausan. Attic. 25.
*
ATHENS.
1C)9
Athens, appears in particular to consist almost entirely of the ancient
Cimonian work; and the centre of the northern side still
bears the strongest evidence of the haste with which Thucy¬
dides describes the fortifications of Athens to have been re¬
stored after the Persian war, when the Athenians returned
to the city upon the departure of the barbarians, and found
nothing left but a small part of the walls, and some of the
houses which had been occupied by the Persian grandees.”1
Grotto of In his descent from the Propylsea, in the direction of the
Pan, Arei- outer Ceramicus and Academy, Pausanias describes the
opagus. Cave or Grotto of Pan and the Areiopagus, both of which
lay nearly in his route, and were the only objects of impor¬
tance which had not yet been noticed by him. The grotto
sacred to Apollo and Pan he describes as a cavern converted
into a temple, and as situated under the Propylaea, near to
a spring of water. Now, under the wall of the northern
wing of the Propylsea, near the road which forms the pre¬
sent access to the citadel from the centre of the town are
both the cavern and the spring; the former containing two
excavated ledges for the altars and statues of the two deities,
together with several niches for votive offerings ; and the
latter supplying water to an artificial fountain a little way
down the hill, whence the streamlet is conveyed by means
of an aqueduct to the principal mosque, near the Bazaar.2
The Areiopagus, or hill of Ares, so called, it is said, in con¬
sequence of that god having been the first person tried there
for the crime of murder, was beyond all doubt the rocky
height which is separated from the western end of the Acro¬
polis by a hollow forming a communication between the
northern and southern divisions of the city. It appears,
however, that the court of Areiopagus, and the temple of
the Semnae occupied only the eastern or highest summit of
the hill, which agrees with the authorities indicating that
other buildings were situated on the more western parts of
the ridge. rI his court consisted originally of an open space,
in which were an altar dedicated to Athena Areia, and two
rude seats of stone for the plaintiff and defendant, or the
accuser and accused, as the case might be. But we learn
from Vitruvius, that at a later period this space was inclosed
and roofed in with tiles, and the ancient mode of admini¬
stering justice in the open air altogether abandoned. The
Persians occupied a position on the Areiopagus at the time
when they made their attack on the western end of the
Acropolis. Near to the spot on which the court stood was
the temple of the Furies, as well as the building on which
the sacred ship of the great Panathenaic festival was de¬
posited.3
Pnyx, Mu- In ancient times, a place at the foot of the Pnyx was the
seium, &c. most common place of public assembly, especially during
elections; but latterly it was less frequented for that pur¬
pose than the Dionysiac theatre, which has been already
described. It appears to have been situated over against
the Areiopagus, in view of the Propylaea, and not very far
from the city walls; and it was constructed for the meet¬
ings of the people, not with the magnificence of a regular
theatre, but with a simplicity characteristic of the earlier
and severer age of Grecian liberty. The orators addressed
the people, not from rostra splendidly decorated, but from
a JSrj/jLa, or plain pulpit of stone, which looked to the sea. Athens.
Some traces of this ancient structure still exist on a height
or eminence, the situation and bearings of which, to the N.
of the Museium, and the W. of the Areiopagus, accord per¬
fectly with the position of the Pnyx, as determined by the
statements of the Greek writers.4 The whole range of
hills which rises to the S.W. of the citadel, and above the
ancient place of the popular assembly, bore the name of
Pnyx. Plato informs us that it was opposite the Pnyx, and
Antigonus Carystius relates a fabulous story, which would
lead us to imagine that anciently it approximated more
closely to the Acropolis than is at present the case. The
Museium was another elevation S. of the Pnyx, and, like
the Pnyx, it was within the peribolus or circumference of
the ancient walls. It derived its name from the poet Mu-
sseus, who was believed to be interred there. At a later
period a monument was erected on this eminence by Philo-
pappus, a descendant of the kings of Commagene in Syria,
who, having been consul in the reign of Trajan, retired
to Athens (as we learn from the inscription) to spend the
remainder of his days “ from toils and cares remote,” in the
bosom of that renowned city. Among the inferior courts
of judicature mentioned by Pausanias, after describing the
Areiopagus, were the Parabystum, where petty causes were
tried ; the Trigonum, so called from its shape ; and the Ba-
trachium and Phoenicium, which probably received their
names from some peculiarities of colour in the edifices where
they were held. The Palladium was a court where persons
accused of murder were commonly tried. Those, however,
who confessed to the act of slaying, but set up a justifica¬
tion of the deed—as, for example, that it had been done in
self-defence-—were sent to be judged in the Delphinium, a
tribunal which probably derived its name from being situ¬
ated near the temple of Apollo Delphinius.5
This completes our survey of the principal buildings, mo¬
numents, and localities, within the city, which we have de¬
scribed as fully as the limits to which the present article is
confined would possibly admit; omitting nothing which we
considered of material importance, either for conveying a
just notion of the ancient splendour and magnificence of
Athens, as contrasted with its actual state of decay and
ruin, or for enabling the reader to understand and appre¬
ciate the innumerable allusions, references, and descriptions,
with which the Greek writers, whether poets, historians,
philosophers, or orators, abound.
The whole of the north-western part of the city, compris- Ccele,
ing the hills Museium, the Pnyx, and the hill of the Nymphs, Melit0.
appears to have borne the name of Melite ; but it was subdi- Colyttus-
vided into quarters. The valley between the Museium and
Pnyx was called Colyttus or Collytus,6 and the district north
of the Pnyx and south ofthe hill of the Nymphs bore the name
of Scambonidae. The whole of this part of the city appears
to have been densely peopled, and many of the illustrious per¬
sons in Athenian history are said to have dwelt there.7 On
the south of the Museium the city extended a little way be¬
yond the river Ilissus, and the south-western part of the city
bore the name of Coele, that is, hollow or low ground; it ap¬
pears to have been mainly used as a burying-ground.
1 Stuart’s Antiq. of Athens, vol. ii.; Leake’s Topography, p. 257 and 264.
2 The position of the cave of Apollo and Pan is exactly represented on a coin of Athens, which has been published by Stuart {Anti¬
quities of Athens, vol. ii. p. 37) and Barthelemy {Recueil des Cartes, Ac., relatifs au Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis, No. 27). It presents
a view of the north-western side of the Acropolis, with the Propylsea to the right, the Parthenon to the left, and the colossal statue of
Athena Promachos between them; whilst the grotto of Pan is represented a little to the left of the stairs which formed an ascent for
foot passengers from the north side of the city to the Propylsea. {Topography of Athens, p. 62, 63.)
3 Jul. Poll. viii. 10; Aischyl. Eumenid. 680; Herod, viii. 52.
4 Jul. Poll. viii. 10; Harpocr. v. Aristoph. Tac. 659, ubi et Schol.Plutarch, Themist.; Plato Crit.
5 Galen in Harpocr. Epidem. iii. 3; Demosth. in Aristocrat, p. 643; Cf. J. Poll. viii. 10.
6 Plutarch in Them.; Tzetz. Chil. viii. Hist. 192, v. 326; Philostr. Sophist, ii.: Tertull. de Anim. cap. 20; Xenoph. Hell. v. i. 23;
Aisch. Epist. ad Ctes. Harpocr. v. I^aAss.
7 Topography of Athens, 116; Dodwell, vol. i. p. 401. From an inscription cited by Spon we learn that Code belonged to the tribe
Hippothoontis, Itin. tom. ii. p. 426.
VOL. IV. v
170
ATHENS.
Athens.
Ilissus and
Enneacru-
nos.
Odeium,
Eleusini-
um, &c.
Lyceium
The far-famed Ilissus, from which Athens was principally
supplied with water, and which Plato in a well-known pas¬
sage of his Phcedrus has described as a perennial stream, is
now almost always dry, its waters being drawn off, either to
irrigate the neighbouring gardens or to supply the artificial
fountains of the modern city. It rises to the N.E. of
the town, and after a course of a few miles, loses itself in
the southern marshes. Not far from the supposed site of
the Lyceium, and close to the walls of Athens, it is joined
by another stream, or rather water-course, which is believed
to be the Eridanus of Pausanias. The fountain of Callir-
rhoe or Enneacrunos supplied the only spring water used
by the Athenians, that of the other wells being either salt or
brackish. According to Thucydides, it was situated on the
S. side of the city, close to the temples of Bacchus and
Zeus Olympius ; but other authors affirm that it rose near
the stream of the Ilissus ; and here, in fact, Spon and Whe-
ler observed a fountain, a little below the south-eastern
angle of the Olympeium, to which the natives still applied
the name of Kalliroi. Colonel Leake says that it now forms
a pool, which in the drought of summer becomes muddy
and scanty, but which is still resorted to as the only place
in the neighbourhood furnishing sweet water.1
Near the fountain of Callirrhoe or Enneacrunos stood an
Odeium (which the reader will be careful to distinguish
from that of Pericles, formerly mentioned), adorned with
various statues of the Egyptian Ptolemies, as well as of
Philip, Alexander, Lysimachus, and Pyrrhus, and probably
erected by some prince of the Macedonian dynasty. This
seems to have been a sort of minor theatre, intended for re¬
citation and music without action. In Agrae, a south-east¬
ern suburb of Athens, and on the left bank of the Ilissus,
a little above Enneacrunos, was the Eleusinium, or temple
of Demeter and Persephone, set apart for the celebration
of the lesser Eleusinian mysteries. It is conjectured to
have stood on the southern bank of the Ilissus, opposite the
western point of the little island of the Ilissus, where the
foundations of an ancient building are still observable. Plu¬
tarch informs us that the Stadium was erected by Lycurgus
the son of Lycophron for the celebration of games during
the great Panathenaic festival. Pausanias describes it as
an astonishing structure, rising in the shape of an amphi¬
theatre above the Ilissus, and extending to the banks of that
stream. It was originally constructed about the year 350
B.c. for the purpose just mentioned; and about five centuries
afterwards it was covered with seats of Pentelic marble by
Herodes Atticus, who is said to have been interred within
its walls. The marble seats have all disappeared, but the
entire cavea remains, together with the masses of masonry
by which the semicircular end on the south was formed out
of the torrent-bed of the Ilissus; and similar ruins are also
observable at the opposite end, with the piers of a bridge
over the Ilissus, and the site of a building on the summit of
either hill. The temple of Triptolemus, which Pausanias
also places above Enneacrunos, was probably the beautiful
little Ionic building which the drawings of Stuart have pre¬
served from oblivion. It formed in his time the church of
Panagia on the Rock, but has now almost entirely disap¬
peared. Travellers have sometimes taken this building for
the Eleusinium ; but it is scarcely credible that the edifice
where the sacred mysteries of Ceres were celebrated should
have been of so small dimensions.2
Higher up the river was Agra:, containing the temple of
Artemis Agrotera, an altar dedicated to Boreas, and ano¬
ther sacred to the Musae Ilissiades. In the vicinity, too,
were some gardens, and a temple of Aphrodite celebrated
for a statue of the goddess, executed by Alcamenes, a pupil Athens,
of Phidias. But the most interesting spot in this quarter,
on the outside of the walls of the city, was the Lyceium,
a sacred inclosure dedicated to Apollo Lycius, where the
polemarch originally held his court. It was decorated with
fountains, plantations, and ornamental edifices by Peisistra-
tus, Pericles, and Lycurgus, and became the usual place of
exercise for such of the Athenian youth as devoted them¬
selves to military pursuits. Nor was it less frequented by
philosophers and others fond of retirement and study. The
Lyceium is indissolubly associated with the immortal name
of Aristotle, who delivered his prelections, esoteric as well
as exoteric, while walking within its sacred inclosure, and
whose followers, thence called Peripatetics, have added to
the celebrity of the spot which formed the favourite resort
of the greatest philosopher of the ancient world. The posi¬
tion commonly assigned to the Lyceium is on the right
bank of the Ilissus, nearly opposite to the church of Petros
Stauromenos, which is supposed to correspond with the tem¬
ple of Artemis Agrotera, on the other side of the river.3 We
shall now proceed briefly to notice some of the remarkable
places or suburbs connected with Athens.
Cynosarges was a spot consecrated to Hercules, and pos- Cyno-
sessed a gymnasium, with groves frequented by the philo- sarges.
sophers, as well as a sort of consistorial tribunal for decid¬
ing in all questions of legitimacy. After the battle of Ma¬
rathon, when the city was threatened by the Persian fleet,
which had doubled the promontory of Sunium (Cape Co-
lonna), the Athenian army took up a position at Cynosar¬
ges, in order to cover the capital from attack, and to give
battle to the enemy should they venture to land, which,
however, they did not. Philip, the son of Demetrius, is
said to have encamped on the same spot with a very differ¬
ent intention, and to have destroyed the groves and build¬
ings around it, as well as those of the Lyceium. Cynosar¬
ges is supposed to have been situated at the foot of Mount
Lycabettus, now the hill of St George, and to the south¬
ward of the place called Asomato.4
On the opposite side in the west, and outside the city Outer Ce-
walls, was the exterior Ceramicus, of which we have already ramicus.
spoken incidentally. Here were interred Pericles, Phor-
mio, Thrasybulus, and Chabrias; in this vast cemetery the
bravest and the best men, who had proved themselves the
ornaments of their country and the benefactors of their
species, lay as it were in state beside that celebrated capi¬
tal which their valour had defended or their genius illus¬
trated ; and, as far as the Academy, the road was lined on
either side with the sepulchres of those Athenians who had
fallen in battle. Over each tomb was placed a stele or pil¬
lar, whereon were commemorated the names and tribes of
the deceased. Among the several monuments enumerated
by Pausanias we may notice those of the soldiers who fought
at Tanagra before the Peloponnesian war, on the Euryme-
don under Cimon, at Potidsea under Callias, and at Amphi-
polis and Delium. One column commemorated the names
of those who had fallen in Sicily; that of Nicias, however,
was excepted, in consequence of his having surrendered to
the enemy; while, on the other hand, Demosthenes was
adjudged worthy of having his name inscribed, because, al¬
though he had capitulated for his army, he refused to be
included individually in the treaty, and made an attempt on
his own life. Here, also, were the cenotaphs of those who
fell in the naval combat on the Hellespont, at the battle of
Chseroneia, and in the course of the Lamian war ; here rose
the tombs of Cleisthenes, who increased the number of the
Attic tribes, of Tolmides, of Conon and Timotheus, whose
1 Plat. Phaedr. p. 229; Leake’s Topogr. p. 49; Wheler’s Travels, p. 366; Spon, tom. ii. p. 122.
2 Pausan. Attic. 14 and 19 5 Philostr. Vit. Herod.; Stuart, Antiq. of Athens, ill. 5 5 Leake, 116.
3 T)iog. Laert. Vit. Antisthen.; Steph.; Leake, p. 150.
4 Pausan. Attic. 29; Plutarch, Vit. Lycurg. in Dec. Rhet.; Leake, p. 150.
ATHENS.
Athens, exploits were only surpassed by those of Miltiades and Ci-
'''—v'™-'’ raon : and here rested from their labours, in honoured repose,
Zeno and Chrysippus, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Ephi-
altes and Lycurgus, besides many others whom it would be
tedious to enumerate. The games called Lampadephoria
were celebrated in the outer Ceramicus.1
Academy. The Academy (of which we have already spoken under
that head) was situated at the extremity of this cemetery,
about six stadia from the gate Dipylum. It was originally
a deserted and unhealthy spot; but it was afterwards sur¬
rounded with a wall built at a great expense by Hipparchus,
and was planted, divided into walks, and supplied with
fountains of water, by Cimon. Before the entrance was an
altar of Love ; within was a temenos of Athena, containing
a temple of Prometheus, with an altar in the vestibule, where¬
on were figured in relief Hephaestus and Prometheus, and
whence also the race of the Lampadephoria usually com¬
menced. Here likewise was a sanctuary of the Muses,
built by Xenophon, containing statues of the Graces, dedi¬
cated by his disciple Speusippus, and a statue of Plato by
Silanion, dedicated by Mithridates, a Persian. The Aca¬
demy had likewise altars of Hermes, of Hercules, and of
Zeus Cataebates, also surnamed Morius, from the sacred
olives called monVz, which grewnearthe sanctuary of Athena;
and contained the garden of Attalus, where the sophist La-
cydes had his school, besides a (366po<; or tank, and some
magnificent plane-trees of unusual height and size, which
the Roman barbarian Sulla caused to be cut down during
the siege of Athens. The modern name of Ahathymia
leads the traveller directly to this once favourite haunt of
philosophers and poets; where the divine spirit of Plato
poured forth its lofty fancies and sublime speculations in a
stream of eloquence which the gods themselves might envy ;
where genius was married to science, and poetry to philo¬
sophy ; and where the foundations were laid of a school
which was destined to exert a powerful and (we may add)
perennial influence on the opinions of mankind. But the
name is the only memorial that remains of the Academy.
“ It is now,” says Mr Hawkins, “ an open piece of ground,
not exceeding five acres, and presents nothing remarkable
in its appearance. A few scattered olives grow on it; and
some paces farther west we saw a number of gardens and
vineyards, which contained fruit trees of a more exuberant
growth than in any other part of the plain.”2
Lycabettus Another suburb was situated on the lofty height overhang¬
ing the city in the N.E., and now called the hill of St George.
This hill used to be identified with one mentioned by Pausanias
under the name of Anchesmus, but Mr Wordsworth in his
work on Attica has very happily made out that the hill is no
other than the Lycabettus, which is so often mentioned by
ancient authors as in the immediate vicinity of Athens.
Long We have already had occasion to allude generally to the
all°' fortifications of Athens, including the celebrated Long Walls
which connected the city with its several ports. The latter
were first planned and commenced by Themistocles, after
the termination of the Persian war; evidently with the in¬
tention of preventing any future invader from intercepting
the communication between the City and the Peiraeus, and
thus starving the former into submission. But the hero of
Salamis did not live to execute this great undertaking, which
was continued after his death by Cimon, and finally com¬
pleted by Pericles. These walls, which were deservedly
considered by the ancients as one of the greatest objects of
curiosity at Athens, were flanked at intervals with towers,
some traces of which are still to be seen, and, together with
a portion of the walls of the City and of the Peiraeus at
either end, formed an inclosure, which constituted one of
the three great garrisons into which Athens was divided,
171
and which, in this light, was sometimes denominated the Athens,
long fortress (to paxpov Telcos). Prom an expression of
Plato, quoted by Harpocration (Siajaeo-ou ret^o?), as well as
from the description of the Athenian fortifications given by
Thucydides (ii. 13), it is perfectly evident that the City of
Athens was connected with the port-towns by three walls,
viz., the Phaleric, 35 stadia long, and the two long walls,
each of which was 40 stadia in length. The northern long
wall and the Phaleric were built first, and the intermediate
one was built at the suggestion of Pericles, for the purpose
of rendering the communication between Athens and Pei¬
raeus more secure. The long walls remained entire for
about 54 years after their completion ; that is, until the cap¬
ture of Athens by the Peloponnesian forces, when they
were dismantled and much injured; but 11 years subse¬
quent to this disaster they were rebuilt by Conon, with the
assistance of Pharnabazus, and the interior as well as the
exterior rampart was guarded at intervals by towers and
other defences. In the siege of Athens by Sulla, however,
they were again broken down, and almost entirely destroyed.
With regard to the existing remains, “ they are chiefly re¬
markable,” says Colonel Leake, “ towards the lower end,
where they were connected with the fortifications of Pei¬
raeus and Phalerum. The modern road from Athens to the
port Drako, at something less than 2 miles short of the latter,
comes upon the foundations of the northern long wall, which
are formed of vast masses of squared stones, and are about
12 feet in thickness. Precisely parallel to it, at the distance
of 550 feet, are seen the foundations of the southern long
wall; the two thus forming a wide street running from the
centre of the Phaleric hill, exactly in the direction of the
entrance of the Acropolis.”3
Maritime Athens was divided into three districts and as Maritime
many havens or ports; namely, Peiraeus, Munychia, and Athens.
Phalerum. Prom the earliest times Peiraeus was a demus;
but it did not become a harbour for ships until the adminis¬
tration of Themistocles ; for hitherto Phalerum had been
the usual port, as there the sea was nearest the city. The
harbour of Peiraeus was subdivided into three lesser havens,
named Cantharus, Aphrodisium, and Zea. The first was
appropriated as a dock-yard for the construction and repair
of ships of war; the second seems to have been the middle
or principal port; and the third, which was the outermost,
appears from its name to have contained the granaries in
which the Athenians deposited the corn imported from the
countries on the Euxine and other places for the supply of
the capital. The most remarkable edifices and sites in the
Peiraeus were the maritime bazaar or emporium called Macra
Stoa, consisting of five porticoes, so connected together as
to form in fact only one grand or long portico ; the market¬
place, called Hippodameia ; the Deigma or exchange : the
Serangium or public bath ; the Phreattys or court of crimi¬
nal justice, with a sort of admiralty jurisdiction ; a theatre,
of which some remains are still to be seen; and, lastly, the
tomb of Themistocles. The Peiraeus is now known by the
name of Port Drako or Leone, from a colossal figure of a
lion which once stood upon the beach, but was removed by
the Venetians in the year 1687. The port of Munychia,
so called, it is said, from Munychus, an Orchomenian, was
situated at the outer extremity of a promontory or narrow
neck of land, at no great distance from the Peiraeus. Strong
by nature, Munychia, when inclosed within fortified lines
connecting it with the other harbours, became a most im¬
portant position, from the security it afforded to the mari¬
time dependencies of Athens; and accordingly we find it
always mentioned as the point which was most particularly
guarded when any attack was apprehended on the seaward
side. This port, which is nearly circular, is known to the
1 Leake, Topography of Athens, 290. 2 Topography of Athens, in Walpole’s Mem. vol. i. p. 488, note.
3 Leake’s Topography of Athens, p 351. See also p. 354 and 357.
172
A T II E N S.
Athens. Greeks of the present day by the name of Stratioki. Pha-
v'—lerum, the most ancient of the Athenian ports, ceased to be
of any importance in a maritime point of view after the
erection of the docks in the Peirceus ; but it was neverthe¬
less inclosed within the fortifications of Themistocles, and,
as we have already seen, gave its name to one of the long
walls, by means of which it was connected with Athens.
Its modei'n name is Porto Fanari.1
Ever since the year 1833, excavations and investigations
of every kind have been carried on at Athens, partly by
private enterprise and partly by the government of Greece ;
and the topographical discoveries which have been made
within the period that has elapsed since, are very consider¬
able ; but far more numerous are the discoveries of works
of art, inscriptions, and architectural remains. It would lead
us too far here to give an account of all these matters, but
in order to enable the reader to pursue the study of Athe¬
nian topography more in detail, we shall subjoin a list of the
more important works on the subject:—1. Wordsworth,
Athens and Attica, London, 1836; Muller, Be Munimen-
tis Athenarum, Gottingen, 1836; A. Westermann, in the
Neue Jahrbiicher fur Philologie und Paedagogik, vol. xli.,
p. 230, fob The dissertations upon the particular buildings
and localities are almost countless.
Having thus completed the description of Athens, with
its suburbs and dependencies, all that now remains to be
done is to notice a few of the most remarkable epochs in its
history, and to conclude with some account of the modern
town, collected from the most recent authorities.
History of The history of Athens, from the death of Alexander to
the city. tjie preseilt time, may be compressed within comparatively
narrow limits. Soon after the premature decease of the
Macedonian hero, the citizens revolted; but they were de¬
feated by Antipater, who garrisoned Munychia. Another
insurrection followed with no better success. The garrison
and oligarchy were reinstated; Demetrius, surnamed the
Phalerean, was appointed governor of the city; and no less
than 300 statues were erected in honour of this man, by
the degenerate descendants of those Athenians who had
thought a place in the foreground of a picture, painted at
the public expense, an adequate reward for the victory of
Marathon. But Demetrius, surnamed Poliorcetes, “the
shame of Greece in peace, her thunderbolt in war,” with¬
drew the garrison, and restored the democracy ; a service
for which he was deified by the Athenians, who assigned him
a residence in the opisthodomos of the Parthenon, as a guest
worthy of being entertained by Athena herself, and after¬
wards placed the Peiraeus, with Munychia, at his disposal.
As usual, however, they soon became weary of their idol,
expelled his garrison, and regained their independence;
chiefly, as is said, by the intercession of Craterus the philo¬
sopher, who persuaded Demetrius to leave them in posses¬
sion of their liberty. Antigonus Gonatas, the next king of
Macedonia, proved less scrupulous than “the Taker of
Cities,” and again seized upon Athens, where he established
a garrison. But, on the death of Demetrius, son of Gonatas,
the people, aided by Aratus, recovered their liberty; and
the Peiraeus, Munychia, Salamis, and Sunium, were restored
to them, on payment of a considerable sum of money by
way of equivalent. Disregarding this arrangement, how¬
ever, Philip, the son of Demetrius, invaded Attica, and, en¬
camping near the city, burned and destroyed the sepulchres
and temples of the villages, slaughtered the inhabitants, and
laid waste the greater part of the country.
Driven to despair by these barbarous proceedings, the
Athenians were forced to solicit the protection of the Ho- Athens,
mans, which was readily granted, and to receive a garrison
into the citadel, which it continued to occupy until the war
with Mithridates, king of Pontus. But, taking advantage
of the embarrassments of Rome, occasioned by one of the
most arduous contests in which she had yet engaged, the
Athenians, at the instigation of Aristion, general of the royal
linguist, rose upon their protectors and expelled the gar¬
rison. This act of ingratitude met with an exemplary pun¬
ishment. War was immediately declared; and Sulla soon
afterwards appeared in Attica at the head of a powerful
army. Unable to withstand the fury of the Romans, Ar-
chelaus, the Athenian general, relinquished the defence of
the long walls, and retired into the Peiraeus and Munychia.
Sulla, on the other hand, immediately laid siege to the Pei¬
raeus, as well as to the city itself where Aristion commanded ;
and having received information that some persons had been
overheard conversing in the Ceramicus, and blaming Aristion
for his neglect of the avenues near the Heptachalcos, where
the wall was accessible, he instantly resolved to assault the
town in that quarter. Accordingly, about midnight he en¬
tered the city by the gate Dipylum, which he forced, and,
having overcome every obstacle between it and the Peiraic
gate, was soon master of Athens. Aristion fled to the Acro¬
polis ; but being at length compelled to surrender from want
of water, the supply of which had been cut of, he was dragged
from the sanctuary of Athena, where he had sought refuge,
and instantly put to death. This event took place in the
year of Rome 668, or about 86 years before the Christian
era. Sulla raged against the unfortunate city with the fury
of a barbarian ; burning the Peirseus and Munychia, de¬
facing the monuments in the town and suburbs, and not
even sparing the sepulchres of the dead in the Ceramicus.
In the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, the Athe¬
nians declared for the champion of liberty. But although
the battle of Pharsalia placed them at the mercy of Caesar,
that great and generous conqueror, “ whose brow was girt
with laurels more than hair,” scorned to sully the lustre of
his renown by any act of vengeance, and, with a magnani¬
mity native to his character, dismissed the envoys who had
been sent to propitiate him, with this fine observation : “ I
am content to spare the living for the sake of the dead.” The
same lingering affection for liberty which had led the Athe¬
nians to side with Pompey, also induced them to take part
with Brutus and Cassius, in the wars of the second trium¬
virate ; and they had even the spirit to erect statues to the
two Roman patriots, beside those of their own deliverers,
Harmodius and Aristogeiton. But at Philippi, as at Phar¬
salia, the gods declared against liberty,2 and the Athenians
were again on the losing side. Nor were they more fortu¬
nate in the contest which ensued between Octavianus and
Antony; for, having joined the latter, who gave them vEgina,
Cea, and other islands, they incurred the resentment of Au¬
gustus, now become master of the Roman world, who treated
them with the utmost harshness and severity. Under Ti¬
berius the city declined, but it still continued to enjoy a con¬
siderable share of freedom, and was regarded as an ally of
the Romans. Germanicus conferred upon it the privilege
of having a lictor to precede the magistrates ; but he was
censured for this act of condescension, as “ the race of noble
bloods” was now believed to be extinct, and the Athenian
people a mixture of all nations. Nerva also proved rather
indulgent to Athens ; and under his successor, Trajan, Pliny
exhorted Maximus, when intrusted with the government, to
be mindful of the ancient glory of that classic land, and to
1 For a full and accurate account of the present state of the Peiraeus and its adjoining ports see Colonel Leake’s work, p. 312, 325,
and 326.
2 The fine, though somewhat irreverent, sentiment expressed in the following line of Lucan, is not altogether inapplicable here :—-
“ Victrix caussa diis placuit, sed victa Catoni.”
A T II
Athens, rule Greece as if it had still been composed of free cities.1
—Hadrian, prouder of the archonship of Athens than of his
imperial dignity, gave the city a digest of laws compiled from
the codes of Draco, Solon, and other legislators, and testi¬
fied his affection for it by unbounded munificence. Anto¬
ninus Pius, who succeeded Hadrian, and Antoninus the
philosopher, also proved themselves benefactors of Athens,
though on a less magnificent scale than their predecessor.
In the reign of Valerian, the northern barbarians first ap¬
peared in the north of Greece, where they laid siege to Thes-
salonica. This extraordinary apparition having alarmed all
Greece, the Athenians restored their city wall, which Sulla
had dismantled, and otherwise placed the town in a state of
defence sufficient to secure it against a coup-de-main. But
under Gallienus, the next emperor, Athens was besieged,
and the archonship abolished; upon which the strategos or
general, who had previously acted as inspector of the Agora,
became the chief magistrate. Under Claudius the city was
taken, but recovered soon afterwards. Constantine the Great
gloried in the title of General of Athens, which had been
conferred upon him, and expressed high satisfaction on ob¬
taining from the people the honour of a statue with an in¬
scription ; a distinction which he acknowledged by sending
to the city a yearly gratuity of grain. He also conferred
on the governor of Attica and Athens the title of Meyas
AoDf, or Grand Duke, which soon became hereditary ; and
his son Constans bestowed several islands on the city, in
order to supply it with corn. In the time of Theodosius I.,
that is, towards the end of the fourth century, the Goths laid
waste Thessaly and Epirus ; but Theodoras, general of the
Greeks, acted with so much prudence that he saved the
Greek cities from pillage and the inhabitants from captivity;
a service which was most gratefully acknowledged. But this
deliverance proved only temporary. The fatal period was
now fast approaching; and, in a real barbarian, Athens was
doomed to experience a conqueror yet more savage and re¬
morseless than Sulla. This was Alaric, king of the Goths,
who, under the Emperors Arcadius and Honorius, overran
both Italy and Greece; sacking, pillaging, and destroying.
Never indeed did the fury even of barbarian conquest dis¬
charge itself in a fiercer or more desolating tempest. The
Peloponnesian cities were overturned ; Arcadia and Lace¬
daemon were both laid waste; the gulfs of Lepanto and Aigina
were illuminated with the flames of Corinth ; and the Athe¬
nian matrons were dragged in chains to satisfy the brutal
desires of these rampant barbarians. The invaluable trea¬
sures of antiquity were removed ; stately and magnificent
structures were reduced to heaps of rain; and Athens,
stripped of the monuments of her ancient splendour, was
compared by Synesius, a writer of that age, to a victim of
which the body had been consumed, and the skin only re¬
mained.
After this dreadful visitation Athens sank into insignificance,
and became as obscure as it had once been illustrious. We
are indeed informed that the cities of Hellas were put in a
state of defence by Justinian, who repaired the walls of
Corinth, which had been overturned by an earthquake, and
those of Athens, which had fallen into decay through age.
But from the time of this emperor a chasm of nearly seven
centuries ensues in its history; except that, about the year
1130, it furnished Roger, the first king of Sicily, with a
number of artificers, w7ho there introduced the culture of
silk, which afterwards passed into Italy. The worms, it
seems, had been brought from India to Constantinople in
the reign of Justinian.
E N S. - 173
Doomed apparently to become the prey of every spoiler, Athens.
Athens again emerges from oblivion in the thirteenth cen-
tury, under Baldwin and his crusaders, at a time when it was
besieged by a general of Theodoras Lascaris, the Greek
emperor. In 1427 it was taken by Sultan Murad ; but some
time afterwards it was recovered from the infidels by another
body of crusaders, under the Marquis of Montferrat, a pow¬
erful baron of the West, who bestowed it, along with Thebes,
on Otho de la Roche, one of his principal followers. For a
considerable time both cities were governed by Otho and
his descendants, with the title of dukes; but being unable
to maintain themselves in their Greek principality, they were
at length succeeded by Walter of Brienne, who, soon after
his succession, was expelled by his new subjects, aided by
the Spaniards of Catalonia. The next rulers of Athens were
the Acciaioli,an opulent family of Florence, in whose posses¬
sion it remained until 1455, when it was taken by Omar, a
general of Mahomet II., and thus fell a second time into
the hands of the barbarians. The victorious sultan settled
a Mahometan colony in his new conquest, which he incor¬
porated with the Ottoman empire ; and Athens, as well as
Greece, continued to form an integral part of the Turkish
dominions, until the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, following
up the provisions and stipulations of the treaty of London,
7th July 1827, established within certain limits the new
state of Greece, of which ancient Athens is now the capital.
From the period of the Ottoman conquest to the com- Sieges,
mencement of the insurrection in 1821, Athens wTas only
known in history by two attempts, on the part of the Ve¬
netians, to expel the Turks and make themselves masters of
the city. The first of these took place in 1464, only nine
years after its capture by the Osmanlis, and proved an en¬
tire failure. But the second, which was undertaken in 1687,
more than two centuries later, was crowned with a tempo¬
rary and fatal success. In the month of September of that
year, Count Konigsmarck, a Swede in the service of Venice,
having disembarked at the Peiraeus a force of 8000 foot and
870 horse, forming part of the armament under Francesco
Morosini, afterwards doge, marched to Athens ; and having
summoned the citadel without effect, he erected a battery of
heavy ordnance on the hill of the Pnyx, and placing two mor¬
tars near the Latin convent at the western foot of the Acro¬
polis, bombarded it for several days. The fire of the cannon
wras chiefly directed against the Propylsea, and the modern
defences below that edifice ; whilst the mortars continued,
without intermission, to throw shells into the citadel. The
consequence was, that the beautiful little temple of Nike
Apteros, the frieze of which is now in the British Mu¬
seum, was completely destroyed by the breaching battery ;
and the Parthenon, besides being greatly injured by the
bursting of the shells, was, towards the close of the attack,
almost rent in pieces by the explosion of a powxler magazine,
which reduced the middle of the temple to a heap of ruins,
threw down the whole of the wall at the eastern extremity,
and precipitated to the ground every statue on the eastern
pediment. The western extremity was fortunately less in¬
jured, and a part of the opisthodomos was still left standing,
together with some of the lateral columns of the peristyle
adjoining to the cell. But the shock was nevertheless abun¬
dantly disastrous ; and wrhen the Turks afterwards regained
possession of the citadel (from which, on this occasion, they
were expelled), they did all in their power to complete the
destruction which the Venetians had so vigorously begun, by
defacing, mutilating, or burning for lime every fragment of
the edifice within their reach.2 *
1 “You will revere the gods and heroes their founders,” said he; “you will respect their pristine glory, and even their age; you
will honour them for the famous deeds which are truly, and even for those which are fabulously, recorded of them: remember it is
Athens you approach.”
2 It has been often remarked of the Turks that they are encamped rather than settled in Europe. Far from improving the countries
they govern, they scathe everything that comes within their reach: they destroy monuments, but build none; and when at length
174 A T H A T H
Athens In the course of the late revolutionary war, Athens sus- souls, but during the war the greater part of the city was laid Athens
II tained three sieges. The first was laid by the Greeks in in ruins, and most of the inhabitants were dispersed. In Athel;ton
Atherston. 1822< Having carried the town by storm, and driven the 1834, it was declared the capital of the new kingdom ot ^
v   ' Turks into the citadel, they established a strict blockade Greece. Great exertions have been made to restore the city;
of the fortress, which was continued until the advance of streets have been opened, levelled, and widened though
the pasha at the head of 4000 men induced them to aban- most of them are still narrow, winding, and irregular; the
don their enterprise, and fly, with the Athenians, to Sala- ancient sewers have been cleaned and repaired; and the
mis and iEgina. Two months afterwards, the pasha having marshes of the Cephissus, the exhalations of which were ex¬
left Athens to the defence of 1500 men, the Greeks again tremely noxious, are m the course of being drained. I he
ventured to attack the town, and succeeded in obliging the ancient buildings have also been cleared of their rubbish, and
Turks to seek refuge in the citadel, which they forthwith some important discoveries have been made. Ihe small
determined to besiege ; but, from ignorance and want of temple of Victory has already been spoken of. Ihe other
means, no progress whatever was made in the operation marble fragments of buildings discovered have been placed
until they obtained possession of the well which supplied in the temple of Theseus. The royal palace is a large build-
the garrison with water, when the Turks agreed to capitu- ing of Pentelic marble, situated in the east part ot the city, on
late upon condition of being immediately embarked with the highest part of the gentle eminence which rises from the
their families, and sent to Asia Minor. On various pre- level of the Ilissus and Cephissus towards Lycabettus. A
tences, however, the embarkation was delayed from time to theatre, a barrack, a military hospital the royal stables, and
time ; and when intelligence at length arrived that a large many large private buildings, have all been raised since 1834.
Turkish force was advancing upon Athens, the Palicari, in- The houses, built in the modern German style, are generally
stead of manning the walls and preparing for a vigorous de- supplied with jalousies and balconies ; and have shops and
fence, rushed in a body to the houses where the prisoners coffeehouses on the ground floor. A university was esta-
were confined, and commenced an indiscriminate massacre, blished here in 1837, and has an anatomical theatre, a con-
in which the young and beautiful inmates of the harem, the siderable library, and 34 professors and teachers, with (m
aged and infirm, and the brave but defenceless spahis and 1845) 195 students. The gymnasium a preparatory school
janissaries, fell alike beneath the merciless yataghan. This to the university, is attended by about 800 regular students,
atrocity, for which no possible palliation can be alleged, besides many more attending particular lectures. It has eight
and which, in every circumstance of cruelty, exceeded that professors, divided into three classes 1. Ancient fjreek,
previously perpetrated at Trippolizza, reflects indelible dis- Latin, Geometry, Algebra, Logic, and Moral Science; —
honour on the Greek character, and proves that they inherit Ancient Greek, Geometry, Algebra, Psychology, History ;
the faithlessness of their ancestors, with the innate ferocity 3. Ancient Greek, Latin, Algebra, Geography, History,
of their former masters. The third siege was laid by the and the French and English Languages. There are also
Turks in 1826. The Greeks had left a strong garrison in a military and an ecclesiastical academy, a normal, Lancas-
the Acropolis, with provisions for several months ; and a terian, infant, and other schools, especially one established by
spring of water having been discovered in the cave of Pan, the American missionaries, now in a very flourishing con-
and inclosed by Odysseus within the defences of the cita- dition, and a splendid establishment for the education o
del, there was no danger of its being starved into a surren- young ladies, founded by the munificence of a benevolent
der. But the Turks having established batteries near the lady, and called the ApaoKetov. The population of the city
Pnyx and on the hill of the Museium, and having drawn a in 1845 amounted to 27,800. Porto Leone (the ancient
line of trenches round the citadel, with the view of inter- Peiraeus) contained at the same date 1000 houses. A good
cepting all communication between the besieged and the road has been made between it and the city, a distance of
Greek army, the garrison was hard pressed; and although five miles, and a constant communication is kept up by
Colonel Fabvier succeeded in forcing his way through the means of fiacres; a large customhouse, a quay, and a laza-
Turkish lines with 500 men and a supply of ammunition, retto, have been erected; and the port presents rather a bust-
and thus affording immediate relief, yet the total defeat of the ling appearance. The harbour is deep and secure, but has
Greek army under General Church, at the battle of Athens, a very narrow entrance. The government is constructing a
fought in the hope of raising the siege, led soon afterwards pier, which will afford accommodation to several hundret
to the surrender of the Acropolis, which remained in the hands merchant vessels. Outside, about two miles to the wes-
of the Turks until the termination of the revolutionary war. ward, there is a great roadstead, with nearly eighteen a-
In 1812 Athens could boast of a population of 12,000 thorns of water. (J,B Ev
ATHENS, the name of several towns and villages in the
United States of America. The principal are, 1. the capital
of a county of the same name in the S.E. of the state of
Ohio, finely situated on the Hockhocking River, 40 miles from
its mouth. It is the seat of the Ohio university and of an
academy. Pop. 1593. 2. A town in the county of Clark,
state of Georgia, on the W. bank of Oconee River. Pop.
3000. It contains the university of Georgia.
ATHEROMA (at^/xo/xa), in Surgery, an encysted tu¬
mour, containing a soft substance resembling pap (aOripr]),
intermixed with hard particles.
ATHERSTON, a market-town of Warwickshire, hun¬
dred of Hemlingford, 23 miles N. of Warwick. It consists
chiefly of one street, is well paved and lighted with gas; and
its sanitary condition has lately been much improved by
sewers, &c. It has a market-house ; a parochial chapel, once
part of a convent; a Roman Catholic chapel; Independent
and Methodist meeting-houses; a free grammar-school;
a free school for boys, and another for girls; an infant
school; a literary institution ; subscription library ; savings
bank; and a dispensary. The staple manufacture is that of
hats. The Coventry canal, which passes close by the town,
adds considerably to its trading facilities. Pop. in 1851, 3819.
ATHERTON, or Chowbent, a township in the parish
of Leigh and hundred of West Derby, in Lancashire, 200
miles from London. It is one of those places which have
grown to wealth and populousness since the extension of the
cotton trade. Pop. in 1851, 4655.
they are driven out by the chances of war or revolution, the only traces they leave of their sway are
which they everywhere encompass themselves.
to he found in the desolation with
A T H
Athias ATHIAS, Joseph, a celebrated rabbi and printer at
II Amsterdam, who printed a great number of Bibles in He-
Athos. kreWj more correct than any that had previously been edited.
He was a learned Hebraist as well as a skilful typographer,
although it is said that there are occasional errors in the
points, especially in the edition of 1661, many of which,
however, were corrected in that of 1667. He also printed
many Bibles in the corrupted Hebrew spoken by the Jews
of Spain, Germany, Poland, and England. He died in 1700.
ATHLET/E, in Antiquity, persons of strength and agi¬
lity, disciplined to perform in the public games. The word
is originally Greek, aOXrjrris, formed from dOXos, certamen,
combat; whence also, adXov, the prize or reward adjudged
to the victor. Under athletae were comprehended wrestlers,
boxers, runners, leapers, throwers of the disk, and those prac¬
tised in other exercises exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian,
and other solemn games. Athletae were first introduced
at Rome by M. Fulvius in the year B.c. 186, and enjoyed
under the emperors many privileges. Some curious parti¬
culars relative to their mode of training are given by several
writers, which show that very different ideas were enter¬
tained, at different periods, of the diet most suitable for ath¬
letae.—See Paus. vi.; Diog. Laert. vi. viii.; Galen, de Val.
Tuend. iii. Athen. ix. x.
ATHLONE, a market-town and parliamentary borough
of Ireland, lying partly in West Meath and partly in Ros¬
common, 76 miles W. of Dublin. The River Shannon di¬
vides the town into two portions, which are connected by a
handsome new bridge, opened in 1844. The rapids of the
Shannon at this point have been obviated by means of a
canal about a mile long, which renders the river navigation
practicable for 71 miles above the town. In the war of
1688, the possession of Athlone was considered of the great¬
est importance; and it consequently sustained two sieges,
the first by William III. in person, which failed; and the
second by General Ginkell, who, in the face of the Irish,
forded the river, and took possession of the town with the
loss of only fifty men. During the late war with France, it
was strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works
covering 15 acres, and containing two magazines, an ord¬
nance store, an armoury with 15,000 stand of arms, and bar¬
racks for 1500 men. There are two parish churches, two
Roman Catholic parochial chapels, a Franciscan and Augus-
tinian chapel, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist meeting¬
houses, a sessions court-house, bridewell, a union work-
house, and two branch banks. It has a distillery, a brewery,
and a tannery ; and an active trade is carried on with Shan¬
non harbour and Limerick by steamers, and with Dublin
by the grand and royal canals. Market-days, Tuesday and
Saturday. The borough returns one member to parliament.
Pop. in 1851, 6218 ; constituency, 181.—Thom’s Irish Al
manac for 1853.
ATHOL, a district of Scotland, in the north of Perth¬
shire, comprising an area of about 450 square miles. It is
bounded on the N., the N.W., and W. by Badenoch and
Lochaber in Inverness-shire, on the S. by Breadalbane and
Strathmore, E. by Forfarshire, and N.E. by Mar in Aber¬
deenshire. This district is rough and mountainous, inter¬
spersed with woods and valleys, but withal beautiful and ro¬
mantic. In Blair, amidst a wilderness of old trees, stands
Blair Castle, the principal seat of the Duke of Athol. In
the same neighbourhood is situated the pass of Killicrankie,
memorable as being the scene of action between the troops
of William III. under General M‘Kay, and the Highland
adherents of James II. under the celebrated Viscount Dun¬
dee. Glentilt, in this district, has lately acquired notoriety
from the attempts made to deprive the public of the right
of way.
ATHOS, a celebrated mountain of Chalcidice in Mace¬
donia, situated in Long. 24. 20. E. and Eat. 40. 10. N. The
ancients entertained extravagant notions concerning its
A T K 175
height. On many accounts it was famous amongst them, Athy
but it is no less so among the moderns. The Greeks, struck II
with its singular situation, and the venerable appearance of Atkins-
its towering ascent, rising as it does in the form of an isolated
pyramid, erected so many churches, monasteries, hermitages,
&c., upon it, that it became in a manner inhabited by de¬
votees, and from thence received the name of the Holy
Mountain, which it still retains, though many of those conse¬
crated abodes are now decayed. This mountain stands
at the extremity of a peninsula of about 40 miles in length,
and an average breadth of four miles. It is 6349 feet in
height, about 30 miles in circumference, and may be seen
90 miles off. It abounds with many different kinds of plants
and trees, particularly the pine and fir. The appearance of
the mountain at present is exceedingly interesting. Upon
its sides there is scattered a profusion of convents, chapels,
villages, cells, and grots, inhabited by a number of monks
of various countries, who never marry, and subsist on the
most penitential fare. They are very industrious, cultivat¬
ing the vine and the olive in the field, and practising various
mechanical arts in their secluded abodes. The libraries of
some of the convents appear to contain valuable remains of
ancient literature ; for, some years ago, a copy of the Greek
fabulist Babrius was discovered there by a Greek, and edi¬
tions of this collection of metrical fables have since been
published in France, England, and Germany. Through this
mountain, or rather through the isthmus behind it, Xerxes,
king of Persia, is said to have cut a passage for his fleet
when about to invade Greece. In this work he spent three
whole years, employing all the forces on board his fleet. The
truth of this relation was long denied, but has at length been
proved. The remains, partly filled with water, were dis¬
tinctly seen by Dr Sibthorp.—See Walpole’s Memoirs re¬
lating to Turkey, 1817: Mount Aihos and its Monasteries,
1837; and Curzon’s Monasteries of the Levant, 1848, 2d ed.
ATHY, a market-town of Ireland, county of Kildare, 34
miles S.W. of Dublin. The town is intersected by the river
Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of five arches.
It has a church, a Roman Catholic chapel, a Presbyterian
and Methodist meeting-house, court-house, jail, two banks,
hospital, dispensary, barracks, &c. Adjoining the town is a
small chapel, an ancient cemetery, and a small Dominican
monastery. Previous to the Union it returned two mem¬
bers to the Irish parliament. The principal trade is in corn.
Pop. in 1851, 5110.
ATIENZA, a town of Spain, in the province of Guada¬
lajara, 21 leagues from Madrid. It stands on the declivity
of a hill, contains five churches, a monastery, and about
2000 inhabitants, who are chiefly employed in agriculture
and the rearing of cattle.
ATILIUS, M., an early Roman comic poet, of whose
works there are no remains except a line quoted by Cicero
{ad Att. xvi. ii.), and a few words in Varro.
ATIMIA (dTLjjiLa), from a, priv. and Tig-q, honour, in Gre¬
cian Antiquity, was an act or decree by which an offender
was disgraced, and deprived of the rights of citizenship. Its
rigour, however, was variously modified.
ATINA, a town of Naples, province of Terra di Lavoro,
near the Melfa, and 12 miles S.E. of Sora. It has a cathe¬
dral, convent, and hospital, with about 5000 inhabitants ;
but it is chiefly remarkable for its remains of Cyclopean
architecture.
ATKINS, or Atkyns, Sir Robert, lord chief baron of
the Exchequer, was born in 1621, and educated at the uni¬
versity of Oxford, from whence he removed to the inns of
coui’t, and became eminent in the law. He was made knight
of the bath at the coronation of King Charles II. In 1672
he was appointed one of the judges of common pleas, in
which office he continued till 1679, when, foreseeing the
troubles that soon afterwards ensued, he resigned his office
and retired into the country. In 1689 he was made lord
176
A T L
A T L
-Atkins chief baron of the Exchequer by King William ; and about
II the same time held the office of speaker to the House of Lords,
Ocean'C previously been refused by the Marquis of Hali-
L j<r fox. He distinguished himself by an unshaken zeal for the
laws and liberties of his country. He wrote several pieces,
which have been collected into an octavo volume under the
title of Parliamentary and Political Tracts, which afford
much sound information on the true constitution of the
country, and on the grounds and reasons of the Revolution.
He died in 1709.
Atkins, Sir Robert, son of the preceding, was born in
1646, and died in 1711. He wrote The Ancient and Pre¬
sent State of Gloucestershire, a wTork much esteemed.
ATKYNS, Richard, was born of a good family at Tuf-
fleigh in Gloucestershire, in the year 1615. He was edu¬
cated at Oxford, from whence he removed to Lincoln’s Inn.
During the civil wars he distinguished himself by his loyalty
to King Charles I., and after the Restoration was a constant
supporter of the government. Being committed to the
Marshalsea prison foi+ debt, he died there on the 14th of
September 1677. He wrote a treatise On the Original and
Growth of Pi-inting, and several other pieces.
ATLANTES, in Architecture, also called Caryatides,
are figures employed instead of columns to support an en¬
tablature. In general, male figures have the former, female
statues the latter designation.
ATLANTIC Ocean, one of the five great hydrogra¬
phical divisions of the globe, lying between America on the
W., and Europe and Africa on the E., and extending from
the Arctic circle on the N., to the Antarctic circle on the
S. Meridian lines from Cape Horn in South America, and
from Cape Agulhas in Africa, prolonged to the Antarctic
circle, complete its boundaries on the E. and W. It ex¬
tends 8600 miles from N. to S., and its breadth varies from
1800 to 5400 miles, the estimated area being 25,000,000
square miles. It contains Iceland, the British Isles, the
Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands, the islands in the Gulf
of Guinea, and those of the Gulf of St Lawrence, the An¬
tilles, and Newfoundland. The principal gulfs and bays are
the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulfs of Guinea, Mexico, and
St Lawrence.
This ocean, according to Humboldt, presents all the in¬
dications of a valley, as if a flow of eddying waters had been
directed first towards the N.E., then towards the N.W., and
back again to the N.E. The parallelism of the coast north
of 10° S. latitude, the projecting and receding angles, the
convexity of Brazil opposite to the Gulf of Guinea, that of
Africa under the same parallel with the Gulf of the Antilles,
all favour this apparently speculative view. In this Atlan¬
tic valley, as is almost everywhere the case in the configu¬
ration of large continental masses, coasts deeply indented
and rich in islands are situated opposite to those possessing
a different character. The depth of this ocean is extremely
various; and is enormous, both to the N. and S. of the
equator. Thus, Captain Sir Edward Belcher, R.N., in
Lat. 0. 4. N. Long. 10. 6. W., sounded to the depth of 3065
fathoms = 18,390 feet; Captain Barnett, R.N., in Lat. 41.
2. N. Long. 44. 3. W., sounded to the depth of 3700 fa¬
thoms, or 22,200 feet; Captain Sir James Ross, R.N., in
1840, to 2677 fathoms, or 16,062 feet; and afterwards in
Lat. 33. 3. S. Long. 9.1. E. to 4600 fathoms, or 27,600 feet;
and Captain H. M. Denham, H.M.S. Herald, has obtained
soundings at the vast depth of 7706 fathoms = 46,236 feet,
or about 8f English miles. This, which is the deepest sound¬
ing ever yet taken, occurred on 30th October 1852, in Lat.
36. 49. S. Long. 37. 6. W. Two American captains have
also obtained soundings at the depth of 3100 and 3500
fathoms.
The intertropical part of the Atlantic is under the influ¬
ence of the trade-winds, which frequently extend to the 32d
degree of N. or S. latitude. The winds blow almost inva¬
riably in the same direction, from E. to W., occasionally
varying a few points to the N. or S., on the N. and S. sides
of the equator. A region of calms, varying from 3 to 10
degrees of latitude, according to the season of the year, se¬
parates the two trade-winds. It is, however, daily agitated
by a squall, which begins about two o’clock in the afternoon,
and continues about an hour. This region does not always
occupy the same part, but its central line may be placed
about the 5th degree of N. latitude. In some tracts the
influence of the trade-winds extends to the shores; but in
general it does not come within 200 miles of the coasts.
The current of this ocean first known to mariners, is called
the equinoctial, and is within the tropics, especially flowing
from the coast of Senegal to the Caribbean Sea. Its direc¬
tion is constantly from E. to W., with a mean rapidity of
9 or 10 miles in 24 hours. This current is attributed to
the impulse which is given to the surface of the sea by the
trade-winds. “ In the channel,” says Humboldt, “ which
the Atlantic has dug between Guiana and Guinea on the
meridian of 20 or 23 degrees, and from the 8th or 9th to the
2d or 3d degrees of N. latitude, where the trade-winds are
often interrupted by winds blowing from the S. or S.S.W.,
the equinoctial current is more inconstant in its direction.
The equinoctial current is felt, though feebly, even beyond
the tropic of Cancer, in the 26th and 28th degrees of lati¬
tude. In the vast basin of the Atlantic, at 600 or 700
leagues from the coasts of Africa, vessels from Europe bound
to the West Indies find their sailing accelerated before they
reach the torrid zone.” In the Caribbean Sea, the motion
of this current is much accelerated by the action of another
current. The Mozambique current, flowing from N. to S.
between Madagascar and the eastern coast of Africa, bends
to the north of the Lagullas bank, round the southern point
of Africa, and advances with much violence along its western
coast beyond the equator to the island of St Thomas. It
gives a north-westerly direction to a portion of the waters
of the South Atlantic, causing them to strike Cape St Au¬
gustin, and to follow the shores of Guiana beyond the mouth
of the Orinoco, the Boca del Drago, and the coast of Paria.
The coast of America presenting a barrier to the equinoc¬
tial current; its waters are driven with velocity through the
strait formed by Cape Catoche and Cape St Antonio, into
the Gulf of Mexico; and after following the bendings of
the coast, force their way back into the open sea N. of the
Straits of Bahama, where it forms a warm rapid current,
known as the Gulf Stream. At first its rapidity is some¬
times as great as five miles an hour, but it decreases as
it proceeds towards the north, at the same time that its
breadth increases and its waters become cool. Between
Cayo Biscaino and the bank of Bahama the breadth is only
15 leagues, while in the latitude of 28-g- degrees it is 17; and
in the parallel of Charlestown, opposite Cape Henlopen,
from 40 to 50 leagues. “ The waters of the Mexican Gulf
forcibly drawn to N.E. preserve their warm temperature to
such a point, that in 40 and 41 degrees of latitude I found
them at 22'50 cent. ( = 72'4° Fahr.) when out of the cur¬
rent; the heat of the ocean at its surface was scarcely 17,5°
( = OS'S® Fahr.) In the parallel of New York and Oporto,
the temperature of the Gulf Stream is consequently equal
to that of the seas of the tropics in the 18 th degree oflati-
tude, as, for instance, in the parallel of Porto Rico and
the islands of Cape Verd.”—{Humboldt.) In Lat. 41.25.
and Long. 67., where it is nearly 80 leagues broad, it turns
suddenly to the E., and almost touches the southern edge
of the Great Newfoundland Bank, from whence it con¬
tinues its course E. and E.S.E. to the Azores. On the me¬
ridian of Corvo and Flores, the most westerly islands of the
Azores group, the breadth of the current is 180 leagues.
From the Azores it turns towards the Straits of Gibraltar,
the island of Madeira, and the Canary group. There are
several other minor currents in this vast ocean, as the branch
Atlantic
Ocean.
A T L
Atlantides sent off' by the Gulf Stream before reaching the Western
Atlas r Z?reS]’ W^j cil at Certa^n seasons of the year flows towards
Iref"d and Norway. The experiments of Sir James Ross
and Captain Denham show that, after the depth of 200 or
300 fathoms, the temperature of the Atlantic waters is sta¬
tionary at 40 Fahr., whatever be the temperature at the
surface. This uniformity of temperature in the waters of
great oceans renders them the means of mitigating the ex¬
tremes of tropical and polar regions.—See Rennell’s Inves¬
tigation of the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean; Humboldt’s
Cosmos, Personal Narrative, fyc.
ATLAN TIDES, in Astronomy, a denomination given
to the Pleiades, or seven stars, sometimes also called Ver-
gilice. They aie thus called, as being supposed by the poets
to have been the daughters either of Atlas or his brother
Hesperus, who were translated into heaven.
ATLANTIS, Atalantis, or Atlantica, an island men¬
tioned by Plato and some others of the ancients, concernin0-
the real existence of which many disputes have been raised.
Homer, Horace, and the other poets make two Atlanticas,'
calling them Hesperides and Elysian Fields, and represent¬
ing them as the habitations of the blessed. The most distinct
account of this island we have is in Plato’s Timceus, of which
Mr Chambers gives the following abridgment:—“ The At¬
lantis was a large island in the Western Ocean, situated be¬
fore or opposite to the Straits of Gades. Out of this island
there was an easy passage into some others, which lay near
a large continent, exceeding in size all Europe and Asia.
Neptune settled in this island (from whose son Atlas its
name was derived), and divided it amongst his ten sons. To
the youngest fell the extremity of the island, called Gadir,
which, in the language of the country, signifies fertile, or
abundant in sheep. The descendants of Neptune reigned
here, fi om father to son for a great number of generations,
in the order of primogeniture, during the space of 9000
years. They also possessed several other islands; and pass¬
ing into Europe and Africa, they subdued all Libya as far
as Egypt, and all Europe to Asia Minor. At length the
island sunk under water; and for a long time afterwards the
sea thereabouts was full of rocks and shelves.” Many of
the moderns also are of opinion that the existence of the
Atlantis is not to be looked upon as entirely fabulous. Some
take it to have been America; and on this supposition, as
well as from a passage in Seneca’s Medea, and other obscure
hints, they imagine that the new world was not unknown
to the ancients. But allowing this to be the case, the above-
mentioned continent, which was said to lie beyond Atlantis,
would seem rather to have been the continent of America
than Atlantis itself. The learned Rudbeck, professor in the
university of Upsal, in a work entitled Atlantica sive Man-
heim, endeavours to prove that Sweden and Norway are the
Atlantis of the ancients; but the situation assigned to it
renders this notion untenable. Kircher supposes it to have
been an island extending from the Canaries quite to the
Azores ; adding, that it was really swallowed up by the
ocean, as Plato asserts, and that these small islands are the
shattered remains of it which were left standing.
The J\ew Atlantis is the title of the interesting fragment
in which Lord Bacon has sketched an ideal or scientific
commonwealth.
ATLAS, king of Mauritania, is supposed to have been
contemporary with Moses. From his taking observations
of the stars on a mountain top, the poets represented him
as turned into the mountain which bore his name, and sus¬
taining the heavens on his shoulders. Being an excellent
astronomer, and the first who taught the doctrine of the
sphere, they tell us that his daughters were turned into stars;
seven of them forming the Pleiades, and other seven the
Hyades. A good account of Atlas, under his different as¬
pects, may be found in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. i.
A T L
VOL. IV.
Atlas, a celebrated but little known mountain chain of
Northern Africa, between the great desert of Sahara and
the Mediterranean. Geographers differ as to the extent of
this range, some considering it to extend from Cape Ghir on
the Atlantic to Cape Bon, the north-east point of Tunis;
while others, under that name, include the whole mountain
system between Cape Nun and the greater Syrtis. In this
latter sense it forms the mountain-land of the countries of
Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli. It is composed of
ranges and groups of mountains, inclosing well-watered and
fertile valleys and plains, and having a general direction
from W. to E. The highest peaks are supposed to at¬
tain an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet; and although none
of them reach the height of perpetual snow, some of their
loftiest summits are covered with snow during the greatest
part of the year. Mount Miltsin, 27 miles S.E. of the city
of Marocco, was ascertained by Captain Washington to be
11,400 feet high. The greatest heights are in Marocco,
fiom which point they appear to diminish in elevation as
they extend towards the E. These mountains, except the
loftier summits, are, for the most part, covered with thick
forests of pine, oak, cork, white poplar, wild olive, and other
trees. The inferior ranges seem to be principally composed
of secondary limestone, which, at a greater elevation, is suc¬
ceeded by micaceous schist and quartz-rock; and the higher
chains are said to consist of granite, gneiss, mica-slate and
clay-slate. The secondary and tertiary formations are fre¬
quently disturbed and upraised by trap-rocks of compara¬
tively modern date. Lead, iron, copper, antimony, and sul¬
phur, occur frequently here; and in the Marocco portion of
the range, mines of gold and silver are said to exist. In
the Algerian division are mines of copper, lead, silver, and
antimony.
Atlas, in literature, a collection of maps, charts, or
other tables ; so called from the fabulous king of that name,
who is sometimes represented as supporting the world on
his shoulders. The term was first used in this sense by the
celebrated geographer Mercator, in the sixteenth century.
Atlas, in Anatomy, the first or uppermost vertebra in
the neck, so called from its supporting the head. See
Anatomy.
Atlas, a kind of Eastern silk.
ATMOMETER (from dr/ids, vapour, and aerpoV, a mea¬
sure), an instrument contrived by Professor Leslie, for
measuring the quantity of moisture exhaled from any
humid surface in a given time. It consists of a very thin
ball of porous earthenware, from one to three inches in
diameter, having a small neck firmly cemented to a Ion?
and rather wide tube of glass, to which is adapted a brass
cap, with a narrow collar of leather to fit close. Being
filled with distdled or pure water, the waste and descent
of this column serves to indicate the quantity of evapo¬
ration from the external surface of the ball. The tube
is marked downwards, through its whole length, by the
pomt of a diamond, with divisions across it, amounting to
from -OO to 500, each of which corresponds to a ring of
fluid, that, spread over the whole exhaling surface, would
form a film only one thousandth part of an inch in thick¬
ness. ibis graduation is performed by previously sealing
one of the ends of the tube with wax, and introducing
successive portions of quicksilver, to mark every 20, 50,
oi 00 of those divisions ; being calculated of equal bulk
to disks of water, that have the surface of the ball (ex¬
clusive of the neck) for their base, and so many thousand
parts of an inch for their altitude.
I he instrument, being thus constructed, has its cavity
filled with pure water, and its cap screwed tight, and is
then suspended freely out of doors, sheltered indeed from
ram, but exposed to the action of the wind. The water
transudes through the porous substance of the ball just
as fast as it evaporates from the external surface; and
177
Atlas
II
Atmometer
178
ATM
ATM
Atmome- this waste is measured by the corresponding descent ot
ter. the liquid in the stem. At the same time, the column is
suspended in consequence of the tightness of the cap,
and prevented from oozing so freely as to drop from the
ball. As the process of evaporation goes on, minute
globules of air, separated by the removal of atmo¬
spheric pressure from the body of the water, or partly in¬
troduced by external absorption, continue to rise in fine
streamlets to the top, where they partially occupy the
space left by the subsidence of the fluid column. \\ e
need scarcely observe, that, after the water has sunk to
the bottom of the stem, it will be requisite again to fill
the cavity.
It is a fact of main importance for the accuracy oi the
atmometer, that the rate of evaporation is nowise affected
by the quality of the porous ball, and continues precisely
the same whether the exhaling surface appears almost
dry or glistens with excess of moisture. Ibis rate must
evidently depend on the effect of the dryness ot the air
combined with its quickness of circulation. In a close
room the instrument might therefore serve the purpose
of an hygrometer ; and, placed out of doors, first screened,
perhaps, for an hour, and then exposed during an equal
space of time, it would furnish data for calculating the
velocity of the wind.
This instrument is of extensive application and great
practical utility. To ascertain readily and accurately the
rate of evaporation from any surface, is an important ac¬
quisition, not only in meteorology, but in agriculture, and
in the various mechanical arts, dhe quantity of exhala¬
tion from the surface of the ground is not of less conse¬
quence than the measure of the fall of rain, and a know¬
ledge of it might often direct the farmer advantageously
in his operations. On the rapid dispersion of moisture
depends the efficacy of drying-houses, which are gene¬
rally constructed on most erroneous principles.
The atmometer, in its most compendious form, is admi¬
rably fitted for delicate experiments on the evaporation
which takes place in close vessels when absorbent sub¬
stances are introduced. Let the ball of the instrument,
for example, be immersed in air variously rarefied or con¬
densed, under a receiver covering a surface of sulphuric
acid which has different degrees of strength; and, things
being thus disposed, on extracting the common air, and
introducing hydrogen gas, the rate of evaporation will
then be nearly tripled.
We shall close this notice with mentioning a striking
fact, which shows the necessity of extreme caution in all
physical inquiries. Let the ball of an atmometer be ce¬
mented to a narrow glass tube of three or four feet in
length, and the whole capacity filled with fresh distilled^
water. Now invert the instrument upright in a basin of
quicksilver, and secure it in that situation ; the quicksilver,
following the column of water, will rise at first quickly,
and then by degrees more slowly, till it reaches, perhaps,
an elevation of 28 inches, where it will remain stationary
and afterwards sink down, when the evaporation is nearly
spent. Ice-water is raised in this way about 26 inches
only, and common water scarcely 24 inches; the air se¬
parated from such liquids forming near the top of the
ball a thin medium, which, by its elasticity, counteracts
in part the pressure of the external atmosphere support¬
ing the mercurial column. But a similar experiment,
where the shoot of a vine was cemented to a tube holding
quicksilver, has been thought, by Dr Hales and M. Du
Hamel, quite conclusive in proving the power of the living
principle of vegetation. It is obvious that the force of
evaporation alone was sufficient to explain the facts ad¬
vanced by those ingenious philosophers. See Meteo¬
rology. (j- L>)
Atmo¬
sphere.
ATMOSPHERE is the name applied to the invisible
elastic medium which surrounds the globe of the earth to
an unknown height. The fluid of which it is composed is
usually distinguished by the name of air.
It is well known that the pressure of the atmosphere
is the cause of the rise of the mercury in the barome¬
ter. Now the mean height of the barometer at the level
of the sea is 29*82 inches. Hence it follows that the
whole weight of the atmosphere is equal to that of a sphere
of mercury covering the whole surface of the globe, and
extending to the height of 29*82 inches. The specific
gravity of mercury is 13*568, and a cubic inch of water
at the temperature of 60° weighs very nearly 252*5 grains.
Hence a cubic inch of mercury will weigh 3425*92 grains,
or 0*48956 lb. avoirdupois; and a column of the atmo¬
sphere reaching from the surface of the earth to the utmost
height to which that elastic fluid reaches, and whose base
is a square inch, weighs about 14*6 lbs. avoirdupois, or
exerts a pressure equal to 14*6 lbs. upon the earth or any
substance on which it rests. .
The atmosphere consists chiefly of air, an elastic fluid
composed of a mixture of four volumes of azotic with one
volume of oxygen gas. Now, from the most exact expe¬
riments hitherto made, it follows, that at the tempei ature
of 60°, and under the mean pressure of the atmosphere, a
cubic inch of air weighs 0*311446 grains. If, therefore,
the air were everywhere of the same density, the height
of the atmosphere above the surface of the earth would
be 328,021 inches, or 27,335 feet, or 5*17 miles.
But air is an elastic fluid, the particles of which repel Density of
each other with a force varying inversely as the distance the atmo-
of the centres of the particles from each other. It is ob-sP 1 ie*
vious, from this property of air, that its volume, and conse¬
quently its density, will depend upon the pressure. The
greater the pressure, the smaller the volume. I hose por¬
tions of the atmosphere that are in contact with the earth
are pressed upon by the whole portion above them, dhe
air at the top of a mountain is pressed upon by all the air
above it; while all that portion below it, or lying between
the top of the mountain and the surface of the sea, exerts
no action on it whatever. Ibis will be better understood
by the following diagram. Let ABCD be conceived to be
a section of a vessel extending from
the surface of the earth at AB to the
limit of the atmosphere CD, and filled
with air. Let this pillar of air be di¬
vided into an infinite number of equal
sections, each exceedingly thin, by the
planes ef, gh, ik, Im, no, &c. Since the
density of air is always as the com¬
pressing force, it follows that the den¬
sity of the stratum ABef is to that of
the density of the stratum efgh as
e/LD to gACD. So that the difference
between the pressures on ef and gh is
equal to the quantity of air efgh. For
the same reason, the difference between
z2z the pressures on gh and ik is equal to
k the quantity of air ghik ; and this ratio
^ holds to the very limit of the atmo-
sphere. Therefore the densities of air
in these spaces are proportional to the
quantities of which they themselves are the differences.
Now, when there is a series of quantities whose terms are
proportional to their own differences, both those quanti¬
ties and their differences are in geometrical progression;
therefore the densities of the strata of air ABe/, ejgh>
qhik, iklm, &c. are in geometrical progression.
It is equally obvious that the heights of these equa
spaces above AB, the surface of the earth, are in anthme-
£
ATMOSPHERE.
Atmo- tical progression. If ef he \ inch above the earth’s sur-
sphere. face, gh will be 2 inches, ik will be 3 inches, and so on.
^ J From all this we derive this remarkable conclusion, that
if the altitudes above the surface of the earth he taken in
arithmetical 'progression, the densities of the air at these alti¬
tudes will be in geometrical progression decreasing. If at
a certain altitude above the earth’s surface the density of
the air be one half what it is at the surface of the earth,
then at twice that altitude the density will be reduced
to one fourth of the density at the earth’s surface, and
so on.
We can calculate the density of the atmosphere at all
heights above the earth s surface very readily by means
of a table of logarithms; for logarithms constitute a set
of numbers in arithmetical progression annexed to another
set of numbers which are in geometrical progression. If,
therefore, we take logarithms to represent the heights’
the numbers to which these logarithms are attached will
represent the corresponding densities of the air. Suppose
the density of the air at one mile above the surfoce of the
earth to be represented by unity; then, from the common
tables of logarithms, we easily deduce the following den¬
sities at greater heights :
Height. Density.
1 mile !•
2  0-7943
3  0-6309
4  0-5011
5  0-3981
6  0-3163
7  0-2511
8  0-1995
9  0-1585
10     0-1260
So that at 10 miles the density of the air is only ith of
its density at one mile above the surface of the earth.
Its height. These observations are sufficient to show that the height
of the atmosphere above the surface of the earth must
greatly exceed five miles; but how much, we have no
data to enable us to determine.
Air possesses the property of refracting light; that is,
of bending it from a right line, and making it move in a
curve. The consequence of this property is, that the
sun continues visible for some little time after he sets,
and is seen also a short time before he rises. Nor are we
deprived of all the benefits of his rays so long as any of
them are capable of reaching the utmost limit of the at¬
mosphere. This light, brought to the surface of the earth
by the refracting power of the atmosphere, is called twi¬
light; and mathematicians have endeavoured to deter¬
mine the height of the atmosphere by observing how many
degrees below the horizon the sun must sink before twi¬
light ends. The result of this calculation is, that, at the
height of 45 miles, the atmosphere has no sensible power
of refracting light. Its rarity therefore at that height
must be very great.
There is another way in which an estimate may be
formed of the height of the atmosphere. That height
must ultimately depend upon the degree of rarity which
air is capable of bearing. The particles of air repel each
other with forces varying inversely as the distances of
the centres of these particles from each other. Now
there is no great difficulty in rarefying air by means of
a good air-pump, till it is capable of supporting a column
of mercury only J^th of an inch in height. In such a
case air is rarefied about 300 times, and the distance be¬
tween the centres of its particles is increased seven times ;
consequently the force of repulsion between these par¬
ticles is reduced to -^th of what it is when air is of its
mean density. If we suppose that this is the utmost limit
179
to the rarefaction of air (a supposition not at all likely to Atmo-
be strictly true), we are entitled to infer that the atmo- sphere,
sphere extends to the height of 40 miles, with properties
yet unimpaired by extreme rarefaction.
If matter be infinitely divisible, the extent of the at¬
mosphere must be equally infinite. But if air consists of
ultimate atoms no longer divisible, then must the expan¬
sion of the medium composed of them cease at that dis¬
tance where the force of gravity downwards upon a single
particle is equal to the resisting force arising from the
repulsive force of the particles. If the air be composed
of indivisible atoms, our atmosphere may be conceived to
be a medium of finite extent, and may be peculiar to our
planet; but if we adopt the hypothesis of the infinite
divisibility of matter, we must suppose the same medium
to pervade all space, where it would not be in equilibrio,
unless the sun, the moon, and all the planets, possess
their respective shares of it condensed around them, in
degrees depending on the force of their respective at¬
tractions.
It is obvious that the atmosphere of the moon (suppos- Has a
ing it to have any) could not be perceived by us; for,limit,
since the density of an atmosphere of infinite divisibility
at her surface would depend upon the force of her gravi¬
tation at that point, it would not be greater than that of
our atmosphere when the earth’s attraction is equal to
that of the moon at her surface. Now this takes place
at about 5000 miles from the earth’s surface,—a height
at which our atmosphere, supposing it to extend so far,
would be quite insensible.
But since Jupiter is fully 309 times greater than the
earth, the distance at which his action is equal to gravity
must be as ^309, or about 17-6 times the earth’s radius;
and since his diameter is nearly 11 times greater than
17-6
that of the earth, -j-j- = T6 times his own radius will be
the distance from his centre at which an atmosphere
equal to our own should occasion a refraction exceeding
1°. To the fourth satellite this distance would subtend
an angle of about 3° 37'; so that an increase of density to
31 times our common atmosphere would be more than
sufficient to render the fourth satellite visible to us when
behind the centre of the planet, and consequently to make
it appear on both sides at the same time. It is needless
to say that this does not happen, and that the approach
of the satellites, instead of being retarded by refraction, is
regular till they appear in actual contact; showing that
there is not that extent of atmosphere which Jupiter
should attract to himself from an infinitely divisible medium
filling space.
If the mass of the sun be considered as 330,000 times
that of the earth, the distance at which his force is equal
to gravitation will be V330,000, or about 575 times the
earths radius; and if his radius be 11T5 times that of
the earth, then this distance will be -■ — 5-15 times
11I"5
the sun s radius. But Dr Wollaston has shown, by the
phenomena attending the passage of Venus very near the
sun on the 23d May 1821, that the sun has no sensible
atmosphere. For the apparent and calculated place of
that planet were the same when the planet was only
53' 15" from the sun’s centre. M. Vidal of Montpellier
observed Venus on the 30th May 1805, when her distance
from the centre of the sun was only 46' of space ; and the
apparent and calculated positions of that planet corre¬
sponded. These observations leave no doubt that the
sun has no sensible atmosphere, and of course are incon¬
sistent with the notion of the infinite divisibility of the
matter of our atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERE.
180
Atmo- But if air consist of atoms incapable of further division,
sphere, it is obvious that the height of the atmosphere has a limit,
and that limit is the place where the gravitation of the
atoms of air just balance the force of their repulsion.
The exact situation of this limit we cannot assign; but it
About 45 cannot far exceed the height of 45 miles above the earth’s
miles high, surface. Nor are the objections to this determination
drawn from meteors of sufficient weight to overturn the
force of the arguments just adduced. Dr Halley observed
a meteor in the month of May 1719, whose altitude he
computed to be between 69 and 73^ English miles, its
diameter 2800 yards, and its velocity about 350 miles in
a minute. The celebrated meteor which appeared on
the 18th August 1783 was not less than 90 miles above
the surface of the earth. Its diameter must have been
at least equal to that of Dr Halley’s meteor, and its velo¬
city certainly not less than 1000 miles in a minute. We
know too little about the nature of these meteors to con¬
nect them with the earth’s atmosphere. Indeed their
velocity would lead to the conclusion that they were re¬
volving round the earth like satellites. The light which
they emitted, or the state of combustion which they ex¬
hibited, we cannot explain. But the same difficulty oc¬
curs to account for the volcanoes which have been seen
in the moon, though we are quite certain that her atmo¬
sphere is far too rare to support combustion.
Air a mix- The ancients thought that air constituted one of the
ture of twofour elements, from which, in their opinion, all things ori-
gases, ginated; and this doctrine continued prevalent till after
the year 1774. It was during that year that Dr Priestley
first discovered oxygen gas, and showed it to be a consti¬
tuent of air. He determined several of its most remark¬
able properties, and called it dephlogisticated air, from a
notion he entertained that it was air deprived of phlogiston.
oxygen When azotic gas, the other constituent of air, was disco-
ami azotic, vere(j soon after, the difference between its properties
and those of oxygen gas could not fail to strike the most
careless observer. Bodies burn more rapidly, with much
greater splendour, and with the evolution of much greater
heat, in oxygen gas than they do in common air; while
in azotic gas they cannot be made to burn at all. Ani¬
mals breathe oxygen gas without inconvenience, and they
live much longer when confined in a given bulk of it, than
when in the same volume of common air; but in azotic
gas animals cannot live at all. When plunged into it
they die of suffocation, precisely as they would do if
plunged under water. Dr Priestley considered oxygen
gas as the pure elementary principle of the ancients:
common air was oxygen united to a certain quantity of
phlogiston, while azotic gas was oxygen saturated with
phlogiston.
Scheele discovered both oxygen and azotic gas, without
any knowledge of what had been done in Britain; and he
first drew the proper consequences from his experiments.
Air, in his opinion, consists essentially of a mixture of
two distinct elastic fluids, namely, oxygen and azote. He
determined the properties of each, and made a set of ex¬
periments to ascertain the relative volumes of each con¬
tained in the atmosphere. The result of these experi¬
ments led him to the conclusion that air is a mixture of
27 volumes oxygen gas,
73 volumes azotic gas.
100.
Lavoisier drew the same conclusions as Scheele had
done; and he assures us that he did so before he knew
any thing of the researches and discoveries of the Swed¬
ish chemist; and, v/hat is very remarkable, he deduced
the same volumes of each gas, as constituents of the atmo¬
sphere, as Scheele had done. His experiments were made
in the same way as Scheele’s, and no doubt the mistakes Atino-
of both had the same origin. sphere.
It was in 1782 that Mr Cavendish, by a careful ana-
lysis of the air in the neighbourhood of London, repeated
frequently, and continued for a whole year, determined
that the volume of oxygen gas in atmospherical air is a
good deal smaller than Scheele and Lavoisier had made
it. He found the constituents of air to be—
79*18 volumes of azote,
20*82 volumes of oxygen.
100*00.
He found that these proportions never varied, though he
analyzed air at different periods of the day, and during
all the different seasons of the year. Hence it followed
that the conclusions drawn by Dr Ingenhousz and others,
that air differs in the proportion of oxygen gas which it
contains in different parts of the earth, and that the salu¬
brity of different places is connected with this difference,
were erroneous.
These experiments of Mr Cavendish were published in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1783; but they conti¬
nued for many years unattended to. The determination
of Scheele and Lavoisier was universally adopted; and
the notion of Dr Ingenhousz, that the proportions between
the oxygen and the azote vary in different places, was
also adopted. At last, in 1802, Berthollet announced
that he had frequently analyzed the air in Egypt, by ab¬
sorbing its oxygen by means of a stick of phosphorus, and
that he had always found it a compound of
79 volumes azote,
21 volumes oxygen.
100.
Davy about the same time announced that he had tried
air from the coast of Africa, from Cornwall, and from the
neighbourhood of Bristol, and had uniformly found it com¬
posed of 79 volumes of azotic gas and 21 volumes of oxy¬
gen gas. It was soon after analyzed in Edinburgh, in
North America, and in France, with the very same re¬
sults. Gay-Lussac and Humboldt made a set of careful
experiments to determine the exact proportions of the
two constituents, and confirmed the ratio of 21 volumes
of oxygen gas and 79 volumes of azotic gas. This ratio
has been generally adopted by chemists.
But there is a circumstance which cannot avoid strik-jn the pro-
ing an attentive observer; namely, the very near approach portion of
of these numbers to 80 volumes azotic and 20 volumes 80 vol.
oxygen gas, or four volumes azotic and one volume oxy'
gen gas. It has been deduced from a great variety of^
unexceptionable experiments, that a volume of azotic gas '
is equivalent to an atom, while half a volume of oxygen
gas is equivalent to an atom. Hence four volumes azotic
and one volume oxygen gases are equivalent to four atoms
azote and two atoms oxygen, or to two atoms azote and
one atom oxygen. If, therefore, we were to admit that
air consists of 80 volumes azotic and 20 volumes of oxy¬
gen gases, it would follow that it is a compound of two
atoms azote and one atom oxygen. There is no evidence,
indeed, that in air the oxygen and azotic gases are che¬
mically combined; the phenomena of air rather lead to
the conclusion that the two elastic fluids are merely
mixed. And the hypothesis of Dalton, that the particles
of elastic fluids only repel particles of their own kind,
but that two elastic fluids are not mutually elastic to each
other, will enable us to account for their remaining inti¬
mately mixed, though not chemically united.
It may seem immaterial, then, whether air be a mix¬
ture of azotic and oxygen gases in the proportion of two
atoms of the former to one atom of the latter, or in the pro-
ATMOSPHERE.
Atmo¬
sphere.
portion (as chemists at present think) of 1*975 atom azote
and 1*05 atom oxygen ; or, as fractions of atoms can
hardly be admitted, of 79 atoms of azote and 42 atoms
of oxygen. But certainly the constitution of air must
appear much simpler, and therefore much more agreeable
to contemplate, when viewed as consisting of the simple
ratio of two to one, than in the much more complex ratio
of 79 to 42. The writer of this article was induced in
consequence to make a set of experiments with all pos¬
sible attention to accuracy, in order to deduce the volume
of oxygen gas which it contains. The air was collected
in a grass field at some distance from houses and trees;
and this spot was selected as likely to furnish air contain¬
ing as great a proportion of oxygen as it ever contains, be¬
cause grass and vegetables in general are supposed to make
up the waste of oxygen which the air sustains by the
processes of combustion and respiration,1 and because the
quantity of carbonic acid which it was likely to contain
would be too small to make any sensible alteration in
the experiments.
Ten measured volumes of this air were placed succes¬
sively in a small glass jar, over mercury, together with a
stick of phosphorus. After the oxygen gas had been re¬
moved by the phosphorus, the air was washed, and then
measured. The following table exhibits the result of
these ten trials. 100 volumes of air consist of
Volumes of Volumes of
Azotic Gas. Oxygen Gas.
1  80*927 19*073
2  79*246 20*754
3  80*504 19*496
4  79*532 20*468
5  79*851 20*149
6  79*652 20*348
7  79*374 20*626
8  80*770 19*230
9  79*843 20*157
10 80*028 19*972
181
Atmo¬
sphere.
Mean, 79*9735, 20*0265
The mean of these ten trials gives us air, a mixture of
79*9735 volumes of azotic and 20*0265 volumes of oxy¬
gen gas. Now, this approaches as near 80 volumes of
azotic and 20 volumes of oxygen gas as the mode of ex¬
perimenting permitted, for the measure employed to de¬
termine the volume of the gases was about half an inch
in diameter.
It was found, also, that when 100 volumes of air were
mixed with 42 volumes of hydrogen gas, and an electric
spark passed through the mixture, the diminution of bulk
by the explosion was precisely 60 volumes; and this in three
successive experiments. Now, this diminution is owing
to the oxygen of the air uniting with the hydrogen gas
and forming water, and water is a compound of two vo¬
lumes hydrogen and one volume oxygen gas. The third
part of the diminution, therefore, gives us the quantity of
oxygen gas consumed. Now, the third of 60 is 20, which
constitutes therefore the volumes of oxygen gas in 100
volumes of air.
If we employ less than 42 volumes of hydrogen gas,
the whole oxygen of the air is not consumed. Thus, when
we employ a mixture of 100 volumes of air and 40 vo¬
lumes of hydrogen gas, the diminution of volume after
combustion is only 57 volumes, which would indicate 19
volumes of oxygen instead of 20 in the air; so that one
volume of oxygen in this case has escaped combustion.
When we mix more hydrogen than 42 volumes with 100
volumes of common air, the diminution of volume is some-
what greater than 60, and it goes on increasing slowly
till the volume of hydrogen gas is equal to that of the
air. 100 volumes of air being mixed with 100 volumes
of hydrogen gas, and fired, the diminution amounted to
64 volumes. This would raise the amount of the oxygen
in 100 volumes of air to 21^ volumes.
It is obvious from these experiments that absolute cer¬
tainty cannot be obtained by firing mixtures of air and
hydrogen gas. The reason, doubtless, is, that when the
surplus of hydrogen is considerable, a little of it unites
with the azotic gas of the air, and forms ammonia, which,
being absorbed by the water over which the explosion is
made, occasions a greater diminution of bulk than would
have proceeded from the simple union of all the oxygen
of the air with hydrogen gas.
Knowing the composition of air to be 80 volumes azotic Specific
and 20 volumes oxygen gas, and knowing the atomic gravity of
weight of these bodies to be azote T75 and oxygen 1, these two
we can easily deduce the specific gravity of azotic andSases*
oxygen gases, reckoning that of air unity, in the follow¬
ing manner:—
100 parts of air by weight must be a compound of
oxygen 22*22=a,
azote 77*77=5.
Let a?=specific gravity of oxygen gas,
3/=specific gravity of azotic gas,
a; +4 w
—t— = 1 and x — b — \y
x : ty : : a :b and x =
b
Hence 5 — 4«/=—from which we deduce
y-
55
5 X 77*77
= 0*9722
4a+ 45 4 X 22*22 + 4 X 77*77
and x—b — 4^=5 — 3*8888=T111 i
Thus, the specific gravity of these two gases is as fol¬
lows :—
oxygen gas... 1*1111,
azotic gas   0*9722.
That the specific gravity of these two gases hitherto
determined by the most careful experimenters is inaccu¬
rate, is obvious from this, that when we calculate the spe¬
cific gravity of air from them, it never comes out unity,
but usually higher than unity.
Besides oxygen and azotic gases, air contains likewise Air con-
a little carbonic acid gas. Who first made that remark tains car-
we do not know; but it could not avoid being inferred!3011^ ackl.
as soon as the cause of the difference between caustic and
mild alkali came to be known. Chemists at first stated
the volume of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere at 1
per cent., but this determination was not founded on any
accurate experiments. Mr Dalton found the quantity
much smaller than had been stated by preceding experi-
^nters. He observed, that if a glass vessel, filled with
102,400 grains of rain water, be emptied in the open air,
and 125 grains of lime water poured in, and the mouth
then closed, by sufficient time and agitation the whole of
the lime water is just saturated with the carbonic acid
which it finds in the inclosed volume of air; but 125 mea-
* 13 ,easy to show, that whether the oxygen thus withdrawn from the air be supplied or not no alteratinn m nmnni-tinns nf
meanSestlmati^Tc^go” ^ milli°nth Part Can P0SSibly haVe taken plaCe- 11 would therefore be quite insensible as far as our
182
ATMOSPHERE.
Atmo¬
sphere.
sures of lime water require 70 measures of carbonic acid
gas to saturate them. Hence it follows that 10,000 vo¬
lumes of air contain 6-8 volumes of carbonic acid.1 The-
nard ascertained by means of barytes water that 10,000
volumes of air which he examined contained 3*91 volumes
of carbonic acid.2 This is little more than half the quan¬
tity found by Mr Dalton. But by far the most complete
set of experiments on the volume of carbonic acid gas in
the atmosphere was made by M. Saussure. He abstract¬
ed the carbonic acid from given volumes of air by means
of barytes water. The carbonic acid was estimated by
dissolving the precipitated carbonate of barytes in muria¬
tic acid, and throwing down the barytes in the state of
sulphate from the solution. The sulphate of barytes, ig¬
nited and weighed, easily furnished the weight of carbo¬
nic acid; and this weight, together with the known speci¬
fic gravity of carbonic acid gas, furnished the data for de¬
termining its volume. The experiments were continued for
two years. Sometimes (indeed most commonly) the air
examined was collected at Chambeisy, a meadow about
three fourths of a league from Geneva, elevated about 52yj
feet above the lake, and distant from it 820 feet. Its
elevation above the level of the sea is 1272 feet. It is
dry, open, and consists of a clay soil, a little inclined.
The mean quantity of carbonic acid gas found in 10,000
volumes of air deduced from 104 observations made dur¬
ing both day and night, and at all seasons, was 4T5 vo¬
lumes. The greatest quantity was 5*74 volumes, and
the smallest 3T3 volumes. The quantity of this gas is
affected by rainy weather; for when the soil is soaked
with water, it has the property of imbibing this gas.
Hence in rainy seasons the quantity of carbonic acid gas
in the atmosphere is usually rather less than in dry sea¬
sons. On the contrary, it would seem, from the observa¬
tions of Saussure, that a continued frost has a tendency to
augment the quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere,
doubtless because the frozen and dry soil does not pos¬
sess the property of absorbing it.
Air taken from the surface of the lake of Geneva, at an
elevation of four feet, was found in general to contain less
carbonic acid than the air of Chambeisy; but the same
kind of variation, depending on the season of the year,
was observable in both. Air from the streets of Geneva,
on the contrary, was found rather more loaded with car¬
bonic acid than the air above Chambeisy; but the differ¬
ence was not great. The volume of carbonic acid in air
from the tops of mountains was found to be rather greater
than that of carbonic acid in air from the low country;
and this difference is more remarkable in rainy than in
dry weather.
Wind has rather a tendency to augment the quantity
of carbonic acid in the air in low situations, doubtless by
mixing together the air on the mountains and in the val¬
leys ; but the difference is so small that it only becomes
perceptible by a long series of observations.
In general, the air over plains contains a greater pro¬
portion of carbonic acid during the night than during the
day; but this difference is not nearly so great in winter
as in summer. Indeed during that season of the year the
quantity is often as great or even greater during the day
than during the night.3
The reason why the quantity of carbonic acid gas in
the atmosphere is greater in the superior strata than at
the surface of the earth, is, probably, that vegetables have
the property of absorbing it and applying it to the pur¬
poses of vegetation. Hence, doubtless, the reason wrhy it
does not increase, notwithstanding the prodigious quan¬
tity of it constantly thrown into the atmosphere by the Atmo-
breathing of animals and the combustion of fuel. v sphere. ^
If we admit the mean volume of carbonic acid gas in
air to be OOQOdlS, then the true component parts of 100t;ty
volumes of air will be
Azotic gas 79,9668
Oxygen gas 19*9917
Carbonic acid gas  0*0415
100.
This, doubtless, will somewhat modify the specific gra¬
vity of oxygen and azotic gases; but the alteration is too
insignificant to claim any attention.
Besides these three constituents, there is a fourth, name-Air con-
ly, the vapour of water, from which air is never altogether tains va-
free, and the proportion of which, owing to causes which Pour*
cannot at present be fully explained, is continually after-
ing. The consequence of this is, that if we weigh air in
its natural state ever so often, we shall hardly ever find
its weight in any two consecutive experiments altogether
the same. It is sufficiently known that water evaporates
spontaneously at all temperatures, and mixes with air in
the state of an invisible elastic fluid known by the name
of vapour or of steam when its elasticity is so great as to
balance that of the atmosphere. The elasticity of vapour
varies with the temperature. At 32° it is capable of sup¬
porting a column of mercury 0*2 inch high. At 80° it
supports a column of 1 inch, at 163° of about 10 inches,
at 180° of about 15 inches, and at 212° of about 30 inches.
Now, the quantity of it which can exist in the atmosphere
at the same time is proportional to this elasticity.
Mr Dalton has shown, that if^ = pressure of the atmo-Its volume
sphere in inches of mercury, / = elasticity of vapour con-^ternun-
tained in the atmosphere, x — volume of dry air in 100
volumes of the given atmospherical air ; then
100
„P.X— = 100; consequently x =■ p
P—f —
P—f
Let air be saturated with moisture at 32°.
we have
In that case
px
30
P—f
~ 29*8
100
=: 1*00671
= 99*333
“ 1*00671
so that the volume of vapour (supposing its specific gra¬
vity 0*625) in 100 volumes of such air will amount to
0*666, which is just y/^th part of the volume of the air.
At the temperature of 60°/ — 0*52, we have therefore
px   30 a?
= 100, and x = 98*267; so that the vo-
p—f 29*48
lume of vapour capable of existing in the atmosphere at
17*33
00° is /w— of the atmosphere.
100*000
The highest temperature that the writer of this article
has had an opportunity of witnessing in Great Britain was
93°. At that temperature / =: 1*5
px _ 30a; _ 100> and ^ _ 95 .
P~f 28*5
so that the volume of vapour capable of existing in the
, . 5 1
atmosphere at such a temperature is or —.
To determine the volume of vapour in the atmosphere
1 Phil. Mag. (1st series), xxiii. 354.
s Traitl Elem. dc Chim. i. 303.
* Ann. de Chim. ct de Pkys. xliv. 5.
ATMOS
Atmo at an|y particular time, various instruments have been con-
spnere. trived, called hygrometers, some more and some less exact;
—but the simplest and most accurate method of all is that
employed by Leroi, and afterwards by Mr Dalton. Take
a giass tumbler, as thin as possible, and fill it with water
somewhat colder than the temperature of the air at the
time. Observe if vapour be condensed on the outside of
the tumbler; if not, the water employed is not cold enough
for our purpose. Its temperature must be lowered either
by putting pieces of ice into it or by dissolving in it some
caibonate of soda or sulphate of soda, retaining their wa¬
ter of crystallization, but in powder. If vapour condense
on the outside of the tumbler, pour out the water into ano-
P H EKE.
183
ther glass and wipe the outside of the tumbler dry. When Atmo-
the temperature of the water has had time to be a little sphere,
elevated, pour it into the tumbler again, and observe whe-
ther moisture condense on the outside of the glass. If it
do, pour out the water, wipe the outside of the tumbler
again, and repeat the process when the water has become
a little warmer. This method of proceeding is to be per¬
severed in till you find the temperature at which the mois¬
ture just ceases to be condensed on the glass. That tem¬
perature, by means of the following table, will enable you
to determine the volume of vapour (of the specific gravity
0-625) existing in the atmosphere at the time that your
observation is made.
Suppose we find that the temperature of the water
when moisture ceases to be condensed on the outside of
the tumbler is 40°, we look into the above table, and op¬
posite to 40° in it, we find 0*26 inch of mercury. This
denotes the force of the vapour contained in the atmo-
spheie at the time our experiment was made. Suppose
the barometer to be standing at 30 inches, then the volume
of vapour in the atmosphere is or nearly ^ of the
volume of the atmosphere.
Hie absolute quantity of vapour in the atmosphere is
usually greatest in summer on account of the temperature
being so much higher; but the moisture or dryness of
the air does not depend so much upon the absolute quan¬
tity of vapour which it contains, as on its approach to satura¬
tion. Suppose the temperature of the air to be 60°, and
that a tumbler filled with water of 60° condenses water
on its outside. This would indicate a force of vapour
equal to 0-52 inch of mercury. Now, as this is the force
of vapour at 60°, it is clear that as much vapour exists in
the air as is possible at that temperature. The air is
saturated with moisture, evaporation cannot go on in it,
and moisture will be deposited upon all bodies the least
colder than the air itself. Such a state of things takes
place pretty frequently in this country during winter,
though rarely during summer. Hence the atmosphere is
moister during winter than during summer, though the
absolute quantity of vapour which it contains may be much
With respect to the quantity of vapour in the atmo-
fiphere we have still very few data. Mr Daniel, in his
book on Meteorology, has given a table of the force of
vapour m the atmosphere at London for three years. The
following table gives the mean force of vapour in Glasgow
during every fortnight, from May 1823 to February 1824:
Force of Vapour Quantity
in Inches of Mercury, of vapour
1823. May, 1st fortnight 0-2707 in the air
T ?d 0-3494 g^las-
,  0-2822
July> ist 0-3526
2d 0-3819
August, 1st 0-4000
0 2d   0-3546
September, 1st 0.3790
_ , 2d 0-3404
October, 1st 0-3233
_T 2d 0-3026
November, 1st 0-2808
^ 2d 0-3230
December, 1st 0-2449
2d  .0-2453
1824. January, 1st ............0-2481
^ ^ 2d 0-2578
February, 1st..., 0-2468
2d 0-2170
Ihe mean force of vapour in the atmosphere in Glas¬
gow is nearly 0-3 inch, which indicates the quantity of
vapour capable of existing in the atmosphere at 45°. Now
the mean temperature of Glasgow is 47°-75. It is ob¬
vious nom this that the atmosphere in that part of Scot¬
land is moist.
It would be very interesting if we knew the force of
184
ATMOSPHERE.
Atmo¬
sphere.
vapour at all the different seasons in the torrid zone. The
regularity of the weather in these climates, and the little
' alteration in height of the barometer, would make a set
of such observations particularly valuable. They would
probably throw more light on the theory of rain than has
yet been done. The only set of observations which we
have seen on the quantity of vapour in countries approach¬
ing the torrid zone, are the following by Dr Heinecker,
in which he gives the maximum and minimum dew points
at Funchal in Madeira (lat. 32| N.), during the year 1828,
which in that part of the world was remarkably dry.
Maximum. Minimum. Itain in Inches.
Atmo¬
sphere.
January 65° 50'
February 56  50
March 65  
April 63  
May 69 
June VO 
July V2  
August 73  
September...75  
October 74 
November....72-5  o4i
December....67  50
48
45
.51
.54
.61
.63
.69
.56
.4-08
.1-64
.1-68
.3*35
.2-14
.0-21
..0-10
..0
.1-39
..0
..2-56
..0-52
17-671
These observations are not sufficient to give us an ac¬
curate notion of the state of the atmosphere at Funcha .
The highest dew point is 75°, indicating a force of va¬
pour amounting to 0*8581 inch, so that the vapour at that
time in the atmosphere was nearly ^jth of its volume.
The lowest dew point is 45°, indicating a force of vapour
amounting to 0*3059 inch, so that the vapour at that time
in the atmosphere was nearly of its volume. The
Why the
different
remain
mixed.
ill ~ * *   j i U U . , • .
mean dew point deduced from the maxima and minima
is 61°, indicating a force of vapour of 0*5377 inch, or a
quantity of vapour amounting to nearly jjth of the volume
of the atmosphere. The mean temperature of Madeira
is 66°*3. Now since the mean dew point is 61°, it is
obvious that the atmosphere over Madeira is much drier
than at Glasgow, though the absolute quantity of vapour
which it contains is much greater.
Thus the atmosphere is a mixture of at least four dif-
. ferent elastic fluids, namely, azotic gas, oxygen gas, car-
gases in air bonic aci(1 ^ an(j tbe vap0ur of water. Doubtless all
other gaseous bodies and many vapours exist in it also,
but in too small quantities to be discovered by the most
delicate tests that we have it in our power to apply. These
different elastic fluids are mixed equably together; and
though there be a considerable difference in their speci¬
fic gravities, that difference has no tendency to cause
them to separate. The reason of this equable mixture
was first pointed out by Dalton. It depends upon a prin¬
ciple not yet generally recognised, but of the existence
of which recent observations leave little doubt. Ibis
principle is, that the particles of elastic fluids are not mu¬
tually elastic to each other. The particles of oxygen re¬
pel the particles of oxygen, the particles of azotic gas re¬
pel those of azotic gas ; but a particle of oxygen does not
repel a particle of azotic gas. Hence, when a gas issues
from an orifice into a space filled by another gas, it rushes
precisely as if it were flowing into a vacuum. But the full
development of this important principle belongs to the
article Pneumatics.
A great deal has been written about the salubrity of the
atmosphere in different countries. It has been supposed, and
Salubrity
of the at¬
mosphere.
is still believed, that the average length of life in different
places depends chiefly upon the state of the atmosphere.
It has been generally admitted that the atmosphere is fre- Atpm
quently a vehicle by which diseases are communicated; and v __
the prevalence of certain epidemic diseases, as the plague
and the yellow fever, in particular places, at particular sea¬
sons, has been accounted for in this way. But no satisfac¬
tory evidence has ever been adduced to satisfy us of the
accuracy of these opinions. The constituents of the atmo¬
sphere, azotic and oxygen gases, never undergo any sen¬
sible change in their proportions. Carbonic acid varies
somewhat, but its proportion is always so small that it
cannot be considered as a source of disease. The propor¬
tion of aqueous vapour is much more variable, and there
can be no doubt that it may have an effect upon in¬
dividuals predisposed to certain diseases. Consumptive
patients suffer much more when they breathe a very moist
than when they breathe a dry atmosphere. There are
few places in the habitable globe, if there be any, where
the atmosphere is constantly saturated with moisture;
and it cannot prove very injurious, even to consumptive
patients, except when in this state. Besides, that a very
dry atmosphere is not the best adapted for the continu¬
ance of health, is obvious from the sufferings to which
those who inhabit the west coast of Africa are liable dur¬
ing the prevalence of the sirocco, a wind so excessively
dry that even the wood of the floors shrinks in consequence
of its action.
Nothing has been more completely ascertained than
that marshy countries are subject to intermittent fevers,
and that the malignancy of these intermittent fevers in¬
creases with the heat of the climate. These diseases dis¬
appear when the marshes are drained, and therefore are
connected with moisture; but that they are not owing
to mere moisture, is obvious from this, that they do not
appear at the sea-shore or on the banks of rivers, though
the moisture be as great as in marshy countries. It is
the general opinion that these diseases owe their origin
to certain vapours which are given out during the putre¬
faction of vegetable substances; but of the nature of these
miasmata nothing is known. In the West Indies marshes
are most fatal to the inhabitants just when they are almost
(but not quite) dried up by the heat of the weather. It
is then that the exhalations are most abundant and most
deadly. It is known that smallpox, &c. may be commu¬
nicated by the mixture of a particular matter with the
blood. It is possible, though not very probable, that this
matter may at times exist in the atmosphere in the state
of vapour, or in combination with one or other of the con¬
stituents of air, most probably the aqueous vapour, and
the disease may be communicated by breathing such air.
It is a conceivable thing that the matter, which, like a
ferment, is capable of inducing certain diseases when it
enters into the blood, may exist occasionally united to the
aqueous vapour in the atmosphere.
It has been ascertained, by experiments that seem con¬
clusive, that these noxious states of the atmosphere, how¬
ever they originate, may be destroyed, and the air ren¬
dered healthy, by mixing it with clilorine. This is most
easily accomplished by introducing into the chamber to
be so purified a quantity of chloride of lime in an open
dish and pouring on it sulphuric acid. The chlorine is
disengaged and speedily fills the apartment. Then the
mixture is withdrawn and the room ventilated. See Cli¬
mate, Meteorology, Pneumatics. (t. t.)
ATOM (a, priv., and rquW), a particle of matter, so
minute as to admit of no division. Atoms are the minima
1 Brewster’s Journal (new series), i. 34.
A T It
Atomic naturce, and are conceived to be the first principles or com-
Theory ponent parts of all physical magnitude.
II ATOMIC Theory. See Chemistry.
Atru ) ATOMICAL Philosophy, or the doctrine of atoms, a
^ system which, from the hypothesis that atoms are endued
with gravity and motion, accounted for the origin and for¬
mation of all things. This philosophy, first broached by
Leucippus, was developed by Democritus, and afterwards
cultivated and improved by Epicurus, whence it is deno¬
minated the Epicurean Philosophy. See Epicurean Phi¬
losophy.
ATONEMENT. See Theology.
ATOOI, one of the larger Sandwich Islands, in the
South Pacific Ocean. Towards the north-east and north¬
west the country is rugged and broken, but to the south¬
ward it is more level. The hills rise from the sea with a
gentle acclivity, and at a little distance back are covered
with wood. The produce of this island is the same with
that of the rest of the cluster; but its inhabitants greatly
excel their neighbours in the management of their plan¬
tations. It is nearly 30 miles in length, and contains
about 10,000 inhabitants. Long. 159. 40. W. Lat. 21.
57. N.
ATRATO, a river of New Granada, in South America,
which, after a course of 250 miles, falls into the Gulf of
Darien. The gold and platinum mines of Choco were on
some of its affluents, and its sands are still auriferous.
ATREBATII, or Atrebates, a people of Britain, who
inhabited part of Berkshire and Wiltshire, next to the Do-
buni. This was one of those Belgic colonies which came
out of Gaul into Britain. Their capital was Nemetocenna,
or Nemetacum, now Arras. They are mentioned by Caesar
among the nations which composed the Belgic confederacy
against him ; and the quota of troops which they engaged
to furnish on the occasion to which he refers was 15,000.
Commius of Arras was a king or chieftain among the Atre-
batii of Gaul in Caesar’s time ; and he seems to have pos¬
sessed some influence over the Atrebatii of Britain, for he
was sent by Caesar to persuade them to submission. This
circumstance renders it probable that this colony of the Atre¬
batii had not been settled in Britain very long before that
time. The Atrebatii were amongst the British tribes which
submitted to Caesar ; nor do we hear of any remarkable re¬
sistance they made against the Romans at their next inva¬
sion under Claudius. It is indeed probable that, before the
time of this second invasion, they had been subdued by
some of the neighbouring states ; perhaps by the powerful
nation of the Cattivellauni; which may also be the reason
why they are so little mentioned in history. Calleva Atre-
batum, mentioned in the seventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and
fourteenth Itinera of Antoninus, and called by Ptolemy
Calcula, seems to have been the British capital of the Atre¬
batii. But our antiquaries differ respecting the situation of
this ancient city ; some of them placing it at Wallingford,
and others at Silchester.
ATREUS, in Ancient History, the son of Pelops and
Hippodameia, grandson to Tantalus, and the father of
Agamemnon and Menelaus, is supposed to have been king
of Mycenae and Argos about 1228 years before the Chris¬
tian era. He drove his brother Thyestes from court for
having criminal intercourse with ACrope his wife ; but, un¬
derstanding that two children were the fruit of this connec¬
tion, he recalled his brother, and served up their flesh to
him at a banquet; at which enormity the sun, it is said,
withdrew his light.—Hygin. Fab. ; fEschyl. Agamemnon ;
Soph. Ajax.
ATRI, or Atria, the ancient Hadria, a town of Naples,
in the province of Abruzzo Ulteriore I., situated on a steep
mountain 5 miles from the Adriatic, and 18 miles south¬
east of Teramo. It is the see of a bishop, and has a cathe¬
dral, a parish church, several convents and hospitals, and
VOL. iy.
A T T 185
contains about 6000 inhabitants. In its vicinity are some Atrienses
remarkable ancient excavations. [|
ATRIENSES, in Antiquity, a kind of servants or offi- Attach-
cers in the great families of Rome, who had the care and raent-
inspection of the atria and the things lodged therein.
ATRIUM, in Roman Architecture. See Architec¬
ture.
Atrium:, in Ecclesiastical Antiquity, denotes an open
place or court before a church, making part of what was
called the narthex or ante-temple. The atrium in the an¬
cient churches was a large area or square plat of ground,
surrounded with a portico or cloister, situated between the
porch or vestibule of the church and the body of the church.
Some have erroneously confounded the atrium with the
porch or vestibule, from which it was distinct; others with
the narthex, of which it was only a part. The atrium was
the mansion of those who were not suffered to enter farther
into the church ; and more particularly, it was the place
where the first class of penitents stood to solicit the prayers
of the faithful as they went into the church.
ATROPA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural
order of Solenaceae, most of which are active poisons. A.
Belladonna (deadly nightshade), and A. Mandragora, are
well-known examples.
ATROPHY (a, privative, and Tpoc£?7, a nourishment), in
Medicine, a disease in which the body does not receive the
necessary nutriment from the blood, but wastes and decays
incessantly.
ATROPOS, in Heathen Mythology, the name of the
third of the Parcae or Fates, whose business it was to cut
the thread of life.
ATTACPIMENT, in English Law, is a process from a
court of record, awarded by the justices at their discretion,
on a bare suggestion, or on their own knowledge ; and is
properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from
arrest, in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person
of higher power to be forthwith disposed of; but he that
attaches keeps the party attached, and presents him in court
at the day assigned, as appears by the words of the writ.
Another difference is, that arrest is only upon the body of a
man, whereas an attachment is often upon his goods. It is
distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as the
latter does ; nor does a distress touch the body, as an at¬
tachment does. Every court of record has power to fine
and imprison for contempt of its authority.
The county courts in this respect are regulated by the
9th and 10th Viet. cap. 95, § 113, and the 12th and 13th
Viet. cap. 101, § 2.
The following are the ordinary instances of contempts:—
1. Contempt of the Queen’s writs, e.g., by witnesses not
attending in pursuance of their subpoena on the trial to give
evidence, and being unable to show any lawful ground of
excuse (such as that of dangerous illness), or by parties
proceeding in an inferior court after a prohibition or a cer¬
tiorari.
2. Contempt in the face of the court.
3. Contemptuous words or writings concerning the court.
4. Contempt of the rules or awards of the court, by dis¬
obedience thereto. Under this head may be introduced the
mode of punishing a party for the non-performance of an
award by attachment. The first instance, it appears, of
granting an attachment in such a case was in the reign of
Charles II., when Kelynge was chief-justice, in Sir John
Humble’s case. The submission must be made a rule of
court and be served on the party with an oral demand of
performance of the award. An affidavit of the due execu¬
tion of the award by the arbitrator is necessary, and it must
be shewn that the award was made within the time limited
for that purpose. There is, however, another mode of
proceeding where the payment of money or of costs is
awarded, by rule under the 1st and 2d Viet. cap. 110,
2 A
186 ATT
Attach¬
ment
Attainder.
§ 18, and under which execution will issue. But an attach¬
ment cannot be obtained after proceedings under this
statute.
5. Abuse of the process of the court, as suing out exe¬
cution where there is no judgment, or using it in a vexa¬
tious, oppressive, or unjust manner, without colour of serv¬
ing any other end thereby.
6. Forgeries of writs and other deceits tending to impose
on the court, by altering the teste or filling them up after
being sealed.
Attachments also lie against officers of the court for
abuses committed by them ; against sheriffs or other officers
guilty of corrupt practice in not serving a writ, receiving a
bribe in order to prevent the service, making false returns,
or for exceeding their power ; against attorneys for injus¬
tice or for delaying suits.
Attachments are granted on a rule in the first instance to
show cause, which must be personally served before it can
be made absolute, except for non-payment ot costs on a
master’s allocatui’, and against a sherift for not obeying a
rule to return a writ or to bring in the body (See order 168
of Hilary Term, 1853). The offender is then arrested, and
when committed will be compelled to answer interrogatories,
exhibited against him by the party at whose instance the
proceedings have been had; and the examination when
taken is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and on
the contempt being reported, the court gives judgment ac¬
cording to their discretion, in the same manner as upon a
conviction for a misdemeanour at common law.
Attachment out of Chancery, is used to enforce answers
and obedience to decrees and orders of that court, and is
made out without order upon an affidavit of the due service
of the process, &c., with whose requirements compliance is
sought. A corporation, however, is proceeded against by
distringas and not by attachment.
Attachment of the Forest, is the proceeding in the courts
of attachments, woodmote, or forty days’ courts. These
courts have now fallen into absolute desuetude. They were
held before the verderors of the royal forests in different parts
of the kingdom once in every 40 days, for the purpose of
inquiring into all offences against “ vert and venison.” The
attachment is by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in the
very act of killing venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so
to do, or by fresh and immediate pursuit after the act is
done; else they must be attached by their goods. These
attachments were received by the verderors and enrolled, and
certified under their seals to the Court of Justice seat, or
sweinmote, which formed the two superior of the forest courts.
Attachment, Foreign, a local custom in some parts of
England resembling the practice of arrestment in Scotland,
is the attachment of money or goods found within a liberty
or city, to satisfy some creditor within such liberty or city.
But it cannot be obtained where a suit is pending in any of
the courts at Westminster, nor can money due to an executor
or administrator as such be attached, nor trust money, nor
money awarded under a rule of court. By the custom of Lon¬
don, and several other places, a man can attach money or goods
in the hands of a stranger, to satisfy himself, (r. m—M.)
ATTACOTTI, an ancient people of Britain, mentioned
by Ammianus Marcellinus and St Jerome, as well as in the
Notitia Imperii. They were allies of the Scots and Piets,
and inhabited the west coast of Scotland, but their precise
boundaries have not been determined.
ATTAINDER, in the Law of England, imports that
extinction of civil rights and capacities which takes place
whenever a person who has committed treason or felony re¬
ceives sentence of death for his crime, and is the immediate
inseparable consequence from the common law upon the
sentence of death. When it is clear beyond all dispute that
the criminal is no longer fit to live, he is called attaint, at-
tinctus, stained or blackened, and could not, before the 6th
ATT
and 7th Viet. c. 85, § 1, be a witness in any court. This Attainder,
attainder takes place after judgment of death, or upon such
circumstances as are equivalent to judgment of death, such
as judgment of outlawry on a capital crime, pronounced for
absconding from justice.
A man is attainted by appearance, that is, by confession
when he answers guilty upon his indictment, or by verdict,
when he pleads not guilty, but is found guilty by the jury ;
by process, otherwise called judgment by default or out¬
lawry, when the party fleeth, and is not to be found in the
country, and is outlawed on the fifth proclamation upon his
default; and by act of parliament.
The consequences of attainder are—1st, Forfeiture ; 2d,
Corruption of blood.
1st, Of forfeiture:
The offender becomes incapable of maintaining a suit in
any court of justice, whether civil or criminal, except for the
purpose of procuring the reversal of his attainder. In cases
of treason or murder, or of abetting, procuring, or counsel¬
ling the same (to which, by the 54th Geo. III. cap. 145, it is
limited), all lands and tenements of inheritance, whether
fee-simple or fee-tail, and all rights of entry in lands or tene¬
ments at the time of the commission of the offence, or at
any time afterwards, and all the profits of all lands and tene¬
ments which the offender had in his own right, for life or
years, so long as such interest shall subsist, are forfeited to
the crown. He also forfeits all his chattel interests abso¬
lutely, and the profits of all estates of freehold during life;
and this forfeiture of goods and chattels accrues in every
treason or misprision thereof, felonies of all sorts, self-mur¬
der, or felony-de-se.
There is, however, this distinction between the forfeiture
of lands, and of goods and chattels : lands are not forfeited
before attainder, and the forfeiture has relation back to the
time of the commission of the offence, so as to avoid all in¬
termediate sales and incumbrances; goods and chattels are
forfeited by conviction, and the forfeiture has no relation
backwards.
2d, Of corruption of blood :
The ancient law has been much narrowed in its applica¬
tion by recent enactments. Formerly the person attainted
was incapable himself of inheriting, or of transmitting his
own property by heirship ; and this corruption could not be
absolutely removed but by authority of parliament.
But now, under the 54th Geo. III. cap. 145, no attainder
for felony, except for treason or murder, extends to the disin¬
heriting of any person, nor to the prejudice of the right or
title of any person beyond the natural life of the offender; and
by the 3d and 4th Will. IV. cap. 106, § 10, when the per¬
son, from whom the descent of any land is to be traced, shall
have had any relation who, having been attainted, shall have
died before such descent shall have taken place, then such
attainder shall not prevent any person from inheriting such
land, who would have been capable of inheriting the same
by tracing his descent through such relation, if he had not
been attainted; and by the 13th and 14th Viet. cap. 60,
§ 46, no lands, stock, or chose in action, vested in any per¬
son on any trust, or by way of mortgage, or any profits there¬
of, shall be forfeited by reason of attainder or conviction for
any offence of such trustee or mortgagee, but the Court of
Chancery has power, under the 15th and 16th Viet. cap. 55,
§ 8, to appoint new trustees in lieu of persons convicted
of felony.
It is, however, in the power of the Sovereign to restore the
forfeited land by grant to the families of the former owner,
and the consequences of this forfeiture are, therefore, at the
present time frequently remitted.
Attainder and conviction must be taken advantage of by
plea.
Attainders may be reversed or falsified (i.e., proved to be
false) by writ of error, or by plea. If by writ of error, it
ATT
Attalea must he by the Queen’s leave, See.; and when by plea, it
II must be by denying the treason, pleading a pardon by act
Atterbury. 0f parliament, &c.
By a reversal of attainder, all the former proceedings are
absolutely set aside, and the party stands as if he had never
been accused, and is restored to his credit, his capacity and
blood, and his estates,—by a free pardon the person cannot
sue on any right accrued before his pardon, although he may
for a subsequent right. (u. m—M.)
ATTALEA, an important genus of palms, described by
Spix and Martins as found in the dense forests of Brazil.
The fibres of the leaf-stalks of A. funifera afford the finest
cordage for the Brazilian navy. The fruit of A. compta is
about the size of the egg of a goose, and contains an escu¬
lent kernel. Its leaves form excellent thatch. A. speciosa
affords oily nyts, which are applied to various useful pur¬
poses in Brazil.
ATTALEIA (now Adalia), a maritime city of Pam-
phylia, near the mouth of the Catarrhactes, visited by Paul
and Barnabas, a.d. 45. Extensive ruins attest its former
greatness.
ATTAR, or Otto of Roses, a well-known perfume of
great strength, is an essential oil prepared in several parts
of Asia and in Egypt from the Rosa moschata and Rosa
Damascena. It is said that 100,000 roses yield but 180
grains of attar. This oil is at first of a palish green colour,
which by keeping becomes darker, and presents various
tints of green, yellow, and red.
ATTENTATES, proceedings in a court of judicature,
after an inhibition is decreed.
ATTENTION, a due application of the ear or of the
mind to anything said or done, in order to acquire a know¬
ledge thereof. The word is compounded of ad, to, and the
verbal substantive derived from tendo, I stretch.
Attention, in respect of hearing, is the stretching or
straining of the membrana lympani, so as to make it more
susceptible of sounds, and better prepared to catch even a
feeble agitation of the air ; or it is the adjusting of the ten¬
sion of that membrane to the degree of loudness or lowness
of the sound to which we are attentive.
According to the degree of attention, objects make a
stronger or weaker impression. Attention is requisite even
to the simple act of seeing: the eye can take in a consider¬
able field at one look, but no object in the field is seen dis¬
tinctly except that singly which fixes the attention : in a
profound reverie, which totally occupies the attention, we
scarcely see what is directly before us. In a train of per¬
ceptions, no particular object makes such a figure as it
would do singly and apart ; for when the attention is
divided among many objects, no particular object is entitled
to a large share. Hence the stillness of nigbt contributes
to terror, there being nothing to divert the attention.
Attention is classed by Dugald Stewart as a distinct
faculty of the mind; an arrangement from which some
other philosophers have dissented. But his admirable illus¬
trations of the effects or results of attention are not at all
dependent on the opinion which may be formed on this
question.—See Elements of the Philosophy of the Human
Mind, ch. ii.
ATTENUATION {ad and tenuis), the act of making
any fluid thinner and less consistent than it was before, or
of enlarging bodies in superficial extent.
ATTERBURY, Francis, a man who holds a conspi¬
cuous place in the political, ecclesiastical, and literary his¬
tory of England, was born in the year 1662, at Middleton
in Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his father was rector.
Francis was educated at Westminster School, and carried
thence to Christ Church a stock of learning which, though
really scanty, he through life exhibited with such judicious
ostentation that superficial observers believed his attain¬
ments to be immense. At Oxford, his parts, his taste, and
ATT 187
his bold, contemptuous, and imperious spirit soon made him Atterbury.
conspicuous. Here he published, at twenty, his first work,
a translation of the noble poem of Absalom and Ahithophel
into Latin verse. Neither the style nor the versification
of the young scholar was that of the Augustan age. In
English composition he succeeded much better. In 1687
he distinguished himself among many able men who wrote
in defence of the Church of England, then persecuted
by James II., and calumniated by apostates who had for
lucre quitted her communion. Among these apostates none
was more active or malignant than Obadiah Walker, who was
master of University College, and who had setup there, un¬
der the royal patronage, a press for printing tracts against
the established religion. In one of these tracts, written ap¬
parently by Walker himself, many aspersions were thrown
on Martin Luther. Atterbury undertook to defend the great
Saxon reformer, and performed that task in a manner singu¬
larly characteristic. Whoever examines his reply to Walker
will be struck by the contrast between the feebleness of those
parts which are argumentative and defensive, and the vigour
of those parts which are rhetorical and aggressive. The Pa¬
pists were so much galled by the sarcasms and invectives of
the young polemic, that they raised a cry of treason, and ac¬
cused him of having, by implication, called King James a
Judas.
After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doc¬
trines of non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore
fealty to the new government. In no long time he took holy
orders. He occasionally preached in London with an elo¬
quence which raised his reputation, and soon had the honour
of being appointed one of the royal chaplains. But he or¬
dinarily resided at Oxford, where he took an active part
in academical business, directed the classical studies of the
under-graduates of his college, and was the chief adviser
and assistant of Dean Aldrich, a divine now chiefly remem¬
bered by his catches, but renowned among his contempor¬
aries as a scholar, a Tory, and a high-churchman. It was the
practice, not a very judicious practice, of Aldrich, to employ
the most promising youths of his college in editing Greek
and Latin-books. Among the studious and well-disposed
lads who were, unfortunately for themselves, induced to be¬
come teachers of philology when they should have been con¬
tent to be learners, was Charles Boyle, son of the Earl of
Orrery, and nephew of Robert Boyle, the great experimental
philosopher. The task assigned to Charles Boyle was to pre¬
pare a new edition of one of the most worthless books in ex¬
istence. It was a fashion among those Greeks and Romans
who cultivated rhetoric as an art, to compose epistles and
harangues in the names of eminent men. Some of these
counterfeits are fabricated with such exquisite taste and skill,
that it is the highest achievement of criticism to distinguish
them from originals. Others are so feebly and rudely exe¬
cuted that they can hardly impose on an intelligent school¬
boy. The best specimen which has come down to us is per¬
haps the oration for Marcellus, such an imitation of Tully’s
eloquence as Tully would himself have read with wonder
and delight. The worst specimen is perhaps a collection
of letters purporting to have been written by that Phala-
ris who governed Agrigentum more than 500 years before
the Christian era. The evidence, both internal and exter¬
nal, against the genuineness of these letters is overwhelming.
When, in the fifteenth century, they emerged, in company
with much that was far more valuable, from their obscurity,
they were pronounced spurious by Politian, the greatest
scholar of Italy, and by Erasmus, the greatest scholar on our
side of the Alps. In truth, it would be as easy to persuade
an educated Englishman, that one of Johnson’s Ramblers was
the work of William Wallace, as to persuade a man like Eras¬
mus, that a pedantic exercise, composed in the trim and arti¬
ficial Attic of the time of Julian, was a despatch written by
a crafty and ferocious Dorian who roasted people alive many
188
A T T E R B U R Y.
Atterbury. years before there existed a volume of prose in the Greek
S—v-*-'' language. But though Christ Church could boast of many
good Latinists, of many good English writers, and of a greater
number of clever and fashionable men of the world than be¬
longed to any other academic body, there was not then in
the college a single man capable of distinguishing between
the infancy and the dotage of Greek literature. So super¬
ficial indeed was the learning of the rulers of this celebrated
society, that they were charmed by an essay which Sir
William Temple published in praise of the ancient writers.
It now seems strange, that even the eminent public services,
the deserved popularity, and the graceful style of Temple,
should have saved so silly a performance from universal con¬
tempt. Of the books which he most vehemently eulogized his
eulogies proved that he knew nothing. In fact, he could not
read a line of the language in which they were written.
Among many other foolish things, he said that the letters of
Phalaris were the oldest letters and also the best in the world.
Whatever Temple wrote attracted notice. People who had
never heard of the Epistles of Phalaris began to inquire about
them. Aldrich, who knew very little Greek, took the word
of Temple who knew none, and desired Boyle to prepare a
new edition of these admirable compositions which, having
long slept in obscurity, had become on a sudden objects of
general interest.
The edition was prepared with the help of Atterbury, who
was Boyle’s tutor, and of some other members of the college.
It was an edition such as might be expected from people who
would stoop to edite such a book. The notes were worthy
of the text; the Latin version worthy of the Greek original.
The volume would have been forgotten in a month, had not
a misunderstanding about a manuscript arisen between the
young editor and the greatest scholar that had appeared in
Europe since the revival of letters, Richard Bentley. The
manuscript was in Bentley’s keeping. Boyle wished it to be
collated. A mischief-making bookseller informed him that
Bentley had refused to lend it, which was false, and also that
Bentley had spoken contemptuously of the letters attributed
to Phalaris, and of the critics who were taken in by such
counterfeits, which was perfectly true. Boyle, much pro¬
voked, paid, in his preface, a bitterly ironical compliment to
Bentley’s courtesy. Bentley revenged himself by a short
dissertation, in which he proved that the epistles were spu¬
rious, and the new edition of them worthless: but he treated
Boyle personally with civility as a young gentleman of great
hopes, whose love of learning was highly commendable, and
who deserved to have had better instructors.
Few things in literary history are more extraordinary than
the storm which this little dissertation raised. Bentley had
treated Boyle with forbearance ; but he had treated Christ
Church with contempt; and the Christ-Churchmen, where-
ever dispersed, were as much attached to their college as a
Scotchman to his country, or a Jesuit to his order. Their
influence was great. They were dominant at Oxford,
powerful in the Inns of Court and in the College of Physi¬
cians, conspicuous in parliament and in the literary and
fashionable circles of London. Their unanimous cry was,
that the honour of the college must be vindicated, that the
insolent Cambridge pedant must be put down. Poor Boyle
was unequal to the task, and disinclined to it. It was, there¬
fore, assigned to his tutor Atterbury.
The answer to Bentley, which bears the name of Boyle,
but which was, in truth, no more the work of Boyle than the
letters to which the controversy related were the work of
Phalaris, is now read only by the curious, and will in all pro¬
bability never be reprinted again. But it had its day of
noisy popularity. It was to be found not only in the studies
of men of letters, but on the tables of the most brilliant
drawing-rooms of Soho Square and Covent Garden. Even
the beaus and coquettes of that age, the Wildairs and the
Lady Lurewells, the Mirabels, and the Millamants, congra¬
tulated each other on the way in which the gay young gen- Atterbury.
tleman, whose erudition sate so easily upon him, and who
wrote with so much pleasantry and good breeding about the
Attic dialect and the anapaestic measure, Sicilian talents and
Thericlean cups, had bantered the queer prig of a doctor.
Nor was the applause of the multitude undeserved. The
book is, indeed, Atterbury’s masterpiece, and gives a higher
notion of his powers than any of those works to which he put
his name. That he was altogether in the wrong on the main
question, and on all the collateral questions springing out of
it, that his knowledge of the language, the literature, and the
history of Greece, was not equal to what many freshmen now
bring up every year to Cambridge and Oxford, and that
some of his blunders seem rather to deserve a flogging than
a refutation, is true; and therefore it is that his perfor¬
mance is, in the highest degree, interesting and valuable to
a judicious reader. It is good by reason of its exceeding
badness. It is the most extraordinai’y instance that exists of
the art of making much show with little substance. There
is no difficulty, says the steward of Moliere’s miser, in
giving a fine dinner with plenty of money : the really great
cook is he who can set out a banquet with no money at all.
That Bentley should have written excellently on ancient
chronology and geography, on the development of the Greek
language, and the origin of the Greek drama, is not strange.
But that Atterbury should, during some years, have been
thought to have treated these subjects much better than
Bentley, is strange indeed. It is true that the champion of
Christ Church had all the help which the most celebrated
members of that society could give him. Smalridge contri¬
buted some very good wit; Friend and others some very bad
archaeology and philology. But the greater part of the
volume was entirely Atterbury’s : what was not his own was
revised and retouched by him; and the whole bears the mark
of his mind, a mind inexhaustibly rich in all the resources
of controversy, and familiar with all the artifices which make
falsehood look like truth, and ignorance like knowledge. He
had little gold; but he beat that little out to the very thin¬
nest leaf, and spread it over so vast a surface, that to those
who judged by a glance, and who did not resort to balances
and tests, the glittering heap of worthless matter which he
produced seemed to be an inestimable treasure of massy
bullion. Such arguments as he had he placed in the clearest
light. Where he had no arguments, he resorted to person¬
alities, sometimes serious, generally ludicrous, always clever
and cutting. But, whether he was grave or merry, whether
he reasoned or sneered, his style was always pure, polished,
and easy.
Party-spirit then ran high ; yet, though Bentley ranked
among Whigs, and Christ Church was a stronghold of Tory¬
ism, Whigs joined with Tories in applauding Atterbury’s
volume. Garth insulted Bentley, and extolled Boyle in
lines which are now never quoted except to be laughed at.
Swift, in his Battle of the Books, introduced with much
pleasantry Boyle, clad in armour, the gift of all the gods, and
directed by Apollo in the form of a human friend, for whose
name a blank is left which may easily be filled up. The
youth, so accoutred and so assisted, gains an easy victory
over his uncourteous and boastful antagonist. Bentley,
meanwhile, was supported by the consciousness of an im¬
measurable superiority, and encouraged by the voices of the
few who were really competent to judge the combat. “ No
man,” he said, justly and nobly, “ was ever written down
but by himself.” He spent two years in preparing a reply,
which will never cease to be read and prized while the lite¬
rature of ancient Greece is studied in any part of the world.
This reply proved not only that the letters ascribed to
Phalaris were spurious, but that Atterbury, with all his wit,
his eloquence, his skill in controversial fence, was the most
audacious pretender that ever wrote about what he did not
understand. But to Atterbury this exposure was matter of
ATTERBURY.
Atterbury. indifference. He was now engaged in a dispute about mat-
ters far more important and exciting than the laws of Za-
leucus and the laws of Charondas. The rage of religious
factions was extreme. High church and low church divided
the nation. The great majority of the clergy were on the
high church side ; the majority of King William’s bishops
were inclined to latitudinarianism. A dispute arose be¬
tween the two parties touching the extent of the powers of
the Lower House of Convocation. Atterbury thrust him¬
self eagerly into the front rank of the high-churchmen.
Those who take a comprehensive and impartial view of his
whole career, will not be disposed to give him credit for
religious zeal. But it was his nature to be vehement and
pugnacious in the cause of every fraternity of which he was
a member. He had defended the genuineness of a spurious
book simply because Christ Church had put forth an edition
of that book ; he now stood up for the clergy against the
civil power simply because he was a clergyman, and for the
priests against the episcopal order, simply because he was
as yet only a priest. He asserted the pretensions of the class
to which he belonged in several treatises written with much
wit, ingenuity, audacity, and acrimony. In this, as in his
first controversy, he was opposed to antagonists whose
knowledge of the subject in dispute was far superior to his ;
but in this, as in his first controversy, he imposed on the
multitude by bold assertion, by sarcasm, by declamation,
and, above all, by his peculiar knack of exhibiting a little
erudition in such a manner as to make it look like a great
deal. Having passed himself off on the world as a greater
master of classical learning than Bentley, he now passed
himself off as a greater master of ecclesiastical learning than
Wake or Gibson. By the great body of the clergy he was
regarded as the ablest and most intrepid tribune that had
ever defended their rights against the oligarchy of prelates.
The Lower House of Convocation voted him thanks for his
services ; the University of Oxford created him a doctor of
divinity ; and soon after the accession of Anne, while the
Tories still had the chief weight in the government, he was
promoted to the deanery of Carlisle.
Soon after he had obtained this preferment, the Whig party
rose to ascendancy in the state. From that party he could
expect no favour. Six years elapsed before a change of for¬
tune took place. At length, in the year 1710, the prosecu¬
tion of Sacheverell produced a formidable explosion of high-
church fanaticism. At such a moment Atterbury could not
fail to be conspicuous. His inordinate zeal for the body to
which he belonged, his turbulent and aspiring temper, his
rare talents for agitation and for controversy were again sig¬
nally displayed. He bore a chief part in framing that art¬
ful and eloquent speech which the accused divine pronounced
at the bar of the Lords, and which presents a singular con¬
trast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which had very
unwisely been honoured with impeachment. During the
troubled and anxious months which followed the trial, At¬
terbury was among the most active of those pamphleteers
who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the
Whig parliament. When the ministry had been changed
and the parliament dissolved, rewards were showered upon
him. The Lower House of Convocation elected him pro¬
locutor. The Queen appointed him Dean of Christ Church
on the death of his old friend and patron Aldrich. The col¬
lege would have preferred a gentler ruler. Nevertheless, the
new head was received with every mark of honour. A
congratulatory oration in Latin was addressed to him in the
magnificent vestibule of the hall; and he in reply professed
the warmest attachment to the venerable house in which he
had been educated, and paid many gracious compliments to
those over whom he was to preside. But it was not in his
nature to be a mild or an equitable governor. He had left
the chapter of Carlisle distracted by quarrels. He found
Christ Church at peace ; but in three months his despotic
189
and contentious temper did at Christ Church what it had Atterbury
done at Carlisle. He was succeeded in both his deaneries's—
by the humane and accomplished Smalridge, who gently
complained of the state in which both had been left. “ At¬
terbury goes before, and sets everything on fire. I come
after him with a bucket of water.” It was said by Atter-
bury’s enemies that he was made a bishop because he was
so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ Church
was in confusion, scandalous altercations took place, oppro¬
brious words were exchanged ; and there was reason to fear
that the great Tory college would be ruined by the tyranny
of the great Tory doctor. He was soon removed to the
bishopric of Rochester, which was then always united with
the deanery of Westminster. Still higher dignities seemed
to be before him. For, though there were many able men
on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled or
approached him in parliamentary talents. Had his party
continued in power, it is not improbable that he would have
been raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The more
splendid his prospects, the more reason he had to dread the
accession of a family which was well known to be partial to
the Whigs. There is every reason to believe that he was
one of those politicians who hoped that they might be able,
during the life of Anne, to prepare matters in such a way
that at her decease there might be little difficulty in setting
aside the Act of Settlement and placing the Pretender on
the throne. Her sudden death confounded the projects
of these conspirators. Atterbury, who wanted no kind
of courage, implored his confederates to proclaim James
III., and offered to accompany the heralds in lawn sleeves.
But he found even the bravest soldiers of his party irre¬
solute, and exclaimed, not, it is said, without interjections
which ill became the mouth of a father of the church,
that the best of all causes and the most precious of all mo¬
ments had been pusillanimously thrown away. He acqui¬
esced in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the
House of Hanover, and at the coronation officiated with
the outward show of zeal, and did his best to ingratiate him¬
self with the royal family. But his servility was requited
with cold contempt. No creature is so revengeful as a
proud man who has humbled himself in vain. Atterbury
became the most factious and pertinacious of all the oppo¬
nents of the government. In the House of Lords his oratory,
lucid, pointed, lively, and set off with every grace of pro¬
nunciation and of gesture, extorted the attention and ad¬
miration even of a hostile majority. Some of the most re¬
markable protests which appear in the journals of the peers
were drawn up by him ; and, in some of the bitterest of
those pamphlets which called on the English to stand up
for their country against the aliens who had come from be¬
yond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics easily de¬
tected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out, he
refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the pro¬
vince of Canterbury declared their attachment to the Pro¬
testant succession. He busied himself in electioneering,
especially at Westminster, where as dean he possessed great
influence; and was, indeed, strongly suspected of having
once set on a riotous mob to prevent his Whig fellow-citi¬
zens from polling.
After having been long in indirect communication with
the exiled family, he, in 1717, began to correspond directly
with the Pretender. The first letter of the correspondence
is extant. In that letter Atterbury boasts of having, during
many years past, neglected no opportunity of serving the
Jacobite cause. “My daily prayer,” he says, “is that you
may have success. May I live to see that day, and live no
longer than I do what is in my power to forward it.” It is
to be remembered that he who wrote thus was a man bound
to set to the church of which he was overseer an example
of strict probity ; that he had repeatedly sworn allegiance
to the House of Brunswick; that he had assisted in placing
ATTEKBORY.
190
Atterbury. the crown on the head of George L, and that he had abjured
James III., “without equivocation or mental reservation,
on the true faith of a Christian.”
It is agreeable to turn from his public to his private life.
His turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now
and then required repose, and found it in domestic endear¬
ments, and in the society of the most illustrious of the living
and of the dead. Of his wife little is known : but between
him and his daughter there was an affection singularly close
and tender. The gentleness of his manners when he was
in the company of a few friends was such as seemed hardly
credible to those who knew him only by his writings and
speeches. The charm of his “ softer hour” has been com¬
memorated by one of those friends in imperishable verse.
Though Atterbury’s classical attainments were not great,
his taste in English literature was excellent; and his ad¬
miration of genius was so strong that it overpowered even
his political and religious antipathies. His fondness for Mil-
ton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the church, was
such as to many Tories seemed a crime. On the sad night
on which Addison was laid in the chapel of Henry VII.,
the Westminster boys remarked that Atterbury read the
funeral service with a peculiar tenderness and solemnity.
The favourite companions, however, of the great Tory pre¬
late were, as might have been expected, men whose poli¬
tics had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived on friendly
terms with Swift, Arbuthnot, and Gay. With Prior he
had a close intimacy, which some misunderstanding about
public affairs at last dissolved. Pope found in Atterbury
not only a warm admirer, but a most faithful, fearless, and
judicious adviser. The poet was a frequent guest at the
episcopal palace among the elms of Bromley, and enter¬
tained not the slightest suspicion that his host, now declin¬
ing in years, confined to an easy chair by gout, and appa¬
rently devoted to literature, was deeply concerned in crimi¬
nal and perilous designs against the government.
The spirit of the Jacobites had been cowed by the events
of 1715. It revived in 1721. The failure of the South Sea
project, the panic in the money market, the downfall of great
commercial houses, the distress from which no part of the
kingdom was exempt, had produced general discontent. It
seemed not improbable that at such a moment an insurrec¬
tion might be successful. An insurrection was planned. The
streets of London were to be barricaded ; the Tower and
the Bank were to be surprised; King George, his family,
and his chief captains and councillors were to be arrested,
and King James was to be proclaimed. The design became
known to the Duke of Orleans, regent of France, who was
on terms of friendship with the House of Hanover. He put
the English government on its guard. Some of the chief
malcontents were committed to prison; and among them
was Atterbury. No bishop of the Church of England had
been taken into custody since that memorable day when the
applauses and prayers of all London had followed the seven
bishops to the gate of the Tower. The Opposition enter¬
tained some hope that it might be possible to excite among
the people an enthusiasm resembling that of their fathers,
who rushed into the waters of the Thames to implore the
blessing of Sancroft. Pictures of the heroic confessor in
his cell were exhibited at the shop windows. Verses in his
praise were sung about the streets. The restraints by which
he was prevented from communicating with his accomplices
were represented as cruelties worthy of the dungeons of the
Inquisition. Strong appeals were made to the priesthood.
Would they tamely permit so gross an insult to be offered
to their cloth ? Would they suffer the ablest, the most elo¬
quent member of their profession, the man who had so often
stood up for their rights against the civil power, to be treated
like the vilest of mankind ? There was considerable excite¬
ment ; but it was allayed by a temperate and artful letter to
the clergy, the work, in all probability, of Bishop Gibson,
who stood high in the favour of Walpole, and shortly after Atterbury.
became minister for ecclesiastical affairs.
Atterbury remained in close confinement during some
months. He had carried on his correspondence with the
exiled family so cautiously that the circumstantial proofs of
his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire moral convic¬
tion, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He
could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such
a bill the Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both
houses, was quite prepared to support. Many hotheaded
members of that party were eager to follow the precedent
which had been set in the case of Sir John Fenwick, and
to pass an act for cutting off the bishop’s head. Cadogan,
who commanded the army, a brave soldier, but a headstrong
politician, is said to have exclaimed with great vehemence:
“ Fling him to the lions in the Tower.” But the wiser and
more humane Walpole was always unwilling to shed blood;
and his influence prevailed. When parliament met, the
evidence against the bishop was laid before committees of
both houses. Those committees reported that his guilt was
proved. In the Commons a resolution, pronouncing him a
traitor, was carried by nearly twm to one. A bill was then
introduced which provided that he should be deprived of his
spiritual dignities, that he should be banished for life, and
that no British subject should hold any intercourse with him
except by the royal permission.
This bill passed the Commons with little difficulty. For
the bishop, though invited to defend himself, chose to re¬
serve his defence for the assembly of which he was a mem¬
ber. In the Lords the contest was sharp. The young Duke
of Wharton, distinguished by his parts, his dissoluteness,
and his versatility, spoke for Atterbury with great effect;
and Atterbury’s own voice was heard for the last time by
that unfriendly audience which had so often listened to him
with mingled aversion and delight. He produced few wit¬
nesses, nor did those witnesses say much that could be of
service to him. Among them was Pope. He was called
to prove that, while he was an inmate of the palace at Brom¬
ley, the bishop’s time was completely occupied by literary
and domestic matters, and that no leisure was left for plotting.
But Pope, who was quite unaccustomed to speak in public,
lost his head, and, as he afterwards owned, though he had
only ten words to say, made two or three blunders.
The bill finally passed the Lords by eighty-three votes to
forty-three. The bishops, with a single exception, were in
the majority. Their conduct drew on them a sharp taunt
from Lord Bathurst, a warm friend of Atterbury and a zeal¬
ous Tory. “ The wild Indians,” he said, “ give no quarter,
because they believe that they shall inherit the skill and
prowess of every adversary whom they destroy. Perhaps
the animosity of the right reverend prelates to their brother
may be explained in the same way.”
Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dig¬
nity and tenderness worthy of a better man. Three fine
lines of his favourite poet were often in his mouth:—
“ Some natural tears he dropped, but wiped them soon :
The world was all before him, where to chuse
His place of rest, and providence his guide.”
At parting he presented Pope with a Bible, and said with
a disingenuousness of which no man who had studied the
Bible to much purpose would have been guilty: “If ever
you learn that 1 have any dealings with the Pretender, I give
you leave to say that my punishment is just.” Pope at this
time really believed the bishop to be an injured man. Ar¬
buthnot seems to have been of the same opinion. Swift, a few
months later, ridiculed with great bitterness, in the Voyage
to Lapute, the evidence which had satisfied the two houses of
parliament. Soon, however, the most partial friends of the
banished prelate ceased to assert his innocence, and con¬
tented themselves with lamenting and excusing what they
could not defend. After a short stay at Brussels, he had
A T T
ATT
191
Atterbury taken up his abode at Paris, and had become the leading
li man among the Jacobite refugees who were assembled there.
Attica. jje was invited to Rome by the Pretender, who then held
his mock court under the immediate protection of the Pope.
But Atterbury felt that a bishop of the Church of England
would be strangely out of place at the Vatican, and declined
the invitation. During some months, however, he might
flatter himself that he stood high in the good graces of James.
The correspondence between the master and the servant
was constant, Attei'bury’s merits were warmly acknowledged,
his advice was respectfully received, and he was, as Boling-
broke had been before him, the prime minister of a king
without a kingdom. But the new favourite found, as Boling-
broke had found before him, that it was quite as hard to keep
the shadow of power under a vagrant and mendicant prince
as to keep the reality of power at Westminster. Though
James had neither territories nor revenues, neither army
nor navy, there was more faction and more intrigue among
his courtiers than among those of his successful rival. At¬
terbury soon perceived that his counsels were disregarded,
if not distrusted. His proud spirit was deeply wounded.
He quitted Paris, fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave
up politics, and devoted himself entirely to letters. In the
sixth year of his exile he had so severe an illness that his
daughter, herself in very delicate health, determined to run
all risks that she might see him once more. Having ob¬
tained a license from the English Government, she went by
sea to Bordeaux, but landed there in such a state that she
could travel only by boat or in a litter. Her father, in spite
of his infirmities, set out from Montpelier to meet her ; and
she, with the impatience which is often the sign of approach¬
ing death, hastened towards him. Those who were about
her in vain implored her to travel slowly. She said that
every hour was precious, that she only wished to see her
papa and to die. She met him at Toulouse, embraced him,
received from his hand the sacred bread and wine, and thanked
God that they had passed one day in each other’s society be¬
fore they parted for ever. She died that night.
It was some time before even the strong mind of Atterbury
recovered from this cruel blow. As soon as he was himself
again he became eager for action and conflict: for grief,
which disposes gentle natures to retirement, to inaction, and
to meditation, only makes restless spirits more restless. The
Pretender, dull and bigoted as he was, had found out that
he had not acted wisely in parting with one who, though a
heretic, was, in abilities and accomplishments, the foremost Atterbury
man of the Jacobite party. The bishop was courted back, Ij
and was without much difficulty induced to return to Paris Attica,
and to become once more the phantom minister of a phantom
monarchy. But his long and troubled life was drawing to
a close. To the last, however, his intellect retained all its
keenness and vigour. He learned, in the ninth year of his
banishment, that he had been accused by Oldmixon, as dis¬
honest and malignant a scribbler as any that has been saved
from oblivion by the Dunciad, of having, in concert with
other Christ Churchmen, garbled Clarendon’s History of the
Rebellion. The charge, as respected Atterbury, had not
the slightest foundation: for he was not one of the editors of
the History, and never saw it till it was printed. He pub¬
lished a short vindication of himself, which is a model in its
kind, luminous, temperate, and dignified. A copy of this
little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter singularly
eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old man said,
that he should write anything on such a subject without
being reminded of the resemblance between his own fate
and that of Clarendon. They were the only two English
subjects that had ever been banished from their country and
debarred from all communication with their friends by act
of parliament. But here the resemblance ended. One of
the exiles had been so happy to bear a chief part in the re¬
storation of the Royal house. All that the other could now
do was to die asserting the rights of that house to the last.
A few weeks after this letter was written Atterbury died.
He had just completed his seventieth year.
His body wras brought to England, and laid, with great
privacy, under the nave of Westminster Abbey. Only three
mourners followed the coffin. No inscription marks the
grave. That the epitaph with which Pope honoured the
memory of his friend does not appear on the walls of the
great national cemetery is no subject of regret: for nothing
worse was ever written by Colley Cibber.
Those who wish for more complete information about
Atterbury may easily collect it from his sermons and his
controversial writings, from the report of the parliamentary
proceedings against him, which will be found in the State
Trials ; from the five volumes of his correspondence, edited
by Mr Nichols, and from the first volume of the Stuart
papers, edited by Mr Glover. A very indulgent but a very in¬
teresting account of the Bishop’s political career will be found
in Lord Mahon’s valuable History of England, (t. b. m.)
A T T I C A,
Bound¬
aries and
extent.
Soil and
climate.
An ancient kingdom of Greece, situated between the Strait
of Euripus or Negropont on the north-east, and the Gulf
of Saron or Angina on the south-west. It may be considered
as forming a triangle, the base of which constituted the
conterminous boundery with Boeotia, while the two other
sides, washed by the sea, had their vertex at the promon¬
tory of Sunium or Cape Colonna. The prolongation of the
south-western side northward till it reached the extremity
of the base at the foot of Mount Cithaeron served as the
line of demarcation between the Athenian territory and that
belonging to the small state of Megara. Hence Attica may
be described generally as bounded on the north-east by
the channel of Negropont; on the south-west by the Gulf
of yEgina and part of Megara; and on the north-west by
the territory which formed the ancient Boeotia ; including,
within these limits an area or superficies of about 750 square
miles.
The soil of Attica was not so unsuited to the purposes
of agriculture as has commonly been supposed. It was,
indeed, stony and uneven in many places; a considerable
part consisted of bare rock, on which little or nothing could
be grown ; but even the less fertile portion produced barley
and wheat—the latter, it is true, with difficulty; and the
mildness of the climate allowed all the more valuable pro¬
ducts of the earth to ripen the earliest and go out of season
the latest. Every kind of plant and animal throve notwith¬
standing the poverty of the soil; and the advantages which
nature had denied were, in a great measure, compensated
by the effects of skill and industry. It seldom happens that
the richest countries are the most productive, or that the
bounty of nature, where it has been profusely lavished, is
improved by corresponding exertions on the part of man.
Repugnant to labour where labour can be dispensed with,
it is necessity alone that compels him to earn his bread with
the sweat of his brow, and to torture the ungrateful soil for
its scanty products. But habits of exertion being once
formed, a variety of causes gradually contribute to stimu¬
late his activity and extend his resources. He naturally
aspires to improve his condition and circumstances by all
the means in his power. Experience soon teaches him bet¬
ter modes of exerting his industry ;—as society advances,
the natural reward of labour and skill is increased ;—and if
192
ATTICA.
Attica.
Chief
cities.
Ogyges.
the public policy of the state be wisely directed to accele¬
rate the operation of natural causes, the most striking re¬
sults may be produced, and countries originally barren
covered with well-cultivated fields, teeming with abundant
harvests. Such seems to have been the progression of im¬
provement in Attica ; which, though one ot the least fertile
of the Grecian provinces, was, by the industry and skill of
its inhabitants, rendered ultimately one of the most produc¬
tive in proportion to its extent, and the portion of its sur¬
face which was susceptible of cultivation.
The chief cities in the ancient kingdom of Attica wei e
Athens, the capital, of which a full description has been
given under that head (see article Athens) ; Eleusis, situ¬
ated on the gulf of the same name, at an equal distance
from Megara and the Peiraeus, where the greater mysteries
of Demeter were quadrennially celebrated; and, lastly,
Rhamnus, famous for the temple of Amphiaraus, and a sta¬
tue of the goddess Nemesis, executed by Phidias.
The history of Attica, like that of nearly every state of
Greece, is almost entirely mythical down to the begin¬
ning of the Olympiads—that is, down to the year b.c. 676.
All that is related concerning the period previous to that
era, consists partly of fictions and partly of traditions, which
no doubt have a certain historical foundation, but have been
so much modified and embellished by poets and late writers
that it is now impossible to say what is historical and what
is not. As regards chronology in particular, it is useless to
attempt to fix the exact date of any event before the com¬
mencement of the Olympiads. As, however, the legends
of early Attic history are frequently alluded to by poets and
other authors, they cannot be altogether passed over in any
account of the history of Attica.
Ogyges had the reputation of being the first king of
Attica; and ancient chronologers even undertook to fix
the date of his reign, which has been variously set down at
] 50 and 200 years before the arrival of Cecrops. But we
have no assurance that even the name of Ogyges was known
to the older Grecian authors ; and if anything can be ga¬
thered from the traditions concerning this fabulous person¬
age, reported by later writers, it is, that at some very remote
period, a flood, having desolated the rich fields of Bceotia,
over which he reigned, drove many of the inhabitants to
establish themselves in the adjoining district of Attica,
which, though hilly, rocky, and little fruitful, was yet judged
preferable to a plain country, surrounded on all sides by
mountainous tracts, and consequently exposed to a re¬
currence of the calamity by which so many of them had
been overwhelmed. We may therefore safely consign this
legendary monarch to that primitive obscurity in which his
existence, his origin, and his achievements, are equally in¬
volved.
There was a time when it was generally believed that
Attica, and Greece in general, had received the first ele¬
ments of civilization from Egypt. This belief was founded
upon the tradition, that about 150 years after the time of
Ogyges, Cecrops came from Egypt to Attica, and not only
gave his name to the land, but founded the city of Athens,
on the rock which, down to the latest times, was often called
the Cecropian rock, or the Cecropian city. He is said to
have introduced among the savage natives of Attica a new
and simple religion, and the institution of marriage, so that,
in fact, the elements of civilized life were traced to this
Egyptian immigrant. But his Egyptian origin, to say the
least, is extremely doubtful; for the early Greek poets and
historians appear to have known nothing about him; and
when at a later period Cecrops began to be spoken of, he
is frequently described as a native of the Attic soil (avro-
X&ojv)- After the time of Cecrops, two other Egyptian
settlers, Erechtheus and Peteus, are said to have arrived in
Attica. But the fact is that all these personages are utterly
fictitious, and that the traditions about them belong entirely ^
to a home-sprung Attic fable. But although we must reject
these stories about Cecrops and Erechtheus as fabulous, we
are not on that account obliged to reject the tradition of an
Egyptian settlement in Attica. Even if we admit that at
some time or another a band of Egyptians settled among
the ancient inhabitants of Greece, it is not easy to conceive
how they could have affected the national character of those
among whom they established themselves. The Greek lan¬
guage, at least, bears no trace of any such influence ; and the
question how far the religion and the arts were derived from
Egypt, is one which cannot be satisfactorily answered until
the religion of both the Greeks and Egyptians shall be much
better known and understood than they are at present. The
resemblance between the early works of art among the
Greeks and those of Egypt can prove nothing, for the rude
beginnings of the arts are more or less the same among all
nations.
The list of the successors of Cecrops down to Theseus is
a mere compilation, in which some of the names appear to
have been invented merely to fill up a gap; others are purely
mythical, and not one can safely be pronounced historical.
In the reign of Erechtheus, the Athenians are said to have
been involved in a war with the Thracian Eumolpus, who
had established himself as sovereign at Eleusis. Erechtheus
fell in battle, whereupon Eleusis concluded a treaty, in which
it acknowledged the supremacy of Athens. Erechtheus was
succeeded by a second Cecrops, who left his throne to his
son Pandion. This last king was expelled from Attica, but
found a place of refuge in Megara, where he married the
king’s daughter, and succeeded him on the throne. He
there became the father of four sons, the eldest of whom,
TEgeus, on his father’s death, entered Attica at the head of
an army, and recovered his patrimony. For a long time he
remained childless, until some mysterious oracle led him to
Troezen, where he became, by fEthra, the father of Theseus,
the greatest hero in Athenian story. Theseus spent the
first years of his life at Troezen, and then repaired to Athens
to claim TEgeus for his father, who recognized him by cer¬
tain tokens, and by his valour. This Theseus, whom some
writers regard as the real founder of the Athenian state, is
to Athens what Hercules is to Greece in general. All the
deeds and exploits which are ascribed to him cannot have
been accomplished by one man, but are probably represen¬
tations of what was done in the course of several genera¬
tions, or even centuries. But the life of Theseus may
be regarded as composed of three main acts—his journey
from Troezen to Athens, his victory over the Minotaur,
and the political reforms which he is said to have effected
in Attica. On his way to Athens from Troezen, he cleared
the wild roads which were infested by monsters and savage
men, who by their robberies had almost broken oft all com¬
munication between Attica and Troezen. Amid the greatest
difficulties he forced his way to his father. After being re¬
cognized by him, and purified from all his bloodshed, he
went to Crete to deliver Athens from a disgraceful tribute
of boys and maidens, who had to be sent annually to Minos,
king of Crete, and were devoured by a monster called Mi¬
notaur. On his return to Athens, his father TEgeus died.
Passing over a variety of other legends, we shall proceed to
consider the political institutions ascribed to Theseus. At¬
tica is said originally to have been divided into a number of
small independent states, which, under Cecrops, formed a
confederacy among themselves against the inroads of foreign
enemies. On that occasion, Attica is reported to have been
divided into twelve districts, and Athens, under the name
of Cecropia, was probably at the head of this league. Be¬
sides this division into twelve districts, another is mentioned,
Attica.
1 Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, vol. i. p. 148.
ATTICA.
Attica, according to which the whole country was divided into four
tribes, which at different times had different names. The
latest of these are ascribed to Ion, the reported founder of
the Ionian race, who is said to have called the four tribes
after his four sons, Teleontes (Geleontes, Gedeontes), Ho-
pletes, zEgicores, and Argades. Some of these names are
desci iptive of occupations, while others are of uncertain im¬
port. These four tribes seem to have been so many dis¬
tinct communities, separated by descent, situation, pursuits,
and religion, yet still connected by affinities of blood and lan¬
guage, and the occasional need of mutual assistance. Their
ultimate union with Athens, as their natural head and centre,
is generally described as the work of Theseus, who is thus
regarded as the founder of the national unity, and of the
future greatness of Athens. The legend represents him as
having thus for ever put an end to the discord and hostility
which had until then prevented the inhabitants of Attica
from considering themselves as one people. On that occa¬
sion the greater part of the nobles probably removed to
Athens, which had become the seat of government, and they
there occupied the same position and rank which they had
formerly held in their respective districts. The union was
cemented by religion, and by the institution of national so¬
lemnities which were periodically celebrated, such as the
Syncecia and the Panathena;a, in honour of the tutelary di¬
vinity Athena. The city of Athens, which until then had
occupied little more than the Cecropian rock, was enlarged
by the formation of new habitations at the foot and around
the rock.
The constitution which Theseus is said to have given to
his country remained for many centuries after him rigidly
aristocratical; and he is said to have promised all the nobles
an equal share in the government, reserving for himself only
the command in war and the administration of justice. Al¬
though the later Greeks were fond of describing Theseus
as the founder of their democratic institutions, it is quite
clear that his object was to institute a gradation of ranks,
and a proportionate distribution of power. Accordingly, he
distributed the people into three classes, the nobles (Ewa-
TplScu), husbandmen (yew/xopot), and artisans (Sg/uovpyol); the
first of which possessed all the political power and influence,
and the right of interpreting the laws, both human and di¬
vine. The king himself was only the first among his equals,
and the four kings of the ancient tribes were his perpetual
assessors or colleagues. The people of Athens, that is the
S'ijp.os, had, no doubt, the right of meeting, but they do not
appear to have exercised any political influence; and the first
internal struggles of which we hear at Athens were not be¬
tween the king and the people, but between the king and
the nobles. I heseus himself is said to have been compelled
by a conspiracy of the nobles to go into exile with his family,
and to leave the throne to Menestheus, a descendant of the
ancient kings. 1 heseus is said to have died in the island
of Scyros.
Menesthe- Menestheus reigned twenty-four years. He lost his life
us, Dmo- at the siege of Troy, and was succeeded by Demophon,
P on, c. one of the sons of Theseus by Phaedra, who was likewise
present at the siege, but had the good fortune to return in
safety. Demophon was succeeded by his son or brother
Oxyntes, who again was succeeded by his son Aphydes ; and
this last was murdered by a natural brother of the name of
ft hymoetes. But the bastard usurper discovered many base
qualities unworthy of the station he had assumed, and was
at last deposed by his subjects on account of the flagrant
cowardice he had displayed on a critical occasion,
elunthtis, Thymcetes was appropriately succeeded by a foreign ad¬
venturer called Melanthus, who, after a long reign of thirty-
193
seven years, left the kingdom to his son Codrus. The lat- Attica,
ter reigned twenty-one years, during which period the Do-
rians and Heracleidae had regained all Peloponnesus, and
were upon the point of invading Attica. Codrus, being in¬
formed that the oracle had promised them victory provided
they did not kill the king of the Athenians, immediately
came to the resolution to die for his country. Disguising
himself, therefore, as a peasant, he went into the enemy’s
camp, and having quarrelled with some of the common sol¬
diers, was killed in a brawl. On the morrow the Athenians,
knowing what had happened, sent to demand the body of
their king, at which the invaders were so terrified that they
decamped without striking a blow.
Upon the death of Codrus, a dispute among his sons con- Aristo-
cerning the succession furnished the nobles with a pretence cracy-
for ridding themselves of their kings, and changing the
monarchical into a republican form of government. It was
highly improbable, they said, that they should ever again
have so good a king as Codrus; and, to prevent their having
a worse, they resolved to have none. That they might not,
however, appear ungrateful to the family of Codrus, they
made his son Medon their supreme magistrate, with the title
of archon; an office which was afterwards rendered decen¬
nial, but nevertheless continued in the family of Codrus.
But the extinction of the Medontidae having at last left the
nobles without restraint, they not only made this office an¬
nual, but at the same time created nine archons. By the
latter expedient they provided against the exorbitant power
of a single person, as by the former they took away all ap¬
prehension of the archons having time to establish them¬
selves, so as to be able to change the constitution. In a
word, they now attained what they had long sought after,
namely, rendering the supreme magistracy accessible to all
the nobles. rf he name of the first of these nine annual archons
(apx<*>v eTiwvjaos) was, like that of the consuls at Rome, used
to mark the year in which any event happened. The second
bore the title of king (ap^wv /3acnAevs), and represented the
former kings in their capacity of high priest of the nation.1
I here has been handed down to us an enumeration of Archons;
these archons for upwards of six centuries, beginning with Draco.
Creon, who lived in 682 b.c., and coming down to Herodes,
who lived only sixty years prior to the Christian era. The
first archon of whom we hear anything really worthy of
notice was Draco. He governed Athens in the year 624
b.c., when he promulgated his written laws; but although his
name is very frequently mentioned in history, no connected
account can be found either of the lawgiver or of his insti¬
tutions. We only know generally that his laws were exces¬
sively severe, awarding the punishment of death for the
smallest offences no less than for the most heinous crimes;
and that, as Demades remarked of them, they seemed to
have been written with blood. For this extraordinary and
undiscriminating severity he gave no other reason, than that
the smallest faults appeared to him to be worthy of death,
and that he could find no higher punishment for the greatest.
He was far advanced in years when he legislated for Athens;
and he appears to have endeavoured to act as a mediator
between the people and the oppressive nobles. His laws
were called sanctions (OeagoC). The Athenians, however,
soon grew weary both of the sanctions and their author;
upon which Draco was obliged to retire to Aigina, where he
was received in the most flattering manner. But the favour
of the inhabitants of this place proved more fatal to him than
the hatred of the Athenians; for coming one day into the
theatre, the audience, to evince their regard for the exiled
legislator, are said to have thrown their cloaks upon him,
and faiily stifled the old man to death with their kindness.
the abolition ^ Domansuperstition should have agreed so exactly in the extraordinary circumstance that, after
yet eauallv thetnwL ^ m 0 ’ , , Very namf k}nS abhorred as a title of civil magistracy or military command,
yet equally the title and the office were scrupulously retained for the administration of religious ceremonies J
VOL. IV. &
2 B
ATTICA.
Mityle-
nian war.
Cylon’s
conspiracy
War with
Megara.
Solon.
Not long after the expulsion of Draco, we find the re¬
public engaged in a tvar with the Mitylenians about the city
Sigeum, situated near the mouth of the river Scamander.
The Athenian army was commanded by Phrynon, and that
of the Mitylenians by Pittacus, one of the seven sages of
Greece ; but the generals, thinking the honour of their re¬
spective countries concerned, and being at the same time
desirous to spare the effusion of blood, agreed to settle the
dispute by single combat. They met accordingly; but die
sage, trusting more to cunning than to courage, concealed
behind his shield a net, wherewith he suddenly entangled
his antagonist, and easily slew him. Phis, however, not
putting an end to the war, Periander of Corinth interposed ;
and both parties having submitted to his arbitration, he de¬
creed that Sigeum should belong to the Athenians.
About seven years after the Mitylenian war, 612 B.C., a
conspiracy was entered into by Cylon, son-in-law of Thea-
genes, prince of Megara, for the purpose of seizing on the
sovereignty of Athens. The people would have readily sub¬
mitted to his rule to escape from the oppression of the many
nobles. But having consulted the Delphic oracle as to the
most proper time, and received directions to make the at¬
tempt while the citizens of Athens were engaged in cele¬
brating the great festival of Zeus, Cylon and his associates
made themselves masters of the citadel by a coup-de-main,
at the time when the greater part of the citizens had re¬
paired to Elis to witness the celebration of the Olympic
games. But being instantly besieged by Megacles, who was
at that time archon, and soon reduced to great distress from
want of water, the chief conspirator and his brother contrived
to effect their escape; upon which the remainder fled for
safety to the temple of Athena, where they were barbarously
massacred by order of Megacles, in virtue of one of those
sophistical quibbles by means of which men sometimes re¬
concile their minds to the perpetration of the foulest and
bloodiest deeds.
At this period of confusion the Megarians attacked and
took both Nisaea and Salamis. The former was a place of
little or no importance to any, the latter one of the very
greatest in every view; but so completely were the Athe¬
nians routed in every attempt to retake it, that a law was at
last passed, declaring it capital for any one to propose the
recovery of Salamis. About tne same time the city was dis¬
turbed by reports of frightful appearances, and filled with
superstitious fears, for it was believed that the crime of Me¬
gacles was the cause of all disasters. 1 he oracle at Delphi
was therefore consulted, and an answer returned that the
city must be purified by certain expiatory rites. T his was
accordingly done under the superintendence of one Epi-
menides, a Cretan, who prescribed the sacrifice of white and
black sheep, and also caused many temples and chapels to
be erected, including one dedicated to Contumely, and an¬
other to Impudence ! This man, after looking wistfully for
a long time to the port of Munychia, spoke as follows to
those that were near him: “ How blind is man to the future!
For, did the Athenians know what mischief will one day be
derived to them from this place, they would eat it with their
teeth.” This prediction was thought to have been accom¬
plished 270 years after, when Antipater constrained the
Athenians to admit a Macedonian garrison into that place.
About 604 years b.c., Solon, the famed Athenian legisla¬
tor, began to show himself to his countrymen. He is said
to have been lineally descended from Codrus, but left by
his father in circumstances rather necessitous, which obliged
him to apply himself to merchandise. From the first he
appeared in the character of a patriot. The shameful de¬
cree, that none under pain of death should propose the re¬
covery of Salamis, grieved him so much, that having com¬
posed an elegy such as he thought calculated to inflame the
minds of the people, he ran into the market-place as if he
had been insane, repeating his verses. A crowd soon col-
Attica.
lected around the pretended madman ; his kinsman Peisi-
stratus mingled with the people, and observing them moved
with Solon’s words, agreed to second the patriotic poet with
all the eloquence he was master of; and at length they
prevailed so far as to have the law rescinded, war declared
against the people of Megara, and an expedition immediately
fitted out for the recovery of Salamis ; which was ultimately
effected by a stratagem more creditable to the ingenuity
than the bravery of the Athenians.
The success of this enterprise at once established the re¬
putation of Solon ; who, on his return to Athens, was greatly
honoured by the people, and soon afforded them another oc¬
casion of admiring that wisdom for which they had already
given him credit. The inhabitants of Cirrha, a town situ¬
ated in the Bay of Corinth, having repeatedly committed acts
of extortion and violence against pilgrims proceeding to
Delphi, at last besieged the capital itself, with a view of mak¬
ing themselves masters of the treasures contained in the tem¬
ple of Apollo. Advice of this intended sacrilege having been
sent to the Amphictyons, Solon advised that the matter should
be universally resented, and that all the states should join in
punishing the Cirrhaeans, and in saving the Delphic oracle.
This suggestion was adopted, and a general war against
Cirrha declared, B.c. 594. Cleisthenes, prince of Sicyon,
commanded in chief, and the Athenian contingent was under
the orders of Alcmaeon. Solon accompanied the expedition
as assistant or counsellor to Cleisthenes, and under his direc¬
tion the war was conducted to a prosperous issue. Accord¬
ing to Pausanias, the city was reduced by a singular strata¬
gem, said to have been invented by Solon. He caused the
river Pleistus, which flowed through Cirrha, to be turned into
another channel, hoping thereby to distress the inhabitants
for want of water; but finding they had many wells within
the city, and were not to be reduced by tfiat means,, he
caused a vast quantity of roots of hellebore to be thrown into
the river, which was “then suffered to return into its former
bed. The inhabitants, overjoyed at the sight of running
water, came in troops to drink of it; the consequence of
which was, that an epidemic flux ensued, and the citizens
being no longer able to defend the walls, the town was easily
captured. This, as far as we know, is the only instance on
record of a town taken by physic.
On his return to Athens after the hellebore achievement, Athens m
Solon found things again in the utmost confusion. The g^on'
remnant of Cylon’s faction gave out that all sorts of misfbr-
tunes had befallen the republic on account of the impiety of
Megacles and his followers ; and this clamour was heightened
by the retaking of Salamis about the same time by the Me¬
garians. Solon interposed, and persuading those who were
styled “ execrable” to abide a trial, three hundred persons
were chosen to judge them. I he issue was, that the whole
of Megacles’ partv who were alive were sent into perpetual
exile, and the bones of such as had died were dug up and
sent beyond the limits of their country. But although this
decision restored tranquillity for the time, the people w ere
still divided into three factions, contending about the proper
form of government. These were called the Diacrii, Pe-
disei, and Parali; the first of whom, consisting of the inha¬
bitants of the hilly country, declared for democracy; the
second, dwelling in the low country, and far more opulent
than the former, were in favour of an oligarchy, wishing, to
keep the government in their own hands; whilst the third
party, who inhabited the sea-coast, were people of moderate
principles, and therefore friendly to a mixed government.
V. .A •  rPcHivhnnrpK nf a much more
But besides these agitations, disturbances of a much more
serious character arose, in consequence of the lamentable
condition to which the people or Demos had been reduced,
in consequence of the severity of the law of debt. Ac¬
cording to Plutarch, the poor having become indebted to
the rich, either tilled their grounds and paid them the sixth
part of the produce, or impignorated their persons for their
ATTICA.
Attica.
debts, so that many were made slaves at home, and not a
few sold as such into foreign countries; while some were
even obliged to sell their children to pay their debts, and
others in despair quitted Attica altogether. The greater part,
however, were for throwing off the yoke, and began to look
about for a leader, openly declaring that they intended to
change the form ot government, to introduce a more equit¬
able distribution of power, and to modify the law of debt.
Solon Cho- In this extremity the eyes of all were turned to Solon, and
sen arcnon some were for offering him the sovereignty at once ; but, per¬
ceiving the intentions of these misjudging persons, he re¬
fused the sovereignty tendered to him, and preferring the
substance to the shadow, quietly took upon himself, without
any pomp or pageantry, the unqualified exercise of the su¬
preme authority of the state, in all its branches, and wielded
it with an absolutism which would have been intolerable, had
it not been conferred upon him by the unanimous consent of
the people. He was chosen archon (594, b.c.) without hav¬
ing recourse to the ballot, an anomaly of which there is no
other example ; and, after his election, he proved the wisdom
of the choice by disappointing the interested expectations of
all parties. It was a fundamental maxim with Solon, that
those laws will be best observed which power and justice
equally support. Hence, wherever he found the old consti¬
tution in any measure consonant to justice, he refused to
make any alteration at all, and was at extraordinary pains to
show the reason of such changes as were actually introduced.
In a word, being a consummate judge of mankind generally,
and, above all, thoroughly conversant with the character of
his countrymen, he sought to rule only by showing the people
that it was their interest to obey, and contented himself with
givingthem such institutions as they were prepared to receive,
instead of forcing upon them those which might be esteemed
theoretically the most perfect. Hence, to one who inquired
whether he had given the Athenians the best laws in his
power, he replied, “ I have established the best which they
could receive.”
With reference to the main cause of discontent, namely,
the oppressed state of the meaner class, Solon removed it by
a scheme which he called seisachtheia, or discharge. Ancient
authors, however, are not agreed as to the precise nature of
this contrivance. Some say that he cancelled all debts then
in existence, and prohibited the seizure of any man’s person
in default of payment of a debt for the future ; whilst others
affirm that the poor were relieved, not by cancelling the
debts, but by lowering the interest, and increasing the value
of money, so that a mina, which before was equal to seventy-
three drachmas only, was by him made equal to a hundred.
Ihe more probable opinion is, that the seisachtheia was a
general disburdening ordinance, which relieved the debtor
partly by a reduction of the rate of interest, and partly by
lowering the standard of the coinage, whereby a debtor saved
more than 25 per cent, in every payment. He also released
the mortgaged lands from their encumbrances, and restored
them to their owners. He th&n abolished the cruel law, by
which a creditor might enslave his debtor, and restored to
freedom those who were pining in bondage. These may
seem measures of extreme violence; but it must be borne
in mind that the whole people had conferred upon him un¬
limited power, on the understanding that they would ac¬
quiesce in his legislative regulations.
But in the midst of all the glory which Solon acquired by
these measures, an accident occurred which for a time
clouded his reputation, and almost entirely ruined his
schemes. Having, it seems, consulted Conon, Clinias, and
Hipponicus, three of his friends, on an oration he had pre¬
pared with a view to engage the people’s consent to the
seisachtheia, these worthies, thus apprized of the contem¬
plated measure, availed themselves of their knowledge to
borrow large sums of money before the law was promulgated,
with the intention to take advantage of its provisions, and
Seisach¬
theia.
refuse to repay the lenders. We cannot wonder that Solon
himself was at first believed to have been cognizant of the
scheme, and a partner in this fraudulent adventure. But
happily for his credit, these suspicions were obliterated when
it was discovered that the lawgiver was a creditor to a large
extent, and likely to become a considerable loser by the
operation of his own law. His friends, however, never re¬
covered their credit, but were ever afterwards stigmatized with
the opprobrious appellation of chrciocopidce or debt-sinkers.
Solon now set himself to the arduous task of compiling
a body of laws for the people of Attica; and having at last
completed his task in the best manner he could, or at least
in the best manner that the character of the people would
admit, he caused them to be duly ratified, and declared to
be in force for a century from the date of their publication.
Those which related to private actions were preserved on
parallelograms of wood, with cases which reached from the
ground, and turned upon a pin like a wheel, whence the
appellation of axones; and were placed, first in the Acro¬
polis, and afterwards in the Prytaneium, that all the subjects
of the state might have access to consult them whenever
they chose. Such as concerned public institutions and sa¬
crifices were inscribed on triangular tablets of stone called
cyrbeis. The Athenian magistrates were sworn to observe
both. With regard to the axones, or jus privatum of Solon,
our information is exceedingly imperfect; but if it be true
that the decemviral constitutions at Rome were principally
borrowed from this portion of his code, the fragments which
remain of these celebrated laws are certainly calculated to
give us no mean idea of his fitness for the task which circum¬
stances as well as inclination had induced him to undertake.
Nor will our opinion of the legislator be lowered by attending
to his system of public law; concerning which more exact
details have been preserved, and some account will be given
when we come to speak of the Athenian government. We
may, however, here remark in general, that Solon had abo¬
lished the ancient aristocratic government, in which all rights
and privileges had been determined by birth, and that he
substituted a timocracy, that is, a form of government in
which a man’s property forms the standard by which his
rights and duties are determined.
After the promulgation of his code, Solon found himself
obliged to leave Athens, to avoid being continually teased
for explanations and emendations of his laws. He therefore
pretended an inclination to merchandise, and obtained leave
to withdraw himself for ten years, in the hope that during
his absence his laws would grow familiar to the people. From
Athens he accordingly travelled into Egypt, where he is
said to have conversed with Psamenophis of Heliopolis and
Sesonchis of Sais, the most learned priests of that age, from
whom he learned the situation of the island Atlantis, and
wrote an account of it in verse, which Plato afterwards con¬
tinued. Leaving Egypt, he is reported to have visited Cy¬
prus, where he was well received by one of the petty kings,
and assisted in the foundation of a new city, the site of which
he had pointed out, and which, out of gratitude to the Athe¬
nian legislator, was called Soli.
But while Solon was thus travelling in quest of wisdom,
his countrymen were again divided into three factions. Ly-
curgus was at the head of what may be called the country
party; Megacles the son of Alcmmon swayed those who
lived on the sea-coast; and Peisistratus appeared as the
champion ot the demos, under the pretence of protecting
them from tyranny, but in reality with the view of seizing
on the sovereignty for himself. In the midst of all this con-
liision the legislator returned about 562 b.c. Each of the
factions affected to receive him with the deepest reverence
and respect, beseeching him to resume his authority, and
compose the disorders to which they themselves had given
birth. But Solon declined this hollow invitation, on the
ground that his age rendered him unable to speak and act
195
Attica.
Compila¬
tion of
code.
196
ATTICA.
Attica.
Peisistra-
tus.
as formerly for the good of his country ; he sent however
for the chiefs of each party, and entreated them in the most
pathetic manner not to ruin their common paYent, but to
prefer the public good to their own private interest; sound
advice, doubtless, but entirely thrown away on those to whom
it was administered.
Peisistratus, who of all the chiefs had unquestionably the
least intention of following Solon’s advice, appeared to be
the most affected with his discourses; but perceiving that
he affected popularity by all possible methods, Solon easily
penetrated into his design of assuming the sovereign power.
This he spoke of privately to Peisistratus himselt; but as
he saw that his admonitions had no effect, he unveiled the
designs of this ambitious chief, that the public might be on
their guard against him and his artful machinations. But
all the wise discourses of Solon were lost upon the Atheni-
Peisistratus had got the lower class entirely at his
Attica.
devotion, and therefore resolved to cheat them out of the
liberty which they were incapable of appreciating. AY ith
this view he wounded himself, then drove into the maiket-
place, and there showed his bleeding body, imploring the
protection of the people against those whom his kindness to
them had rendered his implacable enemies. It was for being
their declared friend, he said, that he had thus suffered. 1 hey
saw it was no longer safe for a man to be a friend to the
people; they saw it was no longer safe for a man to live in
Attica, unless they would take him under that protection
which he implored. A crowd being instantly collected,
Solon came amongst the rest, and, suspecting the deceit,
openly taxed Peisistratus with his perfidious conduct; but
to no purpose. A general assembly of the people was sum¬
moned, wherein it was moved that Peisistratus should have
a guard. Solon alone had resolution enough to oppose this
measure; the richer Athenians remaining silent through
fear of the multitude, which implicitly followed Peisistratus,
and applauded everything he said. A guard of 400 men
was then unanimously decreed to Peisistratus ; and with
this inconsiderable body he managed, partly by stratagem
and partly by force, to possess himself of the supreme power
B.c. 560. Solon inveighed bitterly against the meanness
of his countrymen, in thus tamely surrendering their liber¬
ties, and attempted to rouse them to take up arms in de¬
fence of the constitution and the laws; but finding his efforts
unavailing, he withdrew, remarking that he had done his
utmost for his country. He submitted to the tyranny of
Peisistratus merely because he had no choice between a
tyranny and anarchy.
uruvems Peisistratus, having thus obtained the sovereignty, did
with great not overturn the laws of Solon, but on the contrary used
modera- his power with the greatest moderation, and even courted
the friendship and asked the advice of Solon. ' It was not
in the nature of things, however, that the Athenians could
long remain satisfied with this form of government. On the
usurpation of Peisistratus, Megacles and his family had re¬
tired from Athens, ostensibly in order to save their own
lives ; but having entered into a treaty with Lycurgus, whom
they brought, along with his party, into a scheme for de¬
posing the usurper, they concerted matters so skilfully, that
Peisistratus was soon after obliged to withdraw from the
city; and, on his departure, the Athenians ordered his goods
to be confiscated. But Megacles had no sooner succeeded
in his project against Peisistratus, than, finding his ally Ly¬
curgus intraetible, he changed sides, and began to plot the
return of the very man whom he had just succeeded in ex¬
pelling as a tyrant and usurper. This counter project was
at length effected by means of a trick worthy of the parties
engaged in this little political drama. Having found out a
woman of the name of Phya, of a mean family and fortune,
but of great stature and very handsome person, they dressed
her in armour, placed her in a chariot, and having disposed
things so as to make her appear to the utmost advantage,
Governs
tion.
they conducted her towards the city, sending heralds be¬
fore, with orders to address the people in the following
terms: “ Give a kind reception, O Athenians, to Peisi¬
stratus, who is so much honoured above all other men by
Athena that she herself condescends to bring him back to
the citadel.” The report being universally spread that
Athena was bringing back Peisistratus, and’ the ignorant
multitude believing this woman to be the goddess, addressed
their prayers to her, and received Peisistratus with the ut¬
most joy. When he had recovered the sovereignty, Peisi¬
stratus married the daughter of Megacles, in fulfilment of
a stipulation made between them to that effect, and also
gave the mock goddess as a wife to his son Hipparchus.
This last statement renders the whole story, which in itself
is extremely childish, altogether improbable.
Peisistratus did not long enjoy the authority to which he
had been thus restored. He had indeed married the daugh-
ter of Megacles according to treaty ; but having children by
a former marriage, and remembering that the whole family
of Megacles were execrated by the Athenians, he thought
it expedient to suffer his new spouse to remain in a state of
perpetual widowhood. This the lady bore patiently for some
time ; but at last acquainting her mother with the state in
which she was compelled to live, the affront was highly re¬
sented; and Megacles immediately entered into a treaty
with the malcontents. Peisistratus, apprised of this step on
the part of his father-in-law, and perceiving that a new storm
was gathering, voluntarily quitted Athens and retired to
Eretria ; where, having consulted with his sons, he resolved
to reduce Athens, and repossess himself of power by force
of arms. With this view he applied to several of the Greek
states, including that of Thebes, which furnished him with the
troops he desired; and at the head of a considerable force
he returned to Attica,—reduced Marathon, the inhabitants
of which had taken no measures for their defence,—sur¬
prised and routed the republican forces, which had marched
out of Athens to attack him,—and finally, after an absence
of about ten years, re-established himself in power, by using
victory with his accustomed moderation.
Peisistratus being thus reinstated once more in the sove- Return,
reignty, took a method of securing himself in power directly
opposite to that which Theseus had adopted. For, instead
of collecting the inhabitants from the country into towns,
as his predecessor had done, Peisistratus, made them letire
from the towns into the country, in order to apply them¬
selves to agriculture ; and thus prevented their meeting to¬
gether in bodies and caballing against him as they had hither¬
to been accustomed to do. By this means also the territory
of Athens was greatly ameliorated, and extensive planta¬
tions of olives were reared over all Attica, which had hitherto
been not only destitute of corn, but also naked and bleak in
appearance from the total want of trees. And had he stopped
here it would have been well. But actuated by that par¬
tiality for sumptuary laws which seems to have been the
foible of nearly all the ancient legislators, he commanded
his subjects in the city to wear a kind of sheepskin frock
reaching to the knees, and appears to have set great store
by this absurd enactment, which was doubtless intended to
restore the simplicity of ancient manners. The Athenians,
however, vehemently resented this interference with their
habits ; and so odious did the sheepskin garment become,
that in succeeding times the frock or jacket of Peisistratus
was a sort of by-word for the badge or garb of slavery.
Experience shows that it is comparatively an easy matter
to rob men of their liberty, and trample both on their poli¬
tical and civil rights ; but an interference with their private
habits or the adornment of their persons is almost always
dangerous. As prince of Athens, Peisistratus exacted for
the service of the state the tenth part of every man’s reve¬
nue, and even of the fruits of the earth; a heavy tax, un¬
doubtedly, and one which might well justify a little grum-
ATTIC A.
197
Attica, bling on the part of those who had to pay it; nor could all
the magnificence with which the public revenue was ex¬
pended reconcile the Athenians to the heavy burdens they
were called upon to bear. Indeed they not unnaturally fancied
themselves oppressed by tyranny, and indulged in perpetual
complaints from the time Peisistratus first ascended the
throne to the day of his death ; which happened in 527 b.c.,
about thirty-three years after he had first assumed the sove¬
reignty, of which period, according to Aristotle, he reigned
about seventeen years.1
In taking a retrospect, however, of the government and
character of this celebrated man, it is impossible to doubt
that the one was enlightened and the other humane. The
ancient writers are all agreed that he made no change of any
consequence in the Athenian constitution. All the laws
continued in force; the general assembly, the council of
state, the courts of justice, and the magistracies, respectively
retained their constitutional powers; and it is known that
the usurper himself obeyed a citation from the Areiopagus
upon a charge of murder. His hand, it is true, lay heavy
on the purses of the people in the matter of taxation. But
the sums which he raised were religiously expended in the
decoration and improvement of the capital, or in works of
public utility; and it cannot be questioned that, although
he resorted to iniquitous or contemptible expedients to ob¬
tain power, he never abused it, either for the gratification
of selfishness or revenge. “ Take away only his ambition,”
said Solon; “ cure him of the lust of reigning, and there is
not a man more naturally disposed to every virtue, nor a
better citizen than Peisistratus.” Pie embellished the city
with a great variety of edifices ; he improved and strength¬
ened its defences ; he enlarged and ameliorated its harbours;
and by various acts of taste and magnificence, not less than
by his attention to the cultivation of the public mind, he
may be said to have fixed the muses at Athens. In a word,
if he was ambitious he was also enlightened and humane ;
and although no one can justify the modes which he took
to possess himself of power, his use of it was characterized
by a moderation and patriotism which have never as yet been
exemplified by any other usurper, ancient or modern ; inso¬
much that, reviewing his character and conduct, we are al¬
most tempted to subscribe to the sentiment expressed by
the poet Claudian, Nunquam gratior extat libertas, quam
sub rege pio.
Hippar- Peisistratus left behind him three sons, Hipparchus, Hip-
jIjUS P'as; and Thessalus, all men of abilities, who shared the go-
‘PP13,8’ vernment among them, and behaved for a time with lenity
and moderation. But though, by the mildness of their go¬
vernment, the family of the Peisistratida; seemed to be fully
established on the throne of Athens, a conspiracy was unex¬
pectedly formed against the brothers, by which Hipparchus
was slain, and Hippias narrowly escaped death. There
were at that time living in Athens two young men, called
Harmodius and Aristogeiton. The former being remark¬
able for his personal beauty, was, on that account, it is said,
unnaturally beloved by the other, and also by Hipparchus,
who, if we may believe Thucydides, actually forced him.
This was vehemently resented by Aristogeiton, who, in
consequence, determined on revenge, which another cir¬
cumstance contributed to accelerate. Hipparchus, finding
that Harmodius endeavoured on all occasions to shun him,
publicly affronted the youth, by refusing permission to his
sister to carry the offering of Athena, as if she had been a
person unworthy of that distinction. The two young men, Attica,
not daring to show any public signs of resentment, consulted '
privately with their friends, amongst whom it was resolved,
that at the approaching festival of the great Panathenaea,
when the citizens were allowed to appear in arms, they
should attempt to restore Athens to its former liberty ; and
in this they imagined they would be seconded by the whole
body of the people. But when the appointed day arrived,
they perceived one of their number talking familiarly with
Hippias; wherefore, dreading a discovery, they imme¬
diately fell upon Hipparchus, and despatched him with many
wounds, 514 b.c. In this exploit, however, the people
were so far from aiding the conspirators, that they suffered
Harmodius to be killed by the guards of Hipparchus ; and
seizing Aristogeiton, delivered him up to the vengeance of
Hippias. But they soon had reason to change their opinion,
and some time afterwards paid the most extravagant honours
to the memory of these conspirators ; causing their praises
to be sung at the great Panathenaea, forbidding any citizen
to call a slave by either of their names, and ei'ecting brazen
statues to them in the agora or market-place. Several im¬
munities and privileges were also granted to the descend¬
ants of these (so-called) patriots, and all possible mean?
were taken to render their memory respected and reverec
by posterity.
Hippias being now sole master of Athens, and burning Cruelty of
to revenge the murder of his brother, began by torturing Hippias.
Aristogeiton, in order to force him to disclose his accom¬
plices. But this proved fatal to his own friends ; for Aris¬
togeiton impeaching such only as he knew to be best
affected to the government of Hippias, the latter were in¬
stantly put to death without further inquiry ; and when he
had exhausted his list, he at last told Hippias, that he now
knew of none who deserved to suffer death except the ty¬
rant himself. Hippias next vented his rage on a woman
named Leaina, who had been kept by Aristogeiton, and
who was put to the torture ; which, however, she had the
courage to endure without making any confession. After
the conspiracy was thought to be crushed, Hippias set about
strengthening his government by every means he could
think of. With this view he contracted alliances with foreign
princes ; he increased his revenues by different expedients;
married his only daughter, Archedice, to /Eantides, son of
Hippocles, tyrant of Lampsacus ; and endeavoured, by af¬
fecting various arts of popularity, to conciliate that pub¬
lic opinion which his excessive severities had so rudely
shocked. But all these precautions proved fruitless. The
lenity of the government of Peisistratus had alone supported
it; and although Hippias had fewer difficulties to contend
with than his father, the vehemence of his resentment on
account of his brother’s murder betrayed him into courses
repugnant alike to sound policy and to the interests of his
family, and at last proved the cause of his expulsion from
power in rather less than four years after the death of Hip¬
parchus, 510 b.c. This revolution was principally brought
about by the party of the Alcmaeonidse, or adherents of
Megacles. Hippias retired to Sigeum, an appanage of his
family, where he contrived by every means in his power to
recover his lost position at Athens, and in the end, seeing
that his plans could not succeed, even assisted the Persians
in the war against his native city.2
After the expulsion of the Peisistratidse, the Athenians state of
did not long enjoy the tranquillity which they had promised Athens.
1 The government of Peisistratus, as we have seen, resolves itself into three distinct periods, interrupted by two exiles. Aristotle
and Herodotus both agree in this. Larcher, Clavier, and Du Presnoy, rightly give the two exiles at 5+ 11 16 years; but they differ
materially in the duration of the first and last tyranny ; nor on this point is it easy to decide between them. (Clinton’s Fasti Hellenici,
Appendix, No. ii. p. 180; Oxford, 1824, 4to.)
J The Peisistratidae were expelled before the fourth year of Hippias was completed, eighteen years after the death of Peisistratus,
twenty years before the battle of Marathon, and a hundred years before the constitution of the Four Hundred. (Herodotus, v. 55;
Thucydides, vi. 59, and viii. 68; Plato, Hipparch. p. 229; Schol. Lysistrat. 619 ; Fasti Hellenici, 16.)
ATTICA.
198
Attica, themselves. They became divided into two factions ; one
of which was headed by Cleisthenes, chief of the Alcmseon-
idae; and the other by Isagoras, a man of quality, and
highly in favour with the Athenian eupatrids or nobility.
Cleisthenes cultivated the people, and endeavoured to gain
their affection by increasing as much as possible their powei,
whilst Isagoras perceiving that the popular arts of his lival
would secure him an ascendancy, applied to the Lacedae¬
monians for assistance; at the same time reviving the old
story of M-egacles’s sacrilege, and insisting that Cleisthenes
ought to be banished as being of that person’s family. Cleo-
menes king of Sparta readily entered into his schemes, and
suddenly Cleisthenes, probably dreading the old outcry
against his family, withdrew from Athens ; and when Cleo-
menes had entered Athens at the head of an army, the
people, being without a leader, were so dismayed, that they
* allowed the Spartan king to act as if he were absolute mas¬
ter. On aiTiving at Athens, he condemned to banishment
seven hundred families, in addition to those previously sent
into exile. And, not content with this, he would have dis¬
solved the senate, and vested the government in the heads
of the faction of Isagoras ; but happily the Athenians were
not yet degraded enough to submit to such humiliation.
Taking up arms, they drove the Spartan troops into the
citadel, where, after sustaining a short siege, Cleomenes
surrendered, on condition that Isagoras should depart un¬
molested with Cleomenes and the Lacedaemonian troops ;
but their adherents were left to the mercy of the people,
and put to death. Cleisthenes and the <00 exiled families
then retiirned to Athens in triumph, dhis happened in
508 B*c- , ,
The Spartan king, however, had no sooner withdrawn
from Athens, than he formed a strong combination in fa¬
vour of Isagdras; having engaged the Boeotians to attack
Attica on the one side, and the Chalcidians on the othei,
whilst he at the head of a powerful Spartan army entered
the territory of Eleusis. But this powerful confederacy was
quickly dissolved. The Corinthians, who had joined Cleo¬
menes, doubting the justice of their cause, returned home .
the rest of his allies likewise began to waver ; and his col¬
league Demaratus, the other king of Sparta, differing in
opinion with Cleomenes, the latter was obliged to abandon
the enterprise. The Spartans and their allies having with¬
drawn, the Athenians quickly routed the Boeotians and
Chalcidians, and carried off a great number of prisoners,
who were afterwards set at liberty on paying a ransom of
two minse a head. The Boeotians, on the other hand, im¬
mediately vowed revenge, and engaging on their side the
people of iEgina, who had a hereditary hatred to the Athe¬
nians, the Aiginetans landed a considerable army, and
ravaged the coasts of Attica while the Athenians were oc¬
cupied with the Boeotian war.
Attempt In the meanwhile Cleomenes, exasperated by his unsuc-
to restore cessful expedition against Attica, and anxious for an oppor-
Ilippias. tunity of effacing the remembrance of his defeat, produced
at Sparta certain pretended oracles which he alleged he had
found in the citadel of Athens while he was besieged
therein, the purport of which was, that Athens would soon
become a rival of Sparta. At the same time it was dis¬
covered that Cleisthenes had bribed the priestess of Apollo
to cause the Lacedaemonians to expel the Peisistratidae from
Athens; which was sacrificing their best friends to those
whom interest necessarily rendered their enemies. This
pitiful jugglery had such an effect, that the Spartans, re¬
penting their folly in expelling Hippias, sent for him from
Sigeum, in order to restore him to his principality ; but the
other states refusing to countenance the projected restora¬
tion, the Spartans were forced to abandon the enterprise, Attica,
and Hippias returned to Sigeum to digest his disappointment.
About this period Aristagoras the Milesian, having stirred Persian
up a revolt in Ionia against the Persian king, applied to the war.
Spartans for assistance ; but the Spartan king either felt no
sympathy with the Greeks in Asia, who had been subjected
by the Persians, or because the bribes offei'ed by Arista¬
goras were not large enough, declined to have anything to
do with the matter. Aristagoras then proceeded to Athens,
where he found willing hearers. The Athenians regarding
it as a religious duty to assist their kinsmen and colonists,
passed a decree to send a squadron of twenty ships to sup¬
port them, under the command of Melanthus, a nobleman
universally esteemed.1 T. his rash action cost the Greeks
very dear ; for no sooner did the king of Persia hear of the
assistance sent from Athens to his rebellious subjects, than
he declared himself the sworn enemy of that city, and so¬
lemnly besought the deity that he might one day have it in
his power to be revenged on them. But besides the dis¬
pleasure which Darius had conceived against the Athenians
on account of the assistance they had afforded the lonians,
he was further encouraged, by the intrigues of the ex-tyrant
Hippias, to undertake an expedition against Greece. Im¬
mediately on his return from Lacedaemon, as above related,
Hippias passed over into Asia; proceeded to Artaphernes,
governor of the adjacent provinces belonging to the Persian
king; and excited him to make war upon his country, pro¬
mising to do homage to the Persian monarch provided he
was restored to the principality of Athens. Apprised of this
step on the part of their late tyrant, the Athenians sent am¬
bassadors to Artaphernes, desiring permission to enjoy their
liberty in peace. But the Persians returned for answer,
that if they would have peace with the Great King, they
must immediately consent to receive Hippias ; and as the
Athenians were by no means disposed to purchase the for¬
bearance of the Persian monarch at the price of compliance,
they resolved to assist his enemies by every means in their
power. This resolution being made known to Darius, he
commissioned Mardonius to avenge him of the insults which
he thought the Greeks had offered him; but that com¬
mander having met with a storm at sea and other accidents,
which rendered him unable to do anything, Datis and Ar¬
taphernes (the son of the Artaphernes above mentioned)
were commissioned to chastise Grecian insolence and pre¬
sumption. .
War being thus declared, the Persian commanders, fearing Persians
ao-ain to attempt doubling the promontory of Athos, where invade
their fleet had formerly suffered, drew their forces into the Greece,
plains of Cilicia, and passing thence, through the Cyclades
to Euboea, directed their course towards Athens. Their
instructions were to destroy both Eretria and Athens, and
to bring away the people. The first attempt was made on
Eretria; and on the approach of the Persian fleet the in¬
habitants sent to Athens to apply for assistance. Nor did
they sue in vain. With a magnanimity almost unparalleled,
considering the crisis, the Athenians sent 4000 men to their
aid; but unhappily the Eretrians were so greatly divided in
opinion, that, though the danger was urgent, nothing could
be resolved on. One party was for receiving the Athe¬
nian succours into the city ; another declared for abandon-
inf’- the city and retiring into the mountains of Eubcea; whilst
a third was base enough to seek to betray their country to
the Persians. Matters being in this hopeless state, the Athe¬
nian commanders Withdrew the auxiliary force, and ictiring
by Oropus, escaped the destruction with which they were
threatened ; whilst Eretria, betrayed into the hands of the
Persians, was pillaged and burned, and its inhabitants sold
1 Herodotus, v. 37, 38, 75, 97, 98, 99.
slain in Thrace, B.C. 497.
Charon Lampsaconns apnd Plutarch. Mor. p. 861; F«,ii H'llenid, p. 20. Aristagoras waa
ATTICA.
Attica, for slaves; a fate which their cowardice and treachery richly
merited.
Battle of On the tidings of this disaster the Athenians immediately
Marathon, drew together such forces as they could muster, amounting
in all to about 10,000 men ; and'these, with 1000 Platacans
who afterwards joined them, were commanded by ten gene¬
ral officers, with equal power, amongst whom were the
illustrious names of Miltiades, Aristides, and Themisto-
cles, men distinguished alike for their valour, their con¬
duct, their patriotism, and their virtue. But it being
generally thought that so small a body of troops would be
unable to resist the formidable power of the Persians, a
messenger was despatched to Sparta to entreat the imme¬
diate assistance of that state. He communicated his busi¬
ness to the senate in the following terms :—“ Men of Lace¬
daemon,” said he, “ the Athenians desire you to assist them,
and not to suffer the most ancient of all the Grecian cities
to be enslaved by the barbarians. Eretria is already de¬
stroyed, and Greece consequently weakened by the loss of
so considerable a place.” The assistance was readily granted;
but the promised succours arrived too late for the occasion
which required them ; and, happily for their own glory, the
Athenians were obliged to fight without waiting for their
arrival. In the memorable engagement on the plains of
Marathon, whither Hippias had conducted the Persian host,
the latter were defeated with great loss by the Athenian in¬
fantry, under the command of Miltiades, and driven to their
ships, 490 b.c.1 They then endeavoured to double Cape
Sunium (Colonna), in order to surprise Athens before the
army could return. But in this they were prevented by
Miltiades, w ho, leaving Aristides with 1000 men to guard
the prisoners, returned so expeditiously with the main body,
that he reached the temple of Hercules before the barba¬
rians had time to commence a serious attack on the city.
In the meanwhile the virtuous Aristides discharged the trust
reposed in him with the strictest integrity. Though there
was much gold and silver in the Persian camp, and the tents
and ships they had taken were filled with all manner of
riches, he not only forbore taking anything for his own use,
but exerted himself to the utmost in order to prevent others
from appropriating the spoils of the enemy, which w ere re¬
ligiously reserved fpr the public service of the state.
After the victory of Marathon, the inhabitants of Plataea
were declared free citizens of Athens, and Miltiades, The-
mistocles, and Aristides were treated with all possible marks
of admiration and respect. Miltiades having now reached
the highest pitch of power, demanded of the Athenians a
fleet of seventy ships, with which he promised to increase
their empire, and the people granted his request without
even knowing what expedition he wished to undertake. He
first attacked Paros, where he had to avenge some private
wrong, but being thwarted by the Persians, and having re¬
ceived a dangerous wound in his knee, he returned to Athens
without having accomplished the object for which he had in¬
duced the people to fit out the fleet. The ill-feeling thus
created led some person of high standing to bring an ac¬
cusation against him for having deceived the people. He
was sentenced to pay a fine of 50 talents, and being unable
to pay, he was thrown into prison, in which he soon after
died of his wounds. This termination of the career of Mil¬
tiades has often been referred to as a proof of the ingratitude
199
of the Athenians. But it must not be forgotten that he had Attica,
really deceived the people by demanding of them a fleet for
the pm-pose of accomplishing some private object, while he
made them believe that he meant to employ it in their ser¬
vice. He appears, in fact, to have attempted to set himself
above the law's, and to continue in the free state of Athens the
same mode of life which he had led as dynast in the Cherso¬
nese. Under these circumstances we may indeed pity him,
but cannot admit that he fell an innocent victim to the
abuse of popular liberty. His colleague Aristides, by his
regulation of the affairs of the Athenian allies, and by the
reforms he introduced in the constitution during the period
subsequent to the battle of Marathon, gained the highest
esteem and respect among his fellow-citizens. Although
he was descended from an ancient and noble family, and had
been in positions in which he might have acquired great
wealth, yet he seems to have lived almost in indigence.
Such virtue was at all times extremely uncommon at Athens,
and procured for him the honourable surname of the Just.
This circumstance, however, made him an object of envy
with many, and Themistocles, his most powerful opponent,
induced the people to send him into honourable exile by
ostracism, an institution by which the Athenians were en¬
abled to rid themselves, for a time, of any man whose influ¬
ence seemed to endanger the safety of their republican con¬
stitution. Such an exile, however, was not connected either
with confiscation of property or with disgrace.2 * * At his trial
Aristides is said to have assisted an illiterate rustic in writ¬
ing his own name on one of the shells that condemned
him. After his removal, Themistocles was in the undivided
possession of the popular favour, and exerted all his powers
to make Athens a maritime state.
About three years after the banishment of Aristides, Xerxes
Xerxes king of Persia sent to demand of the Greeks earth Jnvades
and water as tokens of submission and homage. But The- reece‘
mistocles, desirous to widen the breach with that monarch,
put to death the interpreter for publishing the decree of the
king of Persia in the language of the Greeks ; and having
prevailed with the several states to lay aside their animosi¬
ties and provide for their common safety, he got himself
elected general of the Athenian army.
When the news arrived that the Persians were advancing
to invade Greece by the Straits of Thermopylae, and that
with this view they were transporting their forces by sea,
Themistocles advised his countrymen to abandon the city,
embark on board their galleys, and encounter their enemies
while yet at a distance. But this advice being disregarded,
fhemistocles put himself at the head of the army, and hav-
ing joined the Lacedaemonians, marched towards Tempe.
But intelligence was received that the Straits of Thermo¬
pylae had been forced, and that Bceotia and Thessaly had
submitted to the Persians ; and the army in consequence re¬
turned without attempting anything. In this extremity the
oracle at Delphi was consulted by the Athenians, and at first
retui’ned a very alarming response, threatening them with
total destruction ; but after much humiliation, a more fa¬
vourable answer was obtained, in which, probably by the
direction of 1 hemistocles, they were promised safety in ivulls
of wood. I his being interpreted as a command to abandon
Athens, and place all their hopes of safety in their fleet, the
greater part began to prepare for embarkation, and money
1 For an account of the memorable battle of Marathon, with military details of the Greek armies, including the Athenian see th
article Army. “ The Athenians who fought at Marathon,” says Herodotus, “ were the first among the Greeks known to have used run
mng for the purpose of coming at once to close fight; and they were the first who withstood (in the field) even the sight of the Media]
dress and of the men who wear it; for hitherto the very name of Medes and Persians had been a terror to the Greeks.” This hones
confession seems to have given great olfence to Plutarch, but it is confirmed by Plato {in Menexen. p. 240) and other writers of th«
highest authority.
I Th® ostracism of Aristides took place B.C. 483, since he was recalled In, eirruXias i/Uuvov™*. (Plutarch, Aristid
c-S?me> however, think that it took place the following year; and, in fact, he seems to have been in exile at the time of the batth
of iSalamis. But ten months afterwards he commanded the Athenian forces at the battle of Plataea; so that his recal must have taker
place between those two actions. (Herodotus, ix. 28.)
200
Attica.
Capture of
Athens.
City re¬
built and
fortified.
ATTICA.
was distributed among them by the council of the Areiopa-
gus, to the amount of eight drachmas a head; but this not
proving sufficient, Themistocles publicly gave out that some¬
body had stolen the shield of Athena, and, under pretence
of searching for the lost aegis, he seized on all the money he
could find. Some, however, still refused to embark, and,
understanding the oracle in its literal sense, raised fortifica¬
tions of wood, resolving to wait the arrival of the Persians,
and defend themselves to the last.
The Persians having advanced to Athens soon after the
inhabitants had deserted it, met with no opposition except
from the few who had resolved to remain ; and as they would
listen to no terms of accommodation, they were put to the
sword, and the city utterly destroyed. Xerxes, however,
being defeated in a great naval engagement at Salamis, 480
b.c., was forced to fly with prodigious loss. 1 hemistocles
was for pursuing him and breaking down the bridge of boats
which he had thrown over the Hellespont; but this advice
being overruled, the crafty Athenian sent a trusty messenger
to the king, acquainting him that the Greeks intended break¬
ing down his bridge, and at the same time suggesting the
propriety of his making all haste in order to prevent his re¬
treat being cut off. This advice, though misinterpreted by
some, was certainly a prudent one ; as Xerxes, although he
had sustained a defeat, was still at the head of an army cap¬
able of destroying all Greece; and had he been driven to
despair by finding himself shut up or even too hotly pursued,
it is impossible to say what might have been the event.
“ Make a bridge of gold for a flying enemy,” is a rule which
the experience of war in all ages has sanctioned.
The defeat of Xerxes at Salamis disposed Mardonius, who
had been left to carry on the war by land, rather to treat
with the Athenians than to fight them; and with this view
he sent Alexander, king of Macedon, to Athens to propose
an alliance with the republic, exclusively of the other Gre¬
cian states. But this proposal was rejected ; in consequence
of which Athens was a second time destroyed,1 and the
Athenians were forced to retire to Salamis. But they were
soon freed from the apprehension of final subjugation by the
total defeat and death of Mardonius at Plataea, where Aris¬
tides and the Athenian troops under his command particu¬
larly distinguished themselves. And, by a singular coinci¬
dence, on the same day that the battle of Plataa was fought,
another division of the Persians was defeated at Mycale in
Ionia, where the Athenians also behaved with more signal
gallantry than any of the other Greeks. The Persians being
thus disposed of, the troops who had fought at Mycale crossed
over to the Chersonesus, and laid siege to Sestos, which they
at length captured after an obstinate defence by the garrison ;
a circumstance which appears to have irritated them so much
that they put both the commanders to death in the most
barbarous manner. One of them, Oibazus, was sacrificed
to a Thracian god ; whilst the other, Artayctes, was impaled
alive, and his son stoned to death before his face, on the ab¬
surd pretence that he had rifled the sepulchre of Protesilaus.
After the victories of Plataea and Mycale, in 479 b.c., the
Athenians, freed from all apprehension respecting the Per¬
sians, began to rebuild their city in a more magnificent man¬
ner than ever. Throughout the Persian war, the Athenians
had been most forward in opposing the barbarians ; and their
generals, Aristides and Cimon, displayed qualities which
formed such a strong contrast with the domineering conduct
of the Spartan Pausanias and the Spartan harmosts, that,
with the exception of the Peloponnesians, nearly all the
Greeks were desirous to place themselves under the protec¬
tion of Athens, which thus acquired the supremacy in
Greece. The relations of the allies, and their annual tri¬
bute, which was deposited in the temple of Apollo at Delos,
was the work of Aristides, in whom all had the fullest con¬
fidence. Athens, in return, undertook the duty of protect- Attica,
ing her allies against Persia. The constitution of Athens v«—
also underwent some changes at this time, which are ascribed
to Aristides. He is said to have removed the barrier which
had hitherto separated the highest from the lower classes, by
throwing open the archonship and the Areiopagus to all the
citizens, without any distinction of birth or wealth. This
change had been prepared by the circumstances of the time;
and the noble exertions of the Athenian citizens had well en¬
titled them to be thus raised to the full enjoyment of the ad¬
vantages which the state could afford. About the same time
Themistocles suggested the necessity of immediately forti¬
fying the city, so as to prevent its being again destroyed
whenever the Persians might deem it expedient to invade
Greece. The Lacedaemonians disrelished this project ex¬
ceedingly, and remonstrated against it, upon the hollow
ground, that were Athens to be strongly fortified, and the
Persians to become possessed of it, it might be impossible
ever to dislodge them. The Athenians were not imposed
on by this shallow pretence, which was soon changed into a
peremptory command not to raise their walls higher; but,
considering the great power of Sparta at that time, Themis¬
tocles advised the Athenians to temporize, and to assure the
Spartan envoys that the work should not be proceeded with
until by a special embassy satisfaction had been given to
their allies. Being, at his own desire, named ambassador in
conjunction with some other Athenians, Themistocles set
out alone. Arrived at Sparta, he put off from time to time
receiving an audience, on the pretence that his colleagues
had not yet joined him; but in the meanwhile the walls of
Athens were being built with the utmost expedition, neither
houses nor sepulchres being spared for materials, and men,
women, children, strangers, citizens, and servants, labouring
at the work without intermission. The truth, however, hav¬
ing at length oozed out, Themistocles and his colleagues,
who had by this time arrived, were summoned before the
ephori, who immediately began to exclaim against the Athe¬
nians on account of their breach of compact. But Themis¬
tocles stoutly denied the charge; his colleagues, he said,
assured him of the contrary ; at all events, it did not become
a great state to give heed to vague rumours of this descrip¬
tion ; and if they had any doubts about the truth of his state¬
ment, the proper course would be to send deputies to inquire
into the fact of the matter, whilst he should himself remain
as a hostage to be answerable for the event. This plausible
suggestion being agreed to, Themistocles engaged his as¬
sociates to advise the Athenians to commit the Spartan am¬
bassadors to safe custody until he should be released. Soon
after Aristides and one other Athenian envoy arrived, in¬
forming Themistocles that the walls were high enough to
stand a siege. Themistocles, accordingly, now dropped the
mask, and bade the Spartans in future tf> treat the Athe¬
nians as reasonable men, who knew what they owed to them¬
selves as well as to their countrymen. The Spartans with
their wonted skill dissembled their vexation, left the Athe¬
nians to act as they saw fit, and sent Themistocles back to
Athens in safety.
The following year, 478 b.c., Themistocles, observing the
inconvenience of the port of Phalerum, formed the resolu¬
tion of improving the Peirams, and rendering it the princi¬
pal harbour of Athens. All the three ports, Phalerum, Mu-
nychia, and Peirseus, were fortified by a double range of
wall, one on the landside, and the other following the wind¬
ings of the coast. This wall was 60 feet in height, and of
such breadth as to allow two waggons to pass each other.
Peirseus now became a town of great importance, being
the residence of merchants, sailors, and foreigners, who esta¬
blished themselves in it for purposes of trade and com¬
merce. By these wise and prudent measures, undertaken
1 Athens was occupied by Mardonius ten months after its occupation by Xerxes the preceding year, B.c. 480.
ATT
Attica, and carried through with equal energy and address, the naval
power of Athens was fixed on a sure basis, and the ascen¬
dency in Grecian politics transferred from the Spartans to the
Athenians.1
Themis- 1 he victory of Salamis and his prudent management of
tocles the affairs of Athens had raised Themistocles to a giddy
banished, height, which made him proud, indiscreet, and rapacious, and
drew upon him the charge of perfidy, avarice, and cruelty.
His acts of selfishness made many persons his enemies, and
the Spartans never forgiving him the manner in which he
had thwarted their schemes, were ever active in rousing the
jealousy and fears of his countrymen. In addition to all this,
younger men were rising and taking his place in popular
favour. The people accordingly were easily persuaded to
consider him a dangerous person, and condemned him to a
temporary exile by ostracism. He went to Argos, w here he
was still residing, 471 b.c., when the condemnation of the
Spartan Pausanias for high treason brought ruin upon the
head of Themistocles also. The Spartans charging him with
being an accomplice of Pausanias, demanded of the Athe¬
nians to put him to death. His enemies at Athens rejoiced
at this opportunity of crushing him, and officers were sent
out to arrest him. But he fled and reached Ephesus in safety.
Thence he proceeded to the court of Persia, where, by his
prudence and cunning, he soon became a general favourite.
King Artaxerxes at length sent him to Western Asia, where
he was enabled by the king’s munificence to maintain a sort
of princely rank. At length, however, he is said to have made
away with himself, because he felt unable to fulfil the pro¬
mises he had made to the king.
Exploits But the war with Persia was not yet discontinued, and about
ofCimon. the end of the 77th Olympiad, the Athenians equipped a
fleet to relieve certain Greek cities in Asia, subject to the
Persians, and gave the command of it to Cimon, the son
of Miltiades by a daughter of the king of Thrace. Cimon
had already tasted the temper of his countrymen, having
been thrown into prison for his father’s fine, from which he
was released by Callias, whom his sister Elpinice had mar¬
ried on account of his great wealth, procured, it is said, by
no very honourable means. But he nevertheless accepted
of the command, and gained such immense booty in this ex¬
pedition, that the Athenians were thereby enabled to lay the
foundation of that longimural inclosure which united the port
to the city ; as also to adorn the Agora with palm-trees, and
beautify the Academy with delightful walks and fountains.
Soon after this expedition, the Persians having invaded the
Chersonesus, and made themselves masters of it, with the
assistance of the Thracians, Cimon was hastily sent against
both. He had only four ships under his command; but with
these he captured thirteen of the Persian galleys, and re¬
duced the whole of the Chersonesus; after which he attacked
the Thracians, who had made themselves masters of the gold
mines situated between the rivers Nessus and Strymon, and
speedily obliged them to yield. But Cimon was as wise and
politic as he was brave. Many of the Greek states, in vir¬
tue of the general tax established by Aristides with the view
of providing a fund for the common defence, were bound to
furnish men and galleys, as well as to pay for their support.
But when they saw themselves exposed to danger from the
Persians, most of them evinced an unwillingness to furnish
their contingent of men. This exasperated the Athenian
generals, who, finding them obstinate in their refusal, were
for having immediate recourse to force ; but Cimon over¬
ruled this proposal, permitted such as were desirous of stay¬
ing at home to remain, and accepted a sum of money instead
of a galley completely manned ; by which means he inured
the Athenians, whom he took on board his galleys, to hard¬
ship and discipline, whilst the allies, who remained at home,
I C A. 201
became enervated through idleness, and, from being con- Attica,
federates, dwindled into tributaries or subjects. ^
Cimon had gained great wealth both to the state and to Cimon
himself; but in his public character he had acted with un- banished,
impeached integrity, and as a private citizen he had dedi¬
cated his wealth to the most laudable purposes. He had de¬
molished the inclosures about his grounds and gardens, per¬
mitting every one to enter and take what fruits they pleased ;
and he had kept open table, where both rich and poor were
plentifully entertained. If he met a citizen in a tattered suit
of clothes, he made some of his attendants exchange with
him ; or if the quality of the person rendered such a kind¬
ness unsuitable, he caused a sum of money to be privately
given him. All this excessive liberality, however, was as
degrading to the benefactor as to the benefited, and was no¬
thing but the means by which he endeavoured to win popu¬
larity among the people. The nobles, to whose order Cimon
belonged, had lost the power of oppressing the people, and
now found it expedient to court them in every possible way
for the purpose of securing to themselves all the power that
yet remained to them. Pericles, his great rival, unable to
cope with Cimon’s profusion, became the author of a series
of measures, all of which tended to provide for the subsis¬
tence and gratification of the poorer classes at the public ex¬
pense. The apparent neglect of Cimon in not conquering
a district in the north of the Aegean was the cause of an ac¬
cusation against him, in which Pericles was requested to take
the lead ; but he honourably declined doing so, because in
his eyes the charge was unfounded. The result of this trial
is not certain ; for according to some Cimon was acquitted,
while according to others he was sentenced to pay a fine of
50 talents. Soon afterwards, however, the aristocratic party,
of which Cimon was the leader, became involved in a serious
struggle with the democratic party, led by Pericles: the
latter having succeeded in reducing the power of the Areio-
pagus, the last stronghold of the aristocracy, it was thought
advisable, for the public safety, to remove Cimon for a time
from Athens by ostracism.
The Athenian power had now risen to such a height that War with
all the states of Peloponnesus looked upon the republic with Sparta,
a jealous eye, and were continually watching for opportuni¬
ties of making war upon it when engaged in troublesome
affairs, or hard pressed by other enemies. These attempts,
however, so far from lessening, generally contributed to in¬
crease the power of the Athenians. But in the year b.c.
458, the republic entered into a war with Sparta, which
eventually proved nearly as fatal to the state as to the city.
The Spartans had sent a considerable army to assist the Do¬
rians against the Phocians; and on their return commenced
intriguing with the aristocratic party at Athens. This led
the Athenians to the determination not to wait till it was too
late. Having therefore engaged the Argives and Thessa¬
lians as confederates, they posted themselves on the isthmus,
so that the Spartan army could not return without encoun¬
tering them. The Athenians and their confederates amount¬
ed to 14,000, and the Spartans to 11,500 men. The Lace¬
daemonian general, however, unwilling to hazard a battle,
turned aside to Tanagra, a city of Boeotia, where some of the
Athenians who were favourable to aristocracy entered into
a correspondence with him. But before their designs were
ripe for execution, the Athenian army marched with great
expedition to Tanagra, and instantly made arrangements for
the attack. They were however defeated with great loss,
in consequence of the perfidy of the Thessalians, who in the
midst of the battle went over to the enemy. Another en¬
gagement soon followed, in which both armies suffered so
much that they were glad to conclude a short truce, that each
might have time to recruit their shattered forces. But the
1 For an account of the fortifications of the capital of Attica, the Long Walls, and the defences of Peirseus, Phalerum, and Munychia,
see article Athens.
VOL. IV. 2 C
202
ATTIC A.
Attica.
Death of
Cimon.
scale of fortune soon turned in favour of the Athenians. The
Thebans, who had been deprived of the command of Boeotia
on account of their having sided with Xerxes, were now re¬
stored to it by the Lacedaemonians. At this the Athenians
were so greatly displeased that they sent an army under
Myronides the son of Callias into Bceotia to overturn all that
had been done. That general was encountered by the 1 he-
bans and their allies, who composed a numerous and well-
disciplined army ; but although the Athenian army was but
a handful in comparison to that of their enemies, Myronides
gained a victory over the allies, which, in a purely military
point of view, may perhaps be considered as more glorious
than either that of Marathon or of Plataea. In these battles
they had fought against the effeminate and ill-disciplined
troops of Persia ; but now they encountered and defeated a
superior army composed of the bravest Greeks. After this
victory Myronides marched to Tanagra, which he took by
storm, and afterwards razed to the ground. He then plun¬
dered Bceotia ; defeated another army which the Boeotians
had drawn together to oppose him ; next fell upon the Lo-
crians; and having penetrated into Thessaly, chastised the
inhabitants of that country for having revolted from the Athe¬
nians ; after which he returned to Athens laden alike with
riches and with glory.
About this time, 457 b.c., Cimon was recalled from ban¬
ishment by the will of the people, and soon after fell to his
old employment of w'arring against the Persians ; having no¬
thing less in view, according to Plutarch, than the conquest
and subjugation of the whole Persian empire. But, how¬
ever this may be, the Great King, finding he could have no
rest whilst he continued in a state of hostility with the Athe¬
nians, sent instructions to his generals, Artabazus and Me-
gabizus, to conclude, if possible, a treaty of peace ; which,
after much discussion, was at length effected upon the fol¬
lowing conditions : 1. That the Greek cities in Asia should
be free, and governed by their own laws. 2. That the Per¬
sians should send no army within three days’ journey of the
sea. 3. That no Persian ship of war should sail between
Phaselis in Pamphylia and the Chelidonian islands off the
coast of Lycia. Whilst this treaty was pending, Cimon died
b.c. 449, but whether of sickness or of a wound which he
had received in battle remains unknown. This so-called
peace of Cimon is probably a mere fable, which arose out of
the recollection of the glorious exploits of that general. All
the subsequent history shows that such a state of things as
the terms of this peace imply never existed. The story
does not appear to have assumed a distinct form until the
time of the rhetorician Isocrates.
Truce with One thing, however, is certain, that after the death of
Sparta. this remarkable personage, the Athenian affairs began to fall
into confusion. It was now the misfortune of the republic to
be alike hated by her enemies and by her allies ; and hence
the latter missed no opportunity of throwing off their alle¬
giance when they thought they could do so with impunity.
The Megarians, for instance, who had long been under the
protection of Athens, thought proper to disclaim all depen¬
dence on their ancient protectrix, and to have recourse to
Sparta, with which they entered into a strict alliance offen¬
sive and defensive. Exasperated at this proceeding, and
determined to punish the ingratitude of their former allies,
the Athenians ravaged the country of the Megarians—a step
which soon brought on a renewal of the Lacedaemonian war,
which had been suspended rather than terminated. But
Pericles procured the return of the first Lacedaemonian
army without bloodshed, by bribing Cleandridas, the young
king of Sparta’s tutor; and the Lacedaemonians, finding it
was not for their interest to carry on the war, concluded a
truce or pacification with the Athenians for the period of Attica,
thirty years,1 445 b.c.
Six years after the conclusion of the peace between Athens Reduction
and Sparta, a war broke out between the Samians and Mi- of Samos,
lesians, about an insignificant town situated under Mount
Mycale, in Ionia. In this war the Athenians took part,
their protection having been solicited by the Milesians ; and
the island of Samos was reduced by Pericles, who esta¬
blished there a democracy, and left an Athenian garrison.
He was no sooner gone, however, than the aristocratic party
rose in arms and expelled the garrison ; but Pericles quickly
returning, besieged and took their city, demolished their
walls, and fined them in the whole expense of the war, part
of which he obliged them to pay down, and took hostages
for the remainder.2 This happened in 444 b.c.
This insignificant contest was almost immediately fol- Corcyraean
lowed by a war between the Corcyraeans and Corinthians, war-
which arose out of the following circumstances. An intes¬
tine broil breaking out in the little territory of Epidamnus,
a town of Illyricum, founded by the Corcyrseans, one party
applied for aid to the Illyrians, and the other to the Corcy-
raeans. But the latter having neglected the matter, Corinth
was appealed to, as the Corcyrscans were originally a colony
from that place ; and the Corinthians, partly out of pity for
the Epidamnians, partly from dislike to the Corcyraeans,
despatched a considerable fleet to the assistance of the for¬
mer, by which means the party which had appealed to Co¬
rinth gained the ascendency. This being resented by the
Corcyraeans, they sent a fleet to Epidamnus to support the
exiles ; but although this fleet began to act offensively on
its entering the port, the chief commanders had instruc¬
tions to propose terms of accommodation. T. o these, how¬
ever, the Corinthians refused to accede ; and next year the
Corcyraeans defeated the Corinthians and their allies at sea,
took Epidamnus by storm, and wasted the territories of the'
allies of the Corinthians, 434 B.c. The latter, therefore,
began to make great preparations for carrying on the war,
and pressed their allies to imitate their example, that they
might be in a condition to retrieve the honour they had lost,
and to humble the ungrateful colony which had thus in¬
sulted the metropolitan city.
When the Corcyraeans became acquainted with these pro¬
ceedings, they desjiatched envoys to Athens to sue for aid;
and these were quickly followed by others from Corinth on
the same errand. At first the Athenians inclined to favour
the Corinthians, but the next day they resolved to support the
Corcyraeans; contenting themselves, however, with entering
into a defensive alliance with that little state, and furnishing
the Corcyraeans with ten galleys under the command of La-
cedaemonius, the son of Cimon. But this determination did
not retard the preparations of the Corinthians, who, as soon
as the season permitted, sailed for the coast of Corcyra with
a fleet of 150 ships, under the command of Xenoclides, as¬
sisted by four other Corinthian admirals ; each squadron
of their allies being commanded by an admiral of its own.
The Corcyraean and Athenian fleet amounted to 120 sail;
but the Athenians had orders to give as little assistance as
possible. A brisk action ensued, in which the Corcyraean
right wing broke the left of the Corinthian fleet, and drove
some of the ships on shore; whilst the Corinthian ships in
the right wing defeated the Corcyraean ships opposed to them.
Next day preparations were made on both sides for renew¬
ing the battle ; but twenty ships arriving opportunely from
Athens to the assistance of the Corcyraeans, turned the scale
against the Corinthians, who therefore declined the combat,
432 b.c.
As soon as the Corcyraean war broke out, the Athenians
1 On the subject of the thirty years’ truce, concluded B.C. 445, the reader may consult and compare Andocid. de Pace, p. 14, 24,
JEschin. Pals. Leg. p. 23, 51. It was about this time that Pericles began to assume the sole direction of affairs.
2 Thucydides, i. 117.
ATTICA.
Attica, sent orders to the citizens of Potidsea to demolish part of
their wall, to send back the magistrates they had received
from Corinth, and to give hostages for their own behaviour.
The Potidaeans, however, refused to comply with this de¬
mand; upon which the Athenians despatched a considerable
fleet against them under the command of Callias, a man
celebrated for his courage; whilst the Corinthians, on the
other hand, sent one Aristeus, with a considerable body of
troops, to the assistance ot the city. An engagement en¬
sued, in which the Athenians were victorious, but their
brave general fell in the action. Phormio, who succeeded
to the command on the death of Callias, then invested the
city in form, and blockaded its harbour with his fleet; but
the Potidaeans, dreading the vengeance of the Athenians,
made a most obstinate defence, at the same time warmly
soliciting the Corinthians to perform their promises, and to
engage the rest of the states of Peloponnesus to take part in
their quarrel.
Reparation Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians having heard the corn-
demanded. piaints 0f tile Corinthians and other small states of Greece,
against the Athenians, sent ambassadors to Athens, to de¬
mand reparation for the injuries done to these states, and,
in the event of refusal, to denounce war. The terms de¬
manded were, first, that all Athenians who were allied to
the family of Megacles should be expelled from Attica ; se¬
condly, that the siege of Potidaea should be raised; thirdly,
that the inhabitants of iEgina should be left free ; and lastly,
that a decree prohibiting the Megarians from resorting to
the ports and markets of Athens should be revoked, and
all the Grecian states under the dominion of Athens set at
liberty.
Refused. ]3y the persuasion of Pericles, however, these degrading
terms were rejected ; and while the right arbitrarily claimed
by the commonwealth of Sparta to interfere in the concerns
of the other Greek states, in the character of a lord-para-
mount, was peremptorily denied, an accommodation was
proposed upon the fair principles of equality and reciprocity.
In recommending the measure which he suggested for the
adoption of his countrymen, this celebrated statesman argued
that, whatever the Lacedaemonians might pretend as to the
complaints of the allies, the true ground of their resentment
was the prosperity of the Athenian republic, which they had
always hated, and now sought an opportunity of humbling;
and that it must be owing to the Athenians themselves if
this design succeeded, because, for many reasons, Athens
was better able to engage in a long and expensive war than
the Peloponnesians. He then laid before the people an
exact account of their circumstances, reminding them that
the treasure brought from Delos amounted to no less than
10,000 talents; that although 4000 of these had been ex¬
pended on the magnificence of their citadel, 6000 still re¬
mained in their coffers ; that they were also entitled to the
subsidies payable by the confederate states; that the sta¬
tues of their gods, the spoils of the Persians, and other va¬
luable property, were worth immense sums ; that many pri¬
vate individuals had amassed vast fortunes ; that consider¬
ing the extent of their trade and commerce, they might
calculate upon a certain annual increase of wealth ; that
they had on foot an army consisting of 12,000 men, besides
17,000 in their colonies and garrisons ; that their fleet
amounted to 300 sail; and finally, that the Peloponnesians,
with whom they might be called to contend, had none of
these advantages, and, as compared with the Athenians,
were nearly destitute of all those resources which constitute
the sinews of war. For these reasons he proposed, as at
once the most consistent and most equitable satisfaction that
could be given, to reverse the decree against Megara, pro¬
vided the Lacedaemonians agreed to accede to the principle
of reciprocity in favour of the Athenians and their allies ;
to consent to leave all those states free which were acknow¬
ledged as such at the conclusion of the last peace with
203
Sparta, provided the latter state also agreed to give freedom Attica,
to all the states which were under their dominion ; and, v/-—^
finally, to submit to arbitration all disputes which might in
future arise between the parties to this arrangement. He
concluded by advising them to hazard a war in case these
terms were rejected ; telling them that they should not
think they ran that hazard for a trifle, or retain a scruple in
their minds as if a small consideration moved them to it,
because on this matter depended their safety, and the repu¬
tation of their constancy and resolution. If they yielded in
this, the next demand of the Lacedaemonians would be still
more extravagant; for having once discovered that the
Athenians were to be acted upon by fear, they would thence
conclude that nothing could be denied them, whereas a
stout resistance in the present case would teach them to
treat Athens in future upon terms of reciprocity.
The firm attitude which Athens assumed on this occasion, Pelopon-
under the guidance of her most illustrious statesman, may nesian
be considered as the origin of the Peloponnesian war, which war-
makes so prominent a figure in ancient history. The im¬
mediate preliminary to general hostilities, however, was an
attempt of the Thebans to surprise Plataea in 431 b.c.
With this view they in the depth of night sent 300 men
to assist those of the Plataeans whom they had drawn over
to their interest, in making themselves masters of the place.
But although the design succeeded very well at first,—
the Plataeans, who had promised to open the gates, keep¬
ing their words exactly, so that they instantly obtained
possession of the city,—yet the other party, perceiving the
smallness of the number they had to contend with, unani¬
mously rose upon them, killed a great many, and forced the
remainder to surrender themselves prisoners of war. The
Thebans sent a reinforcement to assist their countrymen,
but it arrived too late to be of any service, and the whole
were ultimately obliged to withdraw. As soon as the Athe¬
nians were apprised of this attempt, they immediately de¬
spatched a considerable convoy of provisions to Plataea, to¬
gether with a numerous body of troops for the purpose of
escorting the wives and children of the inhabitants to Athens.
This attempt leaving no doubt that all hopes of accommo¬
dation were at an end, both parties began to prepare in good
earnest for war. Most of the Grecian states inclined to
favour the Spartans, partly because the latter assumed the
character of deliverers of Greece, and partly also because
many of the states either had been, or feared they would
be, oppressed by the Athenians. Accordingly, the whole
of the Peloponnesians except the Argives and part of the
Achaeans made common cause with the Spartans ; whilst,
on the continent of Greece, the Megarians, Phocians, Lo-
crians, Boeotians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians,
declared for the Athenians; as also did the Chians, Les¬
bians, Plataeans, Messenians, Acarnanians, Corcyraeans,
Zacynthians, Carians, Dorians, Thracians, and all the Cy¬
clades, excepting Melos and Thera, together with Euboea
and Samos.
The Peloponnesian war commenced in the year b.c. 431. First year.
1 he Lacedaemonian army, consisting of no less than 60,000
men, assembled on the isthmus, and, after a vain attempt at
negotiation, the campaign opened. The Lacedaemonian
army was commanded by Archidamus, king of Sparta ; that
of the Athenians by Pericles, with nine generals under him.
Soon after the opening of the campaign, the Spartan force
entered Attica and committed horrible ravages; Pericles
having no force capable of opposing it, and steadily refusing
to engage on disadvantageous terms, although prodigious
clamours were in consequence raised against him by his
countrymen. The invaders, however, had no great reason to
boast ot the advantages they had gained; for an Athenian
fleet ravaged the coasts of Peloponnesus, whilst another in¬
fested the Locrians, expelled the inhabitants of /Egina. and
repeopled the island from Athens and Attica. Cephalonia,
204
ATTICA.
Attica, and some towns in Acarnania and Leucas which had de-
clared for the Lacedaemonians, were also reduced; and in
the autumn, when the Peloponnesians had retired, Pericles
entered the Megarian territory, which he laid waste with
fire and sword, in revenge for the devastation committed in
Attica.
Second But the spring of the second year proved signally disas-
year. trous to Athens; for a dreadful plague carried off great
numbers of the citizens, whilst the Peloponnesians, imder
Archidamus, wasted every thing abroad. In the midst of
all these calamities, however, the firmness of Pericles re¬
mained unshaken ; and he would suffer none of his country¬
men to stir from the city, either to escape the plague, which
committed horrible ravages within the walls, or to assail the
enemy, who desolated the country without.1 He meditated
a deeper game, namely, an inroad into the enemy’s territory,
which in fact had been left completely uncovered by the at¬
tack upon Attica. W ith this view he caused a large fleet
to be equipped, on board which he embarked 4000 foot and
.300 horse, and immediately set sail for Epidaurus. Ibis
diversion produced the desired effect, in compelling the
enemv to withdraw from Attica; but in other respects the
expedition failed on account of the plague, which committed
so great havoc among his men, that Pericles brought back
to Athens only loOO of the 4300 composing the expedition.
By this disaster the Athenians were thrown into utter de¬
spair, and immediately sued for peace; but the Spartans
refusing to accede to any terms of accommodation, their
despair gave place to fury against their great statesman and
commander, whom they dismissed from their service, and
amerced in a heavy fine. And, as if this had not been
enough, at the same time that Pericles experienced the in¬
gratitude of his country, the plague carried off his children
and nearly the whole of his kindred, leaving him almost
alone in the world, childless and forsaken. This accumu¬
lation of misfortunes preyed deeply on his spirits and over¬
whelmed him with melancholy, in consequence of which he
secluded himself for a time entirely from public view. But
through the persuasion of Alcibiades and other friends, he
was at length induced to show himself to the people ; who,
ever inconstant, and generally more prompt to pardon than
to condemn, received him with acclamations of joy. The
first use Pericles made of his recovered popularity was to
procure the repeal of the law which he had himself caused
to be enacted, whereby all Athenians of half blood were dis¬
franchised of their natural liberty, and reduced to the state
of aliens ; a measure which was not altogether disinterested
on his part, as he was thereby enabled to enrol in the list of
citizens his only remaining sor by a Milesian mother, whom
the operation of the law in question had of course bastard¬
ized. But this was destined to be one of the last public acts
of the great Athenian statesman and patriot.
Third The third year of the Peloponnesian war was chiefly re-
vear. markable for the death of Pericles, who at length fell a vic¬
tim to the plague, which had already desolated his house,
but who left behind him a name that will never die.2 Pla-
tEea was also besieged by Archidamus, but without success ;
for although the greater part of it had been set on fire, the
Platseans resolved to submit to every extremity rather than
abandon the Athenian cause. In the end, therefore, the
king of Sparta was obliged to convert the siege into a block- Attica,
ade, and to return to Peloponnesus.
In the following summer the Peloponnesians under Archi- Fourth
damus again invaded Attica, wasting everything with fire year,
and sword ; and at the same time the whole island of Les¬
bos, except the district of Methymna, revolted against the
Athenians. In the meanwhile Plataea was strictly blockaded,
and its inhabitants being reduced to the greatest extremity
from want of provisions, the garrison came to the resolution
of forcing a passage through the enemy’s lines. When the
moment arrived, however, for carrying this design into exe¬
cution, many of them became intimidated ; but the greater
number persisted in their resolution, succeeded in their gal¬
lant attempt, and above 200 reached Athens in safety.
In the beginning of the fifth year the Peloponnesians sentFlfth year-
forty ships to the relief of Mitylene, which the Athenians
had invested after the revolt of LesboS; but this effort proved
unavailing, since the place had surrendered before the fleet
could come to its assistance. Paches, the Athenian com¬
mander, then drove off the Peloponnesian fleet; and re¬
turning to Lesbos, sent the Lacedaemonian agent, whom he
found in Mitylene, together with a deputation, to Athens.
On their arrival the Lacedaemonian was immediately put to
death; and in a general assembly of the people, it was re¬
solved, on the proposal of Cleon, that all the Mitylenians
who had attained to manhood should also be put to death,
and the women and children sold as slaves. But the next
day this cruel decree was revoked, and a galley despatched
to countermand the sanguinary order. It arrived just in time
to save Mitylene. Only about a thousand of the principal
insurgents were put to death ; the walls of the city were
however demolished, their ships taken away, and their lands
divided among the Athenians, who let them again to their
former proprietors at a nominal rent. About this time also
the Plataeans who had failed in the attempt to break through
the enemy’s lines surrendered at discretion, and were cruelly
put to death by the Lacedaemonians, who sold their women
as slaves. The city was soon after razed by the Thebans,
who left only an inn to show where it stood ; but the fame
of Plataea induced Alexander the Great afterwards to re¬
build it on a more extensive scale.
In this year also happened the famous sedition of Corcyra, Sedition of
proverbial for the horrors with which it was accompanied. Corcyra.
We have already seen that the dispute between the Corcy-
raeans and Corinthians was mainly instrumental in bringing
on the Peloponnesian war, one of the most protracted and
sanguinary contests of ancient times. At the commence¬
ment of this struggle a great number of Corcyraeans were
carried as prisoners to Corinth, where the chief of them
were well treated, and the remainder sold as slaves. The
motive of this conduct on the part of the Corinthians was a
design they had formed of engaging these Corcyraeans to
influence their countrymen to join the Corinthians and their
allies. With this view the latter treated them with all ima¬
ginable lenity and tenderness, endeavouring to instil into
their minds a hatred of democratic government; after which
they were informed that they might obtain their liberty upon
condition of exerting their influence at home in favour of the
allies, and to the prejudice of Athens. This the Corcy-
raeans readily promised and endeavoured to perform; and
i In this campaign the Peloponnesians remained forty days in Attica, burning and destroying without, while the pestilence was raging
within the city and while the Athenians seemed abandoned to utter despair. For an account of this memorable plague see Thucydides,
ii 47 whose description has been often imitated, but never equalled, far less surpassed. That which approaches nearest to it in horrible
truth and picturesqueness of delineation is the description of the plague in Egypt, and also in the prison of the Seraglio at Constanti¬
nople, contained in the novel entitled Anastasius, Qr Memoirs of a Modern Greek, a work which displays greater talents and gives a
more vivid and faithful picture of society and manners in the countries of the Levant, than all the hooks which have yet een wn
‘''‘^RutaichrPeWcZ. c. 16) says that Pericles was engaged in public affairs forty years, and performed certain functions during fifteen;
hut the fifteen are evidently included in the forty. Accordingly, Cicero (Orat. iii. 34) says, “ Quadraginta annos praefuit t enis, an
frwn other Authorities wo learn that ho began to appear in pSbi’ic affairs about «h. year B.c 469 and to have the sole direction about
the year B.c. 444 ; so that he could not have exceeded fourscore at the time of his death, which took place in B.C. 42y.
ATT
Attica, at first the partisans of aristocracy so far prevailed, that, as-
sisted by a Peloponnesian fleet, they murdered such of the
opposite party as fell into their hands. But the Athenians
having despatched first one fleet and then another to the as¬
sistance of their friends, the Peloponnesians were forced to
withdraw, leaving the aristocrats at the mercy of the demo¬
cratic party ; who, having thus gained the ascendency, liter¬
ally exterminated their antagonists with circumstances of
horrible atrocity. Nor was this all. For, the example once
set, the several states of Greece in their turn experienced
similar commotions, which were invariably fermented by
agents of Sparta or of Athens; the former endeavouring to
establish an aristocratic and the latter a democratic form
of government, wherever their influence happened to pre¬
vail.
Sicilian While the Athenians were thus engaged in a contest in
war. which they were already overmatched, they foolishly rushed
into a new one, which in the end proved more disastrous
than any in which they had yet embarked. The inhabitants
of Sicily were, it seems, divided into two factions; the one
called the Doric, at the head of which was Syracuse; the
other the Ionic, at the head of which was Leontini. But the
Ionic faction finding itself too weak to contend with its rival
without foreign aid, sent Gorgias of Leontini, a celebrated
orator, sophist, and rhetorician, to Athens to apply for as¬
sistance ; and he by his fine speeches so captivated the mul¬
titude, the Meya ©pefifia, or Great Beast (as the populace
were sometimes contemptuously styled in private, by those
who did not scruple to pander to their worst passions in pub¬
lic), that they rushed headlong into a war which they were
unable to maintain while engaged in a death-struggle with
nearly all the states of the Peloponnesus. Accordingly,
bewrayed by the wily sophist,1 and probably enticed by the
hope of effecting the conquest of Sicily, they despatched a
fleet to the assistance of the Leontines, under the command
of Laches and Chabrias; and this had no sooner sailed
than another destined for the same service was begun to be
fitted out. In the mean time the plague continued its ravages
to such an extent that in the course of this year four thou¬
sand citizens, and a much larger number of the lower class
of people, fell victims to its fury.
Sixth and The sixth year of the Peloponnesian war was not remark-
seventh able for any great exploit. Agis, the son of Archidamus,
king of Sparta, assembled an army in order to invade At¬
tica; but was prevented from doing so by earthquakes, which
shook almost every part of Greece, and produced general
consternation. The next year, however, he entered Attica
with his army; whilst the Athenians, on their part, sent a
fleet, under the command of Demosthenes, to infest the
coasts of Peloponnesus. As this fleet passed the coast of
Laconia, the commander observed that the promontory of
Pylos, which was joined to the continent by a narrow neck
of land, had before it an island about two miles in circum¬
ference, which, though barren in itself, nevertheless con¬
tained an excellent harbour, sheltered from all winds either
by the headland or isle, and capable of admitting the most
numerous fleets; circumstances which led him to conclude
that a garrison left here would alarm the Peloponnesians,
and induce them to think rather of protecting their own
country than of invading that of their neighbours. Accord¬
ingly, having raised a strong fortification, he established
himself in the post, reserving five ships of war for its de¬
fence ; and ordered the rest of the fleet to proceed to its in¬
tended destination. On the news of this event the Pelo¬
ponnesian army immediately returned to besiege Pylos, and
I c A. 205
soon made themselves masters of the harbour, as well as of Attica,
the island of Sphacteria, which was taken by a chosen body ^
of Spartans. They then made a vigorous attack upon the
fort, hoping to carry it before succours could arrive; but
Demosthenes and his garrison made an obstinate defence ;
and an Athenian fleet arriving in the interval, relieved the
besieged from all apprehensions on account of the superior
force of the enemy. Battle was immediately offered; but
as the Peloponnesian fleet declined the challenge, the Athe¬
nians sailed boldly into the harbour, and sunk or destroyed
most of the enemy’s ships, after which they besieged the
Spartans in Sphacteria. Alarmed at finding the war car¬
ried into their own territory, the Peloponnesians now began to
treat with their enemies; and whilst the negotiations were
carrying on at Athens, a cessation of hostilities was agreed
to, upon the condition that the Peloponnesians should in the
mean time deliver up all their ships, but that in the event
of the treaty not taking effect, these should be immediately
restored. In as far as regards the negotiations, the Athe¬
nians, having heard the propositions of the Spartan pleni¬
potentiaries, were at first strongly inclined to put an end
to this ruinous and destructive war, all the evils of which
had been so greatly aggravated by the dreadful pestilence
which at the same time ravaged the city of Athens and part
of the territory of Attica. But the demagogue Cleon, a
fiery and headstrong man, persuaded his countrymen to
insist on the most unreasonable terms; and as the confe¬
derates were by no means so far reduced as to suffer the
Athenians pacts imponere morem, to dictate terms of peace,
the plenipotentiaries withdrew, and by doing so, of course
put an end to the armistice. The Peloponnesians then de¬
manded the restoration of their vessels, conformably to the
stipulation above mentioned; but the Athenians refused to
deliver them up, on pretence that the former had violated
the truce. Hostilities, therefore, were immediately recom¬
menced on both sides; and the Lacedaemonians attacked
the Athenians at Pylos, while the latter attacked the Spar¬
tans at Sphacteria. But the Lacedaemonians, though only
a handful of men, and under every imaginable discourage¬
ment, defended themselves with so much bravery that the
siege proceeded very slowly ; and the people of Athens be¬
coming uneasy at its duration, began to wish they had em¬
braced the offers of the Spartans, and to rail vehemently
against Cleon, who had been primarily instrumental in oc¬
casioning their rejection. To excuse himself, however,
Cleon affirmed it would be an easy matter for the general
of the forces which they were then sending to attack the
Spartans in the isle, and reduce them at once. Nicias, who
had just been appointed to the command, replied that if
Cleon believed he could perform such wonders, he would do
well to repair to the scene of action in person. Cleon, com¬
pelled to sustain his part, rejoined without hesitation that
he was ready to go with all his heart; upon which Nicias
caught him at his word, and declared that he had relin¬
quished his command. Startled at this renunciation, the
speech-maker protested that he was no general; but Nicias
tauntingly assured him that he might some day become one ;
and the people amused with the controversy, held Cleon to
his word. He then advancing, told them he was so little
afraid of the enemy, that, with a very inconsiderable force,
he would undertake, in conjunction with that already at
Pylos, to bring to Athens in twenty days the Spartans who
had given them so much trouble. The people laughed at
this apparent gasconade ; but having furnished him with the
troops he desired, he, to the infinite surprise of every one,
1 Diodorus, xii. 53. See also Pausanias, vi. 17, 5, and Philostratus in Vit. Qorg. This celebrated artist in the dangerous craft of
making the worse appear the better reason, would seem to have been a singular specimen of “health and longevity for, according
to Philostratus, Xtyircu o Vaayla; i; Ixrw no.) 'ixurov IXa/roii ’irri •, but the sounder opinion seems to be, that he was born about B.C. 485,
and died soon after b.c. 380, at the age of 105 or 106. He was in reputation as a sophist and rhetorician for nearly fourscore years.
(Fasti Hellenici, p. 63.)
206 ATT
Attica, brought the Spartans prisoners to Athens -vrithin the time
V'—he had specified.1
Eighth In the eighth year of the war Nicias reduced the island
year. of Cythera on the coast of Laconia, and Thyrsca, a frontier
territory, which had been given to the iEginetans when ex¬
pelled from their own country by the Athenians. In Sicily,
Hermocrates of Syracuse, having persuaded the inhabitants
of the island to adjust their differences without foreign in¬
terference, the Athenian generals returned home; a step
which so greatly displeased their countrymen, that two of
them were banished, and the third was sentenced to pay a
heavy fine. The Athenians, under the conduct ot Hippo¬
crates and Demosthenes, next laid siege to Megara; but
Brasidas, a Spartan general, coming to its relief, a battle en¬
sued, which, though indecisive in its result, gave the Lace¬
daemonian faction an ascendency in Megara, and forced many
who had favoured the Athenians to withdraw. In Bceotia
some commotions were raised in favour of the Athenians ;
but their generals Hippocrates and Demosthenes being de¬
feated by the Lacedaemonian party, all hopes ceased of the
Athenian power being established in this district of Greece.2
Ninth In the ninth year the Spartans made new proposals of
year. peace, which the Athenians were now more inclined to ac¬
cept than formerly; and finding their affairs much unsettled
by the loss of Amphipolis, which had been reduced by Bra¬
sidas, a truce for a year was agreed on, while negotiations
were immediately opened for restoring a general peace.
But this pacific scheme was soon overthrown by a misun¬
derstanding, arising out of an occurrence purely accidental,
and the war was in consequence renewed.
Nician The following year commenced with an attempt by Bra-
pacifiea- sidas upon Potidaea; but this having failed, the Athenians
uon. began to recover some courage ; and the truce expiring on
the day of the Pythian games, Cleon advised the Athenians
to send an army under his own command into Thrace.
They agreed to this proposal, and immediately fitted out a
force, consisting of 1200 foot and 300 horse, all Athenian
citizens, embarked on board thirty galleys, of which the de¬
magogue took the command. Brasidas was inferior in num¬
bers to his opponent; but, observing that the Athenian
commander was careless, and neglectful of discipline, the
Spartan suddenly attacked him, and routed his army w ith
the loss of half its numbers, wdiile that of the assailants
amounted to only seven killed and a few wounded. In this
encounter, which appears to have been a complete surprise,
the commanders on both sides were slain ; and although the
Athenians might well spare their general, whom impudence
and accident had invested with a military command, the
death of their brave leader was a serious loss to the Spar¬
tans, who, in fact, lamented him more than the Athenians
did the loss of the battle. In consequence of this event,
however, the latter were now much more disposed than
formerly to listen to terms of accommodation. Amongst
the Spartans, too, there was a party, at the head of whom
was Plistoanax, their king, who earnestly wished lor peace ;
and as Nicias laboured no less assiduously at Athens to bring
about this desirable event, a peace was at last, 421 b.c., con¬
cluded between the two nations for the period of 50 years.3
The conditions w7ere, a restitution of places and prisoners
on both sides, with the exception of Nisaea, which was to
remain in the hands of the Athenians, who had taken it
from the Megarians, and of Plataca, which was to continue
in possession of the Thebans, who could not possibly give
it up without uncovering the whole of their territory. The
Boeotians, Corinthians, and Megarians, refused to be included
in this peace ; but the rest of the allies acquiesced; and being
accordingly ratified, it received the name of the Nician paci-
I C A.
fication, from that of the general who had been mainly in- Attica,
strumental in restoring the blessing of peace to his country. v>—/
But although peace was nominally established, tranquil- Jfew m;g_
lity was far from being restored. Dissatisfied with the under¬
treaty on various grounds, several states of the Peloponne- standings,
sus, headed by Argos, immediately commenced organizing
a new confederacy ; even the Lacedaemonians found it im¬
possible to fulfil exactly the stipulations of the agreement;
and the town of Amphipolis in particular peremptorily refused
to return under the government of Athens ; for which rea¬
son the Athenians also refused to evacuate Pylos. In the
course of the winter fresh negotiations were opened, but
nothing definite was agreed upon, and the time passed in
mutual complaints and recriminations. At Athens, in par¬
ticular, the flame of discontent was artfully fanned by Al-
cibiades, who now began to rival Nicias in public favour,
and who, perceiving that the Lacedaemonians paid their
court principally to his rival, took every opportunity of
incensing his countrymen against that nation. On the other
hand, Nicias, whose reputation was concerned in maintain¬
ing the treaty inviolate, used his utmost endeavours to bring
about a i*econciliation, and even undertook a journey to
Sparta, in the hope of effecting an accommodation; but,
most unhappily, the artifices of Alcibiades, added to the
turbulent and haughty disposition of both nations, rendered
all his efforts unavailing, and at length satisfied him that a
renewal of the war was inevitable. If the intrigues of that
remarkable man, however, were mainly instrumental in
bringing about a rupture, it cannot be denied that he took
the most prudent methods for insuring the safety of his
country. With this view he entered into a league with the
Argives for the long term of a hundred years; he then
marched into the territories of that state at the head of a
considerable force; and he exerted all his influence, both
at Argos and at Patrae, to persuade the people to connect
their cities with the sea by means of walls, in order to facili¬
tate the landing of succour, when it might be necessary, by
the Athenians. But, though vigorous preparations were now
made for a renewal of the war, nothing of any consequence
was undertaken this year; if we except an attempt by the
Argives to make themselves masters of Epidaurus, which
was, however, defeated by the Lacedaemonians throwing a
strong garrison into the place.
The next being the fourteenth year of the Peloponnesian Renewal of
war, a Spartan army, under the command of Agis, entered the war>
the territory of Argos ; but just as battle was on the eve of
commencing, a truce was suddenly concluded between two of
the Argive generals and the king of Sparta. But it so
happened that neither party felt satisfied with this proceed¬
ing, and both the king and the generals were very ill re¬
ceived by their respective fellow-citizens. Accordingly, on
the arrival of some fresh troops from Athens, the Argives
immediately broke the truce ; and a battle ensuing soon
afterwards, the allied army was defeated with great slaughter
by Agis, who thus achieved a victory on the very spot which
was afterwards destined to acquire additional celebrity as
the scene of one of the most disastrous defeats which the
Spartan arms ever experienced. In the winter a strong
party in Argos joined the Lacedaemonians ; in consequence
of which that city renounced her alliance with Athens, and
concluded peace with Sparta for the period of half a cen¬
tury. Further, in compliment to their new allies, the Ar¬
gives abolished democracy in their city, substituting an
aristocracy in its stead; and also assisted the Lacedaemo¬
nians in forcing the Sicyonians to adopt a similar form of
government. Notwithstanding all this, however, the Ar¬
gives, with a levity natural to the Greeks, renounced their
1 Thucydides, iv. 39.
3 Alcibiades seems to have already begun to take part in public affairs. See a passage in the Wasps of Aristophanes, 44, where his
manner of speaking is ridiculed. At this time he was about twenty-four years of age. 3 Thucydides, v. 18, 19, 20.
A T T I C A.
Attica.
Loss of the
Athenian
army in
Sicily.
Intrigues
of Alcibi-
ades.
Abolition
of demo¬
cracy.
alliance with Sparta the following year ; abolished aristo¬
cracy, diove the Lacedaemonians out of the city, and re¬
newed their league with Athens. On the other hand the
Athenians, convinced of the bad faith of Perdiccas, king of
Macedonia, abjured his alliance and declared war against
him ; preferring, as they said, an open enemy to a treach¬
erous friend. ^ And as Argos was still distracted by adverse
factions, Alcibiades in the course of the ensuing year ter¬
minated all disputes between them by the expulsion of the
Spartan party. He then sailed for the island of Melos,
which had shown the greatest inveteracy against his coun-
trymen, in order to punish the inhabitants for repeated acts
of wanton hostility ; but perceiving that the reduction of the
island w7ould be a work of time, he left a considerable body
of forces there, and returned to Athens. In his absence,
however, the capital of Melos surrendered at discretion, and
the inhabitants were treated with the utmost severity; all
the men capable of bearing arms being slaughtered, and the
women and children carried into captivity.
In the beginning of the seventeenth year, Nicias was ap¬
pointed commander-in-chief of an expedition destined to
act against the Syracusans, with Alcibiades and Lamachus
as colleagues. But whilst the necessary preparations were
being made, Athens was thrown into terrible confusion by
the defacing of the Hermae or statues of Hermes, of which
there was a great number in the city; an outrage equally
wanton in itself, and appalling to the people of Athens, who
revered these statues both as monuments of art and as sym¬
bols of religion. Great efforts were in consequence made
to discover the perpetrators of this sacrilege ; but although
ample rewards were offered, no disclosure was then made.
At last, from some cause unexplained, suspicion fell upon
Alcibiades, who in consequence received orders to return im¬
mediately from Sicily in order to take his trial for this al¬
leged crime. But he knew the temper of his countrymen
too well to trust himself to their mercy ; and, instead of re¬
turning to Athens, he fled to Sparta, where he met with
a gracious reception; whilst the Athenians were severely
punished by the loss of their army, generals, and fleet, in
Sicily ; a disaster which the superior abilities of Alcibiades
would in all probability have prevented.
1 he nineteenth and twentieth years of the war were spent
by the Athenians in equipping a new fleet in order to repair
their losses; but Alcibiades hurt their interests greatly by
persuading 1 issaphernes the Persian to league with the
Spartans against them, and at the same time stirring up
several of the Ionian states to revolt against what he de¬
scribed as the mob government of Athens. Equally rest¬
less and profligate, however, this celebrated Athenian had
scarcely established himself amongst his new allies when he
contrived, by means of a handsome person and an insinuat¬
ing address, to debauch the wife of Agis the Lacedaemo¬
nian commander; and as the latter strongly resented the
affront which had been put upon him, the Athenian seducer
was obliged to quit Sparta and pass over into Persia. Here,
however, he met with a favourable reception from Tissa-
phernes, who profited much by his advice, which, in fact,
was equally shrewd and insidious. “ Let the Greeks,” said
he to the Persian general, “ exhaust themselves by their
mutual wars; foment discord among them, which you will
always find comparatively an easy task; take care never to
let one state be totally destroyed, but always to support the
weaker party against the more powerful;—follow this policy
for a time, and the Greeks will themselves spare you the
trouble of conquering them. By their incessant contests
they will so weaken themselves that their country will be¬
come the prey of the first invader.”
As may easily be supposed, Tissaphernes readily ac¬
quiesced in these counsels; upon which Alcibiades wrote
privately to some of the officers in the Athenian army at
Samos, informing them that he had been treating with the
207
Persians in behalf of his countrymen, but that he did not Attica,
choose to return till the democracy should be abolished ; .
adding, that the Persian king disliked a democracy, but
would immediately assist them if that was abolished, and an
oligarchy established in its stead. On the arrival of Pisan-
der and other deputies from the army with the proposals of
Alcibiades, the oligarchial party succeeded in overturning
the democratic constitution; in consequence of which Pisan-
der and the deputies received directions to return to Alci¬
biades, in order to ascertain precisely on what terms the
king of Persia was disposed to enter into an alliance with
them. But perceiving that Tissaphernes was by no means
inclined to assist the Athenians, on account of their recent
successes, Alcibiades artfully set up such extravagant de¬
mands in the king of Persia’s name, that the Athenians of
themselves broke off' the treaty, and thus enabled him to
outwit both parties without offending either. But notwith¬
standing the failure of the negotiations with Tissaphernes, the
democratical form of government was abolished, first in the
cities subject to Athens, and afterwards in the capital itself;
whilst, according to the scheme substituted in its stead, it
was provided that the old form of government should be
entirely dissolved;—that five Prytanes should be elected;—
that these five should choose a hundred others, and each of
the hundred choose three more;—that the Four Hundred
thus elected should become a senate with full power, but
should nevertheless consult occasionally with Five Thou¬
sand of the wealthiest citizens, who alone were henceforth
to be accounted The People ;—and that no authority what¬
ever should remain in the hands of the lower class of citi¬
zens. Such was the scheme proposed by Pisander; and al¬
though the people were opposed to this change, those who
conducted it, being men of great parts, found means to esta¬
blish it by one of those unceremonious acts of audacity which
commonly distinguish revolutions in popular governments.
In the meanwhile the Athenian army having changed The army
their mind, declared for a democracy ; and recalling Alci-declares
biades, they invested him with full power, and insisted on^01, a de-
his immediate return to Athens for the purpose of restoring m°cracy.
the ancient government. But he peremptorily refused to
comply with their wishes; persuaded them to stay w here
they were in order to save Ionia ; and further prevailed on
them to allow some deputies, who had been sent by the new
governors of Athens, to deliver the message with which they
were charged. When the deputies had done so, Alcibiades
enjoined them in reply to return immediately to Athens,
and acquaint the Four Hundred that they were commanded
instantly to resign their authority and restore the senate;
adding, that the Five Thousand might retain their powder
for the present, provided they used it with moderation. By
this answer the city wras thrown into the utmost confusion;
but the party of the new government prevailing, ambassa¬
dors were despatched to Sparta with orders to conclude peace
upon any terms. I his, however, was not so easy a matter
as some had hastily imagined ; for the Spartans proved in¬
tractable ; and Phrynichus, the chief of the embassy, was
murdered on his return. W hen the news of his death
arrived, 1 heramenes, the head of the democratical party,
seized the leaders of the Four Hundred; upon which a
tumult ensued that had almost proved fatal to the city itself;
but the people being at last dispersed, the Four Hundred
immediately assembled, and sent deputies to the people, pro¬
mising to comply with all their reasonable demands. A day
w as accordingly appointed for convoking a general assembly,
and settling the form of government; but when it arrived,
intelligence was brought that the Lacedaemonian fleet was
in sight, and steering directly for Salamis. Thus all was
again thrown into confusion; and the people, instead of de¬
liberating on the subject proposed, ran in crowds down to
the port, whence a fleet of 36 ships was immediately de¬
spatched, under the command of Timochares, to engage the
208
Attica.
Alcibiades
triumph¬
ant and
disgraced.
ATTICA.
enemy, who were perceived to be making for Euboea. But
this fleet was utterly defeated, 22 ships being taken, and the
remainder either sunk or disabled; and this disaster was
followed by the revolt of all Euboea, except the small dis¬
trict of Oreus. When the dismal tidings reached Athens,
everything was given up for lost; and had the Lacedaemo¬
nians taken this opportunity of attacking the city, they would
undoubtedly have succeeded in the attempt, and thus put
an end to the war by the subjugation of Athens. But being
at all times slow, especially in naval affairs, they allowed the
Athenians time to equip another fleet, and to retrieve their
affairs ; while Alcibiades, by his intrigues, so effectually em¬
broiled the Persians and Peloponnesians that neither party
knew whom to trust, and mutual distrust at length rose to
such a pitch as almost to involve them in open hostility; and
several advantages gained by the Athenians at sea tended
to revive their hopes and restore their confidence.
During the succeeding years of this celebi’ated war the
Athenians were also in the first instance very successfid.
Thrasybulus obtained a signal advantage at sea; and in the
same day Alcibiades gained two victories, one by land and
another by sea, capturing the whole Peloponnesian fleet,
besides an immense spoil. The Spartans, humbled by these
reverses, were reduced in their turn to the necessity of suing
for peace. But the Athenians, intoxicated with success,
sent back the envoys without vouchsafing an answer to their
proposals ; and the Spartans, justly incensed at this insolent
and contemptuous conduct, renewed the war with the ut¬
most vigour, and soon after made themselves masters of
Pylos. Nor was this the only misfortune of the Athenians.
The Megarians surprised Nisaea, and put the garrison to
death; an act which so exasperated the Athenians, that they
immediately sent an army against that people,—defeated
them with great slaughter,—and committed horrid devasta¬
tions, in revenge for the affair of Nisaea. But these mis¬
fortunes were still in some measure counterbalanced by the
great actions of Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, and Theramenes.
When Alcibiades returned in triumph to Athens, 408 B.C.,
he brought with him a fleet of 200 ships, together with
such a load of spoils as had never been seen in the capi¬
tal since the conclusion of the Persian war. The people
crowded to the port to behold the hero as he landed ; old
and young blessed him as he passed; and next day, when
he had delivered a harangue to the assembly, they directed
the record of his banishment to be thrown into the sea, ab¬
solved him from the curses he lay under on account of the
alleged sacrilege, and created him generalissimo of their
forces. But this enthusiasm was too violent to be lasting;
and in point of fact a casual reverse which Alcibiades sus¬
tained soon after this obliterated all remembrance of his for¬
mer services, and involved him in disgrace. Having sailed
to the Hellespont with part of his fleet, he left the remainder
under the command of Antiochus his pilot, with strict orders
to attempt nothing in his absence. But the pilot chose to
disobey his instructions, and having provoked Lysander, the
Lacedaemonian admiral, to an engagement, he paid for his
temerity by a total defeat, with the loss of fifteen ships, and
that of his own life into the bargain. On receiving intelli¬
gence of this disaster, Alcibiades returned, and endeavoured
to induce the Lacedaemonian commander to hazard a second
battle; but Lysander was too prudent to incur such a risk^
and in the meanwhile the Athenians deprived Alcibiades of
his command, and named ten new generals in his stead. By
this proceeding their ruin was sealed. Conon, who suc¬
ceeded to the command, was beaten by Callicratidas, Lysan-
der’s successor; but being afterwards strongly reinforced, he
retrieved this disgrace by defeating the Lacedaemonians with
the loss of no less than 77 ships. Such a victory might
have been supposed to inspire the Athenians with some gra¬
titude towards the generals who had gained it; but instead
of this eight of them were recalled, on pretence of their not
Attica.
having assisted the wounded during the engagement: two ^ ^
were prudent enough not to return ; and the six who trusted
to the justice of their country were all put to death with¬
out mercy. .
The following year Lysander, appointed commander of Athenians
the Peloponnesian fleet, succeeded in capturing both Tha- at
sus and Lampsacus. Conon was immediately despatched i
against him with 180 ships; a force so superior to that under
Lysander, that the Lacedaemonian declined accepting battle,
and was consequently blocked up in the river Algos. Wlnle
the Athenians lay there observing him, they grew quite idle
and careless, insomuch that Alcibiades, who had built a habi¬
tation for himself in the neighbourhood, entreated them to
be more watchful, as he well knew Lysander s great abilities,
and dreaded that they might have reason to repent their se¬
curity if they disregarded his advice. They replied by ex¬
pressing their wonder at the assurance of one who was an
exile and a vagabond, in pretending to offer advice to them;
adding, that if he gave them any further trouble, they would
seize and send him a prisoner to Athens. The consequences
of such conduct may easily be imagined. Lysander fell
unexpectedly upon them, and gained a complete victory;
Conon, with only nine galleys, escaping to Evagoras at Cy¬
prus : after which the Lacedaemonian commander returned
to Lampsacus, where he put to death Philocles with 3000
of his soldiers, and the whole ot the officers except Adiman-
tus. He then reduced all the cities subject to Athens,
and artfully sent home their garrisons, that the city, ovei-
stocked with inhabitants, might thus be rendered incapable
of holding out for any length of time when he came to
besiege it.
Nor was any time lost in undertaking this decisive opera- Capture of
tion. Lysander appeared before the harbours with a fleet; ■
while Agis, at the head of a powerful army, invested it on
the land side. For a considerable time the Athenians re¬
sisted both attacks ; but they were at last forced to send depu-
ties to Agis, who referred them to Sparta; and when they i e-
paired thither they were told that no terms could be granted
unless they consented to demolish their walls. They next
applied to Lysander, but he also referred them to Sparta;
to which Theramenes, with other deputies, was immediately
despatched. On their arrival they found assembled the coun¬
cil of the confederates, who all except the Spartans gave
their votes for the utter destruction ot Athens ; but the lat¬
ter would on no account consent to the ruin of a city which
had deserved so well of Greece. I he Athenian envoys did
all in their power to mitigate the severity of the terms, but
without effect; and finally peace was concluded, on condi¬
tion that the long walls and the fortifications of the port
should be demolished, and that the Athenians should deliver
up all their ships excepting twelve, receive back such as had
been banished for political offences, and consent to follow
the fortune of the Lacedaemonians. And these severe terms
were punctually executed. Lysander caused the walls and
fortifications to be pulled down; established an oligarchy
expressly against the will of the people ; and thus completed
the ruin of Athens in the twenty-seventh year of the 1 elo-
nonnesian war, and the 404th b.c.
As soon as the Lacedaemonian had demolished the long The Thir )
walls and the fortifications of the Peiraeus, he constituted a }ian *•
council of thirty, with power, as was pretended, to make
laws, but in truth to subjugate the state. These were the
persons so famous in history under the title ot Hie Innty
Tyrants. They were all the creatures of Lysander; and as
they derived their power from conquest and the law of the
sword, they exercised it in a manner worthy of its origin.
Instead of making laws, they governed without them ; they
appointed a senate and magistrates at their will; and, lastly,
they applied for a garrison from Lacedaemon, that, under the
protection of a foreign military force, they might give a freer
and bolder scope to the licentiousness of tyranny.
ATTICA.
Attica.
Ciitias and Theramenes, two men of the greatest power
W, ' and abilities in Athens, were at the head of this odious oli-
Critias and garchy. The former was ambitious and cruel beyond mea-
Therame- sure ; but the latter was of a more merciful and humane dis-
ne8' position. The one pushed on all the bloody schemes framed
by his confederates, and carried into execution many of his
own ; the other always opposed them, at first with modera¬
tion, at last with vehemence. In the course of his expostu¬
lations he said, that power was given them to rule and not
to despoil the commonwealth; that it became them to act
like shepherds, not like wolves ; and that they ought to be¬
ware of rendering themselves at once odious and ridiculous,
by attempting to domineer over all, being a mere handful of
men, whom the slightest resistance would crush. This hint
was not thrown away; for the remaining oligarchs imme¬
diately chose three thousand persons, whom they constituted
the representatives of the people, and on whom they granted
the notable privilege of not being liable to be put to death
except by judgment of the senate; thereby assuming by
implication a power of sacrificing the other Athenian citizens
at their pleasure. Nor were they slow in practically con-
nrming the justice of this interpretation ; for as many as they
conjectured to be unfriendly to the government in general,
or to any of themselves in particular, they put to death, with¬
out cause and without mercy. Theramenes stoutly resisted
this wantonness of cruelty ; and absolutely refusing to con¬
cur in such measures, Critias accused him to the senate as a
man of unsteady principles, sometimes for the people, some¬
times against them, and favourable to nothing except inno¬
vation and revolution. The accused admitted that he had
sometimes changed his measures, but alleged that he had al¬
ways done so for the benefit of the people. It was solely with
tins view that he made peace with Sparta, and accepted of
ofhce as one of the Thirty; nor had he ever opposed their
measures while they cut off the wicked; but when they
began to destroy men of fortune and family, solely for the
purpose of confiscating their property, then he owned he
had differed with them, which he conceived to be no crime
against the state.
• Whil.st Theramenes was speaking, Critias, perceiving the
to death. ™Pression made upon the senate by his words, withdrew
abiuptly; but he soon returned with a guard, crying out that
he had struck the name of Theramenes out of the list of the
three thousand; that the senate had therefore no longer
cognizance of the cause; and that the Thirty had already
judged and condemned him to death. Theramenes, seeing
that they intended to seize him, fled to the altar in the midst
o the senate-house, and laying his hands thereon, said, “ I
do not seek refuge here because I expect to escape death,
or desire it; but that, tearing me from the altar, the impious
authors of my murder may interest the gods in bringing
them to speedy judgment, and thereby restore freedom to
my country. The guards then dragged him from the altar,
and carrying him to the place of execution, he drank the
poison with undaunted courage ; reminding the people, with
his last breath, that the same tyrants who had arbitrarily
struck his name out of the list of the three thousand, might
a so strike out any of theirs, and that none could say whose
turn it might next be to drink the fatal cup which he had
just drained. The death of this heroic man was followed by
a train of murders such as are to be found recorded only in
t e annals of republican oligarchies or aristocratical repub-
ics. Almost every citizen of any eminence either died a
violent death or was driven into exile.1
At length Thrasybulus, and such as like him had taken
2.19
shelter in the Theban territory, resolved to hazard every Attica,
thing rather than remain in a state of perpetual exile from
their country ; and although he had no more than thirty men Tyranny
on whom he could depend, yet, inspired by the remembrance over-
of the victories he had heretofore obtained in the cause thrown-
of his country, he boldly made an irruption into Attica, and
seizing on Phyle, a castle at a short distance from Athens,
numbers flocked to his standard, and he soon found himself
at the head of seven hundred men, maddened by cruelty
and oppression, and prepared to devote themselves for their
country. The tyrants of course had the disposal of the Spar¬
tan garrison, which they employed to reduce Thrasybulus
and his party; yet he prevailed in various skirmishes, and
at last obliged them to decamp from Phyle, which they
had intended to blockade. The Thirty and their partisans
conceiving it expedient to obtain possession of Eleusis,
marched thither; and having persuaded the people to go un¬
armed out of their city, on the pretence of numbering them,
the monsters instantly commenced an indiscriminate mas¬
sacre. But the forces of Thrasybulus increasing daily, he
seized on the Peiraeus, which he fortified in the best manner
he could; and although the tyrants came down against him
with the utmost force they could raise, he defended himself
with so much obstinacy, that in the end they were forced to
retreat, having lost before the place not only a great number
of their men, but Critias, the president of the Thirty, and
other members of this sanguinary oligarchy. By this gallant
resistance the fate of the oligarchy was sealed. The people
indeed differed among themselves; and the sanguinary
monsters, who during their short administration had destroyed
more men than had fallen during half the Peloponnesian war,
had still a considerable party in Athens. But happily the
cause of humanity prevailed ; the tyrants were expelled, and
withdrew to Eleusis.
But although the citizens had changed the government, Spartans
they had made no agreement with those in the Peirams ;2 attempt
whilst the tyrants, who had retired to Eleusis, sent depu- to reduce
ties to Lacedaemon to announce the revolt of the Athenians Atheils a
and request assistance to reduce them. Nor did their ap- t6001^
plication prove fruitless. Besides remitting them a large ime
sum of money to aid their intrigues, the Lacedaemonians ap¬
pointed Lysander commander-in-chief, and his brother ad¬
miral ; resolving to send both a fleet and an army, in order
to reduce Athens a second time, and, as most of the Greek
states then strongly suspected, to add it to their other do¬
minions. Nor is it improbable that this design would have
taken effect, had not Pausanias, the rival and enemy of
Lysander, resolved to obstruct it by every means in his power.
W ith this view he caused another army to be raised, of which
he took the command, and immediately marched for the
ostensible purpose of besieging the Peiraeus. But while he
lay before the place, and pretended to attack it, he entered
into a private correspondence with Thrasybulus, instructing
him what propositions to make in order to induce the La¬
cedaemonians, who were suspected by their allies, to abandon
the contest, and conclude peace upon equitable terms. These
intrigues had all the success that could be desired. The
Ephori who were with Pausanias in the camp concurred in
ns. measures; and in a short time a treaty was concluded,
by which, amongst other things, it was provided that all
the citizens of Athens should be restored to their homes
and privileges, with the exception of the Thirty, the Eleven
who had acted as their ministers, and the Ten who during
the time of the oligarchy had been constituted governors of
the Peiraeus; that all should remain quiet for the future in
* ^1.cibladef died during the tyranny of the Thirty. He was then in the forty-fourth vear of his ao-e ha i n
gaged in public affairs for about twenty years. He was a bold and able, but bad man • of ureat nerson’al anH d 'T? "T6 °r 1688 en*
utteriy devmd of principle, and addicted to the most shameless profligacy; prompt, skilfu^braveenteriri^. o Cndo”ts’ but
fond of intrigue and finesse in all things; an enemy to liberty, under the mask of ultra-democracy • and Z ’ T8’ ?et
which was opposed to the gratification of his pride, vanity, ambition, sensuality, revenge and W of nerrSuarhusHT6^! T Ttl011
J O; ev n£,s*,s,, that is, Thrasybulus and his party J cage, ana love of perpetual bustle and turmoil.
VOL. IV. J
2 D
210
ATTICA.
Attica.
lus
the city; and that, if any persons were afraid to trust to this
v'—v'—^ agreement, they should have permission to retire unmolested
to Eleusis. Pausanias then marched away with the Spartan
army; and Thrasybulus at the head of his forces entered
Athens, where, having laid down their arms, they sacrificed
with the rest of their fellow-citizens in the temple, of Athena,
and then, to the great delight of all, restored the popular
form of government, which was afterwards consolidated by
an act of general amnesty and oblivion.1
Virtue of Throughout the whole of this transaction the conduct of
Thrasybu- Thrasybulus was admirable. When he first seized the castle
of Phyle, the tyrants privately offered to receive him into
their number instead of Theramenes, and to pardon at his
request any twelve persons whom he might choose to name.
But he nobly replied that he considered his exile far moie
honourable than any authority could be, purchased on such
terms ; and by persisting in his design he accomplished the
deliverance of his country from a ferocious and sanguinary
oligarchy which, as Isocrates informs us, had put 1400 citi¬
zens to death without any form of law, and had driven 5000
more into banishment, besides committing a variety of other
acts of cruelty and oppression.
But, although Athens was thus restored to liberty by the
virtuous patriotism of Thrasybulus, the age of Athenian
glory had passed away. From this period till the reign of
Philip of Macedonia the republic gradually sunk in energy,
though it still continued to enjoy tolerable prosperity ; and
although many of the great masterpieces of Athenian genius
were the productions of a later age, the most splendid of
these only serve to prove beyond all question that the na¬
tional spirit had degenerated, and that, u sunk in its glory,
decayed in its worth,” the Athenian Demos, which had once
been the wonder and terror of the world, was now prepared
to receive the law from the hands of almost any master.
Philip accordingly found but little difficulty in extinguishing
the feeble remains of liberty ; and his son Alexander having
completed the subjugation of Greece, the history of the
Grecian states henceforward ceases to be of almost any in¬
terest. With regard to the capital, however, a rapid sketch
of its history from this period till the present time will be
found under the article Athens, to which reference is ac¬
cordingly made.
Having thus laid before the reader an outline of the. ge¬
neral history of Attica, it now only remains to give, as briefly
as possible, some account of the character, government, re¬
ligion, and public economy of the Athenians.
National character may be defined as theaggregate oi those
ui qualities or peculiarities, physical, moral, and political, by
Athenians, vvhich one community of men is distinguished from another;
in other words, it is a complex result produced by the action
and re-action of primary and secondary causes, or the joint
effect of all the circumstances, original and accidental, in
which a people happens to be placed. But these causes are
so various, both in kind and degree,—the operation of one
is so much affected and modified by that of another, and
direct physical becomes so much blended with indirect moral
and political influences,—that, whilst it is comparatively an
easy matter to determine in what respects the general cha¬
racters of nations differ, it is exceedingly difficult, not to say
impossible, to resolve that of any one into its constituent
elements, and to assign to each its due share in the produc¬
tion of the ultimate result. The instrument of analysis which,
employed in the investigation of physical laws, has led to the
discovery of the most sublime truths, and extended the know¬
ledge and consequently the power of man over the material
world, is applicable only in a very limited degree even to
the most complex phenomena of mind. Here we possess no
manner of control over the subject of our inquiries; we have
no power of placing it in new situations, of trying it by a
Character
of the
variety of tests, or of submitting it to a course of skilfully Attica,
contrived experiments. All that we can possibly do is either
carefully to watch its manifestations, where these fall under
our own notice, or to apply the principles of a sound logic
to such observations as have been recorded by others, and
thus to endeavour to make the nearest approximation we can
to the truth. In such a method of investigation, however,
the liability to error must necessarily be great; for, inde¬
pendently of its own obvious imperfection, the subtile nature
of the phenomena observed, and the constant transitions and
modifications they experience, produce continual mistakes
upon the part of the observer; whilst the spirit of system or
of theory, which is generally most active where our know¬
ledge is least accurate and extensive, instead of facilitating
the correction of such mistakes, contributes rather to render
them inveterate, and thus opposes a serious obstacle to the
progress of sound inquiry. In attempting to form a judg¬
ment of the national character of a people, therefore, it be¬
comes us to be equally on our guard against dogmatism in
the statement of facts, and rash generalization in the infer¬
ences deduced from them. The former, indeed, are but too
frequently stated without the qualifications proper to be ap¬
plied to them; the latter is almost certain to lead into error
and mystification. In cases where physical and moral causes
are blended together in their operation; where primary re¬
sults experience endless modifications from the influence of
circumstances and the re-active working of positive institu¬
tions; and where we are in possession of no instrument of
analysis by which the complex whole can be reduced into
its constituent parts or elements; it is manifest that no theory
which human ingenuity can invent will ever be sufficient to
explain all the phenomena of national character, or to account
for the varied and often incongruous phases which it assumes.
Some writers, for instance, have amused themselves with
referring to the influence of climate all the varieties observ¬
able in the characters and institutions of different nations;
whilst others, again, have ascribed to the joint eftect of moral
and political causes, operating under peculiar circumstances,
the diversities in question. But it must be obvious, on the
slightest consideration, that both these theories are equally
untenable, inasmuch as national character is not the result
of one cause or set of causes, but of all the causes and in¬
fluences, of whatever kind, which act, either directly or in¬
directly, upon the general mind of a people. Instead of
attempting to generalize, therefore, where generalization is
from the very nature of things inadmissible, let us endeavour
simply to point out some of the leading features in the cha¬
racter of that illustrious nation which in ancient times in¬
habited the territory of Attica, and filled the world with the
renown of their achievements both in arts and in arms.
The Athenians surpassed all the other Greeks in physical
conformation no less than in mental endowments. Among
this people, indeed, strength and symmetry of body were
happily united with many of the rarest attributes of mind.
For these advantages they were indebted partly to nature,
and partly to a system of education, which, apparently limited
and imperfect, was nevertheless singularly calculated to de¬
velop their peculiar capabilities. Habitual exercise may not
be capable of creating beauty of form originally, but it cer¬
tainly tends greatly to improve it; and in the human frame
elegance and grace are seldom divorced from the free an
flexible vigour acquired in the palaestra. A similar obser¬
vation may be applied to the human mind. Admitting that
certain tribes or races of men are, taken as a whole, gitteu
bv nature with finer faculties, nicer perceptions, and more
acute sensibilities, than others, no one can doubt that these
may be prodigiously improved by education; which, in fact,
is to the mind what the chisel of the sculptor is to the rude
block of marble,—that which fashions it, by scarcely per-
i This war lasted ten months. (Xenophon, Hist. Grasc., ii. 4, 43.)
ATTICA.
-Attica, ceptible degrees, into the fairest proportions, and gives ani-
mation and expression to that which was originally a rude and
inert block. The Athenians were early sensible of this im¬
portant truth; and although, till the age of Pericles, the
three principal preceptors of their youth were the gram¬
marian, the teacher ot music, and the master of the gym¬
nasium, yet even this limited circle of instructors was not
ill adapted to call forth and keep in exercise the peculiar
faculties for which they were so remarkably distinguished,
and to prepare them for a more extended range of instruc¬
tion. 1 o the study of music, indeed, they were enthusias¬
tically devoted, because in that delightful art they found a
natural scope for the gratification of those nice and delicate
perceptions which constituted a prominent characteristic of
their minds f nor will its union with the study of grammar
be deemed surprising, when we reflect that it was probably
this circumstance, aided by an organic and intellectual sen¬
sibility altogether unrivalled, “ which gave form to the most
harmonious language ever spoken among men, and guided
invention to the structure of that verse which, even under
the gross disguise of modern pronunciation, is still univer¬
sally charming.”1 2 But there were other elements in the
Athenian character besides a love of music, poetry, and the
fine arts, which both nature and education had contributed
to form.
Speaking of this people, Plutarch, after describing them
as at once passionate and placable, prone to anger, yet easily
appeased, goes on to observe, that their minds were not
formed for laborious researches; and that, although they
seized a subject as it were by intuition, yet they wanted
the patience and perseverance requisite for a thorough exa¬
mination of its various bearings and ramifications. An ob¬
servation more superficial in itself, and arguing a greater
ignorance of the real character of the Athenians, cannot
easily be imagined. That they were remarkable for ardour
and vivacity ot temperament, quickness of sensibility as well
as of apprehension, and versatility of feeling as well as of
genius, has not been disputed. But there is nothing in all
this which necessarily presupposes or implies an incapacity
for the prosecution of subjects requiring patient thought
and persevering attention. The French, in point of national
character, hold nearly the same relative place among the
modern nations of Europe that the Athenians held among
the states of ancient Greece; yet it is matter of notoriety,
that in the cultivation of the natural and the exact sciences,
that is, in the prosecution of those subjects where patience
and perseverance are pre-eminently indispensable, they
have for a considerable time outstripped all competition, and
borne the palm alone. This was precisely the case with
the Athenians. A love of profound research and curious
speculation seems to have been as inherent in their charac¬
ter, and as congenial to their national temperament, as a
love of poetry, music, and the fine arts.
- w- ^ fire which Thales lighted up was never afterwards
inquiries!6 wllolly extinguished amongst the Greeks. He had kindled
his torch at the altar of science in Egypt, and it burned
brightly in the propitious atmosphere to which it was trans¬
ferred by the father of Greek philosophy. The Ionian
school, of which this philosopher became the founder, was
followed in quick succession by the Italian and Eleatic,
where the physical and metaphysical sciences were culti¬
vated with equal success; and in the dialogues of Plato,
ample evidence may be found of the zeal and ardour with
which the laws both of mind and of matter were investigated
in Athens, as soon as the violence of political contention
had subsided, and a respite from wars and revolutions gave
leisure for the discussion of such subjects. God, the Uni¬
verse, and Man, at once divided and engrossed the whole
of their attention. The question first asked was, What is
God ? and to this various and discordant answers were of
course necessarily given. According to Thales, he is the
most ancient of all things, for he is without beginning; he
is air, said Anaximenes; he is a pure mind, quoth Anaxa¬
goras ; he is both air and mind, contended Archelaus. De¬
mocritus thought him mind in a spherical form ; Pytha¬
goras, a monad, and the principle of good; Heracleitus, an
eternal circular fire ; Parmenides, the finite and immovable
principle, in a spherical form ; Melissus and Zeno, one and
everything, the only eternal and infinite. But these an¬
swers, being all more or less physical, did not satisfy the
question ; a vacuity was still left; and Necessity, Fate, and
Fortune or Accident, were the principles called in to fill it
up. The Universe gave rise to another set of disputations.
According to some, what is has ever been, and the world
is eternal. Others, again, argued that the world is not
eternal, but that matter is eternal. And here a multitude
of questions arose. Was this matter susceptible of forms,
of one or of many ? Was it water, or air, or fire, or an as¬
semblage of corpuscular atoms, or an infinite number of in¬
destructible elements ? Flad it subsisted without movement
in the void, or had it an irregular movement ? Did the
world appear by intelligence communicating its action to it,
or did the Deity ordain it by penetrating it with a part of
his essence ? Did these atoms move in the void, and was
the universe the result of their fortuitous concourse ? Are
there but two elements in nature, earth and fire ; and by
these are all things produced ? or are there four elements,
whose parts are united by attraction and separated by re¬
pulsion ? In a word, “ causes and essences ; bodies, forms,
and colours ; production and dissolution ; the great pheno¬
mena of visible nature—the magnitudes, figures, eclipses,
and phases, ot the two heavenly luminaries; the nature
and division of the sky; the magnitude and situation of
the earth ; the sea, with its ebbs and flows; the causes of
thunder, lightning, winds and earthquakes;—all these fur¬
nished disquisitions which were pursued with an eagerness
of research and intenseness of application peculiar to the
Greeks.”3 Nor did Man form a subject of less interesting
and curious speculation than the universe of which he was
considered an epitome. All allowed him a soul and an in¬
telligence, but all differed widely in their ideas respecting
this soul or intelligence. Some maintained that it was al¬
ways in motion, and that it moved by itself; others thought
it a number in motion ; some considered it the harmony of
the four elements ; others, again, variously represented it as
water, fire, blood, a fiery mixture of things perceptible by
the intellect, which have globose shapes and the force of
fire, a flame emanating from the sun, an assemblage of fiery
and spherical atoms, like those subtile particles of matter
which are seen floating in the rays of the sun.
Such were a few of the speculations which science had
devised for employing the thoughts of the active-minded
men in Greece, particularly in Attica; and when to these
we add the ethical and political systems of the Academy,
the Lyceium, the Porch, and the Gardens, to say nothing
of that of the l\ew Academy founded by Arcesilaus, and
ably maintained by Carneades, or of the attention paid by
almost all the philosophers to the cultivation of pure geo-
metry, some idea may be formed of the extent of Plutarch’s
misrepresentation of the Athenian mind when he described
211
Attica.
1 What the music of the ancients ever was, we have now little means of judging, as none of it has been transmitted intelligibly to us;
but that the Grecian music, even from the earliest times, had extraordinary merit, we have Plato’s testimony in very remarkable
words (Minos, 46 ; Convivium, 333); and Aristotle (Polit. 1. viii. c. 5) coincides in judgment with his great master. (Mitchell’s Aris¬
tophanes, prel. disc. p. xxxv. xxxvi.)
2 Mitchell’s Aristophanes, prel. disc, ubi supra.
3 Ibid. p. xli. et seqq.
212
Attica.
ATTICA.
Effects of
political
institu¬
tions.
it as incapable of pursuing laborious researches, and as want¬
ing in persevering and continuous attention. I he very re
verse of this, as has just been shown, was the truth ; and,
independently of the exemplification of a similar capacity
for deep and laborious researches on the part ol a mode
nation whose character in many particulars resembles that
of the ancient Athenians, it is no more than a sound view
of the principles of human nature might, anterior to all ex¬
perience, have led us to anticipate. For, as travellers often
reach the same destination by different routes, so men re
quently pursue the same course from different motives or
impulses. In the prosecution of scientific investigations,
for instance, the Frenchman and the German are eac i p -
severing and laborious; but the former is impelled by an
ardent curiosity and an overmastering ambition which con¬
centrate the whole energies of his mind on the subject
which has powerfully attracted his attention and merge all
his feelings and desires in the attainment of one great ob-
iect. The latter, without enthusiasm, perhaps with no de¬
finite object of ambition in view, pursues a similar career,
because it belongs to his nature to persevere in whatever
he may have undertaken or commenced. The principles
by which these inquirers are are set in motion are differen ,
and the rates of advancement consequently unequal; but
diligent and persevering labour is nevertheless alike predi-
cable of each. The one travels, so to speak, in a light cha¬
riot, and compasses the distance to be travelled over at an
accelerated pace ; the other trundles it slowly along in a
heavy lumbering post-waggon, but in time he also reaches
the same destination. This analogy will probably serve to
bring out the distinction here pointed at, and which, indeed,
it is necessary to keep steadily in view, in order to form a
just conception of the Athenian character. The native of
Attica may be considered the Frenchman of Greece ; quick,
lively, sensitive, versatile, inconstant, full of that mercurial
spirit which shows itself equally in extreme delicacy of
organic perception, and intuitive rapidity of mental appre¬
hension ; yet endued with an ardent and unquenchable cu¬
riosity, together with an inherent taste for subtile and ab¬
stract speculations, under the joint influence of which he
was capable of penetrating the most recondite mysteries of
science. Much of the excellence attainable in art is doubt¬
less due to superiority of physical constitution and of natu¬
ral character ; but in science, although original genius will
always assert its pre-eminence, and distinguish itself by the
felicity of its intuitions, unremitting labour is the conditio
sine qua non of great and signal success ; and it is not a
little remarkable to find this condition so strikingly exem¬
plified in the character of a people whose more obvious qua¬
lities would seem incompatible with steady concentration o
thought, and whom a superficial observer has according y
pronounced incapable of that intense, resolute application,
which, in fact, constituted one of their most distinguishing
national peculiarities.
Politically considered, the Athenian character took by re¬
flection the hue of those republican institutions to which it
had originally given birth ; and this, blending and inter¬
mingling with its natural lights and shadows, produced a com¬
posite mass, which moral analysis unfortunately has no pris¬
matic power of resolving into its primary elements. Love of
liberty, however, as liberty was then understood, formed the
ruling principle as well as passion of the people. An equality
of political rights, or, in other words, an equal right in all free
citizens to aspire to the exercise of political power, consti¬
tuted the essence of the Athenian form of government. Civil
liberty the benign discovery of modern times, was then un¬
known, or at least unenjoyed. Political equality was the only
species of liberty understood or enjoyed in the ancient re¬
publics, and in those of Italy during the middle ages. It
was this which had such powerful charms for the citizens of
those democracies ; it was this of which they were so pas-
Attica.
sionately enamoured ; it was this which gave so effective a
stimulus to all the faculties of the human mind, and pro¬
duced those wonders of genius and of art which have exhaust¬
ed the admiration, and rendered hopeless the rivalry, °f suc¬
ceeding times. The glory of the country in fact formed the
glory of every citizen belonging to it; and he felt himself
directly participant in all that contributed in any way to¬
wards its greatness or renown. For a short time, indeed, an
oligarchical usurpation might oppress the people, or the am¬
bition of a fortunate soldier or crafty statesman might prove
dangerous to liberty ; but a sudden popular explosion might
overturn the one, and the ostracism expel the other. 1 he
re-action of such a political system upon the national charac¬
ter could not fail to be powerfully marked. Its immediate
productswereextreme jealousy of those intrusted with power,
and an incessant watchfulness over all their proceedings ;
an intense, passionate detestation of tyrants and tyranny ;
an ardent and active zeal in defence of public liberty when
assailed, whether from within or from without. Factious
turbulence, inconstancy, and love of change, may also be
numbered amongst the effects of a system of government
purely democratical; and, paradoxical as it may seem, these
for a time constitute its best if not its only safeguards. Much
has been said and written about republican ingra-titude, which,
indeed, has long been proverbial; but those who declaim on
this theme do not reflect, that while the vice m question is
not the peculiar reproach of democracy, the essence of that
form of government consists in anxiously guarding against
the aggrandizement of individuals or classes, and in crushing
every aspirant who attempts to raise his head above the com¬
mon level. Republics have often had occasion to regret their
rewards, seldom their punishments. • , General
If we are not greatly mistaken, these observations furnish results<
a key to the right intelligence of the Athenian character, the
leading features of which were unquestionably moulded and
fashioned by their political institutions. They were fickle,
versatile, liable to sudden gusts of passion, but easily ap¬
peased ; inconstant in their affections, but not implacable in
their hatreds ; jealous, factious, turbulent, impatient of com¬
mand, and prone to resent the assumption of superiority;
attentive to the information and instruction afforded them by
eminent citizens, yet intolerant of dictation, and, m their best
days, ready to repress an overgrown and dangerous reputa¬
tion ; fond of flattery, and too apt to lend a delighted ear to
the adulation of sycophants or demagogues but not insen¬
sible to virtue, nor unwilling to listen to those honest patriots
who proved their sincerity by courageously exposing the
vices and follies of their countrymen ; brave in the field, and
liable to be excessively elated with victory or depressed with
misfortunes, but seldom chargeable with dishonouring success
by inhumanity to the vanquished, or deepening the disgrac .
of defeat by humiliating or abject concessions to the victor;
generous in their sentiments; bold and free in their opinions;
invariable in their sympathy with and admiration of genius ;
constant in their love of liberty and their country ; and never
backward to repair the errors or injustice committed un e
the influence of pernicious advice, passionate excitemen ,
the headlong impetuosity of an ardent and uncontrollable
temperament. In their private conduct they were courteous,
mild, humane, polished, liberal, and enlightened ; simple in
their manners, frugal in their habits, and but little addicted
to any kind of ostentation or parade, even after their victo¬
ries had brought them in contact with oriental luxury, and
when their riches enabled them to rival in costliness and
splendour the nations whom they conquered. All tfieir sump'
tuousness and magnificence was reserved for and lav^hed
on those public edifices and monuments of art which made
Athens the pride of Greece, the envy of the surrounding na¬
tions, and the admiration of the world at large. Such was the
Athenian Demos in the days of its gtory and .ndependen^,
when, by the mouth of Aristides, it declared to the ambas
ATTICA.
Attica.
Govern¬
ment.
Legisla¬
tion of
Draco.
sadors of the Great King, “ that it was impossible for all the
gold in the world to tempt the republic of Athens, or to pre¬
vail with it to sell its liberty and that of Greece,” and when
public virtue maintained the purity and vigour of public in¬
stitutions.
During the period which elapsed from the abolition of
royalty till the appearance of Solon in the character of a law¬
giver and codificator, the constitution of the Athenian go¬
vernment experienced frequent mutations. To the kings
succeeded the hereditary archons, who held their office for
life, and were in fact sovereigns under another designation.
Of this the nobles grew at length tired ; and, accordingly,
on the death of Alcmaeon (b.c. 752), Charops was raised to
the archonship upon the condition of holding it for ten years
only. He was followed in succession by six others, who ex¬
ercised the functions of the office under the same decennial
limitation. But on the expiration of the archonship of
Eryxias, a further and greater change took place, in 682 b.c.
The duration of the office was then limited to a single year,
and its duties were divided amongst nine persons, chosen out
of the first order of the state, the eupatrids or nobles only.
These functionaries all bore the title of archon, but differed
in dignity as well as in the particular nature of their duties.
The first in rank, called Archon Eponymus, or simply the
Archon, represented the majesty of the state, and by his name
the year of his magistracy was distinguished ; the second bore
the title of king, and was the head of the religion of the com¬
monwealth, to the care and protection of which his func¬
tions principally related ; and the third, or polemarch, was
originally a sort of minister at war or commander-in-chief.
1 he six other archons, denominated thesmothetes, presided
as judges in the ordinary courts of justice, and formed to¬
gether a tribunal with a special jurisdiction. The nine to¬
gether constituted the Council of State. The legislative
functions remained with the senate or boide and the assembly
of the people ; but the whole executive powers of the state,
political, military, judicial, and religious, were exercised by
the archons.
.This is the substance of the information derived from the
ancient authors respecting the Athenian government at the
period to which we refer; but as writing had until then been
little practised in Greece, and as laws were promulgated
orally and preserved by tradition, it was necessarily scanty
and imperfect; nor was ;t possible, under such circum¬
stances, that the sciences of legislation and government
should receive any material improvement, or the rights and
interests of the many meet with due respect and attention,
when the authority of the state was lodged in the hands of
an irresponsible few. The commonwealth was distracted
by a perpetual scramble for the sovereign power, which,
being open to all the principal families, some who could not
obtain it by legal sought to grasp by illegal means. Fac¬
tious ambition and lawless turbulence found equal scope for
displaying themselves ; and while the people or Demos w^ere
fearfully oppressed by the nobles, continual alternations of
despotism and anarchy, of usurpation and revolution, the in¬
tolerable evils of an unsettled government and an uncertain
jurisprudence, became deeply felt and almost universally
acknowledged. A remedy was accordingly sought for in a
written code which Draco introduced in b.c. 624; but the
talents of the legislator were unequal to the task he had
undertaken, and the indiscriminate severity of his system
speedily defeated its own purpose. He made no attempt to
reform the political constitution of his country, the real
source of the miseries under which it groaned, but esta¬
blished a new penal code, which denounced the highest pun¬
ishment against the most trivial offences as well as the most
enormous crimes, upon the ground that the slightest breach
of any positive law deserved death as treason against the
213
Attica.
law of the state. A system so revolting to the natural feel¬
ings and sentiments of mankind could never be reduced
into practice, nor rendered productive of anything but evil;
for every principle of reason and of humanity conspired to
defeat its operation ; and whilst its obvious tendency was to
provoke the commission of heinous crimes, it at the same
time multiplied the chances of impunity in favour of crimi¬
nals. The laws of Draco, therefore, instead of applying a
remedy to the evils of a defective system of polity, served
rather to increase them, and to make the people feel strongly
the necessity of a more radical and comprehensive reform
than that which had been proposed by this stern and inflex¬
ible moralist. Nor wTas it long ere a change was effected
in the constitution of the government, which laid the foun¬
dation of the Athenian system of polity properly so called,
and which, though it subsequently underwent frequent and
considerable alterations, may nevertheless be regarded as
the basis of Athenian liberty. This was accomplished by
Solon, one of the greatest characters that Greece ever pro¬
duced, and one of the wisest men of whom any age or
country can boast. We now accordingly proceed to give
some account of his legislative labours, as these were em¬
bodied in the constitution which he reformed and remo¬
delled on a plan suited to the circumstances and wants of
his country.
By the fundamental law of this constitution the sovereign Legisla-
power was vested in the general assembly of the people, tion of
But an important question here arises, namely, Who were Coffin-
accounted The People, legally entitled, in their collective
capacity, to the exercise of the supreme power of the state,
as well as to provide effectually for the exclusion of those
upon whom that high privilege had not been conferred ? The
population oi Attica, or, in other words, the component Popula-
members of the Athenian commonwealth, consisted of three ti011-
classes, viz., Athenian citizens; resident aliens, or freemen
liable to the capitation tax, who had not the rights of Athe¬
nian citizens; and slaves in actual bondage : and these
classes differed from one another in numbers no less than in
rank and condition. The number of citizens has been va¬
riously estimated, and, in point of fact, must have differed at
different times. According to the census taken in the time
of Pericles, they amounted to no more than 14,040 persons.
In the first speech of Demosthenes against Aristogeiton,
they are, however, reckoned at nearly 20,000; Plato, in his
Critias, assumes the same amount for the most ancient
times, having doubtless transferred the number that was
commonly computed in his own day to the earliest periods
of the state; and the later Grecian writers, as Libanius, for
instance, follow the same statement. But the enumeration
made by Demetrius Phalereus gives more precise and de¬
finite results. According to this census, which was taken
in the year b.c. 309, there were 21,000 citizens, 10,000 re¬
sident aliens, and 400,000 slaves; an estimate which, ac¬
cording to the usual statistical rule of taking the adults as a
fourth part of the population, would give for the total num¬
ber of citizens 84,000, and for that of aliens 40,000 ; whilst
the slaves, having no head or status of any kind in the com¬
monwealth, are reckoned absolutely, comprehending under
the 400,000 all those in actual bondage, men, women, and
children, without distinction of age or sex. But, from va¬
rious considerations, into which it is unnecessary to enter,
Boeckh has shown1 that this census requires considerable
modifications; and, upon grounds which appear to be com¬
pletely conclusive, he reckons the free inhabitants at 90,000,
the resident aliens at 45,000, and the slaves at 365,000,
together with women and children, which latter, however,
were proportionally few. Assuming this estimate, then,
as a pretty close approximation to the truth, it follows
that the number of adult citizens was above 22,000, and
1 Public Economy of Athens, p. 30, et seqq. Engl. Transl., 2d Edit. London, 1842.
214
Attica.
ATTICA.
Assembly
of the
people.
Council
State.
that The People, in the political sense of the term, consisted
of only about a twenty-third part of the entire population
of the country. It is of the greatest importance to keep
this fact steadily in view, as it has an immediate bearing
upon the whole political system of the Athenians, and serves
to reconcile many apparent anomalies by which superficial
inquirers have been so often perplexed and misled. No¬
thing indeed can be more erroneous than the notion, winch
has been repeatedly promulgated, that the Athenian con¬
stitution was purely democratical. On the contrary, it was,
in the strictest sense of the term, a republican aristocracy, -
the whole power of the state being vested in the privileged
class called citizens, who, as we have jxist seen, constituted
but a small portion of the entire population ; whilst the two
other classes had no recognized political existence whatso¬
ever, and that which was by far the most numerous remained
in a state of more abject servitude than the villains under
the feudal system, or the serfs in Russia and Poland.
We have already said that, by the fundamental law of the
Athenian constitution, the sovereign power was vested in
the general assembly of the people. T his body consisted of
all the citizens, or privileged class, who had attained a cei -
tain age; excepting such as had been attainted and rendered
infamous by a judicial sentence. Yielding to the temper
of the times and the force of circumstances, Solon confirmed
to this body an authority universally and uncontrollably abso¬
lute ; but he at the same time sought to establish a balancing
power, capable in some measure of restraining the excesses
into which a sovereign multitude is ever ready, on the slight¬
est excitement, to plunge. With this view he made a new
division of the people into four ranks or classes, according
to the relative value of their possessions or property. I he
first rank consisted of those whose lands produced annually
five hundred medimni of corn, wine, oil, or any other com¬
modity, dry or liquid; and who were hence called Penta-
cosiomedimni. The second rank was composed of persons
whose lands yielded at least three hundred measures, and
who were denominated Hippeis; because, although enjoy¬
ing the same exemption as the first rank from service in the
infantry or on shipboard, they were bound to maintain, at
their own charge, a horse for the public, and, within the mi¬
litary age, to serve personally in the cavalry. Ihe third
rank, or Zeugitce, consisted of those whose lands produced
upwards of 200, but less than 300 measures, and who were
bound to serve in the infantry of the line (ottATtcu), ami to
be completely provided with arms for the purpose. 1 he
rest of the citizens not possessed of lands yielding 200 mea¬
sures were comprehended under the name of Thetes, and
were also liable to military service either in the infantry of
the line or among the light troops, according as they chanced
to be provided with arms ; and when Athens afterwards be¬
came a maritime power, it was also from this class that the
fleet was principally manned. The diligent researches of
Arbuthnot show the extreme difficulty, or rather impossibi¬
lity, of ascertaining, by modern standards, the precise rela¬
tive value of an Attic estate in the age of Solon; but it seems
to be tolerably clear that the object and intention of the Athe¬
nian lawgiver in forming such division, was to give to pro¬
perty a preponderance over numbers, whereas hitherto all
political rights had been dependent on birth alone ; and,
accordingly, by his constitution, it was expressly provided
that the magistracies should be filled from the first, second,
and third ranks, to the exclusion of the fourth. This con¬
stitution, generally called a timocracy, made the democratic
element so powerful in the assembly, where every Athenian
citizen, even the poorest, had a vote, that in the end it over¬
ruled every other power in the state. But, in the legislator’s
opinion, it was checked by two great councils, the senate of
the Four Hundred and the Council of the Areiopagus.
of The former consisted of 100 persons chosen out of each
of the four wards or districts into which the people of Attica
were divided, or 400 in all, but afterwards raised to 500, Attica,
when the number of wards or districts was increased to ten, v ~IL *
and 50 counsellors or senators allotted to each. This re¬
form was introduced by Cleisthenes, in b.c. 510. The com¬
mon designation of this senate was the Boule or The Coun¬
cil of Five Hundred, or simply The Five Hundred. 1 he
members were chosen annually by lot from among those
who were legally qualified for the office and desirous of ob¬
taining it; but, prior to their admission, they had to undergo,
before the existing council, a strict scrutiny, termed Doki-
rnasia, concerning their past life, and if anything preju¬
dicial to their character came out in course of the inquiry,
they were rejected. The counsellors of each tribe, in turn,
for the space of 35 days, enjoyed superior dignity and ad¬
ditional authority under the title of Prytcxnes; and from them
the council hall or place of meeting was denominated Pry-
taneium. The Prytanes officiated in turn as presidents of
the council, each holding the office only one day, during
which he had the custody of the public seal, with the keys
of the treasury and those of the citadel; and the whole as¬
sembly formed the Council of State of the commonwealth.
This body, partly deliberative and partly executive, had the
initiative of all laws; and, in fact, its peculiar and most im¬
portant function consisted in preparing business for the as¬
sembly of the people, where nothing could be proposed which
had not previously received the sanction of the council, and
where the whole procedure was regulated by functionaries
of its appointment. Any measure sanctioned by the Houle,
and thus declared to be fit to be brought before the popu¬
lar assembly was termed a probouleuma. Attendance at
the popular assemblies was made compulsory on the part
of the citizens, and four assemblies were held during the
presidency of every Prytaneia, or term of 35 days, for the
despatch of public business, which was duly apportioned and
subdivided amongst them. The first confirmed or rescinded
the appointments of magistrates, received accusations of
public offences presented by the thesmothete archons, and
heard the catalogue of fines and confiscations for the ser¬
vice of the state; the second enacted laws, and disposed of
petitions, public and private ; the third gave audience to the
ministers of foreign powers; and the fourth regulated such
matters as concerned religion. In later times, all citizens
who attended in due time received a small recompense or
pay from the treasury. The Epistates, chairman, speaker,
or president of the assembly, was appointed by lot from the
nine Proedri or foremen, w ho were nominated in the sanm
way from the council, that is, one from the counsellors of
each tribe whose representatives were not at the time Pry¬
tanes ; and with these functionaries sat the JSomophylaces,
otherwise called, from their number, The Eleven, whose
duty it w as to watch over the laws, and to explain to the
people the tendency of any proposal which seemed con¬
trary to the spirit of the constitution, as well as to superin¬
tend the administration of justice. , .
Solon took none of those severe precautions to maintain Annual^
his constitution which were adopted by some other ancient ^ lawg
democratical legislators; neither exacting an oath, like enj0ine(j.
Lycurgus, who by a species of artifice sought to render its
obligation perpetual, nor ordaining, like Gharondas, that
whosoever proposed to abrogate an old law or enact a new
one, should come into the assembly of the people with a
halter about his neck. On the contrary, aware that regu¬
lations, however well adapted to the circumstances of the
commonwealth at one period, might prove wholly unsuitable
to its circumstances at another, and that time, the great
innovator, rendered certain changes and modifications ne¬
cessary, he even went so far as to enjoin an annual revision
of the laws, and to prescribe the form in which this might
with most propriety be effected. If the assembly of the
people declared alteration in any point necessary, a com¬
mittee was to be appointed, with directions to consider the
ATTICA.
215
Attica.
Mode of
enacting
a law.
Oourt of
Areiopa-
gus.
change proper to be made; and if a new law was in conse-
^ quence prepared, five officers were at the same time named
to defend the old one before the assembly, which then de¬
cided between them. The persons composing such a com¬
mittee were denominated Nomothetes, and in later times
amounted to so many as a thousand: the persons nominated
to defend an old law had the name of Syndics. This was
the only form in which it was safe, or indeed constitutional,
to propose any alteration in the existing law at Athens.
But as the passing of a law by the assembly without the
regular formalities of previous publication, or of one couched
in ambiguous and fallacious terms, or contrary to a former
law, subjected the proposer to penalties, it became usual to
repeal the old law before any new measure was brought
forward; and the delay occasioned by this double procedure
served as an additional security to the constitution, which
was equally guarded against rash innovation on the one
hand, and the danger resulting from the absence of all im¬
provement or amelioration on the other.
The regular and ordinary mode of enacting a law at Athens
may be very shortly described. As the council had the ini¬
tiative of all laws, so it was their duty to frame the bills which
were to be submitted to the general assembly of the people.
But any citizen having aught to propose for public considera¬
tion, might address it to the Prytanes, whose duty it was to
receive all petitions, suggestions, and communications, and
to transmit them to the council. When the matter had been
there approved and digested into proper form, it became a
probouleuma or bill, and being written on a tablet, was ex¬
posed during several days for public perusal and considera¬
tion. At the next assembly it was read to the people, after
which the question was asked by the public crier, “ Who of
those above fifty years of age chooses to speak ?” And these,
if any were so disposed, having delivered their sentiments,
the crier again proclaimed, “Any Athenian, not disqualified
by law, may now speak.” The circumstances absolutely
disqualifying were flight in battle, a large amount of debt to
the commonwealth, and conviction for a crime inferring in¬
famy ; but the Prytanes had the privilege of enjoining si¬
lence at discretion, although the injunction was not effectual
unless ratified or acquiesced in by the assembly. When the
debates had ended, the suffrages were taken by a show of
hands, which was the ordinary way of voting ; but in extra¬
ordinary cases, particularly where the question to be deter¬
mined related to alleged mal-administration on the part of
magistrates, the votes were given by casting pebbles into
vessels prepared for the purpose by the Prytanes, who, after
the foremen had examined the suffrages, and declared the ma¬
jority, dismissed the assembly. Such was the legislative me¬
chanism of the Athenian constitution.
But Solon hoped to provide a further and more powerful
restraint against aberration in the Court of Areiopagus, by
improving its regulations, and extending its powers. We have
no account of the origin of this celebrated tribunal, which,
indeed, the partiality of succeeding ages carried too far back
into the fabulous ages to be now discovered. It was com¬
posed of those who, having executed the office of archon with
credit, and passed the euthyne or scrutiny concerning their
conduct while in power, were considered best qualified, by
their experience and integrity, for being admitted members
of this tribunal ; and, in order to place them above being in¬
fluenced either by fear or favour, they held their offices not
for a year, which was the ordinary official term in the Athe¬
nian commonwealth, but for life. The powers of the court of
Areiopagus were very great indeed. It is said to have been
the first which adjudged the punishment of death for murder ;
and capital offences amongst the Athenians were for the most
part cognizable by it alone. It was the only court from which
there lay no appeal to the assembly of the sovereign people.
It had power to stay execution of all judicial decrees, not ex¬
cepting those pronounced by the general assembly itself, and
to annul an acquittal or to extend mercy to the condemned ; Attica,
it directed all issues from the public treasury ; in its cen-
sorial capacity it punished impiety, immorality, and all dis¬
orderly conduct, and exercised a general superintendence
over the morals and behaviour of the people ; it required
every citizen to account to it annually for his means of liveli¬
hood, and to show that he earned his subsistence by honest
industry in his particular calling ; lastly, it took a fatherly
care of the youth of the republic, and provided that all should
receive an education suitable to their rank and fortune. For
the despatch of judicial business the court of Areiopagus sat
only during the night, and in perfect darkness, that the mem¬
bers, it is said, might be the less liable to prepossessions
either for or against the accused ; and, on the same precau¬
tionary principle, advocates were required to confine them¬
selves to a simple narrative of facts and statement of the law,
without digressing into rhetorical embellishment, or attempt¬
ing to influence the understandings by appealing to the pas¬
sions of the judges. In a word, this celebrated institution
formed a sort of State Inquisition, and seems to have been
organized for the double purpose of checking that constant
tendency to excess which is inherent in all purely popular
governments, and of maintaining that public and private vir¬
tue which has rightly been pronounced the principle of de¬
mocracy.
Besides the Areiopagus, which ought properly to be re- Other
garded as constituting part of the machine of government, courts,
there were several courts of judicature at Athens. Before
the time of Solon the archons officiated as supreme and sole
judges in nearly all manner of suits ; but these functionaries
being appointed by lot, and often very ill qualified for dis¬
charging so important a duty, it had become usual for each
to choose two persons learned in the law to assist him ; and
the latter, under the name ofparedroi or assessors, were at
length recognized as regular constitutional officers, and ap¬
pointed with the same formalities as the archons themselves.
Solon, however, discerned the inconveniencies of this system,
and reformed it altogether. “ That,” said he, “ is, in my
opinion, the most perfect government, where an injury to any
one is the concern of all.” The principle from which he set
out was therefore to give to all an immediate concern in the
administration of justice. With this view he ordained, that all
causes should be tried by select bodies of men, resembling
modern juries, and called to perform nearly the same func¬
tions ; the archons merely superintending the preparation
of causes, and presiding at the trial of them in the manner
of our judges. All questions of law or of practice were
judicable solely by the latter ; but in all questions offact, or
in the general issue of guilty or not guilty, the jury were the
exclusive judges ; and it was the bounden duty of the pre¬
siding magistrate to give immediate effect to their decision,
whatever it might be. Any Athenian above thirty years of
age, and not under legal disqualification, was eligible as a
juryman, on delivering his name and condition to the thes-
mothete archons ; but as the attendance in these courts drew
the citizens away from their ordinary occupations, it was only
fair to indemnify them by a small payment for their attend¬
ance ; this custom, however, was not introduced until the time
of Pericles. From the general list of those who voluntarily
tendered their services, the thesmothete archons appointed
by ballot juries to their different courts ; and these appear
to have officiated for a definite period in each, somewhat in
the manner of the Roman judices, who were, to all intents
and purposes, a species of standing jury. It thus appears that
the honour of inventing jury trial is due to the great Athe¬
nian lawgiver ; and that, in his hands, the institution reached
a degree of perfection which it has not yet attained among
many modern nations, who affect the greatest admiration for
the ancient jurisprudence, and boast of having transfused in¬
to their codes its wisest rules and provisions. It is necessary
to add, that, in order to save the inhabitants of the country
216
Attica.
A T T I C A.
Religion.
the trouble and expense of resorting to Athens for justice in
’ cases of inferior importance, itinerant judges, called tfom their
number The Forty, were appointed to make regular circuits
through the towns or boroughs of Attica, with full powers to
judge and determine in all actions of petty assault, and in all
disputes about property under a certain value.
In all countries, and throughout all ages, religion and
civil government have, with few exceptions, been so inti¬
mately, or rather so inseparably connected, that an exposi¬
tion of the one would be incomplete and even unintelligible
without some account of the other. The magistrate has al¬
most everywhere sought the alliance of the priest; and the
hopes and fears arising from a supposed dependence on su¬
perior power or a belief in a future state of existence have
been employed as useful auxiliaries in governing men and
managing their affairs in the present life. The possibility
of ruling nations by means of their reason alone, and by a
due regard to their secular interests, without any reference to
their religious opinions or observances, is an idea which seems
never to have entered the mind of any ancient legislator,
and which even now, when the mighty volume of past expe¬
rience is unfolded for our instruction, is considered by many
as little better than downright political heresy. Itwas deemed
alike impious and impracticable to attempt to establish any
form of polity of which religion or the church did not con¬
stitute one of the main pillars, or to seek to promote the
happiness of men in society without at the same time pre¬
scribing by law the mode in which they ought to worship
the gods. In the Athenian constitution, as settled by Solon,
religion and government, the church and the state, weie so
intimately connected, and became so indissolubly blended
together, that, without any sensible error, we may at will con¬
sider the religion as part of the government, or the govern¬
ment as part of the religion, and both as alike the creatures
of positive enactment or legislative ordination.
The religion of the Athenians and the Greeks generally
seems to have arisen out of a strong sympathy with the vari¬
ous powers and agencies manifested in the visible world. To
the imaginative Greek no part of nature was absolutely pas-
siveorinert; all the objects around him either impressed upon
him the idea of life, or he readily imparted it to them from
the fulness of his imagination. “ This was, in fact, the popu¬
lar mode of thinking and feeling, cherished, no doubt, by the
bold forms, abrupt contrasts, and all the natural wonders,
of a mountainous and sea-broken land. I he teeming earth,
the quickening sun, the restless sea, the rushing stream, the
irresistible storm, in short, every display of superhuman
power, roused in the mind of the Greek a distinct sentiment
of religious awe. Everywhere he found deities, which, how¬
ever, may not for a long time have been distinguished by
name from the objects in which their presence was mani¬
fested. In this manner it may be supposed, the Pelasgians,
or earliest inhabitants of Greece, worshipped the powers
which, according to primitive notions, animated the various
forms of the visible world. Herodotus, who attempts to
trace the steps by which this simple belief in the divine
powers of nature was transformed into the complicated sys¬
tem of Greek mythology, assumes two great causes of the
change: first, the introduction of foreign divinities and rites;
and, secondly, the inventive imagination of the Greek
poets. In regard to the first point he believes, that nearly
all the names of the Greek gods had been imported into
Greece from Egypt; but this supposition, which was formerly
adopted without scruple, and was believed in as firmly as
the establishment of Egyptian colonies in Greece, has in mo¬
dern times been the subject of very earnest controversies;
and although it is not to be denied, that eastern nations,
and even Egypt, present some striking coincidences with
the religion and rites of the Greeks, yet the accounts con¬
tained in Herodotus and others who followed him are little
more than dreams. As to the second point, Herodotus says
that Homer and Hesiod were the authors of the Greek Attica,
theogony, gave titles to the gods, distinguished their attri-
butes and functions, and described their forms. But this
opinion can be regarded as reasonable only on the supposi¬
tion, that Homer and Hesiod were viewed by the historian
as the representatives of a whole line of poets who were the
organs and interpreters of the popular creed, and thus gra¬
dually determined its permanent form.” The religion of the
Greeks was in all essential points of purely native origin,
but their mythology, as we now have it, must have^ passed
through two important processes of formation. The one
was that of personifying the powers of nature and conceiv¬
ing them as distinct beings; the other was that by which
divinities which had at first enjoyed only local worship in
certain districts, or among certain tribes, were raised to the
rank of national divinities, and of members of the one great
family of gods. Both these processes may have been going
on simultaneously, but it must certainly have taken a long
period before they produced those results which we term the
mythology of Greece. Although the groundwork of the
Greek religion was the worship of nature and her powers, it
cannot be denied that among several tribes we meet with
divinities that were neither personified powers of nature, nor
personified abstractions, but represented the general con¬
sciousness of man’s dependence on beings of a higher order.
As, however, the gods were conceived as beings with hu¬
man forms, the belief that they were subject to the same
passions and frailties as mortal men was a very natural con¬
sequence. But notwithstanding this, it was believed that
they punished men for their offences and negligences, both
in this world and in the world to come ; and in this respect,
it cannot be denied that the religion of the Greeks exercised
a salutary moral influence. The belief in a future state was
very general among the Greeks, but even the life of the
blessed in the other world was not conceived by a Greek as
an enviable condition at all.
At the same time it was a system of show and parade, of Genius of
festivals and ceremonies, of rites and observances, and, as t}?is reU'
such, singularly adapted to take a powerful hold of the &10n-
popular mind, more especially when it became intimately
blended with the literature as well as with the political in¬
stitutions of the country. It imposed no particular set of
doctrines, and exacted no peremptory compliances, but, ad¬
dressing itself exclusively to the senses and the imagina¬
tion, it was acquiesced in without inquiry, and maintained
without persecution. As the religion of the state, an out¬
ward respect was due to it and required; but crimes against
this religion were only punished as they affected the state,
and not on the abstract grounds of impiety or sacrilege.
Socrates was condemned to death, not because he revered
the deity and taught a purer faith than that entertained by
his countrymen, but because he attacked the religion of the
state as by law established, and closely interwoven with the
whole system of national policy; and even this sacrifice to
the violated law was speedily and deeply repented; for the
genius of polytheism was essentially tolerant. Hence mere
raillery, when general and not directed against positive in¬
stitutions, seldom or never incurred the animadversion of
the magistrate, and was often highly relished by the people.
Aristophanes, for example, made as free with the gods as he
did with the great, and lashed the supposed foibles of the
former with as little mercy as the vices and follies of the
latter; yet his wit produced no inconvenience to its author,
and was even loudly applauded by his countrymen. Aeschy¬
lus, indeed, incurred some danger from a suspicion of having
betrayed the secrets of Eleusis ; but as this was always con¬
sidered a crime of the greatest magnitude, and as it imported
a violation of the most sacred human obligations, as well as
of the public policy of the state in a matter where the sanc¬
tions of its laws were peculiarly severe, no inference can
justly be drawn from this against the general toleration ex-
ATTICA.
Attica.
ercised, viz., when its sallies were directed only against the
v'—public religion.
Priesthood. Another ^ circumstance deserving of notice is, that the
ministers of religion were not confined exclusively to the ser¬
vice of its altars. The sacerdotal dignity was indeed incom¬
patible with the exercise of any regular profession, and for
this reason the priests had a fixed revenue secured to them ;
but they were eligible to the most important offices in the
state, and might, if so inclined, serve as soldiers in the field.
Their salaries were in general proportioned to the dignity of
their functions and the rank of the deities whom they served ;
and these were paid out of the sacred revenues, which were
derived partly from fines that individuals were condemned to
pay for various offences, partly from the produce of lands
consecrated to the gods, or appropriated to defray the ex¬
pense of sacrifices offered in the name of the republic, partly
from particular grants, and partly from a tithe of the spoils
taken in war, although the last were commonly considered
the exclusive property of Athena. These, with the produce
of accidental confiscations, formed the regular sources of in¬
come ; but the credulity of the people supplied an inex¬
haustible fund, which enriched the temples of Delos and
Eleusis, and supported the magnificence and splendour
amidst which the Delphic oracle was enshrined. The so¬
lemn festivals, such as the Dionysiac and Panathenaic, which
indeed constituted the greater part of this religion, and con-
tiibuted alike to maintain its hold of the popular mind and
to nourish a taste for the arts, were celebrated at the expense
of the choragi or leaders of the choruses, of which each tribe
furnished one ; and the richest citizens only were appointed
to the office, which, though ruinous, was eagerly solicited, as
it paved the way td more substantial honours, and formed a
passport to the favour of a people ever ready to reward him
who ministered profusely to their pleasures. Hence the
privilege enjoyed by the choragus who had proved victorious
in the scenic contests, of inscribing his name on the tripod
erected by his tribe, or of perpetuating the memory of his
success by a choragic monument, was not the only recom¬
pense looked for by those who had incurred the expense of
ministering to the pleasures of the people. Lastly, although
Athens had a state religion, it had no sacerdotal hierarchy.
1 he priests did not, as in Egypt and in other countries, form
a distinct order or caste, which, indeed, would have been in¬
compatible with a democratical form of government. They
were not a separate body united by peculiar laws under a
chief whose authority extended over all its inferior members.
The dignity of supreme pontiff was unknown, and each
priest served his particular shrine unconnected with his
brethren. The temples of the principal divinities, indeed,
such as those of Athena, Poseidon, Demeter, and Perse-
phone, had each a high priest who presided over its service ;
and the number of subaltern ministers employed was com¬
monly in proportion to the rank of the particular deity, and
the wealth accumulated at his shrine : but the pontifical dig¬
nity was altogether local; and the priests of one temple
formed a society wholly distinct from those of another.
Hence the ministers of the gods at Athens were not judges
in matters of religion, nor authorized to take cognizance of
or to punish crimes against the deity. This, as we have al¬
ready said, was exclusively within the competency of the
civil magistrate ; and, accordingly, we find that it was in con¬
sequence of a civil sentence alone, and not in virtue of any
power or authority in themselves, that the Eumolpidae
launched their anathemas against Alcibiades, and that So¬
crates was condemned to die.
I he subject of the public economy of the Athenian state—
embracing inquiries concerning prices, wages, and the inte¬
rest of money ; the administration of finance and the public
expenditure ; the ordinary and extraordinary revenues ; and
the peculiar financial measures of the Greeks—is too vast
and complicated to be treated here at full length. In
VOL. IV.
' Public
] economy.
Prices.
Boeckh’s learned and laborious work, however, there will be
found a prodigious accumulation of curious facts relative to
all these branches of the subject; and although the science
of the author is greatly inferior to his erudition, and his con¬
clusions are frequently at variance with sound principle, yet
he has furnished abundant means for the correction of his
own errors, and collected a body of information, the value
and importance of which it is difficult to over-estimate. A
large part of his first book is dedicated to an enumeration of
the various prices of commodities in Attica, by comparin«-
which with the actual prices of the same commodities in dif¬
ferent countries, he endeavours to determine the relative
wealth of Attica according to modern standards. But al¬
though this collection is equally interesting and valuable, the
utility of such a comparison may be fairly questioned, upon
the ground that no certain inference can be drawn from the
similarity or dissimilarity of ancient and modern prices. The
proportion between the value of any given commodity, and
that of gold or silver, may be a safe enough criterion in the
same place and for short periods of time; but for distant
ages and countries such a comparison can lead to no result
upon which any reliance can be placed; and for this plain
reason, that we have no common or invariable standard to
which we can refer. For a comparison with prices in other
countries at the same time, and for such a purpose as that to
which Boeckh has applied it in examining the statement of
Polybius respecting the valuation of Attica, his list of prices
may be used with safety and advantage; but whether the
precious metals, labour, or any other standard, be adopted
as a medium of comparison between the prices of commodi¬
ties in ancient Greece and in modern Europe, the result
must, for the reason already stated, be equally fallacious and
nugatory. The standard employed, whatever it may be, is
itself indeterminate; or, in other words, the measure as¬
sumed and the thing to be measured by it are equally un¬
certain.
Again, with regard to the interest of money, it is evident Interest of
that no sound conclusion can be drawn as to its rate from a money,
consideration of the vanrtKos toko? or interest of money lent
on bottomry, which Boeckh takes as a criterion; because
this was doubtless a most hazardous species of investment,
on account of the imperfect state of nautical science, the
dangerous navigation of the Greek seas, and, worse than all,
the insecurity of the laws and the corruption of the tribu¬
nals ; and the premium paid by the borrower to the lender
would of course be in some measure commensurate with the
risk to which the capital of the latter was exposed. Nor is
this all. For, if the rate of interest be that sum which the
lender receives and the borrower pays for the use of a cer¬
tain amount of monied capital, without any consideration for
trouble in the collection of the income, or for risk as to the
punctual repayment of the interest or principal at stipulated
periods, it may fairly be doubted whether there was anything
which can justly be considered as a general or an esta¬
blished rate of interest at Athens. There were no public se¬
curities, no means of investing money under the guarantee
of the national credit; whilst, from the continual dread of
revolution or foreign invasion, the insecurity of property was
such, that the punctual repayment of interest or principal at
stipulated periods must have been liable to very great, but
at the same time very variable, risks; a state of things
wholly incompatible with a genera;! or an established rate of
interest. And with respect to money lent on mortgage or
land-pledge, which, in the settled communities of modern
times, approaches nearest to the public securities in point of
safety, the tenure of land in Attica was, from the causes al¬
ready mentioned, so precarious and insecure that, in this case
also, a large yet variable indemnification, in the name of in-
teiest, must have been paid, and consequently no particular
rate could have been general or common.
Some historians have accused the Athenian state of ne-Revenue.
2 E
218 ATT
Attica gleet in the administration of its finances, but without reason,
II as Boeckh has most conclusively shown. Of all charges,
Atticus. jn(jee(j5 the government of Athens is the least open to that
of want of diligence in exacting the utmost farthing of re¬
venue which its available resources could by any artifice of
taxation be made to afford. The ordinary revenues of the
Athenian state consisted chiefly of duties arising from lands,
houses, and similar property of the state, or from companies
and temples ; of the produce of the mines, which were pub¬
lic property, though commonly let in fee-farm under ceitain
conditions, including the payment of a twenty-fourth par tot
the gross produce in the name of rent, and over and above
the grassum or fine which the tenant originally paid for the
lease; of customhouse-duties; of harbour-duties and market-
tolls ; of tithes, poll-taxes, taxes upon industry, protection-
money, taxes on slaves, and taxes on prostitutes ; of judicial
fines and fees ; of appeal-money, and fines in general; of
confiscations, and tribute of various kinds; to say nothing
of a variety of minor sources which it would be tedious to
enumerate. The extraordinary revenues were of course
variable, but arose principally from a species of property-
tax, which was laid on in seasons of great emergency, when
increased means were required for the defence of the state,
or for the assertion of its dignity and independence. The
spoils of war were also included under this head.
Mode of Property of all kinds appears to have been commonly let
letting upon lease; and all leases were sold by auction to the hig i-
property.
ATT
est bidder. For this purpose the conditions of lease were Attica
previously engraved upon stone and fixed up in public. The
names of the lessees were subsequently added, and the docu-
ment which had been originally exhibited then became a v
regular contract of lease; or if not, a fresh agreement was
afterwards set up. A proposal or advertisement of this kind,
copied from the original document engraved on stone, is
preserved in the British Museum.1
The history of Greece, and in particular that of Attica, has
been treated of late years with greater ability, more learning,
and sounder views, than at any previous period since the
revival of letters. German scholars have produced innume¬
rable treatises upon all subjects connected with the history
of Attica, but at no time and in no country has ancient
Greece found historians equal to Thirlwall and Grote. The
work of the former appeared first in Lardner’s Cabinet Cy-
clopcedia, in 8 vols. 12mo; a second and improved edition
in 8 vols. 8vo, appeared in London, 1845—52. Of Mr
Grote’s history only 11 vols. have as yet been published, but
a 12th, carrying the history down to the death of Alexander
the Great, will complete the work. Niebuhr’s Lectures on
Ancient History (edited by Dr L. Schmitz, London, 1852,
in 3 vols.) are, like all Niebuhr’s Lectures, of the highest
interest and importance. In regard to the literature of
Greece, the work of Colonel Mure, of which 3 vols. have al¬
ready appeared, will be a worthy companion to the works of
Bishop Thirlwall and Mr Grote. (j. b—e.) (l. s.)
ATTICUS, IIerodes, an opulent citizen of Athens, in
the time of the Antonines, celebrated for the vast sums he
expended in the decoration of that and other cities. He
built a stadium at Athens, 600 feet in length, of Pentelican
marble, capable of containing at once the whole population;
and erected a new theatre or odeion in honour of his deceased
wife Regilla. The aqueduct of Troas in Asia was com¬
pleted by him at an expense of more than L.100,000 stei-
ling; at Corinth he built a theatre, and richly decorated the
temple of the Isthmean Neptune. The stadium at Delphi
was another of his works; as were the baths of the hot-
springs at Thermopylae ; and a fine aqueduct at Canusium
in Italy. Many cities of Peloponnesus, Bceotia, Epirus,
j Thessalia, and Euboea have, by numerous inscriptions, tes¬
tified their gratitude to him, their munificent benefactor.
See Mem. de VAcad. des Inscrip, xxx., and Gibbon’s
Hist. i.; Stuart’s Athens, where its dimensions and plan are
given. _ .ii
Atticus, Titus Pomponius, one of the most distinguished
Romans of his time, who, without in any degree compro¬
mising his neutrality, preserved the esteem and affection of
all parties. His strict friendship with Cicero did not pre¬
vent him from being at the same time on terms of great
intimacy with Hortensius. He steadily declined any in¬
terference in public affairs, though his talents and immense
wealth might have secured him the highest dignities of the
state. The contests at Rome between Cinna’s party and
that of Marius induced him to retire to Athens, where he
continued for a considerable time. From this circumstance,
and his thorough acquaintance with Greek learning, he de¬
rived his surname of Atticus. His passion for books led
him to the collection of a magnificent library, in which he
kept a number of copyists constantly employed. He wrote,
besides other pieces, 'Annals, or A History of Home, em¬
bracing (as we learn from Cicero) a period of 700 years;
but none of his writings are extant. At the age of 7 7 he
anticipated the consummation of an incurable disease, by
abstaining from food, in consequence of which he died upon
the fifth day, b.c. 32.—Cornelius Nepos ; Cicero ad Att.
ATTIGNY, a small town of France, in the department
of Ardennes, on the left bank of the river Aisne, 22 miles
S.W. of Mezieres. It was a place of some celebrity at an
early period, from its being usually selected as the summer
residence of the kings of France. Pop. 1365.
ATTILA, king of the Huns. See Roman History.
ATTLEBOROUGH, a market-town in the hundred of
Shropham, county of Norfolk, 14 miles from Norwich. It is
said to have been formerly a large city, the capital of the
county, and at one time had a college. Pop. of parish in
1851, 2324.
ATTOCK, a celebrated town and fort of Hindustan, m
the Punjaub, on the eastern bank of the Indus, in Long.
72. 20. Lat 33. 54. The locality is of importance, both in a
military and commercial point of view, as the Indus is here
crossed by the great route which, proceeding from Cabool
eastward, through the Kyber pass into the Punjaub, forms
the main line of communication between Afghanistan and
Northern India. The river was here repeatedly crossed by
the British armies during the late military operations in
Afghanistan; and, according to the general opinion, it is
the place where Alexander, Tamerlane, and Nadir Shah
crossed the river in their respective invasions of India. The
Emperor Akbar built the present fortress in 1851. (e. t.)
ATTORNEY-at-Law is one who is put in the place,
stead, or turn of another (attornatus), to manage or conduct
his law proceedings or affairs. The term is used in England
to denote the class of legal practitioners whose functions are
preparatory to those of the barrister or advocate. See Agent.
Before the statute of Merton, 28th Hen. III., c. 10, which autho¬
rized any freeman to make attorney, every suitor was obliged to
appear in person to prosecute or defend his suit (according to the
old Gothic constitution), unless by special license under the king’s
letters-patent; and at present it is the common course for the plain¬
tiff and defendant to appear by attorney, upon the principle of con¬
venience, in the same manner as, according to Justinian, took place
Was ^ pa.Ush.d V a —
i-p-— <*»« *•* w* p-UL
The date, mutilated at the end, is either Olymp. 114. 4, or 115. 3.
A T T
Attorney- in the Roman law. But an infant, a married woman, or an idiot,
at-Law cannot appear by attorney, but in person or by guardian, accord-
11 ing to the nature of the case, although an attorney be employed on
Attraction, their behalf.
^ jjm 1 By the 6th and 7th \ ict., c. 73, the qualifications necessary for
admission on the rolls of attorneys and solicitors are :—1st, The due
execution of a proper contract in writing with some practising at¬
torney or solicitor for the term of five years, or of three years if the
clerk be a graduate of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dub¬
lin, London or Durham, or of the Queen’s University, Ireland (14th
and 15th Viet., c. 88) ; 2d, The payment of the stamp-duty on such
contract, amounting to L.120; 3d, The registry or enrolment of the
contract within six calendar months; 4«A, Actual service for the
prescribed period in the proper business of an attorney and solici¬
tor, but one year may be served with the London agent, and, where
the service is for five years, another year with a barrister or certifi¬
cated special pleader; bth, Due notices of the application to be ad¬
mitted ; 6th, Fitness and capacity ascertained upon examination, and
certified by the examiners; 7th, Taking the prescribed oaths, and
being admitted and enrolled; 8th, The certificate of the registrar of
attorneys that he is duly enrolled, and the stamped certificate of
the annual payment of the duty.
Persons admitted in one court, may be admitted in any other
court, on producing the necessary certificates, and signing the roll
of the other court.
No attorney is to have more than two articled clerks at one time,
nor to take or retain any clerk after discontinuing business, nor
whilst clerk to another; and in case the attorney should become
bankrupt, or be imprisoned for 21 days, the court may direct the
articles of clerkship to be discharged or assigned; and where the
master dies the clerk may enter into a fresh contract for the resi¬
due of the term.
ATT 219
Under section 29 of the act, applications to strike attorneys oflf Attorney-
the roll for defect in their articles, are to be made within 12 months General
after admission, but in case of fraud, the application may be made
at any subsequent period. Attraction.
Attorneys, if prisoners, are not to commence, prosecute, or defend i J
any suit or action in any court of law or equity, or matter in bank-
ruptcy, and offenders are to be deemed guilty of a contempt of
court, and unable to recover their fees ; nor are they to act as agents
for unqualified persons, and if so acting, they are liable to be struck
off the roll. (r. m—m.)
Attorney-General is a great officer under the crown,
made by letters-patent, and is generally chosen from Her
Majesty’s counsel learned in the law. It is his place to ex¬
hibit informations, and prosecute for the crown, in matters
criminal; and to file bills in the exchequer, for anything
concerning the crown in inheritance or profits.
The attorney-general, under the royal mandate of 14th
Dec., 1813, has place and audience before the premier ser-
jeant. In 1834, the lord advocate of Scotland claimed pre¬
cedence in the House of Lords of the attorney-general.
The point was decided in favour of the attorney-general, but
it was admitted that the lord advocate was entitled to pre¬
cedence of the solicitor-general.
His proper place in court, upon any special matters of
a criminal nature, is under the judges, on the left hand
of the clerk of the crown; but usually he sits in the face
of the court and the centre of the inner bar of Queen’s
counsel. (r. m—m.)
ATTRACTION.
General
observa¬
tions.
The word Attraction is used to denote what we observe
when one body approaches another, or tends to approach
it, without any apparent impulse or other cause to which
the motion can be ascribed.
We have instances of attraction when iron approaches
the magnet, when certain bodies are placed near an ex¬
cited electric, and when a stone falls to the earth. We say
likewise that the earth attracts the moon; by this mode
of expression meaning no more than that the moon is con¬
tinually deflected towards the earth, from the rectilineal
course which it would otherwise pursue. It is likewise in
this sense that we must be understood when we say that
the sun attracts all the planets.
In the instances already mentioned, attraction extends
to a distance. In other cases it is confined within limits
so extremely narrow as to become imperceptible at an
interval which cannot be appreciated by the senses. Of
this kind is the attraction which takes place between the
particles of the same fluid, as is apparent from the round
figure of small drops. To this class likewise belongs the
attraction between fluid and solid bodies; whence origi¬
nate the very interesting appearances observed in capil¬
lary tubes, and other kindred phenomena. An attraction
between the small elementary particles of all solid bodies
is manifest from the force with which they cohere or re¬
sist an endeavour to separate them. In many cases the
intensity of this force is prodigiously great in contact or
at the nearest distances ; while it ceases to act upon mak¬
ing the smallest separation between the parts. Lastly,
chemistry developes innumerable instances of attraction
between the molecules of the bodies about which it is
conversant; insomuch that it is to this principle, under
the name of affinity, that we must ultimately ascribe the
various decompositions and new combinations which occur
in that science.
All these phenomena, although very different from one
another in other respects, have yet this in common, that
we observe in certain bodies a tendency to approach one
another, and to resist a separation, with some degree of force.
The facts are certain, and are attended with no ambigui¬
ty ; and it is to express these facts that the term attrac¬
tion is used in physics.
We likewise observe, in some bodies, a tendency to fly
off from one another when they are brought near. This
is called repulsion.
The word force has, in general, some degree of obscu¬
rity. It is used to denote the cause of motion ; but we
have no direct knowledge of it, and we judge of its in¬
tensity by the effect which we suppose it to produce. In
all our reasoning concerning forces, it is the changes of
motion which we measure and compare together, and
which are really the subjects of our thoughts. Attraction
and repulsion are forces or principles of motion, known to
us only by the phenomena we observe ; but the circum¬
stance of their implying action at a distance is an addi¬
tional source of obscurity in which other kinds of force do
not participate.
It certainly is inconceivable that motion should be pro¬
duced at a distance, when no connection can be traced
between the body moved and that which is supposed to
produce the motion. We are strongly impressed with the
prejudice, that a body cannot act but where it is; and w'e
find difficulty in admitting that the mere presence of two
bodies, without the intervention of any mechanical means,
can be a satisfactory cause of motion. On this account
attraction has been classed by some with the occult quali¬
ties of the schools ; and the favourers of this doctrine have
been reproached with reviving exploded notions in philo-
sophy. Impulse is a principle of motion more familiar
to us, and to which we are not disposed to make equal
objection. Whenever the communication of motion can
be traced to this source, we are satisfied that the effect
is justly explained. Hence many philosophers have been
of opinion, that impulse is the only cause of motion that can
220
ATTRACTION.
Attraction.be admitted in physical science ; and many attempts have
accordingly been made to reduce to this principle all cases
in which distant bodies act on one another. With regard
to these attempts, it will be sufficient to remark here, that
they are all built upon hypothesis. No evidence is adduced
to prove that such things exist as the elastic ether or
gravific matter which they set out with supposing. And,
as far as such systems have no other object than to obviate
the difficulty of action at a distance, this argument alone
is sufficient to confute them, without adverting to the dif¬
ficulties that attend each of them separately, their in¬
consistency with the received laws of motion, and the
innumerable contradictions and improbabilities to which
they are liable on every side.
A little reflection is sufficient to show that, in reality,
we have no clearer notion of impulse as the cause of. mo¬
tion than we have of attraction. We can as little give a
satisfactory reason why motion should pass out of one
body into another on their contact, as we can, why one
body should begin to move, or have its motion increased,
when it is placed near another body. It is equally im¬
possible in both cases to prove that there is a necessary
connection between the related facts ; and in this respect
both the phenomena are alike inexplicable.
When motion is produced by impulse, it is probably
the circumstance of contact apparently taking place which
leads us to think that the effect is so clearly explained.
It is in this manner only, or by actual contact, that we
ourselves can move external objects. We have no power
of producing motion in distant bodies, except by the in¬
tervention of other bodies on which we act immediately.
Impulse is, therefore, a cause of motion familiar to us, and
strikes us as the plainest and most satisfactory ultimate
principle at which we can arrive. On the other hand,
when one body attracts another at a distance, there is
nothing familiar to us with which we can compare it; our
curiosity is excited, and we are led to seek out some hid¬
den connection between them.
But it may be doubted whether there is actual contact
in any case of the communication of motion. When a
body is impelled by the air, it will hardly be affirmed that
the particles of that elastic fluid are in contact with one
another, since there is no space, however small, within
which a given bulk of it may not be compressed, by apply¬
ing an external force sufficiently great. The particles of
air, therefore, act on one another at a distance; and the
same thing must be true of all other elastic fluids. And,
by the way, what is here said is sufficient to prove, that
no scheme, founded on the hypothesis of an elastic ether,
will enable us to account for attraction; because such a
contrivance can do nothing more than substitute one
species of action at a distance instead of another. There
is good reason to think that absolute contact never takes
place in the component parts of the hardest and most
compact solid bodies. This seems to be an unavoidable
consequence of the fact, well established by experience,
that all bodies contract in their bulk by cold, and ex¬
pand by heat. It is therefore not only not impossible,
but it is even in some degree probable, that the commu¬
nication of motion may, in every instance, be a cdse of ac¬
tion at a distance.
If, then, we are apt to think that impulse is a clearer
physical principle than attraction, there is in reality no
good ground for the distinction; it has its origin in pre¬
judice, and in our mistaking the proper object of natu¬
ral philosophy. All our researches in nature are con¬
fined to the phenomena we observe, and to the laws by
which they are regulated. A physical cause is no other
than a general fact discovered by a careful observation
and an attentive comparison of many particular and sub¬
ordinate facts. We have no evidence, independent of ex- Attraction,
perience, that any consequence, deduced from a physical
cause, will actually take place. There is in this case no
necessary connection from which we can, with absolute
certainty, infer the expected event. If, then, we regard
impulse and attraction as principles founded in fact, and
regulated by laws confirmed by observation and experi¬
ment, they are both equally entitled to be classed as phy-
sical causes, and they ought both to be admitted as o
equal authority in explaining the phenomena of the uni-
verse*
If we turn our attention to the different kinds of attrac¬
tion enumerated above, and inquire what progress has
made in the investigation of their laws of action, we shall
find that, generally speaking, this branch of physics has
been little advanced. We are very imperfectly acquainted
with magnetical and electrical attraction. We know still
less of those attractive powers which take place at small
distances, and which are confined within such narrow li¬
mits that their mode of action escapes the observation of
our senses. Attraction is, indeed, much used by philoso¬
phers to account for many important natural phenomena,
but their explanations are often vague, and destitute of
that precision which ought always to be aimed at in phy-
sical science. There is only one class of phenomena in
which the laws of attraction have been fully developed.
We allude to gravitation, that principle which occasions
the fall of heavy bodies at the surface of the earth, and
which retains the planets and comets in their orbits. Re¬
ferring the other species of attraction, which are little
susceptible of general discussion, to their several heads,
we shall now confine our attention to gravitation
Traces of the principle of gravitation are to be found Discoverv
in writers of great antiquity; but their speculations on«
this subject do not go beyond a vague notion of a tenden- tiun_
cy which the planets have to one another, or to a common
centre. It would contribute little either to entertainment
or instruction to collect all the passages of ancient au¬
thors that speak of this principle. The revival of the true
system of the world by Copernicus introduced the most
admirable simplicity in the explanation of the planetary
motions, and likewise led to more just conjectures concern¬
ing the laws by which they are upheld. Copernicus himself
attributed the round figure of the planets to a tendency
which their parts possess of uniting with one another, thus
extending to all the planets that attraction which we ob¬
serve at the surface of the earth. He stopt short indeed
at this point, conceiving attraction to be confined to the
matter of each planet, without making it extend from one
planet to another, so as to actuate all the bodies of the
system. This step was made by the bold and systematic
genius of Kepler. Adopting the opinion of Dr Gilbert of
Colchester, that the earth is a great magnet, Kepler form¬
ed to himself a notion of attraction, in some respects re¬
markably just. He says that the earth and moon attract
one another, and, were it not for some powers which re¬
tain them in their orbits, they would move towards one
another, and would meet in their common centre of gra¬
vity. He attributes the tide to the moon s attraction
(virtus tractoria qua in luna est), which heaps up the
waters of the ocean immediately under her. But in many
respects his notions of attraction were fanciful and extra¬
vagant ; a more perfect knowledge of the laws of motion
than had been attained to in his time, and a new geome¬
try, were both wanting in order to guide him in this re¬
search without danger of wandering. Yet he was able to
penetrate so far into the causes of the planetary motions,
as to foresee that they would not long continue latent; and
he tells us, he was persuaded that “ the full discovery of
those mysteries was reserved for the next age, when God
ATTRACTION.
221
Attraction.
would reveal them.” So full an exposition of a physical
system of the world as is contained in the writings of
Kepler could not fail to draw the attention of succeeding
philosophers. Many remarks concerning the principle of
gravitation are to be found in the writings of Fermat,
Roberval, Borelli, and other authors; but no one before
Newton entertained so clear and systematic a view of the
doctrine of universal gravitation as Dr Robert Hooke. In
his work on the motion of the earth, published in 1674,
twelve years before the appearance of Newton’s Principia,
he lays down these three positions as the foundations of
his system, viz.:—
“ ls£, That all the heavenly bodies have not only a gra¬
vitation of their parts to their own proper centre, but
likewise that they mutually attract each other within
their spheres of action.
“ 2dly, That all bodies having a simple motion will con¬
tinue to move in a straight line, unless continually de¬
flected from it by some extraneous force, causing them to
describe a circle, or an ellipse, or some other curve.
“ 3c%, This attraction is so much the greater as the
bodies are nearer.”
The principle of universal gravitation is here very precise¬
ly enunciated. Dr Hooke seems to have clearly perceived
that the planetary motions are the result of an attraction
towards the sun, and of a rectilineal motion produced by
a projectile force. Not having discovered the law accord¬
ing to which the force diminishes as the distance from
the sun increases, he contrived experiments to elucidate
his theory. Having suspended a ball by means of a long
thread, he placed another ball upon a table immediately
under the point of suspension, and he caused the sus-t
pended ball to revolve round the stationary one. When
the movable ball was pushed laterally with a force pro¬
perly adjusted to its deviation from the perpendicular, it
described an exact circle round the ball on the table: in
other cases it described an ellipse, or an oval resembling
an ellipse, having the other ball in the centre. Dr Hooke
observed, that although this experiment in some measure
illustrated the planetary motions, yet it did not represent
them accurately; because the ellipses which the planets
describe have the sun placed in one focus, and not in the
centre. Thus, at the appearance of Newton, many things
were known, or rather surmised, that prepared the way
for the discovery of the principle which regulates the ce¬
lestial motions. This does not detract in any degree from
the glory of Newton, who, discarding the conjectures of
his predecessors, proposed to himself to investigate, with,
mathematical strictness, the law of the attractive force,
and to ascertain with precision its sufficiency to retain
the planets in their orbits. He invented a new kind of
geometry, which was necessary to enable him to accom¬
plish his purpose. With this help, and by admitting no¬
thing without the sanction of the established principles
of Dynamics, he deduced from the motions of the celestial
bodies the law of universal gravitation, the most imporr
tant and the most general truth hitherto discovered by
the industry and the sagacity of man, viz. “ that all the
particles of matter attract one another, directly as their
masses, and inversely as the squares of their distances.”
Having arrived at a principle which belongs to every
part of matter, another inquiry comes into view. Setting
out from this principle, it is now necessary to proceed in
an inverted order, and deduce from it, by synthetical
reasoning, the phenomena which we observe in the uni¬
verse. The first step in this process is to find out the
attractive force of the planets, which arises from the
united attractions of their component parts. Two things
only are involved in this investigation, viz. the known law
of attraction between the particles of matter, and the
figure of the attracting bodies. This is a subject of great Attraction,
importance, and it is connected with some principal points
of the system of the world, with the theory of the figure
of the planets, that of the tides, and many other pheno¬
mena. It is but imperfectly discussed in Newton’s im¬
mortal work ; and there is no part of his philosophy which
has been improved more slowly by the labours of his fol-
low£rs. We now propose to treat of it at some length,
endeavouring to lay before our readers as complete a
view of this part of science as the nature of our work
will permit.
We begin with laying down some definitions, and de-Definition
monstrating some properties, of elliptical spheroids. and pro-
Def. 1. A solid generated by the revolving of an ellipse PeTt,€!s
about either axis is called a spheroid of revolution. ifel T .al
the ellipse revolve about the less axis, the spheroid is
oblate ; if about the greater axis, it is oblong.
Let k and k’ denote the two axes of the spheroid, k
being that of revolution ; and let x and y be two co-ordi¬
nates of a point in the surface of the spheroid, having
their origin in the centre, x being parallel to the axis
of revolution, and y perpendicular to it; then the equa¬
tion of the spheroid, whether oblate or oblong, will be
x1
F
+ ^ = i.
^ A'2
Def. 2. An elliptical spheroid, in general, or an ellip¬
soid, is a solid bounded by a finite surface of the second
order. Let ACB and ADE (Plate Cl. fig. 1: this fi¬
gure represents one eighth of an ellipsoid contained in
one of the solid angles formed by the three principal
sections) be two ellipses that have the same axis AO, the
same centre O, and their planes perpendicular to one an¬
other : from any point K in the common axis, let there
be drawn ordinates in both ellipses, as KC and KD ; then,
having described an ellipse of which KC and KD are the
semiaxes, the periphery DMC of that ellipse will be in
the surface of the ellipsoid. This solid figure has a
centre, three axes crossing one another at right angles
in the centre, and three principal sections made by planes
passing through every two of its axes.
Let k, k', k", denote the three semiaxes, viz. k — OB,
k' = OE, k" = OA ; and let x, y, z, denote three rectan¬
gular co-ordinates of a point Min the surface, the co-ordi¬
nates being parallel to the axes, and having their origin
in the centre, viz. MN =: x, NK — y, and OK — z ; then
oft. ?y2 ^2
the equation of the surface will be + -jt,., = 1 ;
as it is easy to prove from the foregoing construction.
The ellipsoid becomes a sphere when all the three
axes are equal: it becomes a spheroid of revolution when
two of them are equal.
1. If any plane cut an elliptical spheroid, the section will
he an ellipse. In the spheroid of revolution , a section made
by a plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution is a circle.
All this follows so easily from the nature of the solids,
that we need not stop to give a formal demonstration.
2. If a straight line cut two concentric ellipses that are
similar and similarly situated, the parts of it between the
outer and inner peripheries are equal to one another.
Let AHBK and MDNC (Plate CL fig. 2) be two
similar and similarly situated ellipses that have the same
centre O ; and let the straight line AB cut them both ;
then AC and BD are equal. Bisect CD in L, and through
L and the common centre draw the straight line HMNK
to cut both ellipses. Because the ellipses are similar and
similarly situated, and that CD is an ordinate of the dia¬
meter MN, it is plain that AB will be an ordinate of the
diameter HK; wherefore, AB and CD being both bisected
in L, AC is equal to BD.
222
ATTRACTION.
Attraction. 3. If there he two ellipses, one within the other, such that,
'■“■''Y''-"' any straight line being drawn to cut them, the parts of it
between their peripheries are equal to one another, these el¬
lipses are concentric, similar, and similarly situated.
Let D (fig. 2) be any point in the inner ellipse, and
through D draw EF, terminating in the outer ellipse :
then, if we make EG — DE, G must be a point in the
inner ellipse. Hence all the points of the inner curve are
determined when the outer ellipse and the point D are
given : wherefore there cannot be two different curves,
both passing through D, that will answer the conditions.
But an ellipse described through D, concentric with the
outer ellipse, and similar to it, and similarly situated, will
answer the conditions (2). Wherefore the two ellipses
are concentric, and similar, and similarly situated.
4. If a straight line be drawn to cut two elliptical sphe¬
roids that have the same centre, and are similar and simi¬
larly situated, the part of it between the outer and inner sur¬
faces will be equal to one another.
Conceive a plane, which contains the straight line, to
pass through the common centre of the solids : the sec¬
tions made by the plane will be concentric ellipses (1) ;
and these will be similar and similarly situated, because
the solids are so: wherefore the parts of the straight line
between the surfaces are equal (2).
5. If two elliptical spheroids that have the same centre,
and are similar and similarly situated, be cut by a plane,
the two sections will be concentric ellipses that are similar
and similarly situated.
For the sections are ellipses (1) ; and, any straight line
being drawn to cut them, the parts of it between the
peripheries will be equal (4). Wherefore the ellipses are
concentric, similar, and similarly situated (3).
6. Let ADE and CFG (fig. 3) be two concentric ellipses
that are similar and similarly situated ; let A O and CO, in
the same straight line, be two of their axes, and let DE,
drawn through C, be perpendicular to AO ; then if CF and
CG be two chords of the interior ellipse that make equal
CD GH Attraction,
at A and E will be proportional to and jt^t2 : Now,
these are equal; for the solids CD and GH having the
same thickness, they are proportional to the sections CM
and GN, that is, to AC2 and EG2, because the pyramids
are similar. Wherefore the attraction of any one of the
slices in the pyramid AB, upon a particle placed at A, is
equal to the attraction of any one of the slices in EF upon
a particle placed at E. Consequently, the whole attrac¬
tion of the pyramid AB is to the whole attraction of the
pyramid EF as the number of slices in AB to the number
of slices in EF, that is, as the length AB to the length
EF.
Cor. 1. The attractions of any portions of the pyramid
are as the lengths of the portions. For the attractions are
proportional to the number of slices in the portions, that
is, as the lengths.
Cor. 2. If the pyramids have different densities, their
attractions are proportional to the lengths multiplied by
the densities. For, in this case, the attraction of each
slice will be proportional to its density; wherefore the at¬
tractions will be as the densities multiplied by the num¬
ber of slices, or as the densities multiplied by the lengths.
8. If there be two similar solids composed of the same ho¬
mogeneous matter, which attracts in the inverse proportion
of the square of the distance ; any two particles of matter, si¬
milarly situated with regard to the solids, will be attracted
by them with forces that are proportional to any of the ho¬
mologous lines of the solids.
Because the solids are similar, they may be resolved in¬
to an indefinitely great number of slender pyramids, and
frustums of pyramids, that are similar to one another, and
similarly placed in the solids; each pyramid having its
vertex at one of the attracted particles. The direct at¬
tractions of any corresponding pair of pyramids will have
constantly the same ratio to one another; for they will
be as the lengths of the pyramids or frustums (7); that
is, because the solids are similar, as any two homologous
angles with the axis CO, and if the chords DM and DNof iines of the solids. Wherefore the whole attractive forces.
the exterior ellipse be drawn respectively parallel to CF and
CG ; the sum of CF and CG will be equal to the sum or
difference of DM and DN, according as they both fall on
the same side, or on different sides of DE.
For draw EP parallel to CF, and it will likewise be pa¬
rallel to DM. Because CF and CG are equally inclined
to CO and to DE, it is plain that DN and EP, which are
parallel to CF and CG, are likewise equally inclined to
DE: consequently DN — EP. Draw a straight line
through the common centre to bisect DM in L, and that
straight line will likewise bisect EP, parallel to DM, in
H : and because the ellipses are similar and similarly si¬
tuated, the same straight line will likewise bisect the
chord CF of the interior ellipse, in K. Because DC = CE,
therefore DL -J- EH — 2CK — CF. Wherefore DM -j-
DN = 2DL + 2EH = 2CF z= CF + CG.
The demonstration of the other case, when DM and
DN fall on different sides of DE, is entirely similar.
Some general Properties, resulting from the Law of Attrac¬
tion that obtains in Nature.
7. Let AB and EF (fig. 4) be tivo indefinitely slender
pyramids, that are similar to one another, and both composed
of the same homogeneous matter, which attracts in the inverse
proportion of the square of the distance: the attractions of
the pyramids upon particles placed at the vertices A and E
are proportional to the length of the py ramids.
Conceive each of the pyramids to be divided into an
indefinitely great number of thin slices of equal thickness,
by planes parallel to its base; then, if CD and GH be any
two of these slices, their attractions upon particles placed
compounded of all the direct attractions which act in di¬
rections that make the same angles with one another, will
likewise have to one another the proportion of any two of
the homologous lines of the solids.
Cor. If the two solids have different densities, their at¬
tractions will be proportional to the densities multiplied
by any homologous lines of the solids (7, Cor. 2).
9. If there be two concentric elliptical spheroids that are
similar and similarly situated, a particle placed anywhere
within the inner surface will be in equilibrium, or will be
urged equally in all opposite directions by the shell of homo¬
geneous matter contained between the two surfaces, supposing
the law of attraction to be that of the inverse proportion of
the square of the distance.
Let P (Plate Cl. fig. 5) be a particle placed within
such a shell, and let a slender double pyramid, having
P for the common vertex, be extended to meet the sur¬
faces of the solid on both sides of P. The portions of the
pyramid AGHB and CEFD between the surfaces on op¬
posite sides of P, will have equal lengths (4) ; wherefore
these portions will attract a particle placed at P with equal
forces (7, Cor. 1). The same thing maybe proved of all
the pyramids which have their vertices at P, and fill the
spheroids. Wherefore P is attracted equally in all oppo¬
site directions by the homogeneous matter contained be¬
tween the surfaces of the spheroids.
10. To find the attractive force of an indefinitely slender
prism, acting in a direction parallel to the prism, upon a
particle of matter placed anywhere.
Let BC (Plate Cl. fig. 6) be a prism of homogene¬
ous matter, upon the indefinitely slender base CH, and
ATTRACTION.
223
Attraction, let a particle of matter be placed at A; draw AB and AC
to the extremities of the prism, and AE to any point in
it; and draw AD perpendicular to BC. Let S = base
CH, and put AD — «, DE = x ; the element of the prism
is zr S X dx, the element of the attraction in the direc-
* a t-' * ^ dx ^ -
tion AE is = - , and the element of the attraction
in the direction parallel to the prism is rz
DE S X xdx
S X dx
AE2
X =
AE
Now,
/
(a3-}-a?) &
S X xdx
— Const. —
S
(a2 + x2) -
V a? + x2
z= Const.
A
AE’
and the constant quantity is determined by making the
fluent begin at the end of the prism nearer to A; where¬
fore the whole attractive force of the prism, in the direc¬
tion parallel to the prism, is
I AB AC
— S X
Cor. In like manner may the attractive force of the
prism be found, when the attraction of the particles is pro¬
portional to any function of the distance.
Let AB = f, AC = /'; suppose that <p (/) is the func¬
tion of the distance that expresses the law of attraction ;
and put J'df. <p (/) rz Y (/) ; then the attraction paral¬
lel to the prism is
z= S X =kz [Y(/) — Y (/')], _
observing that the attraction is always positive.
ATTRACTION OF SPHERES.
Attraction 11. Spheres of the same homogeneous matter attract par-
of sphei es. ficles placed on their surfaces with forces proportional to
their radii.
Spheres being similar solid figures, this proposition is
no more than a particular case of what was before proved
(8>
Cor. If the spheres have different densities, the attrac¬
tions at their surfaces are proportional to their radii mul¬
tiplied by their densities. (U, Cor.)
12. The force with which a particle, placed anywhere
within a sphere of homogeneous matter, is urged towards the
centre, is proportional to its distance from the centre.
Conceive a concentric sphere to be described, which
contains the attracted particle in its surface; the matter
between the two surfaces will exert no force on the par¬
ticle (9), which will therefore be urged to the centre, only
by the attraction of the inner sphere, in the surface of
which it is placed; but this force is proportional to the
radius of the sphere, or to the distance of the particle
from the centre (11).
13. Let PNQ and ABC (fig. 7) he two spheres of the
same homogeneous matter, which attracts in the inverse pro¬
portion of the square of the distance ; let the centres of the
spheres be at M and 1), and take MR equal to the radius
of the sphere ABC, and ED equal to the radius of the
sphere PNQ ; the attractions of the spheres upon particles
placed at R and E are to one another as the squares of the
radii of the spheres.
In the spheres draw two great circles perpendicular to
the diameters PQ and AC, that pass through the points
R and E; and let P/>Q and A6C be two great circles,
making equal indefinitely small angles NM/> and BD6 with
the great circles PNQ and ABC. Let HK and EG, pa¬
rallel to PQ and AC, be any two chords of the circles
PjoQ and A&C, that subtend similar arcs, or arcs contain¬
ing the same number of degrees; and through HK and Attraction.
FG let planes perpendicular to the circles P/>Q and A6C,
be drawn to cut the portions of the spheres contained in
the angles NMjo and BD6; join RH, RK, MH, MK, DF,
DG, EF, EG. Because the arcs subtended by HK and
FG are like parts of their circumferences, it is plain that
the angle RMPI zz EDF, and RMK zz EDG. And be¬
cause ED — MH — MK, and RM iz: DF zz DG (hyp.'),
therefore RH zz EF, and RK zz EG.
Conceive the chords HK and FG, together with the
planes passing through them, to change their place a
little, so as to describe two slender prisms, or elements of
the portions of the spheres contained in the angles NM/>
and BDX. It is plain that MX and DO, the distances of
the chords HK and FG from the centres of their circles,
are constantly proportional to MN and DB, the radii of
the spheres; wherefore XT and OS, the perpendicular
sections of the small prisms, are similar figures, and have
to one another the same ratio that MX2 has to DO2, or
MN2 to DB2. Now, the attraction of the prism HK urg¬
ing a particle at R to the centre M, is
zz XT X — IFk;)’ 0®) ’ an(^ the attraction of the
prism FG urging a particle at E to the centre D, is
zz OS X ®ut conse(Iuence of what
was proved, j— — zz —; wherefore the at¬
tractions of the prisms are to one another as XT to OS, or
as MN2 to DB2. The same thing may be proved of all
the elements of the two portions of the spheres contained
in the angles NMp and BD6; wherefore those portions
attract particles at R and E with forces proportional to
the squares of the radii of the spheres. But because the
small angles NMy? and BD& are equal, each of the spheres
may be divided into an equal number of such portions ;
wherefore the attractions of the whole spheres upon par¬
ticles placed at R and E are proportional to the squares
of the radii of the spheres.
Cor. This proposition is true when the particles of
matter attract one another with forces proportional to any
proposed function of the distance.
Let RH zz EF zz /J and RK zz EG zz f; then, adopt¬
ing the same notation as before (10, Cor.), the attrac¬
tions of the prisms urging particles placed at R and E to
the centres M and D, are respectively XT X z+z
[Y (/) — Y (/')], and OS X z±z [Y (/) — Y (/'] :
consequently, those attractions have the same proportion
that XI has to SO, or MN2 to DB2. Wherefore the
attractions of the whole spheres are in the same propor¬
tion.
14. A particle placed anywhere without a sphere of ho¬
mogeneous matter which attracts in the inverse proportion of
the square of the distance, will be urged to the centre of the
sphere with a force that is inversely proportional to the
square of the particles distance from the centre.
Let ABC (Plate CL fig. 8) be the sphere, O its cen¬
tre, and P a particle without the sphere : conceive a con¬
centric sphere PMN, of the same homogeneous matter
with the sphere ABC, to be described with the radius
PO. Then, by the last proposition, the attraction of the
sphere ABC upon the particle P is to the attraction of
the sphere PMN, upon a particle placed at A, as AO2
to PO2. But the attraction of the sphere PMN upon a
particle placed at A is equal to the attraction of the
sphere ABC upon the same particle ; for the attraction of
the matter between the two spherical surfaces exerts no
force upon a particle at A (9). Wherefore, in the pro¬
portion set down above, the two middle terms are con-
224
ATTRACTION,
Attraction, stantly the same wherever the point P is placed without
the sphere ABC ; consequently the first term of the pro¬
portion must follow the inverse ratio of the last term;
that is, the attraction of the sphere ABC upon the exter¬
nal particle at P is inversely proportional to PO2.
15. The same law of attraction being supposed, a homo¬
geneous sphere will attract a particle placed without it, with
the same force as if all the matter of the sphere were collect¬
ed in the centre.
Let f denote the distance of the particle from the cen¬
tre ; then it follows, from the last proposition, that the at¬
traction of the sphere upon the particle will have for its
A
measure -jr,; A denoting a constant quantity that will be
determined by any particular case ; that is, by the actual
attractive force corresponding to any determinate distance
from the centre. Let r denote the radius of the sphere,
and M its mass ; then no part of the matter of the sphere
being nearer the attracted particle than {f — r'), and none
of it more remote than (/ + r), the attraction of the
. , . M
sphere on the particle will be greater than^ ^ and
M A
less than , . Therefore is always contained be-
f
tween those limits, which requires that A — M. For, if
A were greater than M, such values of f might be found
as would make equal to or greater than ; ; and
/ (f—r)2
if A were less than M, such values off might be found as
would make equal to or less than > There-
f2 . (/ + L)2
fore A M ; and the attraction of the sphere is equal to
M
f
centre.
If the radius of the sphere =r r, the density of the mat¬
ter contained in it rr e?; then the mass, or M, —
3
(V being the circumference of the circle whose diameter
is unit), and the attraction of the sphere at the distance/
4
from the centre = — . This is still true at the surface
3/2
ot the sphere when f = r, so that the attraction at the
» 4 *irrd , . .
surtace = —^—; which expression, with the help of
what is proved in (12), enables us to compare the in¬
tensities of the attractions of homogeneous spheres, at
all distances from the centre, without or within the sur¬
faces.
Cor. 1. A shell of homogeneous matter contained be¬
tween two concentric spherical surfaces, will attract a
particle placed without it, with the same force as if all the
matter of the shell were collected in its centre.
For the attractive force of such a shell is equal to the
difference of the attractions of two concentric spheres of
the same homogeneous matter with the shell.
Cor. 2. A sphere composed of concentric shells, that
vary in their densities according to any law, will attract
a particle placed without it, with the same force as if all
the matter were collected in the centre.
For this having been proved of one shell (Cor. 1), it
must be true of any number of shells.
If p (r) denote the density at the distance r from the
centre, the quantity of matter in the sphere will be
:= 4 cr .y’ p (r) . r2dr; and the attraction on a particle
—2, or the same as if all the matter were collected in the
without the sphere at the distance f from the centre Attraction.
 4 t . ftp (r) . ^dr
“ ~T2 ’
16. Two spheres, each composed of concentric shells of
variable density, attract one another with the same force as
if all the matter of each were collected in its centre.
For the attraction of a sphere A upon every particle of
another sphere B will remain the same, if we suppose all
the matter of A to be collected in its centre (15). But
the attraction of any particles of matter placed in A’s cen¬
tre upon the sphere B is equal and opposite to the attrac¬
tion of B, upon the same matter so placed; and again,
the attraction of B upon all the particles placed in the
centre of A, will remain unchanged, if we suppose the
matter of B to be collected in its centre. Wherefore A
attracts B with the same force as if the matter of each
were collected in its centre.
17. Supposing that the particles of matter attract with a
force proportional to the distance, a body of any shape will
attract a particle of matter placed anywhere with the same
force, and in the same direction, as if all the matter of the
body were collected in its centre of gravity.
Suppose that the attracted particle is placed at P (fig.
9), and the centre of gravity of the attracting body at G;
join PG, and let any pkne pass through that line. Let
L be a small part, or element of the body, and from L
draw LK perpendicular to the plane passing through PG,
and KF perpendicular to PG; join PL and PK. Put dm
to denote the quantity of matter, or the mass of the ele¬
ment L; then its attractive force, urging the particle in
the direction PL, is r= PL X dm, which, by the resolu¬
tion of forces, is equivalent to the two forces PK X dm
and KL X dm ; and again, the single force PK X dm is
equivalent to the two forces FK X dm, and PF X dm
— PG X dm + GF X dm. Wherefore, the attraction
of the element L upon the particle at P is equivalent
to these four separate forces, viz. PG X dm, GF X d?n,
FK X dm, KL X dm, which urge the particle P respec¬
tively in the directions PG, GF, FK, KL. But, from the
nature of the centre of gravity, the sum of all the forces,
KL X dm, that urge the particle P to one side of the plane
passing through PG, is just equal to the sum of the forces
that urge it to the other side of the same plane ; and the
sum of all the forces, FK X dm, that urge P to one side of
the line PG, is just equal to the sum of the forces that
urge it to the other side of the same line ; and the sum of
all the forces, GF X dm, that urge P towards the point G,
is just equal to the sum of the forces that urge it from
the same point. WTerefore all the preceding forces mu¬
tually destroy one another, excepting the forces PG X dm,
the sum of which, when extended to all the elements
of the attracting body, is r= PG X mass of the body.
Wherefore the whole attraction upon P is the same as if
all the matter of the body were collected in its centre of
gravity.
Cor. Supposing that the particles of matter attract with
a force proportional to the distance, a homogeneous sphere
will attract a particle placed anywhere, in the same man¬
ner as if all the matter of the sphere were collected in
the centre.
For the centre of gravity of a homogeneous sphere is
the same as the centre of its figure. This corollary is
likewise true of a sphere composed of concentric shells of
variable density; and it is easy to apply the demonstra¬
tion of (16) to prove that, in this law of attraction, two
spheres, each composed of concentric shells of variable
density, will attract one another with the same force as if
the matter of each were collected in its centre.
18. To investigate what are the laws of attraction in re-
A
Attraction.gard to the distance according to which a shell of homo-
matter, contained between two concentric spherical
surfaces, v=M attract a particle placed without it, inthesame .
manner as .fall the nmtter of the shell were collected in the
centre.
It has been proved that this property actually belongs
to homogeneous she Is in the law of attraction which ob¬
tains in nature, and likewise when the particles of matter
attract with a force proportional to the distance; but it
is interesting to know whether it is confined to these two
cases alone, or extends to other laws of attraction. This
can only be discovered by a direct analysis.
nnin?/ = ^ the distance of the attracted
point from the centre of the shell; u = CA, the radius of
the inner surface of the shell;/= PM, the distance of
l°m^y P0mt f‘hf surface* Havi»g drawn the dia¬
meter AD through P, let AMD and AND be two great
circles, making with one another an indefinitely small
angle MAN = dq; and let two small circles BMG, bma
indefinitely near one another, of which A and D are the
poles, meet the former circles in M, N, m, n ; and draw
Mb, Nb to the centre of the circle BMG. Put d for
the measure of the arc AM ; then MS = u sin. 6; MN =
dq.u sin. 0; Mm = ud&; and the quadrilateral space MNwm
u . dq .d& sin. L We may suppose the thickness of the
shell indefinitely small, since, if the property belong to an
elementary shell indefinitely thin, it will be true of one of
a determinate thickness, which can be resolved into such
elements. Suppose the thickness of the shell to be z= du •
then the quantity of matter in the part standing upon the
quadrilateral space MNrcm = tfdu .dq.dQ sin. d. Let a (V)
represent the direct attraction of a particle at M in the
direction PM; then its attraction directed to the centre
r — v r—u cos. 6
— <P\j) ^ pivr — 7 x P (/) ; and the attrac-
C T I O N. 225
Now let fdf. <p(f) = Y (/) ; and f/df fdf. <p (f) = Attraction.
ffdf- y (/) = ^ (/) ; then, by taking the fluents be-
tween the proper limits, we get
— 2 [Y' (r+u) — T' (r~ u)^.
If we develope the binomial functions in the last ex¬
pression, all the even powers of u will disappear, and the
odd powers only will remain ; these last terms being all
contained in this general formula,
4
V17  - -
' 1.2.3...2w+l *
f ^ d2nt1rT(r) cP”+1Y'('r)
lT ‘ dr^1 rfr2”*1 j *M2n+15
and, observing that —rY(r), the same expression
will become
4
1.2.3....2»+l*
rf2”+1rfr(r) c??”rY(r)
}•
M2n+1 .
c?r2”+1 dr1"
which, again, is more simply expressed thus, viz.
4r2
d-
f 1 # d2^^) )
{r dr2*1 J
mzn+1*
1.2.3....2n+l dr
Wherefore, by substituting the development instead
of the functions, and then dividing by 4?’2w, we get
d f 1 d2.rf(r)
+ I—1-'
dr2
PM “ /
tion of the element of the shell in the same direction —
u2du .dq.dd sin. & X —y°S-. <p (/). This expression is
proportional to dq, when Q and / remain constant; and
therefore (denoting by -r the circumference of the circle
whose diameter is unit) the attraction of the whole zone
contained between the small circles BMG, bmg, will be
1.2.3.
1
dr
>}
A .u*
dAl di- rY (r) )
( dr* J
dr
_.M4
= .u2 du. d& sin. Q.
r—u cos. &
v .?• (7 .
~j (/); and the attractive
force of the whole shell will be
Sw a duy^sin.L-^p-%(/);
the fluent to be extended from ^ 0 to ^ = w.
Again, the quantity of matter in the shell is = 4w. u2du ;
and the attraction of this matter placed in the centre, at
the distance r from P, is — Afir. u2du . <p (r).
If now we equate the attraction of the shell to the at¬
traction of its matter placed in the centre, and leave out
the factors common to both, we shall get
2 <p (r) =fdd sin. Q. & ^ ? ^
the limits of the integral being the same as before.
But r2 — 2 ru cos. 0 + w2; then sin. ^ also
ru
f2 “l” T2 7
r—u cos. 6 — -— 
2r
get
■; wherefore, by substitution, we
4. (r) . u —J'(f2-\-i2 — m2) . df. <p (f) ;
or, which is equivalent, 4<. r2^ (r). u =
(f+ <*-u*).fdf.9(f)-2ffdffdf.f(f),
the limits of this integral being from/* =r r — m to f— r-\-u,
which correspond to ^ = 0 and ^ —w.
Vol. iv.
^ 1.2.3.4.5
+ &c.
From the nature of the function Y(r), we get ©
d.lf{r) ^ \ j, h fyr)
~ dr ’ waere40re eacli of the remaining terms must
be separately equal to nothing; hence
\r di2 J ~ u ’
from which we find r T (r) - i Ar^-f AV—A", A A' A"
being arbitrary constantquantities; and this value ofrTfr)
1VlP aln’ 7l11 likewise render a11 succeeding terms
of the development evanescent. Wherefore
/ N d.T (r) A"
?(’')=-jv- = Ar + v
Thus the most general expression of the law of attraction
that possesses the property in question, is a combination
of the two laws above mentioned, with each of which it
coincides, according as we make the one or other of the
constant, quantities ccjual to nothing, Wc hav6) there-
a direct proof that the law of nature is the only one
which will make the attraction decrease as the distance
increases, and in which a spherical shell, or a sphere, will
attract in the same manner as if all the matter were col¬
lected in the centre.
Laplace has arrived at the same conclusion by a differ¬
ent process. (Mec. Celeste, livre ii. chap. 2, No. 12, Rem
part.)
ATTRACTION OF SPHEROIDS OF REVOLUTION.
19. Let APBQ (Plate CII. fig. 11) and CMDN be faction
two concentric ellipses, similar to one another, and similarly0}?
situated, of which AB and CD are either the greater or less ^ZLn.
2 F
226
ATTRACTION.
Attraction, axes ; and let PCQ be perpendicular to AB. Conceive the
 ' ellipses to revolve about PQ, so as to describe an indefinitely
small angle ; then, supposing the law of attraction to be in¬
versely proportional to the square of the distance, the mn
solid of homogeneous matter described by the ellipse APBfl
will attract a particle placed at P, in a direction perpendi¬
cular to any plane passing through PQ, with the s“™ef°™e
that the thin solid of the same matter described by the ellipse
CMDN, will attract a particle placed at C perpendicularly
to the same plane. vu rn
From C draw CM, CN, making equal angles with CD,
and PR, PT respectively parallel to CM, CN; and let
Cm Cn Yr, Yt, be drawn in the same manner, and inde-
Sely near t^ former lines. While the ellipses revolve
aboutW the small sectors will describe pyramids that
have their vertices at C and P. It is manifest that he
pyramids so described are similar; for their angels at C
and P in the planes of the ellipses are equal; and their
other angles, described by revolving about PQ, are likewise
equal, because the sectors are equally inclined to t at
axis. Wherefore the direct attractions of all the small
pyramids upon the particles P and C are proportional to
the lengths PR, PT, CM, CN (7) ; and consequently the
forces that urge the particles P and C in a direction at
Lht angles to any plane passing through PQ are propor¬
tional to the perpendiculars let fall upon that plane from
R T M, N. But because PR, PT, CM, CN are equa y
inclined to PQ, they will make equal angles with any
plane passing through PQ ; wherefore the perpendiculars
£w„ to the8 plane from R, T, M, N, will be respect.vely
proportional to PR, PT, CM, CN. But CM + CN
 pi? _i_ px (6) ; wherefore the sum of the perpendicu¬
lars drawn to the plane from M and N will be equal to
the sum of the perpendiculars drawn to it from It ant .
Consequently the force of the pyramids PR and PT,
which urges the particle P at right angles to ^plarie, is
equal to the force of the pyramids CM and CN, which
urges the particle C in a parallel direction. The same
thing is true of all the small pyratmds that make up t
thin solids described by the ellipses APBQ and CMDN,
and it is therefore true of the whole solids.
It is to be observed that when the pyramids PR and
PT fall on opposite sides of PQ, it is the difference o
their attractions which is equal to the sum of ^ ac¬
tions of CM and CN; and it is the difference of the per¬
pendiculars let fall from T and R on opposite sides of the
plane, which is equal to the sum of the perpendiculars let
fall from M and N. . •
20 Let APBQ be a spheroid of revolution, PQ the axis
of revolution, and ACB a plane through the centre perpen¬
dicular to PQ (Plate CII. fig. 12). If D be a particle
in the surface of the spheroid, and DL perpendicular to the
plane ACB; then the attraction of a spheroid on a particle
placed at the pole P, will be to the force with which a par¬
ticle placed at D is attracted in the direction DL, as DC is
Through D draw a plane parallel to the plane ACB,
and let the plane so drawn cut the axis PQ m F; draw
the straight line DFE to terminate in the spheroid, and
describe another spheroid through F, having the same
centre with the spheroid APBQ, and similar to it, and
similarly situated. Conceive an indefinitely great number
of planes, making indefinitely small angles with one ano¬
ther, to be drawn through DE, so as to divide the two
spheroids into an indefinitely great number of thin solids
or slices ; then the sections which every one of the planes
make with the spheroids will be similar ellipses, haying
the same centre (5); and it is manifest that a straig it
line drawn through F at right angles to DE, in any one
of the planes, will pass through the centre of the two el¬
lipses contained in it, and will coincide with an axis
each. Wherefore the force with which every one of the
slices or elements of the spheroid APBQ attracts a parti¬
cle placed at D in the direction DL, is equal to the force
with which the corresponding slice or element of the sphe¬
roid GFHK attracts a particle placed at F in the direc¬
tion FC (19). Wherefore, the whole attraction of the
spheroid APBQ upon a particle at D, in the direction DL,
is equal to the whole attraction of the spheroid GFHK
upon a particle at F. But the attractions of the sphe¬
roids APBQ and GFHK upon particles placed at P and
F, are to one another as PC to FC (8). Wherefore, the
attraction of the spheroid APBQ upon a. particle at P, is
to the force with which the same spheroid attracts a par-
tide at d! in the direction DL, as PC is to FC or DL
21 Let APBQ be a spheroid of revolution, and DQ the
axis of revolution as before. If D be a particle in the sur¬
face, ADPB (fig. 13) a section through D, and the axis
PQ and DL perpendicular to PQ; the attraction of the
spheroid upon a particle at A will be to the force with which
a particle at D is attracted, in the direction DL, as AC is
Through D draw a plane perpendicular to AB, which
cuts the section ADB in the straight line DFE; and let
a spheroid FGHK be described through F, having the
same centre with the spheroid APBQ, and similar to it,
and similarly situated. Then, conceiving the two sphe¬
roids to be divided into an indefinitely great number of
thin slices by planes passing through DE, the force with
which every slice or element of the spheroid APBQ at¬
tracts a particle at D in the direction DL, will be equal
to the force with which the corresponding slice or element
of the spheroid FGPIK attracts a particle at T (19). Put
the attractions of the spheroids APBQ and FGHK upon
particles placed at A and F are to one another as AC to
CF f8). Wherefore, the attraction of the spheroid APED
upon a particle at A is to the force with which the same
spheroid attracts a particle at D, in the direction DL, as
^ The two last propositions will enable us to find both the
direction and the intensity of the attraction of a homoge¬
neous spheroid of revolution upon a particle placed any¬
where on the surface, when we have ascertained the a -
tractive forces at the poles and at the circumference of
the circular section made by a plane through the centre
perpendicular to the axis. For the whole attraction at
any point is the compound force arising from the attrac¬
tions perpendicular to the axis, and parallel to it. ihe
next object of our research is, therefore, to determine
the two forces above mentioned, viz. the attraction at the
poles, and at the circular section equally distant from both
f 22. Let AB D be an indefinitely slender pyramid, of which
the base BD is perpendicular to the edge (fig. 14);
let B—base BD, and f — length ADs then -y = the at¬
traction of the whole matter of the pyramid upon aparticle
placed at the vertex A. „ , , , ^
^ Let AM = x, then the section MN parallel to the base
BD = and MP = element of the prism = —y—, and
the attraction of the element upon a particle placed at
_ MP __ Y.dx fluent 0f which is = -Tf = attrac-
A-AWr’ ™ a
tion of the pyramid AM upon a particle at A. And,
when x =f, this becomes = y = attraction of the pyra¬
mid AD upon a particle placed at A.
ATTRACTION.
Attraction. 23. To investigate the attraction of a homogeneous sphe¬
roid of revolution upon a particle placed at the pole.
Let P (fig. 15) be the pole, PCQ the axis of revolution,
and APBQ a section of the spheroid by a plane passing
through PQ, and any point M, in the surface; draw PM,
P?ft indefinitely near PM, and Mot perpendicular to Pot.
Conceive the plane PMQ to revolve about PQ, so as to
describe the indefinitely small angle BCO ; then the small
triangle MPot will describe a slender pyramid, having its
vertex at P, and of which the base is a rectangle, contain¬
ed by Mot and RT; for the point M moving parallel to
R, it will describe a line equal and parallel to that de¬
scribed by R, namely, to RT.
Let PM =f and the angle KPM, which PM makes
with a perpendicular to the axis, = d, and the indefinitely
small angle BCO = dtp. Then Mot =fdd, RT = CR X
f cos. 6 . dp, and B, the base of the slender pyramid de¬
scribed by the triangle MPot, =dp.dd cos. 6 .f2; where¬
fore the direct attraction ot the pyramid on a particle at
227
— k?e2, then the element of the attractive force will be-Attraction,
come, by substitution,
2k'‘2k j ^ z2dz __ 2 k'2k. dp f edz t ^
l—^a ~ /..V ( l—e‘2z2 ~edzf '■>
k‘2 ~ r' 1—e‘2z2 h!2# — e*z j
whence, by proceeding as before, we get the measure of
the attractive force of the oblong spheroid on a particle
placed at the pole equal to
j 3M f 1 , . 1 4" £ 1
*-;r?-\2hyp-log-T^_‘7
Cor. In an oblate spheroid differing little from a sphere,
e2 will be a very small fraction, of which we may reject
the higher powers. When this is done, the preceding
expression of the polar attraction, viz.
4w. hh!2 . .
. (e — arc. tan. e),
will be =
0+<*>.(*= +§**).
^ And, if A' — k -{■ r — kV\ the radius of the equa-
P= j (22) =dp.d 6 cos. 0 ./ and the elementary attrac- tor, then 2 ^ = e2, so that the attraction at the pole will be
tion of the spheroid in the direction PC = direct attrac- 4-.Z. / 4
tion of the pyramid X = dp. d 6 cos. 6 sin. 6./. 3 \ ^ 5'kj'
A rroin lof att?— m?_ r./-c ^nvestigate the attraction of a homogeneous sphe-
__gj , ^ ~ VK ~V: PC — h, AC = h!-, then void of revolution on a particle placed in the circumference
y — J cos. 6, x _ k —/sin, 0: if we substitute these values of the circular section made by a plane throuqh the centre,
m the equation of the solid (Def. 1) we get at right angles to the axis of revolution.
(A—/sin. d)2 , cos. 2 t) _ 1 , Let P (Plate CII. fig. 16) be the pole, PC the axis of
k'2 ’ revolution, A a point in the circular section AOB, made
f Wk sin. 0 Su. plane through the centre perpendicular to PC. Let
J =—  ^  POi^ i” the, s^ce of the sPheroid, AMO a
k2
k2
+ k2
it will become
2k’2k
k2
-.d p.
d 6 cos. 6. sin.2 6
kF2 ;
cos.2 -jif sin-2 ^
sin.2 Q section through A and M by a plane perpendicular to
t. , . . , t0 j Am a hne in that plane indefinitely near AM,
. ^ substituting the value of/just found in the preced- anf} ™ perpendicular to Aot, MR perpendicular to AO
ingexpressum of the elementary attraction of the spheroid, to Conceive the plane AMO to revolve
it will become n 80 as t? describe an indefinitely small angle
OAQ; then the triangle AMot will describe a slender py¬
ramid, having its vertex at A, and of which the base is
equal to a rectangle contained by Mot and RT; for the
which must be integrated from P = 0 to p = 2T, and from linrequaUo’dfat'XscrLeVby Krn^melyJ "‘g!}fScribe a
a = 0 to tf = -, ,r denot!nS aIways the haif-circumference =rfp‘th™ Mm S/rfS Tit = AR
whpn radius is unit Wherefore B = base of the pyramid described by MAm
— dp. d6 cos. L/2, and the direct attraction of the pyramid
in the direction AM = (22) =zdp.dd cos. 6./ Where¬
fore the elementary attraction of the spheroid in the direc¬
tion AC = direct attraction of the pyramid x — X ~
7 7. „ AM AR
— dp cos. p. dO cos.2 0 ./
Again, let MR = *, RS = t,, CS = *, CP = *, and AC
— « i then (Def. 1)
when radius is unit.
_In an oblate spheroid, k is less than k’: put k,2—-k2
— It2. e2, and 2; = sin. 0; then the element of the attractive
force will become, by substitution,
2k,2k ^ z2dz _ 2 KQk. dp
k2
•l + e
,2^2
k‘2e3
. edz ■
edz
and by integrating from 2 = 0 to z = 1, we get
2k,l2k. dp r
Mpi ’ • [e —arc. tan. e]
for the force with which the matter between the planes
PBQ and POQ urges the particle P to the centre. Where¬
fore the whole attractive force of the spheroid upon a par¬
ticle at P is
4 v. h!2k
~h<ie5 ~ ■ O —arc. tan. ej.
* j v 4cr. h'2h
And because —-— = mass of the spheroid = M, we
get the measure of the attraction of the oblate spheroid
upon a particle placed at the pole equal to
* 3M r
Le —arc. tame].
In an oblong spheroid, k is greater than k'; put k2—k'2
= 1.
h2 ‘ k2
But x =f sin. y~ AR. sin. p =/Cos. t sin. p, and
~ * ~J cos-6 cos- P 5 wherefore, by substitution, we get
-p/2 cos’2 ^ sin.2 p (f! —f cos. 0 cos.pf
k2 k® ~l~ ^/2 — L
From this equation we get
cos. 9 cos. p
f = 2h!
h!2
cos.2 0 -f ~s\n.2 0
Let this value of/ be substituted in the expression of
the elementary attraction of the spheroid before found,
and it will become
228
Attraction.
2k . dp cos.2 <p .
ATTRACTION.
dO cos.3 &
COS.2 ^ + -^2 siH’2 6
which expression, when integrated from p = 0 to p
and from = 0 to $ — will give the attraction of half
the spheroid: and the double of it, viz.
7 7 „ dd cos.3 6
\k . dp cos/ <p . p j
cos.2 ^ + Tz sin-2 6
being integrated between the same limits, will give the
whole attraction of the spheroid.
In the oblate spheroid, k is less than k: Let k2 «
— T&e1, and z — sin. 6; and, by substitution, the element
of the attractive force will become
7 , dz(\ — z2) _
dp cos/ p .
4ik
4>k . dp . cos.2 p
1 + </z2
1 + e2 f edz
•{r
edz
}-
11 + fPz2 1 + e2
And by integrating from 2: zz 0 to z =1, we get
1 + e2 1 e
4A'. dp cos. p . —^3— . v arc. tan. e — Y+l?
for the force with which the matter between the sections
that contain the angle OAQ. attracts the particle A to
the centre. But J'dp cos.2 p — • C1 + cos*
=? + i sin. 2p ; the value of which, between the limits
2 4
p =.0, and p = tt, is — : wherefore the attraction of the
spheroid on a particle at A is equal to
1 + e2 f „ e \
| arc. tan. e — j *
2r f A.ttraction.
And if k, the radius of the equator, =z A + r; then ~j^ — ^
(23, Cor.y, and the attraction at the equator will be equal to
25. An oblate spheroid of revolution being given, it is
required to find the measures of the attractive forces that urge
a particle placed anywhere in the surface, in a direction per¬
pendicular to the axis, and in a direction parallel to it.
Let k and k be the semiaxes of the ellipse, by the re¬
volution of which the spheroid is described, k being the
axis about which it revolves; and let b be the perpen¬
dicular distance of the particle from the axis, and a its
distance from the plane, drawn through the centre at
right angles to the axis: then, from what was proved
in (20) and (21), the attractions sought will be found by
multiplying the attractions at the pole, and at the circular
section equally distant from both poles, by ^ and -p.
Thus we get the attraction in the direction of a equal to
3 M r n
a x -ffff • Le — arc- tan- eJ’
and the attraction in the direction of b equal to
3M f e
b X
arc. tan. e
e2} '
Because
2*. k
4‘T
e3
lAh
, arc. tan. e
4w . A3 . (1 + e2) _
M; we get
3 M
wherefore the measure of the at-
2<r . (1 + e2) — 2F
tractive force of the oblate spheroid on a particle placed
anywhere in the circumference of the circular section
made by a plane through the centre at right angles to
the axis, is equal to
. 3 M f el
* ' WTi? ■
In the oblong spheroid, k is greater than k; put h2 — k2
— // . e1, then the element of the attractive force will
become, by substitution,
dz (1 — z2) __ ... - - 1 —e2
4# . dp cos.2 p
1 — ^z2
f edz
— 4# . dp cos.2 p
edz 1
\ 1 — e2 1 — fiz2 j
whence, by proceeding as before, we get the measure of
the attractive force of the oblong spheroid upon a particle
placed anywhere in the circumference of the circular sec¬
tion made by a plane through the centre at right angles
to the axis, equal to
. 3M I*, 1 l+«\
*' • urr# ■ - 2 hra-10«- —el •
Car. In an oblate spheroid, differing little from a sphere,
the higher powers of e2 may be neglected. The expres¬
sion of the attractive force at the equator, viz.
! + e2 |
2‘ie. k.
e3
' arc. tan. e
Ct LVJl j V l £jm
■~r+^}’
will then become
2T.i-.(l+‘2)(|-|<?)
kwh!
:“3"
  1 + e2-
The same formulae likewise serve for finding the attrac¬
tions upon a particle placed anywhere within the spheroid.
For the attraction upon a particle within the spheroid is
equal to the attraction of a similar concentric spheroid,
which contains the particle in its surface (9); and it is
evident that the co-efficients which multiply a and 5 in
the above expressions depend only upon the proportion
of k and k, and they are therefore the same for all simi¬
lar spheroids.
If we denote by A and B the co-efficients of a and b
in the expressions of the attractive force found above, the
whole attraction of the spheroid, which is compounded of
the forces a . A and b . B, will be = a'^A2 + 5?B2.
And if Y denote the angle which the direction of this
force makes with a, or with the axis of the spheroid; then
5.B
tan. Y = —x*
a . A
Cor. In the very same manner we may determine the at¬
tractions of an oblong spheroid of revolution, upon a point
in the surface, or within the solid.
26. If h, k, k, the semiaxes of a homogeneous ellipsoid,
be related to h, h!, h", those of another ellipsoid of the same
matter, so that k2 — // = k2 — h2 and k"2 — h2 = h"2 — h2,
the attractions perpendicular to the planes of the principal
sections, which the first ellipsoid (Plate CII. fig. 17) exerts
upon a point determined by the co-ordinates h sin. m, h! cos. m
sin. n, h" cos. m cos. n, respectivelyparcdlel to k, k, k", will be to
the attractions which the second ellipsoid exerts upon a point
determined by the co-ordinates k sin. m, k cos. m sin. n,
k" cos. m cos. n, respectively parallel to h, h!, h’’, in the direct
proportion of the areas of the principal sections to which the
attractions are perpendicular.
This proposition is an extension to all elliptical spheroids
of what was proved of the sphere in (13). It is here enun¬
ciated of the ellipsoid, because the demonstration is not
more difficult for that solid than for spheroids of revolution.
Let ABDM be an ellipsoid, the semiaxes of which are
BC = h, EC = k, and AC =z h" ; and abdm another ellip¬
soid, of which the semiaxes are be — h, ec — h!, and ac
= h" ; those quantities being so related that k2 — W—IA
 h2, and k'2 — k2zz h,f2 — h2. Also, let G be a point
about the ellipsoid ABDM, so determined that GH, pa¬
rallel to BC, = h sin. m ; HK, parallel to CE, = h! cos. m
ATTRACTION.
229
Attraction, sin. n; and CK — h" cos. m cos. n ; and let ^ be a point
about the ellipsoid abdm, so determined that gh, parallel
to be, — k sin. w,; hk, parallel to ce, — h! cos. in sin. n;
and ck'— k" cos. tn cos. n. Then the force with which the
ellipsoid ABDM attracts a particle placed at Gin the direc¬
tion GH, will be to the force with which the ellipsoid abdm
attracts a particle placed at g in the direction gh, as the
area of the section AEDM to the area of the section aedm,
or as h! k" to h’ It".
Let RP = A sin. 0; PO = kf cos. & sin. <p; and CO
— cos. 6 cos. <p; which suppositions are allowable, be¬
cause they satisfy the equation of the ellipsoid (Def. 1),
whatever be the angles 9 and <p. Draw CPM through
the centre, and CN indefinitely near it; then CP =
= 1,
cos. 9 Vk'2 sin.2 <p + k"2 cos.2 <p; and when cos. 9
CM = Vh!2 sin.2 + h!'2 cos.2 <p ; wherefore ^ =: cos.
Let the angle DCM = Y; then tan. y = ~ ^ tan. a>;
CO h!' ~
but
and, by taking the fluxions, —. ^9
cos.2 Y k" cos.2 9
—1 - 1 -f a T ^ sin-2 9 + #'2cos.g o CM2
cos,2y k"2 COS.2 <p ~k"2 cos.2 p 5
wherefore dl(. CM2 = twice the sector MCN = k'k" d®
And, in like manner, in the other ellipsoid, iirp-h sinj ;
po = h' cos. 9 sin. p; and co = h» cos. 9 cos. then
cut
= cos. 9, and twice the sector men = h! h" dtp.
It is plain, from what has been shown, that, when Ova¬
nes and p remains constant in the expressions of the co¬
ordinates, the points P andjo will move along CM and cm,
so that, in every position, ^ Let Q and q be in-
definiteJy near P and p; and through P and Q draw lines
parallel to MN, and through p and q draw lines parallel to
mn. Let S denote the quadrilateral contained between the
parallels drawn through P and Q, and S' that contained
between the lines drawn through p and q rr’ ^
QC2 —PC2
and
S'
MCN
i QC _ qc
and MC
_ qc2—pc1
me2 ’
md it is manifest that —
Then MCN
wherefore, since
S MCN
men
~ MC2
PC _ pw
MC ~ me
_k’hr
~ hill"'
Upon the quadrilaterals S and S' let upright prisms RS
and rs be erected, and be prolonged to meet the surfaces
of the spheroids ; join GR, GS, gr, gS. Then,
GR2 =2(A sin. m A sin.d)2 -J- (A'cos. msin.n—A'cos. 9sin.®)2.
+ (W cos. m cos. n — A" cos. 9 cos. ®)2;
gr-—(A sin. ^ sin. 2 -f- ^A'cos. w sin. n —- A'cos. 9 sin. ®)2.
+ (A'' cos. m cos. n — A" cos. 9 cos. ®)2 ;
And, by expanding these expressions, we get
GR2 = [(A2 -j- ^A'2 — A2) cos.2 m sin.2 n +
l1"2 — ^2) cos.2 m cos.2 n)
+ (A2 + (A'2 — A2) cos 2 9 sin.2 p + (A"2 — A2) cos.2 9 cos.2 ®)
2 (AA sin. m sin. 0 + A' A' cos. m cos. 9 sin. n sin. p
i 'l" ’t" cos. m cos. 9 cos. n cos. ® )1 ;
and gr‘2 = [(A2 + (A'2 — A2) cos.2 m sin.2 n +
, l1"2 — cos.2 m cos.2 n)
+ ^ ^ cos-2 6 sin‘2 9 + (^'2 —#0 cos.2 ^cos.2 p)
— 2 (AA sm. m sin. 9 + A' A" cos. m cos. 9 sin. n sin. p
+ A" A" cos. m cos. 9 cos. n cos. ©)].
^ i ^eoexPress*ons are e(lU£il, because A'2 — k‘2=h'2 A2.
and A" A2 = A"2 — A2 ; wherefore RG = rg =f. And!
in like manner, it is shown, that GS =gs=
Now, the attraction of the prism RS urging a particle Attraction.
at G in the direction GH, is equal to S X jj, L j- (io) ;
and the ■ attraction of the prism ts urging a particle at g
in the direction gh, is = S'X ji —i-| : wherefore these
attractions are to one another as S to S', or as A' A" to A' A".
I he same thing may be proved of all the elementary
prisms that make up the two portions of the ellipsoids
contained between the planes BCM, BCN, and bem, ben ;
wherefore those portions attract particles placed at G and
g, with forces proportional to A' A" and A' A". But the two
ellipsoids may be divided into an equal number of such por¬
tions; wherefore the ellipsoids attract particles placed at
G and g, in the directions GH and gh, with forces propor¬
tional to A' A" and A'A", or to the sections AMDS and amde.
Cor. 1. I his proposition is true when the law of attrac¬
tion is expressed by any function of the distance. The
demonstration is the same as in the corollary of (13).
Cor. 2. If the two ellipsoids be so placed that their
centres, and the planes of their principal sections, shall
coincide, the surface of the one will be entirely within
the other. Also the point which one ellipsoid attracts
will be in the surface of the other, as is plain from the
expressions of the co-ordinates. And hence the attraction
of one ellipsoid upon a point without the surface is made
to depend upon the attraction of another ellipsoid upon a
point within the surface.
Cor. 3. When the ellipsoids become spheroids of revo¬
lution, the two principal sections through the axis of re¬
volution become equal, and will be represented by any
two sections whatever passing through the axis at right
angles to one another. But, in this case, the attractions
ot the spheroids on the points may be reduced to two,
one acting perpendicular to the axis, and one parallel to
it; and it is plain that these attractions will be to one
another as the areas of the sections perpendicular to their
directions.
21. To find the attraction of an oblate spheroid upon a
particle placed without the surface.
Let A' be the radius of the equator, and A the axis of
revolution ; and let a be the perpendicular distance of the
point without the spheroid from the plane of the equator,
and b its distance from the axis. In the first place, it is
necessary to determine the semiaxis of another oblate
spheroid that shall contain the given point in its surface,
and such, that it shall have the same centre, and its equa¬
tor m the same plane, as the given spheroid; and like-
7lSl ^difference of the squares of its semiaxes equal
to the difference of the squares of the semiaxes of the
given spheroid. Let A'.denote the radius of the equator,
and A the semiaxis of the required spheroid; then, be¬
cause the attracted point is to be in the surface of the
solid, we have — -j_ _ = i. andj because
h'2 A2 rr A'2 — A2 rr £2, we get
a2 A2 b
Whence, ^ /l2~~ **
2 A2 - a2
+ & — £2 + V(a2~+ b2 — 32)2 + 4g2 £27 and
when A is determined, then A' — VA2 _j_ e2.
In consequence of the equation = 1, we may
A'2
let a' rr A sin. m.
suppose a = h sin. m, and b = A' cog. m,
and b' = A' cos. ms or a' = y a, and b’ ■=.- v b •
A A' *
the point determined by the co-ordinates a’ and A' will
be in the surface of the given spheroid, and consequently
then
230
ATTRACTION.
Attraction.it will be within the surface of the other spheroid. Let
denote the mass of the spheroid of which the axis is
  £2 in   i2
h; and let e'2 = — = jz— : then ^ie attrac"
/r A'
tions of this spheroid upon the point within its surface,
determined by the co-ordinates a and b, are these, viz.
That perpendicular to the equator, equal to
3M'
a' X
A?e'3
[V — arc. tan. e'] ;
and that perpendicular to the axis, equal to
.. 3M' r . , ^ 1
** w-{arc-,an^-r+i»r
But (26, Cor. 3) the attractions of the given spheroid,
whose semiaxes are k and k’, upon the point without its
surface determined by the co-ordinates a and b, will be
found by multiplying the preceding expressions respec-
lively by ^ and ^ Let M be the mass of the given
., , M hPk #2 _ M h _
spheroid; then ^7 = ^; consequently ^ ^ ^ —
— - • and — — — • - = TT • r; •• wherefore the attrac-
M' * a!' hh! ~~ M' k' M' V
tions of the given oblate spheroid upon a point without
the surface determined by the co-ordinates a and b, are
as follows, viz.
The attraction perpendicular to the equator, equal to
05 — arc* tan.e'];
and that perpendicular to the axis, equal to
3M f . ,
b X —\ arc. tan. e —• -z—;—-2 >.
* 2A1 e 3 \ 1 + e'2 J
1 + e'2
Cor. In the very same manner we may determine the
attractions of an oblong spheroid of revolution upon a
point without the surface.
ATTRACTIONS OF ELLIPSOIDS.
Attrac- 28- Let AMBN be one of the principal sections of an ellip-
tions of soid, C the'centre, AB and MN the axes, D a point in theperi-
ellipsoids. phery of the section, and DO perpendicular to MN (Plate
CII. fig. 18) ; the attraction of the ellipsoid upon a particle
placed at the pole A is. to the force with which a particle
placed at D is attracted in the direction DO, as AC to DO.
Draw DFG perpendicular to AB, and through F de¬
scribe an ellipsoid similar to the given ellipsoid, and simi¬
larly situated, and having the same centre. Conceive an
indefinitely great number of planes, making indefinitely
small angles with one another, to be drawn through DG,
so as to divide the two ellipsoids into an indefinitely great
number of thin solids or slices; then the sections of the
ellipsoids made by every one of the planes will be similar
and concentric ellipses, each of them having an axis per¬
pendicular to DG (5). Wherefore the attractions of the
elements of the ellipsoid FHKL, upon a particle at F, are
respectively equal to the attractions of the elements of
the1 ellipsoid AMBN, upon a particle at D in the direction
DO (19). Wherefore the whole attraction of the ellip¬
soid FHKL, upon a particle at F, is equal to the attrac¬
tion of the ellipsoid AMBN, upon a particle at D, in the
direction DO. But the attractions of the ellipsoids
AMBN and FHKL, upon particles at A and F, are to
one another as AC to CF (8). Wherefore the attraction
of the ellipsoid AMBN, upon a particle at the pole A, is
to the force with which it attracts a particle at D in the
direction DO, as AC to DO.
29. The attractions of ellipsoids upon particles placed in
the surface, urging them in directions perpendicular to Attraction.
of the principal sections, are proportional to the distances of
the particles from that section.
Let AMBN be one of the principal sections of an ellip¬
soid, C the centre, AB and MN the axes of the section, and
P a point in the surface of the solid : the attraction of the
ellipsoid upon a particle at the pole A (Plate CII. fig. 19) is
to the force with which a particle at P is attracted in a
direction parallel to AB, as the semiaxis AC is to the dis¬
tance of P from the principal section perpendicular to AC.
Draw PDQ perpendicular to the section AMBN, and
let it meet the surface again in Q; through D describe
an ellipsoid similar to AMBN, similarly situated, and hav¬
ing the same centre ; and through P draw a section SPRQ
perpendicular to AB. As before, divide the solids into an
indefinitely great number of thin slices, by planes drawn
through PQ: the sections made by every one of those
planes will be similar, and concentric ellipses having an
axis of each perpendicular to PQ, (5). Wherefore the
attractions of the elements of the ellipsoid AMBN, upon
a particle at P, in a direction perpendicular to the plane
PRQS, are respectively equal to the attractions of the
elements of the ellipsoid FHKL upon a particle at D, in
a direction perpendicular to the same plane (19). Where¬
fore the attraction of the ellipsoid AMBN, upon a par¬
ticle at P, in a direction parallel to the axis AB, is equal
to the attraction of the ellipsoid FHKL upon a particle
at D in the same direction. But the ellipsoids AMBN and
FHKL being similar, their attractions upon particles at A
and F are to one another as AC to CF (8); and the at¬
traction of the ellipsoid FHKL, upon a particle. at the
pole F, is to its attraction upon a particle at D, in a di¬
rection parallel to AC, as FC to CN (28). Wherefore
(ex cequali) the attraction of the ellipsoid AMBN, upon
a particle at the pole A, is to the force with which it at¬
tracts a particle at P, in the direction AC, as AC to CN.
This proposition will enable us to find the attractions of
an ellipsoid on all points on the surface, or within the so¬
lid, when the attractions at the poles are determined.
30. To investigate the differential expressions of the at¬
tractions at the poles of an ellipsoid.
Let APD be an ellipsoid; C the centre; AC, CE, and
PC, the semiaxes; and PMB a section made by a plane
through PC and any point M in the surface: draw PM
(fig. 20) P/ft indefinitely near PM, and Mm perpendicular
to P/ft,* also MR perpendicular to the plane ADB, MS
perpendicular to PC, and RH perpendicular to AD. Con¬
ceive the plane PCB to revolve about PC, so as to de¬
scribe an indefinitely small angle BCO ; and let PM —f;
the angle KPM which PM makes with a perpendicular
to the axis = 6; and the angle DCB = <p: then, by pro¬
ceeding as in (23), it will be found that the attraction of
the small pyramid described by the triangle MP/ft, urging
a particle at P to the centre of the ellipsoid, is = dp . dd
cos. 0 sin. 6 .f.
Again, let MR = x, HR =y,CYi=z ; also let PC = h,
AC=#, CE = h!'\ then x=-k —f sin. 0; y =/cos. 0 sin. p;
2- —fcos. 6 cos. p; and if we substitute these values in
the equation of the ellipsoid (Def. 2), we shall get
(k — /‘sin. , f‘2 cos.2 6 sin.2 p^ f 2 cos.2 ^cos.2p_1 _
 £2 ' I” P k!'2
whence
k 2 sin. 6
<f k2 ’ sin.2 6 j cos.2 6 sin.2 p , cos.2 8 cos.2 p
"i F + ^
This is the value of / at the pole of h ; and, by a like
procedure, its values at the poles of h! and h!' may be
found, viz.
Attraction. y a • a
f —   2 sin. 0
J K2'| cos-2 6 sin.2 <p cos.2 Q cos.s <p
k'2 k(i ft’*
f =
ATTRACTION
A’ = 4e irk' . f-
V
xs dx
Attraction,
2 sin. 6
W
k'* ‘ sin.2 6 coiTTIb^y , cos.2 6
k"* f ^ + p  
Sappose that k is the least of the semiaxes; and let
k^ k®
^ ~ »T’ an(^ ^,2 = ’ ^len ^le values off at the poles
of k, h!, k", will be respectively
j?     2 k sin. 6
sin.2 6 + m cos.2 6 sin.2 f + n cos.2 6 cos.2 cp
f —   2 k' sin. 6 X m 
m sin-2 6 + cos.2 6 sin.2 <p + n Cos.2 6 cos.2 <p
f —   2 k" sin. 6 X n
^ n sin.2 & + cos.2 9 sin 2 £r+~wTcos.2 9 cos.2 <p
Now let A, A', A", denote the attractions of the sphe¬
roid upon particles placed at the poles of k, k\ k": then,
by substitutmg the values of/just found in the foregoing
differential expression, we get 6
A = k X fC- 2 d <f>.d 9 cos. 9 sin.2 9
sin.2 9 + m cos.2 9 sin.2 y ■+■ n cos.2 9 cos.2
A’ = k! x ff m X 2d(P -d & cos- 6 sin.2 9 
m sin.2 9 -f- cos.2 9 sin.2 <p n cos.2 9 cos.2
A" rr k" x ff n X’Zd <p . d 9 cos. 9 sin.2 9 
n s*n*2 ^ + cos.2 9 sin.2 y m cos.2 9 cos.2 p’
the limits of the integrals being from ^ r= 0 and p - 0
t0 ^ ~ 2 and V — 2 K'
31. To reduce the expressions of the polar attractions to
the most simple integrals.
Let us consider the general expression
CT_  d <p . d 9 cos. 9 sin.2 9
. .« sin.2 9 + p cos.2 9 sin.2 p + 7 cos.2 9 cos.2 o’
which includes all the formulas found in (30). Let
fnSin u ^ ^ ‘ cos-.2 ^ and §- = a sin.2 9 + y cos.2 9;
then the above expression will become
TP d <p . d 9 cos. 9 sin.2 9
JJ p sin.2 <p + q cos.2 <p
Suppose f \(£) . then the preceding
expression will become, by substitution,
du.d9 cos. 9 sin.2 9
V [1 + (m — 1) ip2] . [n + (m~ njlx?]
A" = 4 . f n.^dx
j V [1 + (n — 1) . [m + (/< — m)
These expressions have the inconvenience of contain¬
ing different factors in the denominators; but they may
be reduced to others having the same factors, by put¬
ting x
in the second, and x =
V n + (1 — n) r
A ■=. \> irk . f-
J V
V m + (1 — m) r2
in the third; we thus get
x? dx
m) a?] • O + (1 _wj^2]
m .r2 dr
V [m + (1
A' = 4 irk' • T-    
J [m + (1 — m) v2]l . \_n -j- (1 — n) r2]|
A" = ink" . T- n.r2 dr  
[w + (1 — n) r2]f . [m + (1 — m) r2]a
Now let
1 — m _k'2 — Id
m
X2, and
1—n k"2—k2
k? n k2
Also let the mass of the ellipsoid =1 M =
4?r
= A'2:
kirkk' k'
_ 4 ^3 3 M
— -= ; then
3 Vmn
tion, we get
A = k
A' = k!
A" = k"
Vmn
: wherefore, by substitu-
■It
x1 dx
k3
_ 3M
hS 'Jv\l + X2^2) • (1 + X'2 x2)
3 M x2 dx
Id
3 M p x2 dx
k3
[1 + A2 ip2]! • [1 + A72 a?2] a*
ST
V p.q
the limits of u being from 0 to 2^r; wherefore, by inte-
gra ing wi 1 regai cl to u, and restoring the values ofp and
<b the integral becomes 1
2 rr P  d 9 . cos. 9 sin.2 9 
yV (a smJTTT^cos^j) . (a sin.2 9 + 7 cos.2 9)
an > y putting x = sin. 9, the integral, which is to be
taken from 0 == 0 to 0 =: or from ip nr 0 to ip = 1, will
become
x2 dx
[1 + A2 ip2]2 • [1 + A^ip2]^
the integrations extending from ip n: 0 to ip — 1.
’lliese Jntegrals cannot be expressed in finite terms.
When A and A', or the eccentricities of the ellipsoid, are
small, the values of the integrals may easily be found to a
^sufficient degree of exactness by series. They may like¬
wise be all expressed by means of this fluent, viz.
_~/^Tr+^^.(i + x^)(from * =01°*
1) and its partial fluxions. Thus we have, in general,
y2 x? dx
V (1 + A2 IP2) • (1 -f W-x?) ~
^ ■ l +l./dF
* ‘ Uxy ^ x'' Ux,
V(1 -f A2ip2) • (1 + A'2ip2) ‘ A
Wherefore, making ip = 1, We get
it .r~
J V
^[/S -j- (« /Sjip2] . [y _j_ (a  
now we take a, /3, y, so as to make the assumed ex-
tivel “welali getmth the qUantitieS A’ A’ A"’ reSPeC-
A rr 4 irk . f  T dx 
J V~lm + (1 __ W/) + Yi _ ^
To find the forces with which a homogeneous ellipsoid
attracts a particle placed in the surface, or within the solid
m directions perpendicular to the principal sections.
a hrfrS k"\der\ote the semiaxes of an ellipsoid, and
a, b, c (respectively parallel to k, k', k") the pernendicu
lar distances of a particle placed in ihe surfacetl Sn
232
attraction.
Attraction, the solid, from the principal sections: then, from what is
proved in (29), the attractions we are seeking will be
a b c
found by multiplying the polar attractions by "^r>
Wherefore the forces that urge the particle in the direc-
3 M
tions of a, b, and c, are respectively a X •
Now, the attractions of the given ellipsoid upon the Attraction,
point without the surface, determined by the co-ordinates
a, b, c, will be found (26) by multiplying the preceding
expressions respectively by Let M be
M _kk' k"
the mass of the given ellipsoid; then ^ ?
{
V (1 + X2) • (1 + X2)
b X
and c X
+
i.f
x v
v/F\
dXj
M'
k_kr_M
hhn~ M'
conse-
; and
3 M
A3
3 M
¥
I ('EY
• \ • W)
x Vxy
Which formulas serve both for points in the surface and
within the solid, for the reason already explained in (25 j.
33. To find the attractions of an ellipsoid upon a particle
placed without the surface.
Let A, h!, k", be the semiaxes of the ellipsoid, and a, b, c
(respectively parallel to k, K, V) the co-ord,nates ot a
particle without the surface. Let h, h', h , so related to
k, k', k', that K* - V = ^ - A* and K* - /f = A”2 - f.
denote the semiaxes of another ellipsoid, which contains the
attracted point in its surface, and has its principal sections
in the same planes as the given ellipsoid: then, because
the attracted point is in the surface, we have (Def. 2)
7F + h'2 + h!'2
and, because h!2 — h2 — h!2 — k2 = ?, and h"2 h2 — h!
— k2 = s'2, we get
a2 . b2 . c2
, hlk" M A _ M
quentiy j—j^ — ^ ^ “ M'
^ ^ — X - • wherefore the attractions of the given
kb’ M' d
ellipsoid upon the point without the surface, determined
by a, 6, c, in the directions of those co-ordinates, are re-
3Mx
spectively equal to a X -^3-
( 1 , i /'^ + J_
^-/(l + X2) (1 + Xr2) X \dx) X
m-
, 3M ^
AX A3 X
3 M ^
cXlf X
I (dl\
A ' W’
and
J 
h2 ^ h2 + t2
A2 + s'2
This equation now contains only one unknown quantity ;
and it is plain that one value of A, and only one, can be
found from it. For, when A = 0, the function on the left
hand side is infinitely great; and while A increases from 0
ad infinitum, the same function decreases continually from
being infinitely great to be infinitely little. When A is
found, then A' = Vli2 + s2, and A" = /A2 + Because
a, b, c, are the co-ordinates of a point in the surface ot the
ellipsoid, we may suppose a —h sin. m, b - A cos. m
sin. n, c — hi' cos. m cos. n; let a! — A sin. m, A — A cos.»
_ A
sin. n, d — hi' cos. m cos. n; or a' — -r X a,
A
l’-k'
h -If
X b,
A*
X c; then a', bf, c', will be the co-ordi¬
nates of a point in the surface of the given ellipsoid, and
consequently it will be within the other solid. Let M
denote the mass of the ellipsoid of which A, A', A , are the
A'2 —A2 ka — A2 , _
semiaxes; also let X- — —^ ^ 5 an(1 *•
Iff—-If __ h*2 — A2 th • 5? denoting the same fluent as
h2 ~ h2 ' ' & . i .
before, the attractions of this ellipsoid upon the point
within it, determined by the co-ordinates a', V, d, in the
directions of those co-ordinates, are (32) respective y
equal to
3M'J L +
A3
X
V X
d +
\V(l +x2)(i + x'2)
©}•
!.«
X \d\J
3M'
A3 X
3M/
A3
X
^ • (i)-
1 /o
If' [fix’J’
The preceding propositions contain a complete theory
of homogeneous elliptical spheroids. They enable us to
compute the attractive force with which a solid of this
kind urges a particle placed anywhere in the surface,
within the solid, or without it. It remains, indeed, to find
the exact value of the function F in its general form, to
which we can do no more than approximate by series;
but this is an analytical difficulty which it is impossible to
overcome, because the nature of this function is such that
it cannot be expressed in finite terms by the received nota-
In the preceding investigations we have followed the
method of Maclaurin for points situated in the surface ot
a spheroid or within the solid. This method has always
been iustly admired; but neither its inventor, nor, as far
as weJ know, any other geometer, has applied it, excepting
to spheroids of revolution; and it is here, for the first
time, extended to ellipsoids. In regard to points without
the surface, we have employed the method first given by
Mr Ivory, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1809.
The combination of these two methods has enabled us to
derive the attractions of an ellipsoid on a point placed
anywhere from the attractions at the poles. I hus, this
extremely complicated problem has, by geometrical rea¬
soning of no great difficulty, been reduced to the investi¬
gation of the polar attractions, which are the only cases
that require a direct computation.
34. Of the attractions of spheroids composed of elliptical
shells that vary in their densities and figures according to
^^When a spheroid is composed of concentric elliptical
shells of variable density and figure, we may consider
every shell as the difference of two homogeneous sphe¬
roids of the same density with the shells, and having
their surfaces coinciding with the surfaces of the shell.
The attractions of the spheroids being computed by t e
nrecedinsr methods, their difference will be equal to the
attractions of the shell, and the integral obtained by sum¬
ming the attractions of all the shells will give the attrac¬
tions of the heterogeneous spheroid. This case, therefore,
aives rise to no new difficulties, except such as are pure y
mathematical, and depend upon the law according to
which the densities and figures of the shells are suppose
to vary. ^
A T W
Attribute Attraction of Mountains. See Mountains.
Atwood. ATTRIBUTE, in a general sense, is that which may be
Pre. cat. a person or thing as a determining charac¬
teristic, inherent quality or accident, the negation of which
involves either a falsehood, a contradiction, or an absurdi¬
ty* understanding is an attribute of mind, and ex¬
tension an attribute of matter. That attribute which the
mind conceives as the foundation of all the rest is called
its essential attribute ; thus extension is by some, and solidi¬
ty by others, considered the essential attribute of matter.
ATTRIBUTES, in Theology, the several qualities or
perfections of the divine nature.
Attributes, in Logic, are the predicates of any sub¬
ject, or what may be affirmed or denied of any tiling.
ATTRIBUTIVES, in Grammar, are words which are
significative of attributes; and thus include adjectives,
veibs, and particles, which are attributes of substances,
together with adverbs, which denote the attributes only
of attributes. Mr Harris, who introduced this distribution
of words, denominates the former attributives of the first
order, and the latter attributives of the second order.
ATTRUCK, a river of Persia, which has its rise in a
branch of the Elburz Mountains that borders on the north¬
ern deserts of Khorassan. It collects the streams of an
extensive valley, and of several subordinate glens, and con¬
veys in a westerly direction to the desert a large body of
water, which being joined by several other streams, falls
into the Caspian Sea at Kooroo-Soofee, 40 or 50 miles
to the north of Asterabad.
ATTU, or Attoo, one of the Aleutian Islands, about
60 miles in length, mountainous, and covered with snow,
but inhabited. It is 215 miles east of Behring’s Island.
Long. 172. E. Lat. 54. N.
ATWOOD, George, an author celebrated for the ac¬
curacy of his mathematical and mechanical investigations,
and considered particularly happy in the clearness of his
explanations, and the elegance of his experimental il¬
lustrations, was born in the early part of the year 1746.
He was educated at Westminster school, where he wras
admitted in 1759. Six years afterwards he was elected
off to Trinity College, Cambridge. He took his degree
of bachelor of arts in 1769, with the rank of third wrang¬
ler ; Dr Parkinson of Christ’s College being senior of the
year. I his distinction was amply sufficient to give him a
claim to further advancement in his own college, on the list
of which he stood the foremost of his contemporaries; and
in due time he obtained a fellowship, and was afterwards
one of the tutors of the college. He became master of
arts in 1772, and in 1776 was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society of London.
The higher branches of the mathematics had, at this
period, been making some important advances at Cam¬
bridge, under the auspices of Dr Waring, and many of the
younger members of the university became diligent la¬
bourers in this extensive field. Mr Atwood chose for his
peculiar department the illustration of mechanical and ex¬
perimental philosophy, by elementary investigations and
ocular demonstrations of their fundamental truths. He
delivered, for several successive years, a course of lectures
in the observatory of Trinity College, which were very
generally attended and greatly admired. In the year
1784 some circumstances occurred which made it desir¬
able for him to discontinue his residence at Cambridge;
and soon afterwards Mr Pitt, who had become acquainted
with his merits by attending his lectures, bestowed on him
a patent office, which required but little of his attendance,
in order to have a claim on the employment of his mathema¬
tical abilities in a variety of financial calculations, to which
he continued to devote a considerable portion of his time
and attention throughout the remainder of his life.
VOL. iy.
A T W
233
The following, we believe, is a correct list of Mr At- Atwood,
wood’s publications:—!. A Description of Experiments to
illustrate a Course of Lectures; about 1775 or 1776, 8vo.
2. This work was reprinted, with additions, under the
title of An Analysis of a Course of Lectures on the Prin¬
ciples of Natural Philosophy. Cambridge, 1784, 8vo.
3. A General Theory for the Mensuration of the Angle
subtended by two objects, of which one is observed by
rays after two reflections from plane surfaces, and the
other by rays coming directly to the spectator’s eye.
Phil. Trans. 1781, p. 395. 4. A Treatise on the Rectili¬
near Motion and Rotation of Bodies, with a Description
of Original Experiments relative to the subject. Cam¬
bridge, 1784, 8vo. 5. Investigations founded on the
Theory of Motion for determining the Times of Vibration
of Watch Balances. Phil. Trans. 1794, p. 119. 6. The
Construction and Analysis of Geometrical Propositions,
determining the positions assumed by homogeneal bodies,
which float freely, and at rest, on a fluid’s surface; also
determining the Stability of Ships, and of other Floating
Bodies. Phil. Trans. 1796, p. 46. 7. A Disquisition on
the Stability of Ships. Phil. Trans. 1798, p. 201. 8. A
Review of the Statutes and Ordinances of Assize which
have been established in England from the 4th year of
King John, 1202, to the 37th of his present Majesty. Lond.
1801, 4to. 9. A Dissertation on the Construction and
I roperties of Arches. Lond. 1801, 4to. 10. A Supplement
to a Tract entitled a Treatise on the Construction and Pro¬
perties of Arches, published in the year 1801; and con¬
taining Propositions for determining the Weights of the
several Sections which constitute an Arch, inferred from
the Angles. Also containing a Demonstration of the Angles
of the several Sections, when they are inferred from the
Weights thereof. To which is added, a Description of Ori¬
ginal Experiments to verify and illustrate the Principles in
this Treatise. With occasional Remarks on the Construc¬
tion of an Iron Bridge of one Arch, proposed to be erected
over the river Thames at London. Part II. By the author of
the fii st part. Lond. 1804,4to. Dated 24th November 1803.
1L A 11 eatise on Optics is mentioned by Nichols as having
been partly printed by Bowyer in 1776, but never completed.
It may be very truly asserted that several of these
works of Mr Atwood have materially contributed to the
progress of science, by multiplying the modes of illustra¬
tion which experimental exhibitions afford for the assist¬
ance of the instructor; at the same time they can scarcely
be said to have extended very considerably the bounds of
human knowledge, or to have demonstrated that their au¬
thor was possessed of any extraordinary talent or enemy
o mind in overcoming great difficulties or in inventing new
methods of reasoning. The Analysis of a Course of Lec¬
tures has been little read; and it bears evident marks of
having been composed before Mr Atwood had acquired
a habit of accurate reasoning on physical subjects. In
the first page, for example, the forces of cohesion and
gi avitation are completely confounded; and in the third
we find the idea of perfect spheres touching each other in
a greater or less number of points, notwithstanding the
appearance of precision which the author attempts to
maintain in his language.
The object of the paper on Reflection is, to illustrate
and improve the construction of Hadley’s quadrant; and
Mr Atwood proposes, for some particular purposes in
piactical astronomy, two new arrangements of the specu-
ums, by which the rays are caused to move in different
P ane®> ana which he considers as affording greater accu¬
racy for the measurement of small angles than the com¬
mon form of the instrument, although not of general uti¬
lity, nor very easily adjusted for observation.
I he treatise on Rectilinear Motion and Rotation exhi-
2 G
234
A T W
Atwood.
bits a good compendium of the elementary doctrines of
mathematical mechanics; but it shows a great deficiency
in the knowledge of the higher refinements which had
been introduced into that science by Daniel Bernoulli,
and Euler, and Lagrange. The properties of simply ac¬
celerated and retarded motion are first discussed, and the
phenomena of penetration experimentally examined ; the
laws of varying forces are then investigated, and the pr°'
perties of the pendulum demonstrated; the vibrations ox
an elastic chord are calculated, “ considering the whole
mass to be concentrated in the middle point, as an ap¬
proximation ; and then, instead of imitating and simp i y-
ing the elegant but complicated demonstrations or the
continental mathematicians, the author most erroneously
repeats, in the words of Dr Smith, the exploded doctrine,
that “ the string, during any instant of its vibration, will
coincide with the harmonic curve.” The subject of a re¬
sistance, varying as the square of the velocity, is next
examined; and some useful experiments on the descent
of bodies in water are stated in confirmation of the theory.
On this occasion, the author obseiwes, with regard to the
formation of the different strata of the earth, that
disposed to break into large masses, though specifically
lighter, may easily have descended more rapidly through
a fluid, than denser but more brittle bodies, so that the
natural order of densities may thus have become inverted.
He next examines the theory of rotation, and relates some
very interesting experiments on rectilinear and rotatory
motions; and he shows that Emerson and Desaguhers
were totally mistaken in asserting that “ the momentum
produced is always equal to the momentum which pro¬
duces it.” The last section of the work, which is devoted
to the subject of free rotation, is the most elaborate of the
whole ; but it exhibits no material extension of the earlier
investigations of the Bernoullis and Professor Vince ; nor
does it contain the important proposition of Segner, re¬
lating to the existence of three axes of permanent rota¬
tion, at right angles to each other, in every body, how¬
ever irregular.
Notwithstanding these partial objections, the work may
still, in many respects, be considered as classical. The
paper on Watch-balances is principally intended to show
the advantages which may be obtained, in Mr Mudge s
construction, from the effect of subsidiary springs in reri-
dering the vibrations isochronous, their actions being li¬
mited to certain portions of the arc of motion. If the au¬
thor has here again omitted to follow the continental ma¬
thematicians in some of their refinements of calculation,
it must be confessed that his view of the subject has, in
this instance, not only the advantages of simplicity, but
also that of a nearer approach to the true practical state
of the question, than is to be found in the more com¬
plicated determinations which had been the result of the
labours of some of his predecessors.
But, whatever may be the merits of these investiga¬
tions, they appear to be far exceeded in importance by
the papers on Ships, the first of which obtained for its
author the honour of a Copleian medal. Its principal
object is to show how much the stability of a ship will
commonly vary, when her situation with respect to the
horizon is materially altered; and how far the assump¬
tions of theoretical writers, respecting many others of
the forces concerned in naval architecture, will generally
differ from the true state of these forces when they ac¬
tually occur in seamanship. In the second part of the
investigation, some errors of Bouguer and of Clairbois are
pointed out; and the theoretical principles of stability are
exemplified by a detailed calculation, adapted to the form
and dimensions of a particular vessel, built for the service
of the East India Company.
A T Y
The latter years of our author’s life do not appear to Atwood
have been productive of any material advantage to science. 11
His application to his accustomed pursuits was unremit¬
ting, but his health was gradually declining. He had
no amusement except such as was afforded by the con¬
tinued exercise of his mind, with a change of the object
only; the laborious game of chess occupying, under
the name of a recreation, the hours which he could spare
from more productive exertions. He became paralytic
some time before his death; and although he partially
recovered his health, he did not live to complete his 62d
year.
His researches concerning the history of the Assize of
Bread must have required the employment of consider¬
able diligence and some judgment in the discovery and
selection of materials, although certainly the subject was
not chosen for the purpose of affording a display of ta¬
lent. His opinion respecting the operation of the as¬
size, as favourable to the community, may by some be
thought to be justified by the want of success which
has hitherto attended the experiment on its suspension;
but the advocates of that measure would certainly not
admit the trial of a year to be sufficient for appreciating
its utility. ,
The title-pages of the works on Arches explain the oc¬
casion on which they were brought forward, and at the
same time exhibit a specimen of the want of order and
precision which seems to have begun to prevail in the au¬
thor’s faculties; while the works themselves betray a ne¬
glect of the fundamental principles of mechanics, which
is inconceivable in a person who had once reasoned with
considerable accuracy on mathematical subjects. An
anonymous critic, who is supposed to have been the late
Professor Robison {British Critic, vol. xxi. January 1804)
very decidedly, and at the same time very respectfully,
asserted Mr Atwood’s error in maintaining that there was
no manner of necessity for the condition, that the general
curve of equilibrium of an arch should pass through some
part of every one of the joints by which it is divided;
and in fact we may very easily be convinced of the truth
of this principle, if we reflect that the curve of equilibrium
is the true representative of the direction of all the forces
acting upon each of the blocks, and that, if the whole
pressure be anywhere directed to a point situated beyond
the limit of the joint, there can be nothing whatever to
prevent the rotation of the block on the end of the joint
as a centre, until some new position of the block shall
have altered the direction of the forces, or until the
whole fabric be destroyed. The critic has also very truly
remarked that the effects of friction have never been suf¬
ficiently considered in such arrangements; but a later
author, in an anonymous publication, has removed a con¬
siderable part of this difficulty by showing that no other
condition is required for determining these effects than
that every joint should be perpendicular to the direction
of the curve of equilibrium, either accurately or within
the limit of a certain angle, which is constant for every
substance of the same kind, and which he has termed the
angle of repose. _ . (T-T-)
ATWOOD’S Machine, an ingenious contrivance tor
illustrating the doctrine of accelerated motion. See Me¬
chanics. TIT,
ATYS, or Attys, in Grech Mythology, a beautiful shep¬
herd of Phrygia, beloved by Cybele, who emasculated him¬
self during a fit of madness into which he had been thrown
by that goddess in revenge for his infidelity to her. The
story is related by Ovid, Fast. iv. 221, and differently by
other writers. In Pausanias (vii. 17, § 5) may be found
the story of Atys killed by a wild boar.
Atys, a Latin chief, son of Alba, and father or Lapys,
A U B
A U C
235
Aubagne from whom Augustus was said to be descended on the
II mother’s side. This name was also borne by a son of Crce-
Aubigne. SUSj g]a[n Adrastus.
AUBAGNE, a town of France, department of Bouches-
du-Rhone, on the Veaune, ten miles E. of Marseilles. Ma¬
nufactures of earthenware. Pop. in 1846, 3887.
AUBAINE (probably a corruption of alibi flatus'), an
ancient right vested in the king of France, by virtue of
which he claimed the inheritance of all foreigners that died
within his dominions, notwithstanding any testamentary set¬
tlement made by the deceased. An ambassador was not
subject to the right of aubaine; and the Swiss, Savoyards,
Scots, and Portuguese, were also exempted. This ancient
privilege was abolished in 1819.
AUBE, a department of France, watered by the rivers
Seine and Aube, from the latter of which it receives its
name. It is bounded on the N. by the department of
Marne ; N.W. by Seine-et-Marne ; W. by Yonne ; S. by
Cote-d’Or; and E. by Haute-Marne. Area about 1,603,500
English acres, of which nearly two-thirds are arable, about
one-eighth forest, and somewhat less than one-sixteenth
meadow-land. Its general inclination from S.E. to N.W.
presents little variety of surface ; the N. and N.W. parts are
dry and sterile; but the S. and E. districts are very fertile,
particularly the valleys, which are admirably adapted for the
cultivation of the vine. The principal productions are wheat,
rye, oats, potatoes, and wine, of which last about one-half is
exported. Chalk and clay are abundant; and there are also
quarries of marble, lithographic stone, and building-stone.
It is divided into five arrondissements, 26 cantons, and 447
communes. Pop. in 1851, 265,247. The arrondissements,
with their populations, are as follows:—Troyes, 95,878;
Arcis-sur-Aube, 36,364; Nogent-sur-Seine, 35,211 ; Bar-
sur-Aube, 44,347; Bar-sur-Seine, 53,447. Its manufac¬
tures are cotton, linen, and woollen goods, glass, earthen¬
ware, paper, sugar, ropes, &c. The capital is Troyes.
AUBENAS, a town of France, department of Ardeche,
near the river of that name, 14 miles S.W. of Privas. It is
beautifully situated on the slope of a hill, but its streets
generally are crooked, narrow, and filthy. It is surrounded
by a ruinous wall flanked with towers, and has an old castle.
Manufactures, silk and woollen. Pop. 4262.
AUBIGNE, Theodore-Agrippa D’, the bold, able,
but somewhat irascible historian of the French Huguenots,
was born at St Maury, in the province of Saintonge, in 1550.
From his father, who fell fighting in the cause of religious
liberty, he inherited an ardent attachment to the Protestant
cause ; and while still a youth, escaping from his guardians,
he took part in the third religious war of that period. He
had the good fortune to survive the massacre of St Bartho¬
lomew’s day, and fled to the court of the king of Navarre,
afterwards Henry IV.; but though his services, both in the
council and the field, were esteemed by Henry, D’Aubigne
more than once retired in disgust from court, where his tem¬
per had created many enemies. Yet the king appears al¬
ways to have had a high opinion of his integrity ; and, con¬
trary to the advice of his friends, intrusted him with the
custody of the king’s formidable rival, Cardinal Bourbon,
when a prisoner. He was faithful to his trust in his castle
of Maillezais, to the government of which he was promoted
by Henry, and whither he retired on the conversion of the
king in 1593. There he wrote several able controversial
dissertations, and composed his principal work, Ullistoire
Universelle, which the Catholic party used every means to
suppress, and the parliament of Paris ordered to be burnt
by the executioner in 1620. The government made many
attempts to induce him to resign his stronghold; and find¬
ing it no longer tenable, he in that year resigned it into the
hands of the Due de Rohan, the leader of the Huguenots,
and retired to Geneva, where he died in 1630, at the age
of 80. ( x. s. T.)
AUBIGNY, or Avigny, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Cher and arrondissement of Sancerre. Pop.
2381. It gives a title to the Duke of Richmond.
AUBREY, John, descended from an ancient family in
Wiltshire, was born in 1626. He made the history and an¬
tiquities of England his peculiar study, and contributed con¬
siderable assistance to the Monasticon Anglicanum. He
succeeded to several good estates; but law-suits and other
misfortunes consumed them all, and reduced him to absolute
want. In this extremity he found a valuable benefactress
in the Lady Long of Dray cot in Wilts, who gave him an
apartment in her house, and supported him till his death,
which took place at Oxford in 1697. He was a man of con¬
siderable ability, learning, and application, but credulous, and
tinctured with superstition. He wrote Miscellanies, and
A Perambulation of the County of Surry, in 5 vols. 8vo.
In 1813, his Lives of Eminent Men, and a Collection of
Letters, were published from the originals preserved in the
Bodleian Library, in 3 vols. 8vo. The Lives are replete
with curious matter; and that of Hobbes, in particular, is
very full and elaborate.
AUBURN properly signifies the colour produced by
scorching, being derived from brennan, burn. As applied
to hair, it denotes brown with a tinge of red or russet.
Auburn, the capital of the county of Cayuga, in the state
of New York. It is remarkable for its great penitentiary or
state prison, in which the experiment of solitary confinement
for crimes was made, but abandoned after two years’ expe¬
rience of its injurious effects on the minds and bodies of the
prisoners. After this the silent system was adopted. (See
Roscoe on Penal Jurisprudence?) The building is an oblong
of 1000 by 500 feet, and is surrounded by a wall 3000 feet
in length, and 30 feet high. A Presbyterian theological semi¬
nary was founded here in 1821, and is now in a very flourish¬
ing condition. There are also several churches and schools,
two academies, a museum, two banks, and manufactures of
woollen and cotton stuffs, leather, &c. Pop. in 1850, 9548.
AUBUSSON, an arrondissement in the department of
Creuse, in France. Area, 802 square miles. It is divided
into 10 cantons, and 104 communes. Pop. in 1851,106,619.
The capital, of the same name, is on the banks of the river
Creuse. Pop. 5586. Its manufactures are silk, carpets, and
cloths.
AUCH, one of the most ancient cities of France, capital
of the department of Gers, and of the arrondissement of the
same name. In Caesar’s time this was the capital of the
Ausci. It was afterwards the capital of Gascony; and when
that district was divided into counties, it became the capital
of Armagnac. The site of the modern town does not ex¬
actly coincide with that of the ancient, being on the opposite
(the left) bank of the river Gers. It was probably de¬
stroyed by the Saracens about a.d. 724, and was afterwards
rebuilt in its present picturesque situation on the slope of a
hill. On the opposite side of the river, and occupying the
site of the ancient city, is a considerable suburb, which
is connected with the town by a bridge. The streets are
generally regular and well built, and a fine promenade in the
upper part of the town affords a magnificent view of the sur¬
rounding country. Audi is the seat of an archbishopric ;
tribunals of commerce and primary jurisdiction ; and has a
royal college ; an agricultural society ; a theological semi-
nary, with a museum and a library of 15,000 volumes; a
small public library; a theatre, &c. The cathedral of St
Mary, one of the most magnificent in France, was com¬
menced in the reign of Charles VIII. (1489), and finished
in that of Louis XV. It exhibits several styles of architec¬
ture, and contains many elegant monuments. The hotel of
the prefecture, formerly the archiepiscopal palace, is a vast
and noble edifice. The principal manufactures are hats, various
kinds of linen and cotton stuffs, leather, &c., and there is a
considerable trade, especially in the brandies of Armagnac.
236
A U C
A U D
Auchter- Pop. in 1851,9935. The arrondissement of the same name
arder contains 6 cantons, 84 communes, and 61,925 inhabitants.
\u t on AUCHTERARDER, a town and parish of Scotland,
J j0 1 -^j county of Perth, 15 miles W.S.W. of Perth. The town con¬
sists of a single street about a mile in length. It was for¬
merly a royal burgh, but is now disfranchised. Near it is an
ancient castle, said to have been a hunting-seat of Malcolm
Canmore. Pop. of town in 1851, 2520.
AUCHTERMUCHTY, a royal burgh and parish of
Scotland, county of Fife, 8 miles W.S.W. of Cupar. The
town is irregularly built on an elevated site, and is divided by
the Leverspool, a rapid streamlet which runs down its centre.
The principal manufacture is linen. It formerly sent a mem¬
ber to parliament, but now votes in returning the member
for the county. It is governed by three bailies and fifteen
councillors. Pop. of burgh in 1851, 2673.
AUCKLAND, the capital of New Zealand, which see.
AUCKLAND-BISHOPS, a market-town in the ward
of Darlington and county of Durham, ten miles from the
city of Durham. It is beautifully situated on an eminence
near the confluence of the rivers Wear and Gaunless. The
descent on each side is partly formed into hanging gardens,
the houses occupying the brow and remainder of the decli¬
vity. The palace of the Bishop of Durham stands at the
north angle of the town. The parish church, a Gothic struc¬
ture, is one mile distant, at Auckland St Andrews. Manu¬
factures, muslins and other cotton goods. Pop. in 1851,
4400.
Auckland Islands. See Australasia.
AUCTION, a well-known mode of selling property, in
open competition, to the highest offerer, by means of an
agent or auctioneer. When the property is of considerable
value, a person is sometimes appointed to superintend the
sale, who is denominated judge of the roup, and acts as an
arbiter in settling any disputes that may arise. The terms
of the sale may be regulated at the will of the exposer, pro¬
vided they are distinctly announced to the public before¬
hand. The party offering the highest price is declared the
purchaser. When formal articles of sale are employed, they
commonly regulate how much each offer shall exceed the
previous one ; whether the exposer shall be allowed to make
an offer, or to withdraw the subject, if the highest offer does
not amount to a given sum ; and sometimes it is declared
that an instalment of the price shall be payable instantly,
or that security shall be found within a stipulated period ;
failing which the immediately preceding offerer is preferred.
Secret contrivances, either to raise or depreciate the price,
are unlawful. The seller must not attempt to practise any
imposition on the public ; neither are the bidders permitted
to adopt any unfair means to prevent the natural operation
of free competition. Where any such thing is detected, not
only is the sale vitiated, but reparation is due to the injured
party. For example, the secret employment by the seller
of a friend to raise the price by making a fictitious offer is
fraudulent, and entitles the highest offerer, on detecting it,
to repudiate the transaction, or (in case he has been out¬
bidden by such fictitious party) to demand the property at
the price which he fairly offered. On the other hand, the
obligation on the part of the public to act fairly is equally
stringent. Accordingly, if two or more individuals combine
to withhold their biddings that one of their number may
purchase cheaply in order to divide among them the ex¬
pected profit, or if a bidder were to give money to others
to induce them to refrain from bidding, the exposer is en¬
titled to have the sale declared void ; on the ground that
such a secret combination or paction obviously deprived him
of the advantage which he expected from that competition
which a public sale is intended to secure.
Formerly a duty was payable to government on the price
realized; but at present it is only required that an annual
license, which costs L.10, be taken out by the auctioneer.
AUDE, a southern department of France, forming part Auae
of the old province of Languedoc, bounded on the E. by the I!
Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Herault and Tarn, Auditor.
N.W. by Upper Garonne, W. by Ariege, and S. by that of
Eastern Pyrenees. It lies between Lat. 42. 40. and 43. 30.
N.; is 80 miles in length from E. to W., and 60 miles in
breadth from N. to S. Area, 2341 square miles.
I he department of Aude is traversed on its western boun¬
dary from south to north by a mountain range of medium
height, which unites the Pyrenees with the Southern Ce-
vennes ; and its northern frontier is occupied by the Black
Mountains, the most western part of the Cevennes chain.
The Corbieres, a branch of the Pyrenees, runs in a S.W.
and N.E. direction along the southern district. The Aude,
its principal river, has its entire course in this department,
except a small part towards its source in the Eastern Py¬
renees. Flowing first northwards, at Carcassonne it turns
abruptly to the E., and continues in that direction till it
reaches the sea on the confines of the department of He¬
rault. Its principal affluents on the left are the Rebenti,
Cougain, Lou, Rougeane, Orbiel, Argent-Double, and
Ceysse ; on the right, the Guette, Salse, and Orbieu. The
canal of Languedoc, which unites the Atlantic with the
Mediterranean, traverses the department from E. to W.
The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagunes ;
the chief of which are those of Bages, Lijean, Narbonne,
Palme, and Leucate. Various kinds of wild animals, as the
chamois, bear, wild boar, wolf, fox, and badger, inhabit the
mountains and forests; game of all kinds is plentiful; and
the coast and lagunes abound in fish. It has mines of iron,
copper, lead, manganese, cobalt, and antimony. Besides
the beautiful marbles of Cascastel and Caunes, there are
quarries of lithographic stones, gypsum, limestone, and slate.
At Tuchan and Durban are two coal mines of excellent
quality, but the veins are not thick. The mountains con¬
tain many mineral springs, both cold and thermal.
The agriculture of this department is in a very flourishing
condition, more than four-ninths of the soil being under
grain, and about one-twelfth in vineyards. About a ninth
part is occupied by woods and forests ; more than two-
sevenths are waste land; and the meadows are extensive
and well watered. The grain produce considerably exceeds
the consumption, but the vine constitutes the principal agri¬
cultural wealth. Olives are also extensively cultivated, and
the honey of Aude is much esteemed. Besides important
manufactures of cloths, combs, jet ornaments, and casks,
there are paper-mills, distilleries, tanneries, and extensive
iron and salt works.
This department contains 4 arrondissements, 31 cantons,
433 communes. The population in 1851 was as follows:—
Cantons. Pop.
Carcassonne  12 94,970
Limoux  8 75,229
Narbonne  6 64,400
Castelnaudary     5 55,148
31 289,747
AUDEBERT, Jean-Baptiste, an eminent naturalist
and delineator of animals, born at Rochefort in 1759, died
in 1800. He introduced a new era in the art of depicting
animals, and acquired great celebrity by the illustrations he
furnished for several well-known works on subjects of natu¬
ral history. His first folio, Histoire Naturelle des Singes et
des Makis, fyc., is a beautiful and valuable work; but his His¬
toire des Colibris, des Oiseaux-mouches, des Jacamars et des
Promerops, published in folio at Paris in 1802, is superb, and
is also remarkable for the masterly style of the diagnosis and
descriptions.
AUDITOR, in a general sense, a hearer, or one who
listens or attends to anything.
Auditor, in English Law, is an officer of the Queen, or
A U D
Auditors some other great person, who, by examining yearly the ac-
II counts of the under officers, makes up a general book, which
Audaeus^ shows the difference between their receipts and charges, and
their several allowances.
Auditors of the Imprest were the officers of the exchequer,
who had formerly the charge of auditing the great accounts of
the customs, naval and military expenses, &c. Their patents
were vacated by the 25th Geo. III. cap. 52, and a com¬
pensation granted of L.7000 per annum (§ 3). The duties
of the office were transferred to the commissioners for audit¬
ing the public accounts, appointed by § 4.
The commissioners were at first five in number, of whom
two were required to be the comptrollers of the army ac¬
counts, and continued to be commissioners so long only as
they held that office. Their tenure of office is expressed to
be quamdiu se bene gesserint. Power was then given by
the 45th Geo. III. cap. 91, for the appointment of three com¬
missioners as an additional board for examining and auditing
the public extraordinary accounts under the direction of the
treasury, such commissioners not to be members of parlia¬
ment (§ 7). But afterwards, by the 46th Geo. III. cap. 141,
the number was increased to ten, who should hold their office
“ during good behaviour,” with a salary to the chairman of
L.1500, and to theother commissioners of L.1200 per annum.
And it was also provided that the comptrollers of army ac¬
counts should cease to be auditors of public accounts, and
that no commissioner should be a member of parliament;
and in case of a vacancy, tbe appointment thereto could
not be made without the authority of parliament, unless the
number should be reduced to five or less. Five of the com¬
missioners constitute a general board.
The powers and duties of the commissioners have been
from time to time augmented. The various statutes by which
these changes have been effected, and the several offices
brought under their audit, are as follow :—
The three offices of auditors of the Land Revenue on the
respective deaths of the then holders : 39th Geo. III., cap.
83, § 1.
The accounts of the receipts and expenditure of Colonial
Revenues in the islands of Ceylon, Mauritius, Malta, Trini¬
dad, and the settlements of the Cape of Good Hope : 2d
Will. IV. cap. 26. It appears that under the 54th Geo. III.
cap. 184, three commissioners were appointed for this pur¬
pose, at salaries of L.1000, and two at L.800 each, whose
powers were continued by the 59th Geo. III. cap. 67, and
the 1st Geo. IV. cap. 65, and rendered perpetual by the 1st
and 2d Geo. IV. cap. 121.
The powers and duties of the commissioners of public ac¬
counts in Ireland: 2d and 3d Will. IV. cap. 99.
The duties of auditing and passing sheriffs accounts :
3d and 4th Will. IV. cap. 99, § 8.
The audit of the accounts of all moneys which by any act
of parliament are under the control of the commissioners of
Her Majesty’s ivoods and forests : 7th and 8th Viet. cap.
89; of the accounts of the treasurers of the county courts: 9th
and 10th Viet. cap. 95, § 45 ; and of the excise revenue, on
the abolition of the office of auditor of the excise, which was
created by the 4th Viet. cap. 20, § 14 ; 12th Viet. cap. 1.
Under the Municipal Corporations Act, 5th and 6th Will.
IV. cap. 76, the burgesses annually elect from among those
qualified to be councillors, two auditors to audit the accounts of
the borough, who are by the 7th Will. IV. and 1st Viet. cap.
78, § 15, disqualified to be of the council.
In Scotland there is an auditor attached to the Court of
Session, who officially examines accounts when costs are
given, whose certificate or taxation is essential to the en¬
forcement of payment. (r. m—m.)
AUDITORIUM, in the ancient churches, was the nave,
or that part of the church where the auditors stood to hear
and be instructed.
AUD7EUS, or Aumus, a reformer of the fourth century,
A U D 237
by birth a Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution Audouin
from the Syrian clergy for his fearless censure of their irre- II
gular lives; and was eventually banished into Scythia, where, Audrari-
after propagating his sect with good success, he died at an
advanced age, about a.d. 370. The Audseans celebrated the
feast of Easter on the same day with the Jewish passover,
and they were also charged with Anthropomorphism, or at¬
tributing to the Deity a human shape. They founded this
opinion on Genesis i. 26. Mosheim’s Instil, of Eccles. Hist.
AUDOUIN, Jean Victor, a distinguished French en¬
tomologist, was born at Paris, April 27.1797. He began the
study of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predi¬
lection for natural history, which subsequently led him to
enter the medical profession. In 1824, he was appointed
assistant to Latreille in the entomological chair at the mu¬
seum of natural history, and succeeded him in 1833. He
established in 1828, in conjunction with Dumas and Adolphe
Brongniart, the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, to which he
made numerous valuable contributions, generally in co-ope¬
ration with M. Milne Edwards. Besides these, the greater
part of his papers are contained in the Transactions of the
Entomological Society, of which he was one of the founders,
and for many years president. He died in 1841, more from
the effects of mental than of bodily exhaustion.
AUDRAN, Claude, a French engraver, was the son of
Louis Audran, an officer belonging to the wolf-hunters in the
reign of Henry IV. of France. He was born at Paris in
1592, and died at Lyons in 1677. Though he never ac¬
quired much reputation by his own works, he was the father
of three great artists, Germain, Claude, and Girard; the last
of whom has immortalized the name of the family.
Audran, Carl, brother to the preceding, was born at
Paris in 1594. In his infancy he discovered a great taste
for the arts ; and to perfect himself in engraving, went to
Rome, where he produced several prints which did him great
honour. On his return he adopted that species of engraving
which is performed with the graver only. He settled at Paris,
where he died in 1674. In the early part of his life he marked
his prints with C, or the name of Carl, till his brother Claude
published some plates with the initial only of his baptismal
name, when, for distinction’s sake, he used the letter K.
Audran, Germain, the eldest son of Claude, was born in
1631, at Lyons. Not content with the instructions of his
father, he went to Paris and perfected himself under his uncle
Carl; and on his return to Lyons, published several prints
which contributed much to his reputation. He was made a
member of the academy established in that town, and chosen
a professor. He died at Lyons in 1710, and left behind him
four sons, all artists, namely, Claude, Benoit, Jean, and Louis.
Audran, Claude, the second of this name, and second
son to Claude above mentioned, was born at Lyons in 1639,
and went to Rome to study painting. On his return he
was employed by Le Brun to assist him in various works.
He was made an academician in 1675, and died at Paris in
1684.
Audran, Girard, or Gerard, the most celebrated artist of
the whole family, was the third son of the Claude Audran first
mentioned, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught
the first principles of design and engraving by his father ;
and, following the example of his brother, went to Paris, and
afterwards to Rome, to perfect himself in his art. At Rome,
where he resided three years, he engraved several fine plates.
That great patron of the arts, M. Colbert, was so struck with
the beauty of Audran’s works, that he persuaded Louis XIV.
to recal him to Paris. On his return he applied himself as¬
siduously to engraving, and was appointed engraver to the
king, from whom he received great encouragement. In the
year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the Royal Aca¬
demy. He died at Paris in 1703. His greatest works are
his engravings of Le Brim’s Rattles of Alexander.
“ He was,” says the Abbe Fontenai, “ the most celebrated
238 A U D
Audran engraver that ever existed in the historical line. We have
II several subjects which he engraved from his own designs, that
v u u on^ manifested as much taste as character and facility. But in
"* the Battles of Alexander he surpassed even the expectations
of Le Brim himself.”
Audran, Benoit, the second son of Germain Audran, was
born at Lyons in 1661. He studied, first under his father,
and afterwards at Paris, under his uncle Girard. Though
he never equalled his preceptor, yet he deservedly acquired a
high reputation by the boldness and clearness of his style.
He died at Louzouer in 1721.
Audran, Jean, the third son of Germain Audran, was born
at Lyons in 1667. After having received instructions from
his father, he went to Paris to perfect himself in the art of
engraving under his uncle Girard, next to whom he was the
most distinguished member of his family. At the age of
twenty his genius began to display itself in a surprising man¬
ner ; and his subsequent success was such, that in l707 he
obtained the title of engraver to the king, and had a pension
allowed him by His Majesty, with apartments in the Gobe¬
lins ; and the following year he was made a member of the
Royal Academy. He was eighty years of age before he
quitted the graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The
best prints of this artist are those which appear not so pleas¬
ing to the eye at first sight. In these the etching consti¬
tutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold rough
style. The Rape of the Sabines, after Poussin, is considered
his masterpiece.
Audran, Louis, the last son of Germain Audran, was born
at Lyons in 1670, and thence went to Paris, after the ex¬
ample of his brothers, to complete his studies in the school
of his uncle Girard. He died suddenly at Paris in 1712, be¬
fore he had produced any great number of prints. His best
work is The Seven Acts of Mercy.
Audran, Benoit, the younger, was the son of Jean Audran,
and nephew to the former Benoit. He engraved but few
plates, and, in point of merit, is vastly inferior to his uncle.
AUDUBON, Jean Jacques, the well-known naturalist,
was born in Louisiana in 1781, where his parents, who were
French Protestants, took up their residence while it was still
a Spanish colony. They afterwards settled in Pennsylvania.
He informed the writer of this memoir, that from his early
years he had a passion for observing the habits and appear¬
ances of birds, and attempting delineations of them from na¬
ture. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris, and remained
there about two years, when among other studies he took
some lessons in the drawing-school of David. On return¬
ing to America his father established him in a plantation in
Pennsylvania, and he soon after married. But neither the
management of his plantation, nor his domestic relations as
a husband and a father, could damp his ardour for natural
history. This favourite pursuit often led him to explore the
depths of the primeval forests of America in long and some¬
times hazardous expeditions, far from his family and his
home. For the fifteen years that followed 1810, he annually
continued these excursions, and in that school acquired the
facility of making those spirited drawings of birds that give
such value to his magnificent work, The Birds of America.
At that period he had not dreamt of any publication of his
labours; and has informed us “ it was not the desire of fame
that prompted to those long exiles ; it was simply the enjoy¬
ment of nature.”
He afterwards removed with his family to the village of
Flenderson on the banks of the Ohio, where he remained
for several years, pursuing his ornithological propensities;
and at length set out for Philadelphia with a portfolio con¬
taining 200 sheets filled with coloured delineations of about
1000 birds. Business obliged him to quit Philadelphia un¬
expectedly for some weeks, and he deposited his portfolio
in the warehouse of a friend ; but judge of his horror and
mortification at finding on his return, that these precious
A U D
fruits of his wanderings and his labours had been totally de- Audubon,
stroyed by rats!
The shock threw him into a fever of several weeks’ dura¬
tion, that had well-nigh proved mortal. But his native en¬
ergy returned with returning health; and he resumed his
gun and his gamebag, his pencils, and his drawing-book,
and replunged into the recesses of the backwoods. In eight-
teen months passed far from home, he had again filled his
portfolio; and then rejoined his family, who had in the mean
time gone to Louisiana.
After a short sojourn there, he bade them again adieu; and
set out for the Old World, to exhibit to the ornithologists of
Europe the riches of the New World in that department of
natural history.
Audubon arrived in 1826 at Liverpool, where the merits
of his spirited delineations of American birds were imme¬
diately recognized, and greatly admired by his present bio-
grapher and several other friends, who advised an exhibition
of them to the public, in the galleries of the Royal Institu¬
tion of that town. The exhibition was repeated at Manchester,
and at Edinburgh, where they were no less admired. When
he proposed to publish a work on the birds of America, several
naturalists advised him to issue the work in large quarto, as
the most useful size for the lovers of natural history, and the
most likely to afford him a sufficient number of subscribers to
remunerate his labours. At first he yielded to this advice,
and acknowledged its soundness ; but finally he decided that
his work should eclipse every other ornithological publica¬
tion. Every bird was to be delineated of the size of life, and
to each species a whole page was to be devoted; conse¬
quently the largest elephant folio paper was to receive the im¬
pressions. In such enormous pages the white headed-eagle
and the wild turkey certainly fill the space with good effect;
but to occupy such pages with a humming-bird or a fly¬
catcher, seemed to his more sober friends rather extrava¬
gant. It is true that his beautiful drawings of plants and
flowers, which he introduced with the smaller birds, were
often very spirited and characteristic; but size necessarily
increased the expense of the work so much as to put it be¬
yond the reach of most scientific naturalists ; which accounts
for the small number of persons whom, for a considerable
time, he could reckon among his supporters in this gigantic
undertaking. The extreme beauty, however, of this splen¬
did work, extorted the applause of the wealthy and the emi¬
nent in station ; and a sufficient number of subscribers was
obtained in Britain and America, during the ten or twelve
years that the work was going through the press, to indem¬
nify him for the vast cost of the publication ; yet left him a
very moderate compensation for his uncommon industry
and skill. We are convinced that had a quarto size been
adopted, with a scale of the size for each species, it would
have been far more advantageous to the gifted and indefati¬
gable author.
The first volume of this noble work was published in the
end of the year 1830, the second in 1834, the third in
1837, and the fourth and last in 1839. The whole con¬
sists of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of birds
the size of life. It is certainly the most magnificent work
of the kind ever given to the world, and is well characterized
by Cuvier, “ C’est le plus magnifique monument que fart
ait encore eleve a la Nature.”
During its preparation and publication, Audubon made
several excursions from Great Britain. In the summer of
1828, he visited Paris, where he obtained the acquaintance
and gained the high approbation of Cuvier, Humboldt, and
many other celebrated naturalists. The following winter
he passed in London. In April of 1830 he revisited the
United States of America; and again explored the forests
of the central and southern federal territories. In the fol¬
lowing year he returned to London and Edinburgh ; but the
August of 1831 found him again in New York. The fol-
AUG
AUG
239
Auerstadt lowing winter and spring he spent in Florida and South Caro-
II lina; and in the summer of 1832, he set out for the Northern
Augeas. States, with an intention of studying the annual migrations
of birds, particularly of the passenger pigeon, of which he
has given a striking description ; but his career was arrested
at Boston by a severe attack of cholera, which detained him
there till the middle of August. After that he explored the
coasts, the lakes, rivers, and mountains of N. America, from
Labrador and Canada to Florida, during a series of laborious
journeys, that occupied him for three years. From Charles¬
ton, accompanied by his wife and family, he took his third
departure for Britain.
Before, however, he had quitted these islands, he had begun
to publish at Edinburgh his American Ornithological Bio¬
graphy, which at length filled five very large octavo volumes.
The first appeared in 1831, and the last in 1839. This book
is admirable for the vivid pictures it presents of the habits
of the birds, and the adventures of the naturalist. The de¬
scriptions are characteristically accurate and interesting.
M. Audubon spoke English fluently, with a foreign ac¬
cent ; and he wrote it easily, but with an occasional foreign
idiom. It is true, as he informed us, that in this publica¬
tion the style was corrected by his friend the late Professor
Macgillivray of Aberdeen ; but from having examined Au¬
dubon’s MS. notes, before he had ever met Mr Macgillivray,
we can positively state, that any similarity to be discerned
between their acknowledged writings on natural history, may
be as justly attributed to an imitation of the spirited descrip¬
tions of Audubon by his friendly assistant, as to any obliga¬
tion of Audubon to that author for the graphic style of his
narrative. We may add, that Audubon always acknowledged
the services of Mr Macgillivray in terms of enthusiastic
friendship and regard.
In 1839 Audubon bade a final adieu to Europe; and re¬
turning to his native country, he published in a more popu¬
lar form his Birds of America, in seven octavo volumes,
the last of which appeared in 1844.
His ardent love of nature still prompted him to new en~
terprizes, and he set out on fresh excursions ; but in these
he was accompanied by his two sons, and one or two other
individuals, instead of his former solitary rambles. The re¬
sult of these excursions was the projection of a new work,
The Quadrupeds of America, in atlas folio, and also a Bio¬
graphy of American Quadrupeds ; both of which were com¬
menced at Philadelphia in 1840. The latter was completed
in 1850, and is, perhaps, even superior to his Ornithological
Biography.
To great intelligence in observing, and accuracy in deli¬
neating nature, to a vigorous handsome frame, and pleasing
expressive features, M. Audubon united very estimable men¬
tal qualities, and a deep sense of religion without a trace of
bigotry. His conversation was animated and instructive ;
his manner unassuming; and he always spoke with grati¬
tude to Heaven for the very happy life he had been per¬
mitted to enjoy.
He died, after a short illness, in his own residence on the
banks of the Hudson, at New York, on the 27th of January
1851. (t. s. T.)
AUERSTADT, a small village in the Prussian province
of Saxony, celebrated for the victory more commonly known
by the name of the neighbouring city of Jena, which the
French gained over the Prussians in October 1806.
AUGEAS (Avyeas or Avyetas), a fabulous king of Elis,
famed for his stable, which contained 3000 oxen, and had
not been cleansed for thirty years. Hercules was desired to
clear away the filth from this stable in one day; and Au¬
geas promised, if he performed it, to give him a tenth part
of the cattle. This task Hercules is said to have executed
by turning the course of the rivers Alpheus and Peneus
through the stable ; and when Augeas refused to keep his
engagement, Flercules slew him, and gave his kingdom to
his son Phyleus, who had shown an abhorrence of his fa- Augereau
ther’s insincerity. II
AUGEREAU, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke 0f^ugsbu^g-
Castiglione, was the son of obscure parents, and born in
1757. After enlisting in the armies of France, he after¬
wards entered into the Neapolitan service ; but retired from
it and joined the Republican army that watched the move¬
ments of Spain in 1792. He became an officer in the army
of Italy, and distinguished himself in storming the Bridge
of Lodi in 1796. Next year he took part with Barras and
the Directory, and was the prime agent in the revolution of
Fructidor; but his jealousy of his former comrade, Buona¬
parte, prevented their intimacy; and he had the honour of
being one of the general officers not privy to the noted re¬
volution of the 18th of Brumaire (Nov. 9.) 1799. Mutual
jealousy kept them aloof until 1805, when Augereau was
made a marshal of the French Empire, and appointed to the
command of the expedition against the Voralberg, which he
quickly subdued. He distinguished himself greatly in the
battles of Jena and Eylau. In 1809-10 he commanded the
French in Catalonia, and tarnished his laurels by unneces¬
sary cruelty to the Spaniards; but he was again more hon¬
ourably conspicuous in the campaign of 1813, especially in
the terrible battle of Leipzig. In 1814 he submitted, and
retained a command under the Bourbons; and in the fol¬
lowing year he refused to join Napoleon on his escape from
Elba. He had the painful task of being one of the commis¬
sion that sat on the trial of Marshal Ney, whom he did not
long survive, as he died of dropsy in 1816. (t. s.t.)
AUG RE, or Auger, an instrument used by carpenters
and joiners to bore large round holes. It consists of a
wooden handle and an iron shank, terminated at bottom
with a steel bit. Auger is likewise the name of an instru¬
ment of a similar kind which is used for boring into the soil
in order to ascertain the nature of the substrata, or the ex¬
istence of water. It has connecting rods to adapt it to the
different depths required.
AUGSBURG, a celebrated city of Germany, capital of
the circle of the Upper Danube, in Bavaria. On the con¬
quest of Rhaetia by Drusus, Augustus established a Roman
colony here, about b.C. 14, and gave it the name of Augusta
Vindelicorum. In the fifth century it was sacked by the
Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the Frank¬
ish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of
Charlemagne against Thassilon, Duke of Bavaria ; and after
the dissolution and division of that empire, it fell into the
hands of the Dukes of Suabia. After this it rose rapidly
into importance as a manufacturing and commercial town,
and about the middle of the thirteenth century it was raised
to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained till
1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Bavaria.
This city is pleasantly situated in an extensive and fer¬
tile plain, between the rivers Werlaeh and Lech, 36 miles
W.N.W. of Munich, with which it is connected by railway.
Lat. 48. 21. 46. Long. 10. 54. 42. E. Its fortifications were
dismantled in 1703, and though still surrounded by walls
and ditches, these would now form but a poor defence against
an enemy. The town is generally ill-built; one street, how¬
ever (Maximilian Street), is remarkable both for its breadth
and architectural magnificence. The public buildings of
Augsburg are worthy of notice. Among these is the town-
hall, said to be the finest in Germany, built in the begin¬
ning of the seventeenth century. One of its rooms, called
the “ Golden Hall” from the profusion of its gilding, is
110 feet long, 58 broad, and 52 high. The palace of the
bishops, where the memorable Confession of Faith wras pre¬
sented to Charles V., is now used for government offices.
There are also a cathedral, various churches and chapels, a
school of arts, a polytechnic institution, a picture gallery,
gymnasium, deaf-mute institution, orphan asylum, public
library, &c. The “Fuggerei,” built in 1519 by the bro-
240 AUG
Augsburg thers Fugger, consists of 106 small bouses let to indigent
Confession citizens at a mere nominal rent. The manufactures of
M Augsburg are various and important, consisting of woollen,
v 1‘qus linen, cotton, and silk goods, watches, jewellery, mathemati-
*"Cal instruments, machinery, leather, paper, &c. The Allge-
meine Zeitung, or Augsburg Gazette, is published here.
It is the principal seat of the commerce of S. Germany, and
of the commercial transactions between that and the S. of
Europe. Pop. (1849), including the garrison, 37,986.
Augsburg Confession. This celebrated confession of
faith was drawn up by Luther and Melanchthon, on behalf
of themselves and other reformers, and presented in 1530
to the Emperor Charles V. at the diet of Augusta or Augs¬
burg, in the name of the evangelic body. It contains 28
chapters, of which the greater part is occupied with an im¬
partial representation of the religious opinions of the Pro¬
testants, and the remainder in pointing out the errors and
abuses that occasioned their separation from the Church of
Rome.
AUGUR, an officer among the ancient Romans, origi¬
nally appointed to foretell future events by the chattering,
flight, and feeding of birds; though afterwards they divined
also by prodigies, lightning, &c. There was a college or
community of these functionaries, consisting originally of
three members. Afterwards the number was increased to
nine, four of whom were patricians and five plebeians. This
number was augmented by Sulla to fifteen, and Julius Caesar
added another. They bore an augural staff or wand, as the
ensign of their authority; and their dignity was so much
respected that they were never deprived of office, even though
convicted of the most enormous crimes.
AUGURY, in its proper sense, the art of foretelling fu¬
ture events by observations on birds; though it is used by
some writers in a more general signification, as comprising
all the different kinds of divination.
AUGUST, in Chronology, the eighth month of our year;
so called in honour of Augustus Caesar, who in this month
was created consul, thrice triumphed in Rome, subdued
Egypt, and made an end of the civil wars.
AUGUSTA, capital of the county of Kennebec, in the
state of Maine, N. America, is situated on both sides of the
river Kennebec, 43 miles from the ocean. The river is here
crossed by a fine bridge, 520 feet in length; and the town
is well laid out, containing a handsome state-house of white
granite, an arsenal, lunatic asylum, &c. Population (1850)
8231.
Augusta, a city in the state of Georgia, on the Savan¬
nah river, and capital of the county of Richmond; 96 miles
from Milledgeville, with which it is connected by railway.
It is situated in a district rich in cotton, large quantities of
which are conveyed to Charleston and Savannah. The town
is regularly laid out, and handsomely built, the streets cross¬
ing each other at right angles. Pop. 6403.
Augusta, or Agosta, a well-built and fortified city in the
intendancy of Catania, in Sicily. It stands on a tongue
of land near Cape Croce, and has a good harbour, from
which salt, honey, oil, and wine are exported. Pop. 15,000.
AUGUST ALES, in Roman Antiquity, an epithet given
to the flamens or priests appointed to sacrifice to Augustus
after his deification. The ludi, or games, celebrated in hon¬
our of the same prince on the 4th day before the ides of
October, were also called Augustales, or Augustalia.
AUGUSTALIS Pr^fectus, a title peculiar to the Ro¬
man magistrate who governed Egypt, with a power much
like that of a proconsul in other provinces.
AUGUSTAN Age, a term used to designate the most
brilliant period of Roman literature, or the age of Augustus,
when Virgil, Horace, Cicero, Ovid, Catullus, Tibullus, and
other great geniuses flourished.
Augustan Confession. See Augsburg Confession.
AUGUSTIN, or Austin, St, the first archbishop of
A U G
Canterbury, was originally a monk in the convent of St AuSustilie
Andrew at Rome, and educated under St Gregory, after-
wards Pope Gregory L, by whom he was sent into Britain
with forty other monks of the same order, about the year
596, to convert the English Saxons to Christianity. The
missionaries landed in the isle of Thanet; and having sent
some French interpreters to King Ethelbert with an account
of their errand, the king gave them leave to convert as many
of his subjects as they could, and assigned as their place of
residence Durovernum, now Canterbury, to which they were
confined till the conversion of the king himself, whose ex¬
ample had a powerful influence in promoting the conversion
of his subjects; but though he was extremely pleased at
their becoming Christians, he never attempted to compel
them. Augustin despatched a priest and a monk to Rome,
to acquaint the pope with the success of his mission, and to
desire his solution of certain questions. These men brought
back with them a pall, and several books, vestments, uten¬
sils, and ornaments for the churches. His holiness, by the
same messengers, gave Augustin directions concerning the
settling of episcopal sees in Britain ; and ordered him not
to pull down the idol temples, but to convert them into
Christian churches, only destroying the idols, and sprinkling
the place with holy water, that the natives, by frequenting
the temples they had been always accustomed to, might be
the less shocked at their entrance into Christianity. Au¬
gustin resided principally at Canterbury, which thus became
the metropolitan church of England ; and having established
bishops in several of the cities, he died May 26, 607.
AUGUSTINE, {Aurelius Augustinus), or Austin, St,
the most illustrious of the fathers of the church, was born
at Tagaste (Tajelt), a city in Numidia, on the 13th Novem¬
ber, a.d. 354. His father, Patricius, was a burgess of Ta¬
gaste, and at that time an unconverted pagan; but his mother,
Monica or Monnica, a woman of great piety, instructed their
son in the principles of Christianity. In his early youth he
fell dangerously ill, and earnestly desired to be baptized; but
the danger being past, the rite was deferred. He studied,
by his father’s desire, at Tagaste, Madaura, and afterwards
at Carthage. In his nineteenth year, the perusal of Cicero’s
Hortensius (a work now lost) made a deep impression on
his mind, and he began to entertain a love for wisdom. Ac¬
cordingly he applied himself with diligence to the study of
the Sacred Scriptures; but he soon suffered himself to be
seduced by the Manicheans, to whose pernicious doctrines
he adhered for nine years. After teaching grammar for
some time at Tagaste, he returned to Carthage and became
a teacher of rhetoric; but being disgusted with his com¬
panions and the manners of the scholars, he formed the re¬
solution of going to Rome, much against the inclination of
his mother. In that city he soon attracted many scholars;
but finding them no less depraved than his former pupils, he
quitted Rome and settled at Milan, where he was elected
professor of rhetoric. Here he had the opportunity of hear¬
ing the discourses of St Ambrose, whose arguments, to¬
gether with the study of St Paul’s epistles, and the conver¬
sion of two of his friends, determined him to retract his
errors and quit the sect of the Manicheans. He spent the
vacation of the year 386 at the country seat of his friend
Verecundus, and applied himself in earnest to the study of
the Scriptures, preparatory to his baptism, which took place,
together with that of his natural son Adeodatus, and his
friend Alypius, at Easter in the following year. Shortly
after this event, his mother came to Milan, and invited him
to return with her to Carthage; but at Ostia, whither they
had gone to embark for Africa, Monica was seized with sick¬
ness and died. Augustine arrived in Africa towards the
close cf 388 ; and having obtained a small villa beyond the
walls of the city of Hippo, he associated himself with eleven
other persons of eminent piety, and they dwelt together in
a monastic state for the space of three years. Renouncing
AUG
Augustins all individual property, they possessed their goods in com-
Ai o' t mon5 distinguished themselves by wearing leather girdles,
v, ° < / an<^ exercised themselves continually in prayer, fasting,
study, and meditation. Hence arose the Austin or Augus¬
tine fiiars, or eremites of St Augustine, who were the first
01 dei of mendicants; those of St Jerome, the Carmelites,
and others, being only branches of that of St Augustine.
It was about this period that Augustine acceded to the
urgent solicitations of Valerius, bishop of Hippo, to be or¬
dained a priest; but he still continued to reside with his
brethren in theii little monastery. In the year 393 he was
appointed, though still only a presbyter, to expound the creed
before the council of Hippo. Two years after, Valerius,
who was very desirous to retain the services of so eminent
a person, appointed Augustine his coadjutor or colleague,
and succeeded in obtaining his appointment to the bishopric
of Hippo, by Megalus, bishop of Calame, who was at that
time primate of Numidia. fhe life of Augustine closed
amidst scenes of violence and blood. The Vandals under
the fierce Genseric laid siege to Hippo; and during this
period of aggravated distress and misery, Augustine breathed
his last on the 28th August 430, at the age of 76. The
best account of his life is to be found in his own celebrated
Confessions, in which he has recorded with manly candour
the excesses of his early years, and the progress of his con¬
version to Christianity. His writings are greatly esteemed,
and there are many editions of his separate works. The
best complete edition is that of the Benedictines in 11 vols.
folio, published at Paris, 1679-1700, and reprinted at Paris
in 1836-38, in 22 half volumes. Tillemont, in his Ecclesi¬
astical History, has devoted a quarto volume of 1075 pages
to the life and writings of St Augustine.
AUGUSTINS, or Augustinians, one of the four men¬
dicant orders in the Church of Rome, so called from St
Augustine, whose rule they observe. The Augustins, po¬
pularly also called Austin friars, were originally hermits,
whom Pope Alexander IV. first congregated into one body,
under their general Lanfranc, in 1256. Soon after their in¬
stitution this order was brought into England, where they
had about thirty-two houses at the time of their suppres¬
sion. The Augustins dress in black.
AUGUSTOO, or Augustow, a city in Poland, capital
of the woiwodship of the same name, situated on the river
Netta, near a lake. It contains about 4000 inhabitants, and
has a considerable trade in horses and cattle. It was founded
in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus). The woiwodship is
the northernmost part of Poland, extending from the Bug
to the Niemen, between N. Lat. 52. 40. and 55. 5. E. Long.
21. 20. and 23. 9. Its extent is 6870 square miles, inclos¬
ing the greater portion of the lakes of Poland, and many
districts of extensive woods, but with some patches of good
arable land. It is divided into five obwods or circles, one
of which bears the same name.
AUGUSTULUS, Romulus, the last Roman emperor
of the West. See Roman History.
AUGUSTUS, Fort, a small fortress seated on a plain
at the head of Loch Ness, in Scotland, between the rivers
Tarf and Oich.
Augustus, the appellation conferred upon Caesar Octavi-
anus, the first Roman emperor. Its etymology is not quite
certain, but the Greeks always translate it by 2e/?ao~ro5, “the
Venerable.” He was the son of C. Octavius by Atia, a
daughter of Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar. An ac¬
count of his life is given under the article Roman His¬
tory. The obscure name Octavius, as Gibbon observes,
he derived from a mean family in the little town of Aricia.
It was stained with the blood of the proscription; and he
was desirous, had it been possible, to erase all memory of
his former life. The illustrious surname of Caesar he as¬
sumed as the adopted son of the dictator, for which reason
his name Octavius also was changed into Octavianus ;
VOL. iv.
A U N 241
but he had too much good sense either to hope to be con- Aula
founded, or to wish to be compared, with that extraordinary II
man. It was proposed in the senate to dignify their mini- Aunger-
ster with a new appellation ; and, after a very serious dis- vyIe‘
cussion, that of Augustus was chosen from among several VwN’/^/
others, as being the most expressive of the character of
peace and sanctity which he uniformly affected. Augustus
was therefore a personal, Caesar a family distinction.& The
title of Augustus, which should naturally have expired with
the prince on whom it was bestowed, continued to be
reserved for the monarch; while the name of Caesar was
more freely conferred on his relations, and, from the reign
of Hadrian at least, became appropriated to the second per¬
son in the state, who was considered the presumptive heir
of the empire. Nero was the last prince who could allege
any hereditary claim to the honours of the Julian line. But
at his death the practice of a century had inseparably con¬
nected the appellation with the imperial dignity, and it has
been preserved by a long succession of emperors, Romans,
Greeks, Franks, and Germans, to the present time.
AULA is used by Spelman for a court-baron, as by Taci¬
tus and Suetonius for courtiers generally. In some old ec¬
clesiastical writers it signifies the nave of a church, and
sometimes a courtyard.
Aula Regia, ox Regis, a court established by William the
Conqueror in his own hall, composed of the king’s great of¬
ficers of state, who resided in his palace, and were usually
attendant on his person. This court was regulated by the
article which forms the eleventh chapter of Magna Charta,
and was established in Westminster Hall, where it has ever
since continued.
AULCESTER, or Alcester, a market-town of War¬
wickshire, at the junction of the Alne and Arrow. It wtis
once a place of some importance, and the residence of seve¬
ral of our monarchs in remote periods. It has a fine old
Gothic church. Market-day Tuesday. Pop. in 1851, 2027.
AULERCI, a powerful Gallic people who dwelt between
the Seine and the Loire. They were divided into three
tribes, viz., the Eburovlces, the Cenomdni, and the Brano-
vlces. According to Ptolemy, the Diablintes were a branch
of the same.
AULIC, an epithet given to certain officers of the Ger¬
man empire, who compose a court which decides, without
appeal, in all processes entered in or submitted to it.
Aulic, in the Sorbonne and foreign universities, is the
ceremony observed in conferring the degree of doctor of
divinity. It begins by a harangue of the chancellor, ad¬
dressed to the young doctor, after which he receives the cap,
and presides at the aulic or disputation.
AULIS, the port in the Greek island of Euboea from
which the Grecian fleet sailed to the siege of Troy.
AULUS Gellius. See Gellius.
AUMALE, formerly Albemarle, from the Latin Alba
Marla, a town of France, capital of a canton in the de¬
partment of Seine Infer., on the banks of the Bresle, 35
miles N.E. of Rouen. Pop. 2000. The French dukedom
of Aumale, originally a county, has belonged since 1675 to
prmces of the blood. In the English peerage the earldom
of Albemarle is at present in the family of Keppel.
AUMONE, Tenure in, in Law, a tenure where lands
are given in alms to some church or religious house.
A UN CEL Weight, an ancient balance, prohibited by
seveial statutes, on account of the deceits practised by it.
It consisted of scales hanging on hooks, fastened at each
end of a beam, which were lifted up by the hand. In many
parts of England auncel weight signifies meat sold by the
hand, wnthout scales.
AUNE, a French measure for cloths, &c.: at Rouen = 1
e j,at Calais = 1*52, at Lyons = P061, and at Paris
- 0-J5 ; all now superseded by the metre.
AUNGERVYLE, Richard, commonly known by the
2 H
242
A U R
A U R
Aunis
name of Richard de Rury, was born in 1281, at St Ed¬
mund’s Bury, in Suffolk, and educated at the University ot
Oxford; after which he entered into the order of Benedic¬
tine monks, and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, On
the accession of his pupil to the throne as Edward 11 ., ie
was promoted to various offices of dignity, and was nna y
made bishop of Durham, as well as lord high chance oi an
treasurer of England. He corresponded with some ot the
greatest men of the age, particularly with the poet 1 e-
trach. He was of a most humane and benevolent temper.
Every week he caused eight quarters of wheat to e *na e
into bread, and given to the poor; besides distributing
large sums whenever he travelled. He founded a library
at Oxford for the use of the students, which he furnished
with the best collection of books then in England; and ap¬
pointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly salaries.
He died at his manor of Aukland, 24th April 1345, and
was buried in the cathedral church of Durham. He wrote,
1. Philobiblion, containing directions for the management
of his library at Oxford, and a great deal in praise of learn¬
ing, but in very bad Latin. 2. Epistolce Famiharmm;
some of which are addressed to Petrarch. 3. Orationes ad
Principes ; mentioned by Bale and Pitts. , .
AUNIS, an ancient province of France, now included in
the departments of the Lower Charente and Deux evres.
AURAY, a small seaport town of France, situated on a
river of the same name in the department of Morbihan, 10
miles W. of Yannes. It consists of one handsome street,
and is chiefly known for its trade. Pop. in 1846, 3755.
AURELIA (from aureus, golden). See Chrysalis.
AURELIANUS, Lucius Domitius, emperor of Rome,
See Roman History. , . . . ,
Aurelianus, Ccelius, a very celebrated physician, born
in Numidia, probably towards the end of the third century.
He wrote on acute and chronic diseases. Edited by Am¬
man, Amstel. 1709, 4to.
AURELIUS Victor. See Victor.
Aurelius. See Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius.
AUREOLA, in its original signification, signifies a jewel,
which is proposed as a reward of victory in some public dis¬
pute. Hence the Roman schoolmen applied it to denote
the reward bestowed on martyrs, virgins, and doctors, on
account of their works of supererogation ; and painters use
it to signify the crown of glory with which they adorn the
heads of saints, confessors, and martyrs.
AUREUS, the standard gold coin of Rome, first struck
A.u.C. 546 ; current value = 25 denarii, or 100 sestertii,
equivalent to 17s. 8-|d. Forty aurei were made from a
pound of gold; but their value was gradually diminished
till under Nero, 45 were made from a pound, and under
Constantine, 72.—Hussey, On Ancient Weights and Money.
ZURICH, a province (Landrosteibezirk) of Hanover,
situated on the North Sea, between Oldenburg and Hol¬
land. It comprizes the old province of East Friesland.
Its area is 870 geographical square miles, and it E divided
into 12 amts. Pop. in 1848, 174,355, of whom 118,394
were Lutherans, 50,007 Reformers, 3249 Roman Catholics,
and 2254 Jews. See Hanover. Aurich, its capital, is 12
miles N.E. of Emden, with which it is connected by the
canal of Trecktief. The town is well built and has an an¬
cient princely castle, in which the provincial courts now sit;
several handsome churches, cavalry barracks, gymnasium,
and public library. It is noted for its horse and corn mar¬
kets, and has a considerable general trade. Pop. 4500.
AURICULAR Confession, in the Roman Catholic
Church, is a declaration of sins made in private to a priest,
for the purpose of obtaining absolution. The scriptural
authority for this practice is supposed to be found in Mat¬
thew xviii. 18 ; Acts xix. 18 ; James v. 16; 1 John i. 9.
AURIFLAMMA, or Oriflamme, a standard belonging
to the Abbey of St Denis, suspended over the tomb of that
Auriga
saint, which the religious, on occasion of any war, took down
with great ceremony and gave to their protector or advocate, ^
to be borne at the head of their forces. Oriflamme is some- Boreahs
times used to denote the chief standard in any army. ^ — ^ - ■
AURIGA, the Waggoner, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere. It contains, in Bode’s catalogue, 261 stars.
AURILLAC, a town of France, capital of the dep. of
Cantal and of an arrond. of the same name. It is pleasantly
situated on the right bank of the Jourdanne, which is here
crossed by a handsome bridge. It has tribunals of primary
instance and commerce, a communal college, a society of
agriculture, arts, and commerce, and a public library of 7000
volumes. Here are to be seen remains of the ancient castle
of St Etienne, the church of St Geraud, a Benedictine
Abbey, &c. The inhabitants manufacture tapestry, lace,
cutlery, paper, leather, &c.; and are great breeders of horses.
Pop. of arrondissement in 1851, 96,433 ; of town, 9886.
AURORA, the ’Hws of the Greeks, the goddess of the
dawn, was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia according
to Hesiod, or of Pallas according to O vid. It was under
this name that the ancients deified the light which foreruns
the rising of the sun above our hemisphere. Aurora is re¬
presented by the poets as ascending from her ocean bed
in a flame-coloured chariot, and opening with her rosy fingers
the gates of the east, pouring dew upon the earth, and
causing the flowers to spring. Nox and Somnus fly before
her, and the constellations of heaven disappear at her ap¬
proach. Her amours with Orion, Cephalus, and Tithonus,
are celebrated by the poets; and by Astrseus she became
the mother of the stars, winds, &c. In the tragic writers,
Eos is identified with the day.
Aurora Borealis, Polar Light, Northern Lights, or
Streamers, is a beautifully luminous meteor, appearing in
the form of beams or rays, and sometimes in that of arches
or crowns. The rays are seldom stationary, generally
flitting with greater or less velocity throughout the hea¬
vens • the arches are sometimes single; sometimes several
concentric ones are seen. These lights, or meteoric co¬
ruscations, are most brilliant in the arctic regions, appear-
in,r mostly in the winter season and in frosty weather. In
the Shetland Islands, the merry dancers, as they are there
and elsewhere called, are the general attendants of clear
evenings, and serve to diminish materially the gloom of the
long winter nights. They commonly appear at twilight
near the horizon, and sometimes continue in that state for
several hours without any sensible motion ; after which
they send forth streams of stronger light, which rise from
the horizon in a pyramidal undulating form, shooting with
great velocity up to the zenith, assuming columnar and
other shapes, and varying in colour from a reddish yellow
to the darkest russet. At other times they cover the whole
hemisphere with their flickering and fantastical corusca¬
tions. On these occasions their motions are amazing y
quick, and they astonish the spectator with rapid changes
of form. They break out in places where none were seen
before, skimming briskly along the heavens ; then they are
suddenly extinguished, leaving behind a uniform dus y
track, which, again, is brilliantly illuminated in the same
manner, and as suddenly left a dull blank. Some nights
they assume the appearance of vast columns; exhibiting
on one side tints of the deepest yellow, and on the other
melting away till they become undistinguishable from the
surrounding sky. They have generally a strong tremulous
motion from end to end, which continues till the whole
vanishes. According to the state of the atmosphere, their
colours vary. They sometimes assume the hue of blood,
on which occasion their appearance is considered porten¬
tous. Then the rustic sages become prophetic, and ter¬
rify the gazing spectators with the dread of war, pestilence,
and famine. This superstition is not peculiar to the north¬
ern islands; nor are these appearances of recent date. ! he
AURORA BOREALIS.
Aurora ancients called them chasmata, and trohes, and bolides, ac-
Borealis. cording to their forms or colours.
Formerly earty timesJ it is said, these meteoric lights were ex-
rare. tremely rare, and on that account were the more taken
notice of. From the days of Plutarch to those of our sage
historian Sir Richard Baker, they were supposed to por-
tend great events, and lively imaginations shaped them
into aerial conflicts :
■Fierce fiery warriors fight, upon the clouds,
In ranks, and squadrons, and right form of war.
Dr Halley tells us, that when he observed a great aurora
borealis in 1716, he had begun to despair of ever seeing
one at all; none having appeared, at least of any consider¬
able extent, from the time he was born until then. But
notwithstanding this long interval, it seems that, in some
pei iods, the aurora borealis had been seen much more
frequently; and perhaps this, as well as many other na¬
tural phenomena, may be subject to periodical changes
and variations.
History. The only thing resembling a distinct history of this phe¬
nomenon is that which has been given by the learned Dr
Halley, in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 347. The
first account he gives is of the appearance of what is called
by him burning spears, which were seen at London on the
30th January 1560. This account is taken from a book en¬
titled A Description of Meteors, by W. F. D. D., reprinted
at London in 1654. The next appearance, according to the
testimony of Stow, was on the 7th October 1564. In 1574
also, according to Camden, and Stow above-mentioned, an
aurora borealis was observed two nights successively, viz.
on the 14th and 15th of November, having much the same
appearances as that described by Dr Halley in 1716, and
which we now so frequently observe. Again, an aurora was
twice seen in Brabant, in the year 1575, viz. on the 13th
of February and 28th of September. Its appearances at
both these times were described by Cornelius Gemm, pro¬
fessor of medicine in the university of Louvain, who com¬
pares them to spears, fortified cities, and armies fighting
in the air. After this, Michael Maestlin, tutor to the great
Kepler, assures us, that atBaknang in the county ofWur-
temberg in Germany, these phenomena, which he styles
chasmata, were seen by himself no less than seven times
in 1580. In 1581 they again appeared, in an extraordi¬
nary manner in April and September, and in a less degree
at some other periods of the same year. In September
1621, a similar phenomenon was observed all over France,
and described by Gassendus, who gave it the name of
aurora borealis ; yet neither this, nor any similar appear¬
ance posterior to 1574, is described by English writers till
the year 1707, which, as Dr Halley observes, shows the
prodigious neglect of curious matters that then prevailed.
From 1621 to 1707, indeed, there is no mention made of
an aurora borealis having been seen by any body; and,
considering the number of astronomers who during that
period were in a manner continually poring over the hea¬
vens, we may very reasonably conclude that nothing of the
kind really made its appearance until after an interval of
eighty-six years. A small one was seen in November 1707 ;
and during that and the following year, the same appear¬
ances were repeated five times. The next on record is
that mentioned by Dr Halley in March 1716, which
from its brilliancy attracted universal attention, and was
considered by the vulgar as marking the introduction of a
foreign race of princes. Since that time these meteors
have been much more frequent. Many of those observed
in this island have been described. The following account
of a splendid aurora borealis, as seen from the Gosport
Observatory on the 7th January 1831, will give an idea of
the brilliancy of this meteor, and of its colours, lustres,
arches, and beams.
243
“ In the afternoon of this day there was a peculiar bright- Aurora
ness in the atmosphere near the horizon, for several de- Borealis,
grees on each side of the true north point, which indicat- v—
ed the approach of an aurora; indeed we have reason toAuror?'
suspect that it was a faint appearance of one ; while thep°realls
sun shone in all his splendour, without the interposition'J°SI)0r ’
of cloud or vapour. Shortly after sunset an aurora bore¬
alis gradually rose above the northern horizon, and at a
quarter past five o’clock it had assumed the form of an
arch of refulgent light, ten degrees in height, and seventy
degrees in width. From this time till half-past five it con¬
tinued to increase in the intensity of its light, expanding
to the western point of the horizon, and fifty-five degrees
to the eastward of north, which made the chord of the
aurora a hundred and fifty-five degrees. Now, a bright
flame-coloured rainbow-like arch, between three and four
degrees broad, and pretty well defined at its upper edge,
emanated from the curved edge of the aurora to an alti¬
tude of thirty-five degrees; and while it remained ap¬
parently stationary, a beautiful rainbow-like arch, still
more brilliant, formed about ten degrees south of the
zenith, by streamers suddenly springing up from the N. E.
by E. and W. by S. points of the horizon, and meeting
in the zenith, so that these two bows presented them¬
selves at the same time. At thirty-five minutes past five,
the latter bow, in some parts four and in others six degrees
in width, divided a little to the eastward of its vertex; and
the long streamers which formed it passed off' gently to the
southward in very bright patches, two in the south-east
and one in the south-west quarters, like luminous clouds,
and continued in sight nearly a quarter of an hour. One
of these bright patches nearly covered Orion several mi¬
nutes. At forty minutes past five another rainbow-like
arch, equally wide and bright, was formed bj'long streamers
from about the same points of the horizon, whose point of
convergence was the same, and its course through the
feet of Gemini, near the Pleiades, through Aries, the
square of Pegasus, the head of Equuleus, and the bow of
Antinous. It passed off gradually towards the south ; and
at a quarter before six the planet Mars, then near the meri¬
dian, and about forty-five degrees in altitude, rested, as it
were, conspicuously on it. At six it had gone far towards
the southern horizon, and could scarcely be perceived,
leaving the sky unusually clear and bright. By this time
the bow over the aurora had much increased in altitude,
and was nearly effaced.
“ At a few minutes past six, after a great many coloured
columns of light had risen from the north-east and north¬
west quarters, and passed the zenith, the aurora sunk con¬
siderably towards the horizon ; but its upper edge remain¬
ed bright and very well defined. Some of the streamers
or columns were long, others short, and the widest gene¬
rally remained long enough to pass through a gradation of
prismatic colours. At half-past six the aurora again in¬
creased in altitude, and vivid coruscations radiated from
every part of its arch, and, on intermixing with each other,
formed wide columns, which were so grand with crimson
tints as to astonish every spectator. Between seven and
eight the aurora had spread at least two thirds over the
heavens, and as far as the shoulders of Orion on the east¬
ern side of the meridian, when large perpendicular co¬
lumns, and short pointed luminous coruscations, rising
from the aurora, glittering like spears and conical points
in nearly parallel rows, now mixing and then dividing,
all passed through red, orange, lake, crimson, green, and
purple tints; so that the appearance altogether over so
great an extent of the heavens was exceedingly grand,
particularly when contrasted with the cerulean sky, and
its spangled constellations, in the southern portion of the
hemisphere.
244
AURORA BOREALIS.
Aurora
Borealis.
Aurora
Cumber¬
land
House.
“ At ten minutes before eight the aurora was in its great¬
est splendour. At five minutes before eight another lu¬
minous rainbow-like arch stretched across the heavens
from the eastern point of the horizon, and displayed several
prismatic colours while passing southward. Soon after
eight a large dark space, in and near the horizon, present¬
ed itself several degrees on each side of the magnetic
north, and the aurora, still far over the heavens, gradu¬
ally diminished. At nine it again ascended, and wide
columns rose from every part of its arch, and passed
through the same colours as before-mentioned. Between
nine and ten the magnetic needle, which in the early
part of the evening stood at twenty-four degrees west of
the true north, was disturbed, and receded upwards of
half a degree northward, either by the influence of the
aurora, or by a change of wind from north-east to south¬
west, and of course a change in its electrical state. At
a quarter before eleven there was a grand display of about
twelve or fourteen glowing columns from the aurora, se¬
veral of which passed beyond the zenith, when a per¬
fect red rainbow-like arch, ten degrees above the aurora,
was visible. At eleven another bow three degrees and a
half wide rose from the aurora, and passed through Aries,
Cassiopeia, Ursa Minor, and the square of Ursa Major,
until, reaching the zenith, it gradually disappeared. At
half-past eleven the aurora again began to sink slowly,
and did not rise afterwards. At five minutes before
twelve, a large brilliant meteor, the only one observed
through the night, passed under Ursa Major. At one
o'clock A. m. the highest part of the aurora, about the
magnetic north, had sunk to within six or seven degiees
of the horizon; yet bright coruscations occasionally ema¬
nated from it till two, when the observations were discon¬
tinued, as no more interesting meteoric appearances were
likely to occur.”
The auroras observed, one at Cumberland House and
another at Fort Enterprize, in North America, are de¬
scribed by Lieutenant Hood, in Captain Franklin’s Nar¬
rative. The account of the former is as follows
“ For the sake of perspicuity,” says Mr Hood, “ I
shall describe the several parts of the aurora observed
at Cumberland House, which I term beams, Jiashes,^ and
arches. The beams
  „„„„„ are little conical pencils of light,
ranged in parallel lines, with their pointed extremities to¬
wards the earth, generally in the direction of the dipping
needle. The flashes seem to be scattered beams, approach¬
ing nearer to the earth, because they are similarly shaped,
and infinitely larger. I have called them flashes, because
their appearance is sudden, and seldom continues long.
When the aurora first becomes visible, it is formed like a
rainbow, the light of which is faint, and the motion of the
beams undistinguishable. It is then in the horizon. As
it approaches the zenith, it resolves itself at intervals into
beams, which, by a quick undulating motion, project them¬
selves into wreaths, afterwards fading away, and again
brightening, without any visible expansion or concentra¬
tion of matter. Numerous flashes are seen in different
parts of the sky. That this mass, from its short distance
above the earth, would appear like an arch to a person si¬
tuated at the horizon, may be demonstrated by the rules
of perspective, supposing its parts to be nearly equidistant
from the earth. An undeniable proof of it, however, is
afforded by the observations of the 6th and 7th of April,
when the aurora, which filled the sky at Cumberland
House, from the northern horizon to the zenith, with
wreaths and flashes, assumed the shape of arches at some
distance to the southward.
“ But the aurora does not always make its first appear¬
ance as an arch. It sometimes rises from a confused mass
of light in the east or west, and crosses the sky towards
the opposite point, exhibiting wreaths of beams, or coronae Aurora
boreales, in its way. An arch, also, which is pale and
uniform at the horizon, passes the zenith without display-
ing any irregularity or additional brilliancy; and we have
seen three arches together very near the northern horizon,
one of which exhibited beams, and even colours; but the
other two were faint and uniform. On the 7th of April
an arch was visible to the southward, exactly similar to
that in the north, and it disappeared in fifteen minutes.
It had probably passed the zenith before sunset. The
motion of the whole body of aurora is from the northward
to the southward, at angles not more than twenty degrees
from the magnetic meridian. The centres of the arches
were as often in the magnetic as in the true meridian.
“ The colours do not seem to depend on the presence of
any luminary, but to be generated by the motion of the
beams, and then only when that motion is rapid, and the
light brilliant. The lower extremities quiver with n fiery
red colour, and the upper with orange. We once saw
violet in the former. The number of aurorae visible in Sep¬
tember was two, in October three, in November three,
in December five, in January five, in February seven, in
March sixteen, in April fifteen, and in May eleven. Calm
and clear weather was the most favourable for observa¬
tion ; but it is discernible in cloudy weather, and through
mists. We could not perceive that it affected the wea¬
ther. The magnetic needle, in the open air, was disturbed
by the aurora, whenever it approached the zenith. Its
motion was not vibratory, as observed by Mr Dalton;
and this was, perhaps, owing to the weight of the card
attached to it. It moved slowly to the east or west of
the magnetic meridian, and seldom recovered its original
direction in less than eight or nine hours. The greatest
extent of its aberration was 45". A delicate electrometer,
suspended at the height of fifty feet from the ground, was
never perceptibly affected by the aurora; nor could we
distinguish its rustling noise, of which, however, such
strong testimony has been given to us, that no doubt can
remain of the fact.”
The account of the aurora observed at Fort Enterprize ^uror^ ot
is also interesting and instructive with reference to the ™ri^n'
theory of the phenomenon.
“ The shapes of the aurora observed at Fort Enterprize,
at its entry into the horizon, and progress through the sky,
may be reduced under two general descriptions. In the
first I shall class those which are formed like rainbows or
arches in the earliest stage of their appearance. They
rise with their centres sometimes in the magnetic meridian,
and sometimes several degrees to the eastward or west¬
ward of it. The number visible at the same time seldom
exceeds five, and is seldom limited to one. The altitude of
the lowest, when first seen, is never less than four degrees.
As they advance towards the zenith, their centres (or the
parts most elevated) preserve a course nearly in the mag¬
netic meridian, or parallel to it. But the eastern and west¬
ern extremities vary their respective distances, and the
arches become irregularly broad streams in the zenith, each
dividing the sky into two unequal parts, but never crossing
one another till they separate into parts. Those arches
which were bright at the horizon increase their brilliancy
in the zenith, and discover the beams of which they are
composed when the interior motion is rapid. This inte¬
rior motion is a sudden glow, not proceeding from any
visible concentration of matter, but bursting out in seve¬
ral parts of the arch, as if an ignition of combustible mat¬
ter had taken place, and spreading itself rapidly towards
each extremity. In this motion the beams are formed,
such as are described in the preceding observations upon
the subject. They have two motions ; one at right angles
to their length or sideways; and the other a tremulous
AURORA BOREALIS.
Aurora
Borealis.
   '
and short vibration, in which they do not exactly preserve
their parallelism to each other. By the first they project
themselves into wreaths, serpentine forms, or irregular
broken cuives. The wreaths, when in the zenith, present
the appearance of coronae boreales. The second motion
is always accompanied with colours; for it must be ob¬
served, that beams are often formed without any exhibi¬
tion of colours; and I have not, in that case, perceived
the vibratory motion. The beams, in different aurorae,
and sometimes in the same, are of different magnitudes,
arising, probably, from their various distances. These
evolutions, often repeated, destroy the shape and cohe¬
rence of the several arches, though they doubtless retain
the arched appearance to the eye of a spectator at the
southern horizon; for it would be absurd to suppose that
these changes occur only in the zenith of one particular
place. The observations at different places in 1820 af¬
ford satisfactory proof to the contrary; and the number
of arches often increased or diminished in their advance
to the zenith, by a dismemberment of which, from their
distance, we could not distinguish the particulars. How¬
ever, their several parts passed gradually to the south¬
ward, where they assumed the form of an arch. They
are also sometimes distributed into flashes, and other de¬
tached portions, which pass to the south-eastward. The
revolution of an arch from north to south occupies a space
of time varying from twenty minutes to two hours. At
Cumberland House, the arches were in many instances
almost stationary for several hours, a proof that if their
motion was not slower, their distance from the earth was
greater, than at Fort Enterprize. The arches, which are
faint at the horizon, very frequently pass the zenith with¬
out any increase of brilliancy or apparent internal motion.
“ The second general class of aurorae are those which
propagate themselves from different points of the compass,
between north and west towards the opposite points;
sometimes also originating in the south-east quarter, and
extending themselves towards the north-west. They may
be subdivided, like the former, into the distant arches
which pass to the southward without much visible change
in their appearance, and those which discover beams, and
separate at intervals into wreaths, flashes, and irregular
segments, exhibiting all the phenomena described above.
In explaining the mode by which the two general classes
of aurorae are conducted into the horizon, I shall call the
motion of the arches, which is in a plane seldom deviat¬
ing more than two points from the magnetic meridian,
the direct motion ; and that by which the aurorae propa¬
gate themselves nearly at right angles to the magnetic
meridian, the lateral motion. Let us suppose a mass of
aurorae to be modelled at its birth in a longitudinal form,
crossing the meridians at various angles, the whole to be
impelled with a direct motion towards the magnetic south,
but the parts having different velocities, and each extre¬
mity continually removing itself by a lateral motion from
the centre, so as to increase the length of the mass. If
the centre enter the northern horizon, it will appear like
an arch, the real extremities being invisible; and its di¬
rect motion will carry it to the southward in that form.
But if one extremity first enter the horizon, it will extend
itself by its lateral motion to the opposite point, passing,
at the same time, by its direct motion to the southward.
Of the unequal velocities of the parts, we had many in¬
stances, in the direct motion of the arches, by which the
centres were often carried from the zenith sixty or seventy
degrees to the southward, while the extremities did not ma¬
terially alter their positions. Nor can this be accounted
for by any application of the rules of perspective, because
arches exactly similar sometimes changed the bearings of
their extremities in proportion to the advance of their
245
centres; and at Cumberland House, on two occasions, Aurora
the extremities of arches arrived at the east and west Borealis,
points of the compass, while their centres remained only
ten degrees above the northern horizon.”
It was for a long time matter of doubt whether this me-Aurora
teor made its appearance only in the northern hemisphere, Australis,
or whether it was also to be observed near the south pole.
But the occurrence of the aurora in the antarctic regions
was clearly ascertained by Mr Forster, who, in his voyage
round the world with Captain Cook, observed it in the
high southern latitudes, though with phenomena some¬
what different from those which are seen here. On the
17th February 1773, when the navigators were in latitude
58° south, “ a beautiful phenomenon was observed,” says
Mr Forster, “ during the preceding night, which appear¬
ed again this and several following nights. It consisted
of long columns of a clear white light, shooting up from
the horizon to the eastward, almost to the zenith, and
gradually spreading on the whole southern part of the sky.
These columns were sometimes bent sidewise at their
upper extremities; and though in most respects similar to
the noithern lights (clutoto, bovetxlis') of our hemisphere,
yet differed from them in being always of a whitish colour’
whereas ours assume various tints, especially those of a
fiery and purple hue. The sky was generally clear when
they appeared, and the air sharp and cold, the thermometer
standing at the freezing point. The accounts of subse¬
quent navigators, particularly Weddell, though given more
in detail, differ in no material respect from that just quot¬
ed, and therefore need not be cited at length. They prove
that this splendid meteor is not confined to the northern,
but occurs also in the southern regions of the globe,
though with considerable diversity in the accompanying
phenomena. J 0
Colour.—The colours of the polar lights are of various
tints. The rays ox beams are steel gray, yellowish gray,
pea-green, celandine green, gold yellow, violet blue, purple,
sometimes rose red, crimson red, blood red, greenish red,
orange red, and lake red. Some of the beams appear as
if tinged with black, and resemble dense columns of smoke.
The arches are sometimes nearly black, passing into violet
blue, gray, gold yellow, or white bounded by an edge of
yellow. The colours are also sometimes vivid and prisma¬
tic. Maupertuis describes a very remarkable red-coloured
polar light which he saw at Oswer Zornea on the 18th
December 1786. An extensive region of the heavens
towards the south appeared tinged of so lively a red,
that the whole constellation Orion seemed as if dved in
blood. The light was for some time fixed, but soon be¬
came movable; and after having successively assumed all
the tints of violet and blue, it formed a dome, of which
the summit approached the zenith in the south-west. Its
splendour was so great as to be in no degree affected
by the bright light of the moon. Maupertuis adds, that
he observed only two of these northern lights in Lapland,
winch are of very rare occurrence in that country, al-
though the aurora there assumes a great variety of tints;
hence they are considered by the natives as of portentous
omen, and as the forerunner of some great calamity,
ihese red-coloured polar lights have of late years been
observed in the Shetland Islands; in many parts of Scot¬
land, as in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh ; and in Eng¬
land, fiom its northern to its southern extremity.
Lustre of the Polar Lights.—The lustre varies in kind
as well as intensity. Sometimes it is pearly, sometimes
imperfectly vitreous, sometimes also metallic. Its degree
of intensity varies from a very faint radiance to a light
nearly equalling that of the moon.
Pr ogiessive Motions.— 1 he reverend James Farquharson
states that “ the aurora borealis follows a determinate order
246
AURORA BOREALIS.
Aurora in its appearance and progress; that the streamers or beams
Borealis, generally appear first in the north, forming an arch from
'***~Y^*/ east to west, having its vertex at the line of the magnetic
meridian ; that when this arch is yet only of low elevation,
it is of considerable breadth from north to south, having
the streamers of which it is composed placed crossways in
relation to its own line, and all directed towards a point
a little south of the zenith ; that the arch moves forward
towards the south, contracting its lateral dimensions as it
approaches the zenith, and increasing in intensity of light
by the shortening of the streamers near the magnetic me¬
ridian and the gradual shifting of the angles which the
streamers near the east and west extremities of the arch
make with its own line, till at length these streamers be¬
come parallel to that line, and then the arch is seen as a
narrow belt, 3° or 4° only in breadth, extending across
the zenith at right angles to the magnetic meridian;
that it still makes progress southwards; and, after it has
reached several degrees south of the zenith, again en¬
larges in breadth, by exhibiting an order of appearances
the reverse of that which had attended its progress to¬
wards the zenith from the north; and that the only con¬
ditions which can explain these appearances are, that the
streamers of the aurora are vertical, or nearly so, and
form a deep fringe or arch, which stretches a great way
from east to west at right angles to the magnetic meri¬
dian, but which is of no great thickness from north to
south; and that the arch moves southward, preserving
its direction at right angles to the magnetic meridian.”
The same gentleman elsewhere remarks, that “ the whole
lights in the north part of the sky made a rapid pro¬
gress southward; and the manner of this progress was
repeatedly finely exhibited in the fringes and fragments
that had reached or passed the zenith, by the extinction
of streamers at their northern faces, and the formation of
new ones at their southern faces. The advanced southern
fringe expired when it had reached about 25° south of
the zenith ; and all did so, either when they attained a
similar angle south, or before they had gone so far. Ihe
confused mass of streamers in the north, as they came for¬
ward in succession to the zenith, and passed that point,
unfolded themselves into narrow zones of light at right
angles to the magnetic meridian, or very nearly so; for
there was occasionally a small deviation from parallelism
among themselves. The zones were more numerous than
usual, and were separated from each other by less inter¬
vals, sometimes not exceeding 3° or 4°, sometimes, how¬
ever, 15° or 20°.” (Edinb. Phil. Mag!)
Height of the Polar Lights.—Opinions differ as to the
elevation of the aurora borealis above the surface of the
earth, which is a point that can be determined only by a
series of accurate observations. Dr Halley observed that
the aurora described by him rose to a prodigious height,
it being seen from the west of Ireland to the confines of
Russia and Poland on the east, nor did he know how
much farther it might have been visible; so that it ex¬
tended at least 30 degrees in longitude, and from latitude
50 degrees N. it was seen over all the northern part of
Europe ; and, what was very surprising, in all those places
where it was visible, the same general appearances were
exhibited which Dr Halley noticed at London. But he ob¬
serves, with seeming regret, that he could by no means
determine its height for want of observations made at differ¬
ent places; otherwise he might easily have calculated the
height of the aurora, as he did that of the luminous ball of
1719. Father Boscovich, says he, determined the height of
an aurora borealis, observed on the 16th of December 1737
by the Marquis of Poleni, to have been 825 miles ; Berg-
mann, from a mean of thirty computations, makes the ave¬
rage height of the aurora borealis to be 70 Swedish or
upwards of 460 English miles; Euler supposes it to be Aurora
several thousands of miles in height; and Mairan also as- Borealis,
signs it a very elevated region. In the 74th volume of
the Philosophical Transactions Dr Blagden, speaking of
the height of some fiery meteors, remarks that the “ auro¬
ra borealis appears to occupy as high if not a higher region
above the surface of the earth, as may be judged from the
very distant countries to which it has been visible at the
same time.” On the 22d October 1804 it is said that the
same polar light was seen at the same time in Saxony and
in Liefland. Mr Dalton of Manchester, in a paper read
to the Royal Society of London on the 17th April 1828,
describes a polar light which he observed on the 29th
March 1826, assuming the form of a regular arch at right
angles to the magnetic meridian, and continuing for above
an hour in the same position; thus affording a favourable
opportunity for obtaining the data requisite for determin¬
ing its height. He took great pains to collect as many
authentic accounts as possible of the apparent position
of this luminous arch with reference to the stars, when
seen from various places where it had been observed in
England and in Scotland. And according to Mr Dal¬
ton’s view of the distribution of the meteor, it appears to
have been seen in places 170 miles distant from one ano¬
ther in a north and south direction, and 45 miles distant
from east to west, thus comprising an area of 7000 or
8000 square miles; but it must have been visible over a
much greater extent. Accounts were received of its hav¬
ing been seen as far north as Edinburgh, and as far south
as Manchester and Doncaster, and at most of the inter¬
mediate towns. From the exact correspondence of the
descriptions at all these places, it was inferred that they
referred to the same individual luminous appearance. In
proceeding from north to south, the apparent altitude of
the arch continually increased, still keeping the south of
the zenith to the distance of Kendal, at which place it
very nearly crossed the zenith. At Warrington, which is
farther south, the culminating point of the arch was north
of the zenith ; and, wherever seen, the arch always seemed
to terminate nearly in the magnetic east and west, at two
opposite points of the horizon. The observations in which
the author placed the greatest confidence for determining
the height of the aurora were those made at Whitehaven
and at Warrington, places which are distant 83 miles
from each other, and situated nearly on the same mag¬
netic meridian. Calculating from the data they afford,
he found the height of the arch very nearly 100 miles
above the surface of the earth, and immediately over the
towns of Kendal and Kirkby-Stephen. This conclusion is
countenanced by observations made at Jedburgh; yet if
the former be compared with those at Edinburgh, the
height will come out to be 150 or 160 miles, and the
position vertical above Carlisle; but he thinks the former
result more entitled to confidence. Assuming the height
to be 100 miles, it follows that the breadth of the arch
would be eight or nine miles; and its visible length, in an
easterly and westerly direction from any one place, would
be about 550 miles.
But we are disposed to reject these calculations of
Dalton, because from the particular details in his memoirs,
and the known distribution of the aurorae, it is highly pro¬
bable that the aurorae said by him to have been seen at
the same time at great distances were different aurorae,
and then not much elevated above the clouds. Indeed Mr
Farquharson, in the Philosophical Transactions, part i. 1829,
when discussing the value of Mr Dalton’s observations,
thinks that the observations made from Edinburgh to War¬
rington might be explained on the supposition that there
were several nearly vertical arches of the aurora, almost
contemporaneously hanging over many lines from Edin-
AURORA BOREALIS.
247
Aurora burgh to Warrington, at a few thousand feet above the sur-
Borealis. face. The observations of Dr Richardson, Captain Franklin,
Lieutenant Hood, and others, render it highly probable that
many polar lights occur at heights not higher than the re¬
gion of clouds. Dr Richardson’s observations seem to show
that the aurora is occasionally seated in a region of the at¬
mosphere, below a kind of cloud which is known to possess
no great altitude, namely, that modification of cirro-stratus
which, descending low in the atmosphere, produces a hazy
sheet of cloud over-head, or a fog-bank in the horizon. In¬
deed Dr Richardson is inclined to infer that the aurora bo¬
realis is constantly accompanied by, or immediately pre¬
cedes, the formation of one or other of the forms of cirro-
stratus. On the 13th of November and 18th December
1826, at Fort Enterprize, its connection with a cloud inter¬
mediate between cirrus and cirro-stratus is mentioned; but
the most vivid coruscations of the aurora were observed
when there were only a few thin attenuated shoots of cirro-
stratus floating in the air, or when that cloud was so rare
that its existence was only known by the production of a
halo round the moon. The natives of the arctic regions of
North America pretend to foretell wind by the rapidity
of the motions of the aurora; and they say, that when it
spreads over the sky in a uniform sheet of light, it is follow¬
ed by fine weather, and that the changes thus indicated are
more or less speedy, according as the appearance of the
meteor is early or late in the evening; an opinion not im¬
probable, when it is recollected that certain kinds of cirro-
stratus are also regarded by meteorologists as sure indi¬
cations of rain and wind. Dr Richardson frequently ob¬
served the lower surface of nebulous masses illuminated
by polar lights; a fact illustrative of the comparatively low
situation of these aurorae. Biot, also, in the island of Unst,
observed many aurorae that could not be higher than the re¬
gion of clouds. Captain Franklin in like manner observed
low aurorae. “ The important fact,” says he, “ of the exist¬
ence of the aurora at a less elevation than that of dense
clouds was evinced on two or three occasions this night
(13th February 1821, at Fort Enterprize), and particularly
at 11 hours 50 min., when a brilliant mass of light, varie¬
gated with the prismatic colours, passed between an uni¬
form steady dense cloud and the earth, and in its pro¬
gress completely concealed that portion of the cloud
which the stream of light covered, until the coruscation
had passed over it, when the cloud appeared as before.”
Captain Parry, as stated in his third voyage, observed
aurorae near to the earth’s surface. It is said that while
Lieutenants Scherer and Ross and Captain Parry were ad¬
miring the extreme beauty of a polar light, they all simul¬
taneously uttered an exclamation of surprise at seeing a
bright ray of the aurora shoot suddenly downward from
the general mass of light, and between them and the land,
which was only three thousand yards distant. The ray or
beam ofthe polar light thus passed within a distance of three
thousand yards, or less than two miles, of them. Further,
Mr Farquharson observed in Aberdeenshire an aurora bo¬
realis not more than four thousand feet above the level of
the sea; and he agrees with Richardson, Franklin, &c., in
believing that the auroras occur in a region immediately
above that of the clouds, and of course vary in height
with the different states of the atmosphere. But al¬
though this region was very low on the 20th December
1829, in the polar light seen from Alford, we know that
at times it is several miles high, agreeing with the observa¬
tions of these intelligent travellers. We have frequently
seen the aurora when the height of the clouds could not be
estimated at less than two or three miles, and at other
times not higher than a thousand or fifteen hundred feet.
Position of the Polar Lights.—The arches of the polar
lights generally cross the magnetic meridian at right
angles; when two or more appear at once they are con- Aurora
centric, and tend to the magnetic east and west. The Borealis,
beams or streamers in the direction of their length coin-
cide with the plane of the dip of the needle, or nearly so ;
and each individual streamer is, in fact, parallel to the dip¬
ping needle. Dr Richardson thinks he has observed a pola-
rity in the masses of cloud belonging to a certain kind of
cirro-stratus approaching to cirrus, by which their long dia¬
meters, having all the same direction, were made to cross
the magnetic meridian nearly at right angles. But the ap¬
parent convergence of such masses of cloud towards the
opposite points of the horizon, which have been so frequent¬
ly noticed by meteorologists, is an optical deception, pro¬
duced when they are situated in a plane parallel to that on
which the observer stands. These circumstances, says Dr
Richardson, are here noticed, because, if it shall hereafter
be proved that the aurora depends upon the existence of
certain clouds, its apparent polarity may perhaps, with
more propriety, be ascribed to the clouds themselves
which emit the light; or, in other words, the clouds may
assume their peculiar arrangement through the operation
of one cause (magnetism, for example), while the emission
of light may be produced by another, namely, a change in
their internal constitution, perhaps connected with a mo¬
tion of the electrical fluid.
Magnetic Property of the Polar Lights.—Many years ago
philosophers remarked that the magnetic needle was agi¬
tated during polar lights; and hence it was inferred that
these lights were somehow connected with magnetism.
Other observers, again, maintained that these observa¬
tions must be erroneous, as they could not in any instance
perceive the compass affected by the presence of this me¬
teor. But the late observations, of Biot, Hansteen, Gay-
Lussac, Kupfer, and particularly of Richardson, Frank¬
lin, and Farquharson, have demonstrated that the magnetic
needle is affected by the polar lights. As the fact is one of
the most curious in meteorology, we shall now state some
particulars illustrative of its nature. In Captain Frank¬
lin’s observations, the horizontal compass was placed in a
firm sheltered stand, fixed to the back wall of the house
at Fort Enterprize, three feet above the ground, on a
northern exposure; and the dipping needle was similarly
fixed to the end of the storehouse, at the distance of forty
feet. There was no iron near either of them. The house
stood on a sand-hill, and there were no large stones in
its immediate neighbourhood. The horizontal compass
belonged to a small variation transit made by Dollond;
and its graduated scale, of one and a half inch radius, was
divided into degrees, the degrees counting from north to¬
wards west to 360. Each degree was subdivided into 20,
and, by the assistance of a magnifying glass, he could read
it off accurately to within three minutes. The horizontal
position was preserved by means of a spirit-level attached
to the instrument.
The manner in which the needle is affected by the au-Action of
rora will require some description. “ The motion com-the polar
municated to it,” says Captain Franklin, “ was neither sud-%hts on
den nor vibratory. Sometimes it was simultaneous with ^scom*
the formation of arches, prolongation of beams, or certain^
other changes of form or action of the aurora. But gene¬
rally the effect of these phenomena upon the needle was
not visible immediately, but in about half an hour or an
hour the needle had attained its maximum of deviation,
brom this its return to its former position was very gra¬
dual, seldom regaining it before the following morning,
and frequently not until the afternoon, unless it was ex¬
pedited by another arch of the aurora operating in a di¬
rection different from the former one.
“ The arches of the aurora,” he adds, “most commonly
traverse the sky nearly at right angles to the magnetic
248 AURORA BOREALIS.
Aurora meridian, but the deviations from this direction, as has also made in December 1829, by the reverend James har- Aurora
Borealis, been already stated, were not rare ; and I am inclined to quharson, h. R. S., of Aberdeenshire, with an apparatus orealis.
consider that these different positions of the aurora have transmitted to him by the Royal Society of London. Ihis
considerable influence upon the direction of the needle, apparatus consisted of a horizontal brass circle, about one
When an arch was nearly at right angles to the magnetic foot in diameter, graduated to divisions of ten minutes,
meridian, the motion of the needle was towards the west; and capable of adjustment to a perfect level by means of
this westward motion was still greater when one extre- spirit levels and screwed feet. Concentrically within this
mity of an arch bore 301°, or about 59° to the west of divided circle moved a circular horizontal brass plate, its
the magnetic north, that is, when the extremity of the edge touching the divisions, and having at opposite points
arch approached from the west towards the magnetic two verniers, which, by means of attached microscopes,^
north. A westerly motion also took place when the ex- indicated the movements which it made to 60th parts of
tremity of an arch was in the true north, or about 36° ten minutes, or 10". The movement of the plate within
to the west of the magnetic north, but not in so great a the circle was effected by means of a screw. A circular
degree as when its bearing was about 301°. A contrary brass needle-box was attached to the surface of the rnner
effect was produced when the same end of an arch ori- plate, and a vertical pointed steel wire for supporting the
ginated to the southward of the magnetic west, viz. when needle formed the centre. At opposite points in the
it bore from about 245° to 234°, and, of course, when needle-box were fixed two micrometers, with cross wires
its opposite extremity approached nearer to the magnetic in the foci, for adjusting the needle to a level, andobser\-
north. In these cases the motion of the needle was to- ing any change in its direction. The top of the needle-
wards the east. In one instance only a complete arch was box was a circular plate of ground glass, in a brass rmg,
formed in the magnetic meridian; in another, the beam made to slip easily off and on, and having screwed into
shot up from the magnetic north to the zenith; and in its centre a vertical brass tube about eight inches long,
both these cases the needle moved towards the west. for the purpose of suspending the needle with fibres of
“ The needle was most disturbed on February 13, p. M., silk, for measuring the time of its oscillations. A honzon-
at a time when the aurora was most distinctly seen pass- tal brass pin, with a minute perforation for the silk near
ing between a stratum of clouds and the earth, or at least its middle, passed through the vertical tube near its top,
illuminating the face of the clouds opposed to the obser- and being contrived with several motions, served to ad-
ver. This and several other appearances induced me to just the suspended needle, and bring it correctly ovei the
infer that the distance of the aurora from the earth varied steel point, where its levelling could be completely ascer-
on different nights, and produced a proportionate effect on tained. The magnetic needle itself was a rectangular plate
the needle. When the light shone through a dense hazy about five inches long, half an inch broad, and ^yth of an
atmosphere, when there was a halo round the moon, or inch thick. An agate cup set in brass admitted of being
when a small snow was falling, the disturbance was gene- screwed in either at the narrow or flat side of the needle;
rally considerable ; and on certain hazy cloudy nights the and a little fixed ring of brass, with a minute perforation
needle frequently deviated in a considerable degree, al- in its top, rising oyer the cup, admitted of the ready al¬
though the aurora was not visible at the time. Our ob- tachment of the silk; so that the needle could be placed
servations do not enable us to decide whether this ought on the steel point, or suspended with the silk, with its flat
to be attributed to an aurora concealed by a cloud or haze, face either vertical or horizontal. This apparatus
or entirely to the state of the atmosphere. Similar devia- sured, with great accuracy, very minute changes in the
tions have been observed in the day-time, both in a clear declination of the needle, one so small as Kf being quite
and cloudy state of the sky, but more frequently in the sensible by it.
latter case. Upon one occasion the aurora was seen im- The observations made with this apparatus, and P^h"
mediately after sunset, whilst bright day-light was remain- lished in the Transactions of the Royal Society oj London
ing. A circumstance to which 1 attach some importance for 1830, also show, in a most satisfactory manner, that the
must not be omitted. Clouds have been sometimes ob- magnetic needle is actually affected by the presence of the
served during the day to assume the forms of the aurora, polar lights. Ihey equally prove that the needle is not in
and I am inclined to connect with the appearance of these every instance agitated by the polar lights, even when they
clouds the deviation of the needle, which was occasionally are very brilliant; the oscillations taking place only when
remarked at such times. An aurora sometimes approached the beams or fringes of the meteor are in the same plane
the zenith without producing any change in the position with the dip of the needle, but as the needle is affected
of the needle, as was more generally the case ; whilst at in those planes only where the fringes or arches are in the
other times a considerable alteration took place although plane just mentioned, it is evident that observers in di -
the beams or arches did not come near the zenith. The ferent latitudes may obtain very discordant results in the
aurora was frequently seen without producing any percep- same evening. The observations collected by Dalton, of
tible effect on the needle. At such times its appearance the appearance of the aurora of the 29th March 18~.6,
was that of an arch, or an horizontal stream of dense yel- prove that many fringes or arches may be parallel to each
lowish light, with little or no internal motion. The dis- other at remote distances ; and the observations of the
turbance in the needle was not always proportionate to the President of the Royal Society, on a luminous arch in
agitation of the aurora, but it was always greater when Cornwall, 29th September 1828, which appeared simulta-
the quick motion and vivid light were observed to take neously with a remarkable aurora of many arches extending
place in a hazy atmosphere. In a few instances, the mo- over the whole of Aberdeenshire, show that the meteor
tion of the needle was observed to commence at the in- is sometimes active over a space nearly coincident with the
slant a beam darted upwards from the horizon ; and its extent of the kingdom; and there is reason for believing
former position was more quickly or slowly regained ac- that it often extends much farther. 1 here might, there-
cording to circumstances. If an arch was formed imme- fore, be an extensive succession of observations of distur-
diately afterwards, having its extremities placed on op- bance and non-disturbance of the needle at the same in-
posite sides of the magnetic north and south to the former slant from north to south over many degrees of latitude,
one, the return of the needle was more speedy, and it ge- Noises from the Aurora Borealis.-—Having, many yeais
nerally went beyond the point from whence it first started.” ago, both in this country and in the Shetland Islands, heart
A series of interesting observations on this subject were very distinctly noises proceeding from the polar lights, we
AURORA BOREALIS.
Aurora have always given full credit to the statements of those ob-
servers who have published accounts of this fact. It is true
that late observers, as Scoresby,1 Richardson,2 Franklin,
Paiiy, and Hood, never heard such noises, although they
do not deny that they may have been heard. Thus Rich¬
ardson says, “ I have never heard any sound that could
be unequivocally considered as originating in the aurora;
but the uniform testimony of the natives, both Crees and
Copper Indians, and Esquimaux, and of all the older resi¬
dents in the country, induces me to believe that its mo¬
tions are sometimes audible.” Captain Franklin says, “ I
have not heard the noise ascribed to the aurora, but the
uniform testimony of the natives and of the residents in
this country induces me to believe that it is occasionally
audible.” Parry frequently listened for sounds from the
polar lights, but never heard any. Lieutenant Hood says
(Franklin’s Narrative, p. 535), “ We repeatedly heard^a
hissing noise, like that of a musket bullet passing through
the air, which seemed to proceed from the aurora ; but Mr
Wentzel assured us that this noise was occasioned by se¬
vere cold succeeding mild weather, and acting upon the
surface of the snow previously melted in the sun’s rays.
The temperature of the air was then — 35°, and on the
two preceding days it had been above zero. The next
morning it was — 42°, and we frequently heard a simi¬
lar noise. Mr Hearn’s description of the noise tof the
aurora agrees exactly with Mr Wentzel’s, and with that
of every other person who heard it. It would be an
absurd scepticism to doubt the fact any longer, for our
observations have rather increased than diminished the
probability of it.” Muschenbroeck says that the Green¬
land fishers in his time assured him that they had fre¬
quently heard noises proceeding from the aurora borea¬
lis. Mr Nairne is confident that he has heard a hiss¬
ing and whizzing noise when the polar lights were very
bright; and Mr Cavallo affirms that he more than once
heard a crackling noise from polar lights. Giesecke, who
resided so long in West or Old Greenland, says, “ the polar
lights sometimes appear very low, and then they are much
agitated, and a crashing and crackling sound is heard, like
that of an electric spark, or the falling of hail.” Professor
Parrot of Dorpat describes a magnificent polar light he
witnessed on the 22d October 1804, from which a crackling
and rustling noise proceeded. “ We learn from the inhabit¬
ants,” says Captain Brooke, in hisinteresting travels through
Norway, “ with respect to the polar or northern lights, that
they had frequently heard the noise that sometimes at¬
tends them, which they describe like that of a rushing
wind. At Hammerfest they said they were violent, and
descended so low that it would appear almost possible to
touch them.” In a letter from Mr Ramm of Tonset in
Norway, addressed to Professor Hansteen, and published
in the Magazin fur Naturwidenskaberne, Christiana, 1825,
we are told that he several times heard a quick whispering
noise simultaneously with the motion of the beams of the
polar lights. In the same journal, Professor Hansteen says,
“ The polar regions being in reality the native country of
the polar light, we ought to be particularly interested in
obtaining any additional information on the natural history
of this remarkable phenomenon; and we have so many
certain accounts of the noise attending it, that the nega¬
tive experience of southern nations cannot be brought in
opposition to our positive knowledge. Unfortunately, we
live, since the beginning of this century, in one of the great
pauses of this phenomenon; so that the present generation
knows but little of it from personal observation. It would
249
therefore be very agreeable to receive, from older people, Aurora
observations of this kind, made in their youth, when the Borealis,
aurora borealis showed itself in full splendour. It can be
proved mathematically that the rays of the northern lights
ascend from the surface of the earth, in a direction inclin¬
ing towards the south (an inclination which, with us, forms
an angle of about 73°). If, then, this light occupies the
whole northern sky, rising more than 17° above the zenith,
the rays must proceed from under the feet of the observer,
although they do not receive their reflecting power till they
have reached a considerable elevation, perhaps beyond our
atmosphere. It is therefore conceivable why we should
frequently hear a noise attending the northern lights,
when the inhabitants of southern countries, who see the
phenomenon at a distance of many hundred miles, hear
no report whatever. Wargentin, in the fifteenth volume
of the Transactions of the Swedish Academy, says, that
Dr Gisler and Mr Hellant, who had resided for some time
in the north of Sweden, made, at the request of the aca¬
demy, a report of their observations on the aurora borea¬
lis.” To these observations Professor Hansteen adds, that
Captain Abrahamson, in the Transactions of the Scandi¬
navian Literary Society, has given an account of several
observations of noises that were heard proceeding from
the northern lights. The professor concludes with stating
that he himself knows several persons who have distinctly
heard the same sounds; he expresses his surprise that a
fact so well established should be called in question; and
he relates, with some sharpness, a conversation he once
had on this subject with an Englishman, who remarked
that the Norwegian tales of noises proceeding from polar
lights were akin to the ghost stories of this country.
Theory of the Aurora Borealis.-—The theory of this
phenomenon is involved in the copious details which have
been given under the different foregoing heads; and, in¬
deed, from all that is known, it appears reasonable to infer
that it is intimately connected with electricity and magne¬
tism. “ The aurora borealis,” says Dr Young, “ is certainly
in some measure a magnetical phenomenon; and if iron
were the only substance capable of exhibiting magnetic
effects, it would follow that some ferruginous particles must
exist in the upper regions of the atmosphere. The light
usually attending this magnetical meteor may possibly be
derived from electricity, which maybe the immediate cause
of a change in the distribution of the magnetic fluid con¬
tained in the ferruginous vapours which are imagined to
float in the air.” (Lectures, vol. i. p. 687.) This assump¬
tion offerruginous particles or vapours, however, seems pure¬
ly gratuitous and imaginary; and as iron is not the only sub¬
stance or matter capable of exhibiting magnetic effects,
light itself being susceptible of polarization, the above hy¬
pothesis is therefore untenable even on the ground on which
it has been rested by its author. But it is nevertheless cer¬
tain that the cause of this luminous meteor is intimately
connected with magnetism and electricity; or rather, as
the magnetic is variously modified and affected by the
electric power, with the phenomena of electro-magnetism.
“ It is doubtful,” says Dr Young in another place, “whether
the light of the aurora borealis may not be of an electric
nature; the phenomenon is certainly connected with the
general cause of magnetismand he refers in support of
this opinion to the ascertained fact that the primitive beams
or rays of light are constantly observed in a direction paral¬
lel to that of the dipping needle; adding, that “ although the
substance be magnetical, the illumination which renders it
visible may still be derived from the passage of electricity,
2 i
VOL. IY.
1 Arctic Regions, and Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery.
2 Remarks on the Aurora Borealis, in Franklin and Richardson’s Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea.
250 A U R
Aurora at too great a distance to be discovered by any other test.
Borealis. (Lectures, vol. i. p. 716.) The fact is, that in magnetism,
the agency of electricity is now clearly made out, and they
are shown to stand to each other in the relation of effect
and cause, at least in as far as that all the phenomena of
magnetism are producible by electricity; but no electric
phenomena have ever been hitherto produced by magne¬
tism. (Herschel’s Preliminary Discourse, p. 93.) Hence
the aurora “ is certainly connected with the general cause
of magnetism,” in as far as it is a joint result or effect of
the cause by which it is now known that all the phenome¬
na of magnetism are producible ; but this connection is one
of relation or coincidence merely; and hence it is to the
agency of electricity that the phenomena of the aurora are
primarily to be ascribed. “ This wonderful agent, says Mr
Herschel, “ which we see in intense activity in lightning,
and in a feebler and more diffused form traversing the upper
regions of the atmosphere in the northern lights, is pre¬
sent, probably in immense abundance, in every form of mat¬
ter which surrounds us, but becomes sensible only when
disturbed by excitements of peculiar kinds.” (Prelim. Dis¬
course, p. 329, 330.) Mr Canton, likewise^ conceives that
the aurora is occasioned by the rapid transition or passage
of electrical matter from positive towards negative clouds,
throughout the upper region of the atmosphere, where the
resistance is the least; but he supposes that the aurora
which appears at the time when the magnetic needle is dis¬
turbed is not the cause of this disturbance, which he at¬
tributes to the heat of the earth, and that it is merely the
electricity of the healed air above, disengaged chiefly in
the northern regions, where the alteration in the tempera¬
ture of the air is greatest. Be this as it may, however, the
experiment contrived by Mr Canton shows clearly that the
phenomena of the aurora are intimately connected with, or
rather consequent on, a particular constitution of the at¬
mosphere in regard to density and electricity. If, for ex¬
ample, a glass tube about three feet in length be partially
exhausted of air, hermetically sealed, and then applied
longitudinally to the prime conductor of an electrical ma¬
chine, the whole tube will be illuminated from end to end,
and this illumination will continue for a considerable time
after it has been removed from the conductor. If, again,
the tube be drawn through the hand either way, the light
will become remarkably intense throughout its whole length;
and although a great part of the electricity will be discharg¬
ed by this operation, the tube will nevertheless emit flashes
at intervals, if held by one extremity and kept quite steady;
while, if grasped by the other hand at a different place,
vivid flashes of light will dart from one end to the other,
and continue to be emitted for a considerable time with¬
out any fresh excitation. It is to be observed, however,
that if the density of the air included in the tube be either
increased or diminished beyond a certain limit, none of
these luminous appearances will be exhibited; and it is
this circumstance which shows that the phenomena of the
aurora depend on a certain constitution of the atmosphere
in point of density and electricity, and that the meteoric
appearances or coruscations can never attain the elevation
ascribed to them by some philosophers, but must in every
case be confined within the limits of our atmosphere, con¬
formably to the observations of Biot and others already
detailed. Beccaria, indeed, conjectures that there is a
constant and regular circulation of the electric fluid from
north to south; and he gives it as his opinion that the
aurora borealis is this electric matter performing its transit
southwards, in a state of the atmosphere which renders it
visible, or approaching nearer than usual to the earth. But
such a transition or circulation as that here suggested
could only be produced by the diurnal revolution of the
earth round its axis; and as the meteor is observed in the
A U R
southern with nearly the same appearances as in the Aurum
northern hemisphere, there must consequently be a circu- Coronarium
lation from south to north as well as from north to south ; AuSgngog
in other words, if there be any such tendency as that v >
which Beccaria supposes, it must proceed equally or nearly
so from both poles towards the equator. The following
is a list of the most important papers, treatises, and works
on this subject: Berlin Mem. 1710, i. 131 ; Halley, Phil.
Trans. \7\&, 1719, xxix. 406, xxx. 684; Hearne, Phil.
Trans, xxx. 1107; Langworth, Huxham, Hallet, and Cal-
lendrini, Phil. Trans, xxxiv. 132, 150; Maier, C. Petr.
iv. 121; Mairan, Traite de VAurore Boreale, 1733, 1754 ;
Weidler, de Aurora Boreali, 4 ; Wargentin, Phil. Trans.
1751, p. 126, and History, 1752, p. 169, 1753, p. 85;
Bergmann, Schw. Ahh. 200, 251; Wiedeburg, uher die
Nordlichter, 8, Jena, 1771 ; Hupsch, Vntersuchung des
Nordlichts, 8, Cologne, 1778; Van Swinden, Recueil de
Memoires, Hague, 1784; Cavallo, Phil. Trans. 1781, p.
329 ; E. M. Physique, art- Aurore Boreale; Wilke von
den Neuesten Erhldrungen des Nordlichts, Schwedisches
Mus. 8, Wismar, 1783; Hey, Wollaston, Hutchinson,
Franklin, Pigott, and Cavendish, Phil. Trans. 1790, pp.
32, 47, 101; Dalton’s Meteorological Observations, 1793,
p. 54, 153; Chiminello on a Luminous Arch, Soc. Ital.
vii. 153 ; Ritter on the Lunar Periods of the Aurora, Gilb
xv. 206. (R< J-)
AURUM Coronarium, in Homan Antiquity, a present
of money collected in the provinces for a victorious general,
which was originally expended for a golden crown (Cic. Leg.
Agr. ii. 22). The number of crowns sent to a general was
sometimes very great. (Liv. xxxix. 7.)
AURUM Musiyum, or Mosaicum, the old name for the
bisulphuret of tin. See Chemistry.
AURUNGABAD,a cityof Hindostan,inthe native state
of Hyderabad, or dominions of the Nizam. It was founded
about the year 1620 under the name of Gurka, by Mallik
Amber, an Abyssinian who had risen from the condition of
a slave, to great influence and command. Subsequently it
became the capital of the Mogul conquests in the S. of
India; and in the time of Aurungzebe, who made it the
seat of government during his viceroyalty of the Deccan,
it received the name of Aurungabad, and became the prin¬
cipal place of an extensive province of the same name,
stretching westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly
the whole of the territory now comprised within the British
districts, constituting the northern division of the Presidency
of Bombay. Aurungabad continued to be the capital of the
succession of potentates bearing the modern title of Nizam,
after those chiefs became independent of Delhi, until they
quitted it for Hyderabad. The city has greatly fallen from
its ancient grandeur. The interior is but half peopled, and
in ruins, presenting melancholy appearances of desertion
and decay. The population is, however, still considerable,
and in the bazaar, which is very extensive, are exposed for
sale various kinds of commodities, European and Indian, par¬
ticularly silks and shawls. The walls are similar in their
construction to those of all the other cities in this quarter
in India, being rather low, with round towers. Distance
from Poona 138 miles, from Bombay by Poona 207, from
Hyderabad 270. Long. 75. 21. E. Eat. 19. 51. N. (e. t.)
AURUNGZEBE, the last of the eminent Mogul sove¬
reigns of India. See India.
AUSCULTATION (auscultare, to listen), among phy¬
sicians, is a method of distinguishing internal diseases by
observing the sounds in the different organs by means of a
tube applied to the surface. See Stethoscope.
AUSENSES (Avcms), an ancient and very savage people
of Libya. Herodotus tells us that they had all their women
in common. The children were brought up by their mothers
till they were able to walk; after which they were intro-
A U S
Ausonia duced to an assembly of the men, who met every three
I! months, and the man to whom any child first spoke acknow-
asia*1" ledSed d'msed ds father. They celebrated annually a feast
i / in honour of Minerva, in which the girls, dividing into two
companies, fought with sticks and stones, and those who
died of their wounds were concluded not to have been
virgins.
AUSONIA, an ancient name of Italy, so called from the
Ausones, who were likewise designated Aurunci.
AUSONIUS {Decimus Magnus), a Homan poet of the
fourth century, was the son of an eminent physician, and
born at Burdigala {Bordeaux) about A.r>. 300. His educa¬
tion was conducted with unusual care, either because his ge¬
nius was very promising, or because the scheme of his nativity,
which had been cast by his maternal grandfather, was found
to promise great fame and advancement. He made extra¬
ordinary progress in classical learning; and after complet¬
ing his studies at Toulouse, he practised for a time at the bar
in his native place. At the age of 30 he became a teacher
of grammar, and soon afterwards was promoted to be pro¬
fessor of rhetoric. In this office he acquired so great a re¬
putation that he was appointed preceptor to Gratian, the
Emperor Valentinian’s son. The rewards and honours
conferred on him for the faithful discharge of his duties,
prove the truth of Juvenal’s maxim,—that when fortune
pleases she can raise a man from the humble rank of rheto¬
rician to the dignity of consul. He was appointed consul by
the Emperor Gratian in the year 379, after having filled
other important offices; for besides the dignity of quaestor,
to which he had been nominated by Valentinian, he was
made praefect of Latium, of Libya, and of Gaul, after that
prince’s death. His speech returning thanks to Gratian on
his promotion to the consulship, is highly commended. The
time of his death is uncertain, but he was certainly alive in
388, and is said to have attained a great age. It has been
supposed that he was a convert to Christianity. There is
great inequality in his works. His manner and style are
often harsh, and he is decidedly inferior to Claudian in Lati-
nity and versification. The best edition of Ausonius’poems
is the Variorum of Tollius, published in 8vo at Amsterdam
in 1671.
AUSPEX, a name signifying “the observer of birds”
for the purpose of ascertaining the will of the gods, and
is synonymous with augur. The word is formed from
A U S 251
avis, bird, and inspicere, to inspect. Plin. Quasi. Rom. Ausserho-
C. 72. den
AUSSERHODEN, or Outer Rhodes, one of the dis- II
tricts of the canton of Appenzell, in Switzerland. See Ap- Aus.fcra1'
penzelu, ^ asia7 j
AUSTEN, William, an eminent English artist of the
fifteenth century, whose works in bronze are pronounced by
Flaxman to equal in style the first Italian Cinquecentists.
His best-known work, the magnificent tomb of Richard Earl
of Warwick, who died in 1439, is in the Beauchamp chapel
in that city. It is of gilt bronze, ornamented with many
figures in a vigorous style, and displaying great knowledge
of the human figure. It is inscribed as the work of “ Willm.
Austen, citizen and founder of London.” See Dugdale’s
Warwickshire.
Austen, Jane, an elegant novelist of the present century,
born in 1775 at Steventon in Hampshire, of which parish her
father was the rector. Miss Austen was a lady of great per¬
sonal attractions, and a most amiable disposition. Her six
novels are pure and spirited delineations of domestic life,
with that delicate discrimination of female character which
few but of the gentler sex can adequately pourtray. “ Sense
and Sensibility J “ Pride and Prejudice,” “ Mansfield Park”
and “Emma,” were published before her death; but “North-
anger Abbey j and “ Persuasion” were posthumous works.
Miss Austen died at Winchester on the 24th of July 1817.
AUSTER, the south wind, or south-west wind, called
Notus, Noro?, by the Greeks.
AUSTERLITZ,a small town of Moravia, 12miles E.S.E.
of Brunn. It has a magnificent palace belonging to the
prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and contains 3300 inhabitants.
It has been rendered memorable by the great victory ob¬
tained in its vicinity, on the 2d December 1805, by the French
under Napoleon, over the united forces of Austria and
Russia under their respective emperors.
A US TLE, or Austell, St, a market-town in the hundred
of Powder, county of Cornwall. It stands in a district rich
in tin and copper mines, and abounding in clay used in the
porcelain-clay works in the neighbourhood, as well as in the
potteries of Staffordshire. There are also some manufac¬
tures of woollen cloths. The church is an ancient struc¬
ture with a very fine tower and many curious sculptures.
Market-day Friday. It is 243 miles from London, and 13
from Truro. Population of town in 1851, 3565.
AUSTRALASIA,
Introduc- In modern geography, the fifth great division of the earth’s
toryobser- surface.
The learned and intelligent President de Brosses was the
first writer who suggested that all the lands and islands in the
Austral world should be divided into three portions, corru-’
sponding with the three great oceans, the Indian or Ethiopic,
the Atlantic, and the Pacific; those in the Indian Ocean
and to the south of Asia to be named Australasia ; those
in the two Pacifies, from the multitude of islands, Polynesia
(a name first used, we believe, by De Barros) ; and those
in the Atlantic to the south of Cape Horn, and the Cape
of Good Hope, Magellanica. The last, however, became
unnecessary, as soon as it was ascertained that the Terra
Australis incognita had no existence.
The two divisions of Australasia and Polynesia will be fou nd
to comprehend, with sufficient convenience, all those islands
that cannot with propriety be referred to any of the four
continents of the globe. Nor is there any difficulty in draw¬
ing a line of separation between these two divisions ; though
it is not quite so easy to mark the distinct boundary between
the Australasian and the Asiatic islands, where they melt
into each other, about the equator, at the N.W. extremity
of Papua or New Guinea. In a geographical view, the
small islands of Waygiou, Salwatty, Batanta, Mysol, and
I imorlaut, ought strictly to belong to Australasia; but peo¬
pled as they are by Asiatics of the Malay tribe, and under
thg influence of the Dutch settlements, it may perhaps be
more proper, in a moral and political point of view, to con¬
sider them as belonging to the Asiatic Islands; more par¬
ticularly as we shall then have all the Australasian popula¬
tion with very few exceptions, marked with more or less of
the African or Negro character. But, in fact, all geogra¬
phical divisions are and must be to a certain degree arbitrary.
If, then, we take the equator as the northern boundary i]ouruiaries
from the 132° to the 175° of east longitude; continue a line
on the latter meridian to the 55th parallel (bending a little
to take in New Zealand) for the eastern ; another line along
the same parallel to the 65th degree of east longitude for Plate C.
the southern; and a slanting line to the point on the equa¬
tor from which we set out, so as to include Kerguelen’s
Land, and pass on the eastern sides of Timorlaut, Ceram,
Mysol, and Salwatty, for the western boundary; those lines
252
Austral¬
asia.
Australia,
or New
Holland,
Progress o
discovery.
AUSTRALASIA.
will circumscribe the whole of the Australasian islands. We
have included the uninhabited islands of Kerguelen and St
Paul and Amsterdam, because they cannot properly be con¬
sidered as African islands, though arranged, we believe,
under that division by Pinkerton ; they are of less import¬
ance to geography than to geology.
Australasia, then, may be subdivided into the following
groups and islands:—
1. Australia, or New Holland.
2. Van Diemen’s Land, or Tasmania.
3. New Guinea, and the Louisiade Archipelago.
4. New Britain, New Ireland, and neighbouring islands.
5. Solomon’s Islands.
6. New Hebrides.
7. New Caledonia.
8. New Zealand, and isles to the southward.
9. Kerguelen’s Islands, or Islands of Desolation.
10. St Paul and Amsterdam.
11. Numerous reefs and islets of coral scattered over the
Australasian Sea.
I. The first attempt to explore this island, which, from its
size, may be considered as the fifth continent of the earth,
is unquestionably due to the Dutch; for although some part
of the northern coast may have been seen by the early na¬
vigators of Spain and Portugal, there is no direct testimony
in favour of such a discovery. There are two charts in the
British Museum which belonged to the Harleian Collec¬
tion; one French, w ithout date, which was probably the ori¬
ginal ; and the other English, apparently a copy: the latter
is dedicated to the king of England, and bears date 1542.
In both of these charts is marked down an extensive tract
of country to the southward of the Moluccas, under the
' name of Great Java, agreeing more nearly with the position
and extent of New Holland than any other land. The form
given to the N.W. part of the coast in these charts ap¬
proaches nearest to the truth ; a part, indeed, which may
have been seen by those early navigators who visited the
Moluccas long before the date of the English chart. It is
a singular coincidence in geographical nomenclature, that,
on the east coast of the French chart, something like a Bo¬
tany Bay should be designated under the name of Coste des
Herbaiges. The Abbe Prevost, in the Histoire Generale
des Voyages, and the President de Brosses, in his Histoire
des Navigations aux Torres Australes, are not very happy
in advancing a claim in favour of Paulovier de Gonneville,
a French captain, to the discovery of this Terra Australis
in 1504. It was the coast of Madagascar upon which Gon¬
neville was driven, as is evident by tbeir own accounts.
The best and most authentic abstract of the Dutch dis¬
coveries on the coasts of New Holland is contained in the
instructions given by the governor-general of Batavia to
Commodore Abel Jansen Tasman, and published by Mr
Dalrymple in his Collection concerning Papua. From this
document it appears that the Dutch government of Bantam
in 1605 despatched the Duyfhen yacht to explore the islands
of New Guinea. Returning to the southward along the
islands on the northern side of Torres Strait, she came to that
part of the Great South Land which is now called Cape York;
but all these lands were then thought to be connected, and
to form the southern coast of New Guinea. “ Thus,” says
Captain Flinders, “ without being conscioys of it, the com¬
mander of the Duyfhen made the first authenticated dis¬
covery of any part of the Great South Land, about the
month of March 1606.” About the same place, and in the
same year, Torres, a Spanish navigator, being second in
command to Fernandez de Quiros, saw the Terra Australis,
but had as little knowledge of the nature of his discovery as
the commander of the Duyfhen. He passed the strait, how¬
ever, which divides this Terra Australis from New Guinea,
whose existence was not generally known till 1770, when it
was rediscovered and passed by our great circumnavigator
Captain Cook. Of this, and his other discoveries, Torres Austral-
addressed an account to the king of Spain, and, as it after- asia-
wards appeared, had taken the precaution to lodge a copy
of it in the archives of Manilla; for, when that city was sur¬
rendered to the British forces in 1762, Mr Dalrymple snatched
from oblivion this interesting document of early discovery,
and, as a just tribute to the enterprising Spanish navigator,
he gave to this passage the name of Torres Strait, by which
it is now universally known.
In 1617 the Dutch sent a second expedition, but “with
little success;” the journals of which were lost. In 1623,
the yachts Pera and Arnheim were despatched from Am-
boyna, under the command of Jan Carstens, who, with eight
of the Arnheim’s crew, was treacherously murdered by the
natives of New Guinea; but the vessels prosecuted the
voyage, and discovered the great islands Arnheim and the
Spult. The Arnheim returned to Amboyna; the Pera per¬
sisted, and ran along the west coast of New Guinea, as they
thought, but in reality New Holland, to Cape Keer-veer or
Turn-again, and from thence explored the coast farther south¬
ward, as far as 17°, to Staten River. “ In this discovery
were found everywhere shallow water and barren coasts,
islands altogether thinly peopled by divers cruel, poor, and
brutal nations; and of very little use to the (Dutch East
India) Company.”
The next expedition sent by the Dutch was from Banda
in 1636, when Gerrit Tomaz Pool proceeded with the yachts
Klein Amsterdam and Wesel, and nearly at the same place,
on the coast of New Guinea, met the same fate which had
befallen Carstens; but the supercargo, Pieterson, continued
the voyage, and discovered the coast of Arnheim, or Van
Diemen’s Land, in 11° S., and sailed along the shore 120
miles, but without seeing any inhabitants.
Abel Jansen Tasman sailed on a second voyage of dis¬
covery from Batavia in 1644; but no account of this voyage
was ever made public, nor is it known to exist. No chart
bearing his name is now known, but there is little doubt that
the N.W. coast of New Holland was first explored by him;
and it is singular enough that Dampier should say he had
Tasman’s chart of it. Tasman is also supposed to have
sailed round the Gulf of Carpentaria ; an opinion which Cap¬
tain Flinders considers to be strengthened, from the names
of Tasman, of the governor-general, and of two of the coun¬
cil, who signed his instructions, being applied to places at
the head of the gulf, as well as that of Maria, the governor’s
daughter, to whom Tasman is said to have been attached.
Tasman had sailed, on a former voyage, from Batavia in
1642, for the Mauritius; whence steering south and eastward
upon discovery, he fell in with land, to which he gave the
name of Anthony Van Diemen’s Land, in honour of the
governor-general, “ our master,” he adds, “ who sent us out
to make discoveries.”
The last voyage undertaken by the Dutch for the dis¬
covery of Terra Australis was in 1705, when three Dutch
vessels were sent from Timor, “ with orders to explore the
north coast of New Holland better than it had been done
before.” The account, however, given by the President de
Brosses is so vague and imperfect that very little satisfactory
information is to be obtained from it. It is on the west coast
that the Dutch appear to have been most successful. In
Tasman’s instructions it is stated, that “ in the years 1616,
1618, 1619, and 1622, the west coast of this great unknown
south land, from 35° to 22° south latitude, was discovered by
outward-bound ships, and among them, by the ship En-
dragt.” Dirk Hartog commanded this ship, and seems to
have made the coast in latitude about 26° 30' S., and to have
sailed northward along it to about 23°, giving the name of
Landt van Endragt to the coast so discovered; and that of
Dirk Hartog’s Road (called afterwards Shark’s Bay by
Dampier) to an inlet on the coast a little to the southward
of 25°. A plate of tin was found in 1697, and again seen by
AUSTRALASIA. 253
Austral- Baudin in 1801, on one of the islands which forms the road-
asia. stead, bearing an inscription that the ship Endragt of Am-
sterdam arrived there on the 25th October 1616. After this
several outward-bound ships fell in by accident with differ¬
ent parts of this coast.
The Dutch made little progress in any other part of the
extensive coasts of New Holland. The instructions to Tas¬
man say, “ In the year 1627 the south coast of the Great
South Land was accidentally discovered by the ship the
Guldee Zeepard, outward bound from Fatherland for the
space of 1000 miles.” From the circumstance of this ship
having on board Pieter Nuyts, who was sent from Batavia
as ambassador to Japan, and afterwards appointed governor
of Formosa, the name of Nuyts’ Land was given to this long
range of coast.
The first English navigator who appears to have seen any
part of New Holland is the celebrated William Dampier,
who, in his buccaneering voyage round the world, in January
1686, touched at the N.W. coast, for the purposes of ca¬
reening his vessel and procuring refreshments. He made
the land in latitude 16° 15', and ran along the shore to the
N.E. till he came to a bay or opening fit for the purpose. In
1699 Dampier a second time visited the north-western coast
of this Terra Australis, being now legitimately employed in
making discovery in His Majesty’s ship the Roebuck. Of
this part of the coast little more is yet known than what has
been described by Dampier, and that little is due to the ex¬
ploration of Captain King.
It was left for our celebrated navigator Captain Cook to
complete the grand outline of the fifth continent of the world.
The reign of George III. will ever be distinguished for the
liberal principles on which voyages of discovery were under¬
taken, and their results communicated to the world. The
Endeavour was fitted out to observe, at Tahiti, the transit of
Venus over the sun’s disk; on her return, in 1770, Captain,
then Lieutenant Cook, explored the whole E. coast of the
Terra Australis Incognita, from Cape Howe to Cape York,
not minutely entering into the details of every part, which
would have been impossible, but laying down a correct
general outline. “ He reaped,” says Captain Flinders, “ the
harvest of discovery ; but the gleanings of the field remained
to be gathered.” In his passage through Endeavour Strait,
between Cape York and the Prince of Wales’ Islands, he
not only cleared up the doubt which till then existed, of the
actual separation of Terra Australis from New Guinea, but,
by his accurate observations, enabled geographers to assign
something like a true place to the former discoveries of the
Dutch in these parts.
In 1777 Captain Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery,
visited Van Diemen’s Land; but as Captain Furneaux, in
His Majesty’s ship Adventure, had preceded him four years,
and Tasman and Marion had examined the coast, little was
here supposed to i emain for discovery, except in detail. It
was long subsequent to Furneaux’s visit that Van Diemen’s
Land was ascertained to be an island; a discovery which
may have been retarded by that officer having given an opi¬
nion “ that there is no strait between New Holland and Van
Diemen’s Land, but a very deep bay.” The existence of
such a strait was, however, suspected ; but the various at¬
tempts to ascertain it, without success, by different navigators
from both sides of the coast, seemed to have decided the ques¬
tion in the negative, when Mr Bass, surgeon of the Reliance,
having observed, as he ran down the E. coast in an open
whale boat, that a heavy swell rolled in from the westward,
was satisfied in his own mind that such a swell could proceed
only from the great Southern Ocean. To ascertain whe¬
ther this was the fact, was a point of great importance to the
new colony on the eastern coast; and for this purpose Mr
Flinders, together with Mr Bass, was sent on this service in
a small decked boat. At the end of three months they re¬
turned to Port Jackson, with an interesting account of the
survey of the coasts of Van Diemen’s Land, which they had Austral-
completely circumnavigated, and thus confirmed the conjee- asia-
ture of Mr Bass, whose name the strait deservedly bears.
The French are entitled to the honour of some partial
discoveries on Terra Australis. Captain Marion, in the
year 1772, was despatched from the Isle of France with two
ships, the Mascarin and Marquis de Castries, on a voyage of
discovery, one of the objects of which was that of the sup¬
posed southern continent. He touched at Van Diemen’s
Land, quarrelled with the natives, and finding no fresh water,
and the weather being stormy, he set sail for New Zealand,
having added very little to the prior discoveries of Tasman.
In the year 1792, Rear-Admiral D’Entrecasteaux, having
been sent out with two ships, La Recherche and L’Espe-
rance, in search of the unfortunate La Perouse, made the
S. coast of New Holland, which he explored as far as the
Termination Island of Vancouver; the deficiencies of whose
chart he was able to supply, by the state of the weather per¬
mitting him to keep the coast closer on board than the Eng¬
lish navigator had been able to do. Termination Island was
found to be the first of a large group laid down by Nuyts,
whose accuracy is praised by the Admiral, he having found
“ the latitude of Point Leeuwin and of the coast of Nuyts’
Land laid down with an exactness surprising for the remote
period in which they had been discovered.” This liberal
acknowledgment did not, however, prevent him from giving
to the group of islands, which he only saw, but did not sur¬
vey, the name of Archipel de la Recherche. But the most
important discovery of D’Entrecasteaux was an inlet on the
S. coast of Van Diemen’s Land, which was found to be the
entrance into a fine navigable channel, running more than
thirty miles to the northward, and there communicating with
Storm Bay; containing a series of excellent harbours, or
rather one continued harbour the whole way, from beginning
to end. “ The charts,” says Captain Flinders, “ of the bays,
ports, and arms of the sea, at the S.E. end of Van Diemen’s
Land, constructed in this expedition by Messieurs Beau-
temps, Beaupre, and assistants, appear to combine scientific
accuracy and minuteness of detail with an uncommon degree
of neatness in the execution. They contain some of the
finest specimens of marine surveying, perhaps, ever made in
a new country.”
In 1800 Captain Baudin was sent out with two armed
vessels, Le Geographe and Le Naturaliste, on a voyage of
discovery nominally round the world, but actually, as appears
from his instructions, to examine every part of the coasts of
New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land. The first volume
of the account of this voyage was published by M. Peron,
one of the naturalists, in 1807 ; the second never appeared.
All the old names of the capes, bays, inlets, and islands, were
unblushingly changed to those of Napoleon, his family, his
marshals, and members of the Institute ; and to 900 leagues
of the southern coast, comprehending all the discoveries of
Nuyts, Vancouver, D’Entrecasteaux, Flinders, Bass, and
Grant, was given the general name of Terre Napoleon, wLile
not 50 leagues of real discovery were effected which had not
been anticipated by Captain Flinders, who, after losing his
ship, and proceeding homewards, was scandalously detained
as a prisoner in the Isle of France, “to give time for the
previous publication of the voyage of M. Baudin, to pre¬
possess the world that it was to the French nation only the
complete discovery and examination of the south coast of
Australia was due.”
Flinders, however, ultimately triumphed. After an unjust
and cruel captivity of seven years, he arrived in England in
1810, and in 1814 published his discoveries in two volumes,
accompanied with an atlas of charts, which may be regarded
as models in maritime surveying. At this time not a single
chart of coast, bay, or island, of Captain Baudin’s discoveries
had appeared, though shortly afterwards an atlas was pub¬
lished by Freycinet, the first lieutenant, differing in their form
AUSTRALASIA.
254
Austral- and structure very little from those of Captain Flinders, but
^ asia] ) bearing the names recorded in M. Peron’s first volume. The
frontispiece to this atlas affords an instance of that almost
impious adulation which Buonaparte was in the habit of re¬
ceiving from his creatures. An eye, having an N within it,
darts its rays through a dark cloud overshadowing a globe
with the southern pole uppermost, on which is drawn the out¬
line of New Holland, with this inscription, “ Fulget et ipso.”
To Captain Flinders we owe the completion in detail of
the survey of the coasts of New Holland, with the exception
of the W. and N.W. coasts, which he was prevented from
accomplishing by the loss of his ship. To him also, we are
indebted for the very appropriate name of “ Australia,” which
is now universally adopted to designate the entire island-
continent, instead of the old Dutch name of New Holland.
Dampier had said, in anchoring near the south end of De
Witt’s Land, behind Rosemary Island, which was one of an
extensive cluster, “ by the tides I met with a while after¬
wards, I had a strong suspicion that there might be a kind of
archipelago of islands, and a passage possibly to the S. of New
Holland and New Guinea, into the Great South Sea east¬
ward but whether it might be a channel or strait, or the
mouth of a large river, he seems not to have made up his
mind. Vlaming saw an opening 12 miles wide near the same
place, and could find no anchorage. It has now been ascer¬
tained that there is no outlet into the Great Ocean eastward,
nor into the Gulf of Carpentaria, nor into Bass Strait; but
the geographical problem yet remains to be solved, whether
the opening in the coast behind Rosemary Island be not the
mouth of a large river. Le Geographe and Le Naturaliste,
under Baudin, stood along this coast, examined in a very
slovenly manner some particular points, but assisted geo¬
graphy less than they perplexed it, by unwarrantably chang¬
ing every old name for that of some of the upstarts created
by the French revolution.
In 1829, when the settlement at Swan River was effected
under the governorship of Captain Stirling, R.N., it was ex¬
pected that our knowledge of the harbours and rivers on the
W. coast of Australia would be considerably enlarged. In
this expectation, however, geographers were much disap¬
pointed, no naval discoveries of any importance having been
accomplished under the auspices of the government. It was
not until 1837 that the anchorages and harbours in the im¬
mediate vicinity of the settlement were correctly laid down ;
in which year detailed charts of the coast from King George’s
Sound to Melville Harbour were furnished to the colonial go¬
vernment by J. C. Wickham, commander of H.M.S. Beagle.
That excellent officer was intrusted with the duty of con¬
ducting a minute survey of all the Australian coast which
Flinders had left unsurveyed. He was succeeded in 1839
by Mr Stokes, who continued zealously employed in this im¬
portant duty until 1843 ; assisted by a staff of meritorious
and scientific officers. The result of their investigations was
not only a considerable addition to natural history, but a com¬
plete topography of the bays and harbours on the N.W. and
northern coasts ; besides the important discovery of four
rivers of considerable magnitude. The largest of these, the
Victoria, flows into Cambridge GulfinLat. 16°, which Stokes
explored towards its source for a distance of 140 miles. He
also discovered in Torres Strait a safe channel through the in¬
ner passage, at the extreme N. of this vast territory ; while
at the extreme S. he rendered the charts of Bass’s Strait as
safe for the mariner to navigate by, as those of the English
Channel. Having circumnavigated the island, he and his
predecessor left no harbour or estuary unsurveyed, which
previous navigators had passed over ; and doubtful positions
of capes and other headlands they finally assigned to their
correct latitudes and meridians upon the map. The detailed
outline of the Australian coasts may now therefore be con¬
sidered as complete, so far as maritime discovery is concerned.
It is from the interior that we must look for further explora¬
tions of the many streams which are known to flow into the Austral-
bays on its extensive shores. asia.
For 25 years after the settlement was effected at Sydney,
the Blue Mountains, which are visible from the heights around Explora-
Port Jackson, formed the barrier to the government sur-the
veyors in their explorations to the westward. And it is a factinterior-
which serves to illustrate the difficulties which beset the pro¬
gress of the Australian explorer, even at the present day, that
during this period all the country beyond the inlets and their
ramifications on the coast, and the course of the Hawkesbury
River in the interior,—a semicircular section of land about
50 miles across, and comprised within the present county of
Cumberland,—was a complete terra incognita to the settlers.
This range of mountains, which forms a section of the great
Australian Cordillera, was at last surmounted by Mr Evans,
a government surveyor, and a path found through the forest
in 1813. This discovery led to the occupation of the pas¬
toral lands to the westward ; since known to all the world
as the Bathurst gold-fields. Three enterprising colonists
named Wentworth, Lawson, and Blaxland, were the first
to occupy that region with their flocks and herds. They as¬
certained that it was not only better watered, and had more
permanent running streams than the country on the eastern
flank of the main range, but possessed a cooler climate, with
richer alluvial soils, and was altogether better adapted for
agricultural operations than the poor lands and warm climate
nearer the coast. Forty years have since then elapsed ; and
not only has that western country become densely peopled
on every side, and a road carried over the mountains, but even
in the trackless wilds of the interior, intrepid men, braving
all hardship and peril, have explored the recesses of this vast
continent.
Of these explorations it will be necessary to give a brief Evans,
abstract. In 1813 Mr Evans prosecuted two successful jour- 1813.
neys across the Blue Mountains, to the distance of about
300 miles W. from Sydney. As he ascended the range to¬
wards the sources of the eastern streams, he came upon the
Fish River, to which he gave its name in consequence of
the great number of fish his party caught in it; and descend¬
ing on the western shed of waters he traced the course of
the Macquarie River through the Bathurst plains. He was
surprised also to find fish of a large size resembling trout in
this river, some weighing as much as fifteen pounds. On
the plains, unusually large herds of kangaroos were met with,
besides numbers of emus. Some aboriginal women and
children whom he encountered, were so terrified at the ap¬
pearance of the white men, that they fell down with fright.
Governor Macquarie, who subsequently visited the plains,
considered them an eligible site for a township and the centre
of a district. He accordingly planned out the present town
of Bathurst, by the banks of the river.
In May 1815 Mr Evans was despatched a second time Evans,
across the Blue Mountains to follow the course of the Mac- 1815.
quarie River still further into the interior. On this occa¬
sion he traced it for about 115 miles from its source, and
then returned; reporting as his opinion that the river
crossed the entire breadth of the island to its north-western
extremity, a distance of 2200 miles in a straight line. This
is an instance of the erroneous speculations of surveyors as
to the course of unexplored streams, of which another ex¬
ample was lately given by Sir T. L. Mitchell, with regard
to the Victoria. Had Mr Evans pursued his survey about
as far again as he had gone, he would have found that his
supposed Australian Mississippi lost itself entirely in a
marshy plain.
In 1816 Mr Oxley the surveyor-general of the colony, Oxley>
in penetrating into the interior across the Bathurst plains 1816,
in a S.W. direction, came upon a fine flowing stream which
he named the Lachlan ; and which has since been found
to be one of the great tributaries of the Murray. He followed
its course down to 34° S. Lat., and 145. 20. E. Long., and
AUSTRALASIA.
255
Austral- traversed the undulating prairie lands to the southward;
asia. besides exploring the western flank of the Peel range, or
Coccopara Mountains. On his return in January 1817, he
Explora- recrossed the river in Long. 147. 15. E., and encamped in
tions in the'Wellington valley, through which the Macquarie runs,
interior. prom thence he traced that river down its course for about
190 miles, where he found it disappear in what is now
termed the marshes of the Macquarie; although scarcely
20 miles before it terminates it is a clear flowing river 50
yards wide, and from 7 to 16 feet deep. Retracing his steps,
Oxley struck right across the country in an easterly direc¬
tion from Mount Harris, Lat. 31° S,, until he reached the
sea-coast. In this journey he encountered many obstacles;
and at one time his progress was arrested by the dense ve¬
getation, when he entered the impenetrable country on the
western side of the great dividing range. He succeeded,
however, in crossing to the eastern waters, when he came
upon the Hastings River, which he traced to its outlet at
Port Macquarie, about 200 miles N. from Port Jackson.
That part of the Bathurst country traversed by Evans
and Oxley was but thinly peopled. The natives were the
same as those of Sydney, but more docile ; they wore their
kangaroo and opposum-skin rugs with the fur inside, indi¬
cating a colder region at that altitude, which averages about
1800 feet above the level of the sea. They exhibited the
usual terror of savages at seeing a man on horseback for
the first time, imagining Mr Evans and his horse to be one
animal. Beyond Bathurst plains, the country was even su¬
perior to that first explored. The grassy undulating downs
showed a fertile soil; while the kangaroos and emus flocked
in hundreds over the sward. A saccharine exudation from
the trees, resembling manna, attracted Mr Evans’s atten¬
tion. He also passed mountains composed entirely of blue
limestone, and picked up topazes, rock-crystals, and agates,
on the very same streams and hills where the gold-fields
are now worked.
Oxley, In 1823 Mr Oxley was despatched to make a survey of
1823. Moreton Bay, 500 miles N. from Sydney. He found se¬
veral considerable streams flowing into the bay ; the largest
he named the Brisbane, after the governor then in office.
This river is navigable for 60 miles, and presents one of the
finest deep-flowing streams on the eastern coast. Proceed¬
ing further N. he entered Hervey Bay, and explored Port
Curtis, where he found a considerable stream, which he
named the Boyne.
Hovell In 1824-5 explorations were actively pursued to a like
i qoJIume’ distance southward. Messrs Hovell and Hume, two enter-
-4-5. prizing settlers, who had driven their live stock over the
ranges to fresh pastures on the Yass Plains—through which
the present road from Sydney to Melbourne passes—ani¬
mated by the spirit of discovery, pushed on, single-handed,
to explore the southern regions. During their journey they
passed over a most extensive range of country from the
junction of the Murrumbidgee and Yass Rivers to the west¬
ern shore of Port Phillip. They were the first travellers who
crossed the main branch of the greatest known Australian
river, which was deservedly named by the colonists after
Mr Hume. On its further exploration, however, by Cap¬
tain Sturt in 1830, when he descended to its termination in
a boat, that gallant officer named it the Murray, in compli¬
ment to Sir George Murray, who presided over the colonial
office at that time.
Cunning- In 1825 the indefatigable but unfortunate botanist, Allan
ham, 1825. Cunningham, prosecuted a successful exploration up the
valley of the Hunter, and through a gap in the Liverpool
ranges, which he called Pandora Pass ; where he discovered
a fine country, through which a western stream flowed in a
northerly direction. In 1827 he crossed the same range of
mountains at the source of the N. branch of the Hunter
River, and travelled in a northerly direction over the beau¬
tiful table-land known as the Liverpool Plains. Continuing
his course a little more to the eastward of that region, he Austral-
traversed a fine grazing country at the elevation of 1500 asia.
feet above the level of the sea, which he called New Eng- v'—-v—^
land. Farther N. still, he discovered the verdant prairie-Explora-
lands of Darling Downs, proceeding onwards until hetions in tlie
reached the Lat. of 28. 10. S., having discovered a greaterinterior-
extent of grazing land in New South Wales than any ex¬
plorer before or since. Making a detour to the eastward,
he ascertained the direction of the great dividing range, and
retraced his steps. During the following year, and in 1829,
he proceeded to Moreton Bay, and prosecuted a successful
journey to the source of the River Brisbane. He likewise
discovered a pass on the E. side of the range which divides
Darling Downs from Moreton Bay district.
In 1828-9 Captain Sturt travelled from Wellington Valley, Sturt,
along the banks of the Macquarie River, and skirted the 1828-9.
marshes which absorb that stream—the same which Oxley
had deemed interminable—until he found an open and ver¬
dant country to the N.W., with several small streams flow¬
ing in that direction. Continuing his course westward, he
ascended “ New Year’s Range,” and descried some high
table-land and grassy plains to the N.W. His further re¬
searches were rewarded by the discovery of the Darling,
the greatest tributary of the Murray ; its source being with¬
in tropical Australia. Having ascertained the course of this
important river, which he followed down as far as 30. 20. S.
Lat. and 145. 40. E. Long., he returned, impressed with the
idea that it, as well as all the western streams, flowed into
an inland sea ; a favourite hypothesis of geographers at the
time.
With a view to determine this point, and the course of the
Murrumbidgee River, or the outlet of its waters, this enter¬
prising officer started a second time in January 1831 ; and
the result has been, that instead of the Darling and the
Lachlan, and other streams that run to the westward, falling
into a great inland sea or extensive marsh, as was conjec¬
tured, their united waters constitute a large river, which,
under the name of Murray, was found to turn to the south¬
ward, and empty itself into an extensive estuary, 60 miles
in length, by 30 or 40 in width. The river, near the point
where it fell into this lake or estuary, was about 400 yards
wide and 20 feet deep. The whole country on both banks
was composed of undulating and picturesque hills, at the
bases of which extended plains and valleys, within sight of
many thousand acres of the richest soils.
The mouth through which the waters of the estuary com¬
municated with the sea was in Encounter Bay, in Long.
139. 40. E. and Lat. 35, 25. 15. S., a little to the eastward
of the Gulf of St Vincent, and round the point named
Cape Jervis. The river was well stocked with fish, and its
banks more populous than any other part of the country
that had been traversed. Some accounts state the total
number of aborigines seen to have amounted to at least 4000.
They could scarcely be brought to believe that the dis¬
covering party were of the same genus as themselves; they
placed their hands against those of the strangers, in order
to ascertain if the number of fingers on each corresponded.
Nothing surprised them more than the act of taking off the
hat, believing, it would seem, that the superstructure of
felt formed a part of the strange animal that had come into
their country.
In 1831, while these explorations w ere opening up a Banister,
knowledge of Eastern Australia, the government of the new 1831.
colony of Swan River in Western Australia, despatched
Captain Banister to explore the country between that settle¬
ment and King George’s Sound. This journey he accom¬
plished at the risk of death by starvation to himself and his
party. He has represented the country he passed through
as of the most inviting description for settlers, both for
grazing and agriculture. Several other expeditions were
subsequently prosecuted to the N.W. of that territory by
AUSTRALASIA.
250
Austral- Captain Grey and others, which added much information
asia. concerning the coasts and bays up to that time visited only
by Tasman, Dampier, Baudin, and King.
Explora- In 1832 Major (now Sir Thomas L.) Mitchell, surveyor-
tions in the general of the colony, was instructed by the government to
interior, proceed on a journey of discovery to the N.W. of Liverpool
Mitchell, piainSj ;n search of a great stream reported by a captured
bushranger to exist in that direction. No such river could
be discovered. The party, however, explored a large tract
of indifferent country on the upper branch of the Darling
River, which, no doubt, was the great stream of the bush¬
ranger, called by him the Karaula. The ability and energy
displayed by Major Mitchell in this expedition, induced the
government to fit out an exploring party under his command
upon an extensive scale, having for its object the thorough
survey of the Darling and its tributaries. Lhe expedition
1835. started from Bathurst in 1835, more fully equipped for the
journey than any which had started previously in the colony.
Major Mitchell was ably seconded in his scientific arrange¬
ments by the assistance of the botanist Allan Cunningham.
Within a few weeks, however, of their departure, that estima¬
ble man fell a sacrifice to his scientific enthusiasm. While
the leader and his men were surveying the Bogan River in
about Lat. 32. S., he was lost from the main body of the party
in his ramblings for plants through the interminable wilder¬
ness ; and from subsequent facts which came to light, there is
every reason to believe that he was murdered by the natives.
In memory of his sad fate and invaluable services to the
colony, the government have erected an obelisk in the Bo¬
tanic Garden at Sydney. Major Mitchell reluctantly left the
spot where his companion had been missed, and traced the
Bogan River down to its confluence with the Darling. Be¬
low this junction he erected a stockade which he called Fort
Bourke, and from thence surveyed the Darling as far as
Lat. 32. 34. S. The fort he found useful as a resting-place
on his return homewards.
1836. In 1836 Major Mitchell accomplished a still greater jour¬
ney into the interior from Bathurst; he followed the course
of the Lachlan along its northern bank. After surveying its
junction with the Murrumbidgee, and tracing the latter
stream to its confluence with the Murray, as previously ex¬
plored by Sturt, he followed that river in its N.W. course
till he found its clear waters mingling with the turbid stream
of the Darling, in Lat. 34. 10. From this point he traced
the Murray River upwards, crossing the stream to its southern
bank a short distance below its junction with the Murrum¬
bidgee; after which he continued surveying upwards to Lat.
36. S. From this point he left the Murray and its tribu¬
taries, and journeyed in a S.W. direction across several small
streams which he found flowing to the N. In Lat. 37. 10.
he came upon a considerable stream flowing to the S. This
river he navigated in a canvas boat down nearly to its out¬
let in the sea; and named it the Glenelg River (in honour
of the colonial secretary, Lord Glenelg), which will be found
on the map to be situated in Victoria, crossing the boundary
between that colony and South Australia, and disemboguing
itself into the sea a few miles farther to the west. After
surveying this outlet he proceeded eastward towards Port¬
land Bay ; and was surprised on his journey thither to en¬
counter two gentlemen driving “ tandem” through the beau¬
tiful forest lands as leisurely as if they had been in Hyde
Park, where he expected to meet with no inhabitants but
hostile aborigines. These travellers belonged to a whaling
station at Portland Bay, which had been established in 1834
by the enterprising Brothers Henty, merchants and bankers
of Launceston, Van Diemen’s Land. Since that period it
has risen into a flourishing government town. Mitchell’s
further discoveries to the eastward were likewise forestalled
by information he received, that a number of settlers from Austral-
Van Diemen’s Land had colonized the shores of Port Phillip **sia.
during the previous year. On his journey back to Syd-
ney, however, he explored that magnificent territory—the Lxplora-
garden of Australia, which he denominated Australia Felix,
from its agreeable aspect and fertility. All this extensive111 erior‘
country southward from the River Murray to the coast is
well watered ; and the Snowy Mountains not only temper
the climate, but they afford a supply of moisture throughout
the summer to the large rivers to which they give birth;
while the Great Southern Ocean on three sides throws up
clouds of moisture, which descend in abundant rains. Ex¬
tensive downs occur, which are covered with the best kind
of grass, or are gracefully wooded. From Mount Macedon
Major Mitchell says he reconnoitred Port Phillip at the dis¬
tance of 60 miles. “ In this region,” he adds ; “ the party
crossed ranges of granite, others of trap-rock; the woods form¬
ing open forests, which only partially covered the country.
This, even in its present state, seems nearly all available for
the purposes of agriculture and grazing ; and being almost
without any aboriginal inhabitants, it is consequently in the
best state for the reception of British emigrants.”1 The re¬
gion described so graphically in this extract is the recently
discovered gold region of Victoria; Mount Alexander being
the Mount Byng of Mitchell.
In 1840 Count Strzlecki, an adventurous traveller of Strzlecki,
great reputation in other lands, and devoted to geological
pursuits, made a successful though harassing journey on foot
from the Murrumbidgee River southwards through the Aus¬
tralian Alps, and across the Gipps’ Land district to Alberton
in Corner Inlet; from whence he penetrated through the
densest and widest “ scrub” or brushwood in Australia,
which had hitherto baffled all the settlers and surveyors.
His Physical Description of New South Wales is at once
the most scientific work on Australian geology and minera-
l°gy, and the most practical treatise on Australian agricul¬
ture which has hitherto been published.
In 1840 the government of the new colony of South Eyr®>
Australia despatched Edward John Eyre from Adelaide, 1840_ •
overland to King George’s Sound, through the territory de¬
nominated Nuyts’ Land on the map. He and his party ac¬
complished the journey, after encountering great privations
and disasters, some of his party having sunk through sheer
fatigue, and their aboriginal guide having been lost. In
1841 he likewise conducted an expedition of discovery to¬
wards the interior from Spencer’s Gulf. From that point
he found a shallow marshy lake, about 20 miles in breadth,
extending, in a serpentine form, 400 miles into the interior.
This substitute for “ the great inland sea,” so confidently
expected by geographers, he named Lake Torrens. After
reaching 29. S. Lat., he returned without crossing the Tropic
of Capricorn, the main object of his expedition.
In 1844-5-6 the great purpose of inland exploration, to Sturt,
ascertain the nature of the country in Central Australia, was 1844"
determined by the “ father of Australian discovery,” Cap¬
tain Sturt. From Adelaide he penetrated due north in¬
to the very centre of the island; and his account of the
desolate stony region he found in the interior, proves be¬
yond a doubt that the vast terra incognita of Central Aus¬
tralia is a desert, a second Sahara. He found it depressed
in some places below the level of the sea, where, in the
rainy season, extensive marshy lakes are formed, which, in
the dry season, become parched up, and fringed with in¬
crustations of salt; upon the surface of which vegetation is
blasted and animal life is unknown. The sufferings which
this undaunted old man encountered uncomplainingly, and
the privations which he and his party endured from thirst
and hunger under the rays of a sun which frequently raised
1 See Account of Major Mitchell’s Expedition into the Interior of Australasia. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London,
vol. vii. 1837.
Austral¬
asia.
Explora¬
tions in the
interior.
Leich¬
hardt,
1843-4-5.
Mitchell,
1846.
Kennedy,
1847-8.
AUSTRALASIA.
the temperature to 157°, and the scorching winds of the
Austral simoom, are unparalleled, except in the history of
the African expeditions of Park and Lander.
In 1843 an unobtrusive botanist of the name of Dr Lud¬
wig Leichhardt arrived at Sydney from Moreton Bay—
where he had been devoting himself to Australian botany
and zoology—and solicited the public support to fit out an
expedition for the purpose of crossing overland from More-
ton Bay to Port Essington. A similar project had, a short
time previously, been laid upon the table of the legislative
council for the sanction of the governor, by Sir Thomas Mit¬
chell. The legislative body approved of the undertaking, but
Sir George Gipps, the governor, referred the matter to the
home authorities before he would grant funds for such a
purpose. Meanwhile Dr Leichhardt was successful in ob¬
taining for his enterprize public subscriptions of sufficient
amount to fit out himself, five Europeans, and an aborigi¬
nal native ; which ultimately were increased by another vo¬
lunteer, and a black man, making in all eight individuals ;
who with a most slender equipment started from the Dar¬
ling Downs on the 30th September 1844, to prosecute
this distant journey through an unknown country for 3000
miles. After hairbreadth escapes from perils “by flood
and field,” and no less dangerous savages, who killed one
of the party, this gallant little band reached their desti¬
nation on the 17th December 1845, after a journey of fif¬
teen months. The briefest abstract of this indefatigable
explorer’s additions to Australian geography would extend
the present article beyond its limits : they are to be found
modestly recorded in his ably written and scientific journal.1
The volume itself comprises the details of one of the most
remarkable enterprizes ever planned by human sagacity
and executed by courage and endurance.
In 1846, while the intrepid Leichhardt and his compa¬
nions had been given up for lost by the people of New
South Wales—who were not apprised of his success until his
own return by sea on the 29th March of that year—the
sanction of the home-government had been obtained to fit
out the proposed expedition of Sir Thomas Mitchell, for the
same purpose. Sir Thomas altered his plans upon learning
the result of Leichhardt’s expedition. Keeping to the west¬
ward of Leichhardt’s route he came upon what appeared to
be the source of a large river flowing in a north-westerly
direction ; which he felt convinced was the upper branch of
the Victoria, discovered by Wickham and Stokes, flowing
into Cambridge Gulf. After tracing this stream towards
Central Australia for about 150 miles, our sanguine explorer
left the further prosecution of this enterprize, on his return
to Sydney, to his able and accomplished junior on the
surveying staff, Edmund B. Kennedy. He shortly after¬
wards sailed for England, full of the conviction that he had
discovered a great highway from Eastern Australia to India
by an inland navigable river. Like his predecessor Evans,
in his speculations on the course of the Macquarie, he was
doomed to be disappointed ; for soon after Mr Kennedy
found that the supposed Victoria suddenly turned to the
southward and became absorbed in the great Australian
desert, in the same manner that Oxley found the Macquarie
vanish among the marshes.
In 1847, after Mr Kennedy had returned from his fruit¬
less survey of the Victoria River, the government acquiesced
in the suggestions of that gentleman, and other members of
the survey department, to prosecute short exploratory jour¬
neys into the interior and the northern parts of Australia, as
a better method of completing the survey of the country than
by long and hazardous expeditions. Mr Kennedy’s plan was
to survey that part of tropical Australia situated between
Cape York in Lat. 10. 43. S., and Rockingham Bay in Lat.
257
18. 10., a distance by ordinary travelling of not more than Austral-
500 miles. But this country, within the influence of the tro- asia-
pical rains, is apparently of such an impassable nature from
swamps and prickly scrubs, and so thickly inhabited by hos- Explora-
tile aborigines, that this expedition proved to be the most ti°ns_in tlie
perilous and calamitous of any hitherto attempted in Aus- interlor-
tralia of which we have any record. Out of thirteen per¬
sons who started from Rockingham Bay on 5th June 1848,
one man alone—Mr Kennedy’s aboriginal servant, Jackey
Jackey—reached Port Albany, after a six months’ journey.
At this harbour, a small schooner, the Ariel, commanded by
Captain Dobson, was lying at anchor with stores on board,
waiting the arrival of the party, to succour them and take
them back to Sydney. Here this faithful creature related,
in his broken English, his doleful tale. It had taken them a
month to extricate themselves from the swamps and thickets
of Rockingham Bay. Their sheep and horses could scarcely
find any grass to eat. They journeyed along the coast
ranges for four months through a frightfully-broken coun¬
try, almost destitute of game and provender, which reduced
both men and horses to the verge of starvation ; insomuch
that they had to kill twenty-four of the latter to sustain their
own lives. Notwithstanding these attempts to support their
strength, Mr Kennedy found his men so faint from inanition
that he resolved upon leaving eight of them at Weymouth
Bay, within about 150 miles of Port Albany, from whence
he promised to return for them by sea. Fresh disasters were
in the way of this intrepid traveller; one of the men acci¬
dentally shot himself, and was disabled. It was agreed that
this man and his two mates should remain behind, while Mr
Kennedy and his servant were to proceed onwards. Undis¬
mayed, he pursued his journey, attended by his faithful ser¬
vant, and was almost within view of the harbour where he
expected succour, when he was inhumanly murdered by a
tribe of barbarous savages who speared him to death. The
incident of his death, as related in the simple language of
Jackey Jackey, is truly affecting. “ He then said, ‘ Jackey,
give me paper and I will write ;’ I gave him paper and pen¬
cil and he tried to write, and he then fell back and died.
And I caught him as he fell back, and held him, and I then
turned round myself and cried; I was crying a good while
until I got well; that was about an hour, and then I buried
him ; I digged up the ground with a tomahawk, and covered •
him over with logs, grass, and my shirt and trousers; that
night I left him near dark.”2 Without delay the vessel was
brought round to Weymouth Bay, after a fruitless attempt
to find the wounded man and his two companions; who
there is little reason to doubt met with the same untimely
fate as their leader. Here, alas! two living skeletons were
all that remained alive of the eight men left at the bay ; the
other six “ withered away, and died from sheer inanition and
prostration of the physical energies,” as described by one of
the survivors, Mr Carron, the botanist to the expedition.
Elis simple and unaffected narrative of their sufferings is the
only existing document from which any account of the ex¬
pedition can be gathered. For although the local govern¬
ment subsequently despatched a party to collect what papers
and instruments of Mr Kennedy’s might be found in the
possession of the natives, scarcely anything of importance
was recovered.
The latest, and greatest in contemplation, of these exploring Leich-
expeditions, the melancholy result of which can scarcely be
now a matter of doubt, was that led on by the zealous and 1
indomitable Leichhardt. We have already mentioned his
return from his successful expedition to Port Essington in
March 1846. Not having then accomplished his original
design of penetrating into Central Australia, he rested but
a brief space in the settled districts until he was again rally-
1 Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, during 1844—5. By Dr Ludwig Leichhardt.
2 Jackey Jackey’s Statement to Dr Vallack.— Sydney Morning Herald, February 1849.
VOL. IV. ^ K
AUSTRALASIA.
Explora¬
tions in the
interior.
G eneral
view of
Australia.
ing a band of adventurers round his Standard of Discovery.
“ His protect was to penetrate to the westward, it practi¬
cable, across the great desert, to the settlement ot Swan
River, a distance little short of 3000 miles m a direct n ,
hoping to find by the way a succession of oases, hke those
in the African or Arabian deserts, which would enable 1
to recruit hi* party on tire journey.”' After mak mg a Mse
start in 1847, when some of his v<,lHntcers,wl,osc
siasm quailed before the privations m store or le ?
doned the expedition, he finally left the Darlmg Downs m
the early part of 1848. Since that year no tidings have
reached usP from the gallant band of explorers, excepting
some false rumours of their massacre brought in by the
aborigines; which induced the government to despatch a
party in July 1852, to make inquiry into the truth or false¬
hood of the report, but without any satisfactory result.
Since the date of his last letter in April 1848, atthe furtljpt
white man’s home in the interior, from Moreton Bay, five
Australian springs have strewed their flowers on the tar
western shore, but no Leichhardt has revisited these objects
of his ardent study : and the probability is, that it he and
his companions have not been massacred by savages, their
bodies are buried under the sands ot the great desert.
It is a remarkable fact, that the most recent of these ex¬
ploratory expeditions have been the most calamitous, not¬
withstanding the advantages of former experience, and 0
modern scientific invention. It is worthy ot remark, also,
that those unfortunate leaders whose untimely fates have
been recorded, were all young men, while the veteran ex¬
plorers have survived to witness the beneficial results ot their
discoveries. A new expedition under General Haug has
been decided on by the British government. Its chief ob¬
ject will be the exploration of N.W. Australia, for which pur¬
pose the expedition is to start from the Victoria River, and
to reach the southern extremity of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
General Haug hoped to leave England in Nov. 1853.
As the structure of the country is brought to light y
those discoveries, we observe the broken fragments ot its
geography gradually pieced together, and at last united into
one great whole. Before us on the map we have the grand
outline of this island-continent completed, and its limits cor¬
rectly ascertained ; showing a superficies on the earth s sur¬
face equal to about three-fourths of the continent of Europe.
And although four-fifths of that area is a blank in geography,
yet we have sufficient data to determine its principal geogra¬
phical features. From Wilson Promontory, in 39.11., the ex¬
treme south point, to Cape York in 10.43. S. Lat, its extreme
north, we know that there is a continuous chain ot moun¬
tains, which, for want of a better name, Sir Roderick Mur¬
chison has called the Australian Cordillera,—the backbone
of Australia, stretching in one sinuous serrated ridge from
S to N. for 1708 geographical miles, in a straight line, at an
average altitude of 1500 feet above the level of the sea;
dividing the eastern and western waters of Eastern Australia:
and that the water-shed is rapid on its eastern flank, where
the sources of the streams are upon an average not more
much importance can be contributed to the great geogra- Austra -
pineal problem of what the terra incognita Australis is ; for v j
we have now sufficient data to solve the question. And it
is not unphilosophical to conclude from all that is known of General
its geography, that the entire island, at some distant geo o- Australia-
gical epoch, formed a vast archipelago, with those two moun¬
tain chains forming distinct groups of islands trending north
and south, while the desolate region between was the bed ot
a shallow sea, studded with smaller islands.
Of the individuals belonging to the organic kingdoms ot
nature which inhabit this varied territory, we may observe in
this place generally, that they are remarkable for their differ¬
ence in structure from those of any other part ot the world;
still the inorganic substances which compose the rocks and
minerals are much the same as those found upon other lo¬
calities of the earth’s crust. And although the recent dis¬
coveries of her mineral treasures have taken the world by
surprise, it is evident that the convulsions of nature which
produced these phenomena obeyed the same laws which up-
heaved the lands of the northern hemisphere. And we shall
find, when treating of the gold-discovery, that the light o
science in the hands of an eminent geologist guided him to
foretell its existence. (For a more detailed view of its sur¬
face, geographical divisions, mountains, rivers, lakes, and
coasts, see the article Australia.)
The aborigines, wherever they have been met with, are of the Aborigines
very lowest description of human beings. In the journal ot the
Duyfhen, the N. coast is described as thinly “ inhabited by wild,
cruel, black savages, by whom some of the crew were murderei;
and the ship Vianen, touching on the western coast about 2 .
observed “ a foul and barren shore, green fields, and very wild,
black, barbarous inhabitants.” In 24° S., Polsert, jho commanded
the Batavia, saw four natives, whom he describes as wild, black, and
altogether naked, not covering even those parts which_a!most all
savages conceal.” Tasman “ found in Hollandia Nova, m Lat. 17.
12. S., a naked black people, with curly hair, malicious and cruel,
using for arms bows and arrows, hazagaeys, and kalawaeys. 1 e
S coast is so barren, and the naked hillocks of sand so continuous,
that there appears tobe nothing for human inhabitants to subsist upon.
“ It is not surprising,” says D’Entrecasteaux, “ that Nuyts has given
no details of this barren coast; for its aspect is so uniform, that the
most fruitful imagination could find nothing to say of it. f'One
of our navigators, however, saw more than the coast line, which is
either of rock or hillocks of sand. But where the country begins
to improve towards the eastward, in the neighbourhood of Kanga¬
roo Island, Captain Flinders found not the least vestige of inhaji-
tants : and, from the stupidity of the kangaroos on that island,
« which,” he observes, “not unfrequently appeared to consider us
as seals,” he concludes there either were no natives, or that they
were ignorant of every kind of embarkation. Towards the nort -
ern part of the eastern coast, the same navigator thinks they aie
somewhat superior to those near Sydney, having belts round the
waist, and fillets about the head and upper part of the arm, associa¬
ting in greater numbers, and dwelling in huts of a superior con¬
struction. They also catch fish with nets, which he thinks is alone
a feature of distinction from those who only spear the fish, as a net
requires more than one person to manage it, consumes much time
in making, cannot easily be dragged about, and, in short, must oc¬
casion a sense of the advantage to be derived from mutual assistance,
and suggest the necessity of a permanent residence. _ ,
Notwithstanding these evidences of social Pr°gff ™
the sources of the streams are upon an average nut n.uic jNotwimstanumg ^ v. * * o t d for
Mhty miles in a direct line from the coast where they Xn~mtSr
disembogue into the South Pacific Ocean; while the western ^mo g t IJ ^ Jmankind peopling New Guinea
waters have a gradual descent to the great Murray River, ^ ^ ^ol ian islands, the ethnologist can discover clear and
flowing through the interior, for an average distance ot 500 distinctive characteristics in the Australian aboriginal people,
miles On the western coast from Cape Leeuwin to N.W. warrant him in classifying them the furthest r™ov Q l?t A
Capt similar features present themselves in the —hi- Vanity f^man^ ^
cal direction of the rivers and mountain ranges, only on a Their g < ^ aa P-rfimnlified in the
smaller scale; while between these two mountain parallels
exists the Great Australian Desert, a second Sahara ; which
Sturt has defined on its southern limit, and Mitchell and
Kennedy to the eastward. It now remains for future ex¬
plorers to approach it from the north and from the west to
C i A ^ w-»nrk+Vnno* T1PW OT
Their general uescriptiuu may uc —  > g . ,
pean notions on the standard of humanity, as exemplified in the
northern varieties of mankind. They are tadeousiy ugiy, with fl
noses, having wide nostrils; eyes deeply sunk in the head, 1 g
and wide apart, over-shadowed by bushy black eyebrows ;
hair black and straight, clotted but not woolly, th? maJj*1 tM £
lon<r curly beards; the mouth is extravagantly wide, with tmcK
long cuny u ,   varies from dark bronze
i Mossman and Banister’s Australia Visited and Revisited.
AUSTRALASIA.
Austral- to jet black. The skull and jaws, when stripped of the hair, integu-
asia. ments, and muscles, present still more distinct characteristics. The
^ • y ^ ^ cranium is thick and spongy, the inner and outer plates being wide
apart, the coronal region flattened. By external admeasurement
the capacity of a male skull now in our possession—which was that
of a native doctor who died about forty years of age, and furnishes
us with a type of these Australian crania above the average—is 117
cubic inches; which, when compared with the average size of
Anglo-Saxon crania—according to Mr Straton’s tables—scarcely
equals the admeasurement of a boy ten years of age, laid down by
him at 120 cubic inches. The facial angle, according to Count
Strzelecki, is between 80 and 85°. The zygomatic process is widely
arched; and the lower jaw, although unusually expanded at the
base, is short, and forms a remarkably small chin. The molar
teeth are flattened more than ordinarily, and sometimes ai’e so
smoothly ground by friction in chewing that they frequently re¬
semble the teeth of ruminating animals. Their stature is below
the average of the most diminutive European race; and they are
wretchedly thin and ill-made, with long lean arms and legs, and
short wide feet, the great toe largely developed—which is strength¬
ened to a wonderful degree by use from their youth, in placing
that member in the notches they cut with a tomahawk on the trees,
when in search of animals for food.
To add to their natural deformity, they thrust a bone through
the cartilage of the nose, and stick with gum to their hair, matted
with moss, the teeth of men, sharks, or kangaroos, the tails of dogs,
jaw-bones of fish, &c., and daub their faces and bodies with red and
white clay, and scarify the skin in every part with sharp shells.
On the sea-coast they live principally upon fish, turtle, and shell¬
fish ; the former are caught by nets, hooks, and speared by double
and treble pronged spears. In the interior they hunt the kangaroo,
wallaby, and emu, with their boomerangs, spears, and waddies ;
besides which they procure an uncertain supply of opossums, flying
squirrels, sloths, storks, cranes, ducks, parrots, cockatoos, eels,
lizards, snakes, grubs, ants and their eggs, tuberous roots, wild ber¬
ries, and honey ; in fine, any description of creature or plant from
the animal or vegetable world which can supply any nutriment,
does not come amiss to the appetites of these attenuated savages.
Nay more, although man be described specifically as a “ cooking
animal, the Australian, in his natural state, scarcely troubles him¬
self with this process, beyond that of throwing a bird or beast on
the burning embers of a fire, without skinning it or drawing the
entrails; and when it is partially roasted, brushing the singed hair
or feathers off, tearing a mouthful or two with his teeth, and throw¬
ing it into the fire again to cook another portion of it; when this
process of mastication is repeated until the bones are picked.
They have no fixed habitations, the climate generally allowing
of their sleeping in the open air, in the crevices of rocks, or under
the shelter of the bushes. Their temporary hovels consist of the
bark of a tree, or a few bushes interwoven in a semicircular form,
tapering at the top, and raised upon a prop-stick, open in front,
and forming merely a breakweather, occasionally large enough to
shelter six persons from the rain, but most frequently for the ac¬
commodation of two. They seem to have no idea of the benefits
arising from social life ; their largest clans extend not beyond the
family circle, of each of which the eldest is called by a name syno¬
nymous with that of father. They are totally without religion,
paying neither the least respect nor adoration to any object or being,
real or imaginary. Hence they have nothing to prompt them to a
good action, nothing to deter them from a bad one; hence murder
is not considered as any heinous crime, and women think nothing
of destroying, by compression, the infant in the womb, to avoid the
trouble, if brought alive into the world, of carrying it about and End¬
ing it subsistence. Should a woman die with an infant at the breast,
the living child is inhumanly thrown into the same hole with the
mother, and covered with stones, of which the brutal father throws
the first. They are savage even in love, the very first act of court¬
ship, on the. part of the husband, being that of knocking down his
intended bride with a club, and dragging her away from her friends
leeding and senseless, to the woods. The consequence is, that
scarcely a female of the age of maturity is to be seen without her
ead full of scars, the unequivocal marks of her husband’s affec¬
tion.
o these details, generally acknowledged by all travellers, such as
o ins, Flinders, Sturt, Mitchell, and others, we shall add some
u™'er observations based upon experience and scientific data
which have escaped their notice, as illustrative of the ethnographic
characteristics of this barbarous people. So various are the lan¬
guages spoken by the entire radius of tribes located outside the
great desert—which, we presume, is untenanted by human beings
that a subdivision of the east and west coasts into lingual dis¬
tricts fifty miles in diameter for 300 miles inland, would give in
each district not merely a distinct dialect, but in the majority
ot cases a different language from that of the adjacent tribes.
One universal affinity, however, which, we have observed, these
languages bear towards each other is, that the letter S is never
found in the construction of their words. No evidences of tilling
the ground, planting, sowing seed, and reaping the harvest have
been seen by travellers amongst them ; which distinguishes’ them
essentially from the Maori race in New Zealand, the races inhabit¬
ing the Polynesian Islands to the N.E., and the Malays to the N.W.
excepting the tribes located on the extreme north coast. They do
not trade or barter with each other or with strangers. Though
each family or tribe has a generally recognized boundary within
which they hunt and consider their “sit-down” or territory, and
beyond which they seldom stray, still they neither exchange,’buy,
nor sell land among each other ; and when their territory was taken
possession of by the British, they demanded no equivalent as the
New Zealanders have done—they cannot conceive a right of claim to
that which is fixed and immovable. Not having any movable pro¬
perty beyond their spears, boomerangs, clubs, shields, opossum-skin
rugs, and baskets, their wealth is less than that of the industrious
bee, and their idea of property inferior to that of the beaver. These
rudely-constructed articles of clothing, and weapons of offence and
defence, they appear to divide promiscuously among each other,
holding possession very much on the old lawless principle that “ he
may take who hath the will, and he may keep who can.” Lunatics
or idiots are rarely or never to be found amongst them. Slavery,
as understood in the negro sense of the term, does not exist; the
married females, however, are to all intents and purposes the slaves
of their husbands : virtue and modesty are terms to them, in their
purely savage state, utterly unintelligible. Polygamy is recognized
and adopted; but from their savage custom of murdering infant
female children, the proportion of the sexes is kept nearly equal,
and seldom permits of more than one of each cohabiting together.
Cannibalism exists among them. The writer has had proofs of
several instances; this horrible practice, however, was confined to
the bodies of their enemies killed in fight, and of half-caste children
of the female sex. They show very little affection for their off¬
spring, especially the males; and we have frequently taxed their
philoprogenitive feelings by offering a few pieces of tobacco or a
blanket for a child, when we should have easily succeeded in bar-
tering with the fathers, and with no great difficulty overcome the
affection.of the mothers. Their treatment of the aged is even worse
than their neglect of their offspring. These wretched specimens of
humanity look at the age of 50 or 60 like octogenarians. Instead
of being respected as elders of the tribe, as is the case among other
savage races, they are considered as useless members who can no
longer fight, hunt, or dig up roots. Hence the garbage of the game
captured by the strong son or daughter is thrown with contempt to
the father or mother ; and they are even prohibited, like the chil¬
dren, from eating the best kinds of food, which the sturdy warriors
of the tribe claim as theirs by the law of might. Rheumatism and
diseases of the skin are their most prevalent complaints ; the re¬
sult of continual exposure to the weather, and their filthy habits,
n every group or tribe of families, there is a doctor-man who uses
charms, decoctions of herbs, and personal manipulation to cure the
afflicted. In all such services rendered for the general welfare
of the whole, or even in any other matter of assistance given to
each other, we have never known of any sort of remuneration being
tendered, or any special expression of gratitude coming from the
patient. That they are capable of being civilized in a measure is
shown by the organized troops of black mounted police throughout
the south-eastern colonies, and the general employment of them by
the colonists as shepherds and mounted herdsmen; nay, so far as
intellectual advancement is concerned, in a few instances they have
been taught to read and write. But at the best they are uncertain
retainers, and cannot be kept to constant labour, while they have a
very faint conception of the relations between master and servant.
e are confident, also, that the Australian aboriginal would pine
and die under any attempts to enslave him by means of the lash
and the fetters, which the passive African submits to. Like most
°Vel ®a'aSesj however, they exhibit the extremes of indolence
\\ ion t eir appetite is satiated, and of activity when hunger prompts
them to hunt for food. Treachery and cunning among them are
considered virtues ; and it is no disparagement to designate them,
morally speaking, a generation of liars. The truth is not in them ;
in their relations with the Europeans no faith can be placed in what
ey say, and the local governments take exception to their evi-
dence in a court of justice, or at the utmost value it but slightly.
ns unfavourable delineation of the general characteristics of the
Australian race, before they have mingled with the European set-
tlers, is one, however, of the faithfulness of which we can confidently
challenge disproof. They have, on the other hand, their redeeming
qualities. Expert in the capture of game and fish, they will cheer¬
fully share their meals with an unsuccessful neighbour, and will sel¬
dom refuse the white man a share—from whom, however, they expect
an equivalent. Like children, they are easily pleased, and when
259
Austral¬
asia.
260
Austral-
AUSTRALASIA.
a rural
History,
their appetites are satisfied they become a jocular and mexiy race,
full of mimicry and laughter. The sounds of hilarity are often heard
ringing joyously through the echoing forests around their camping
grounds; and the delight with which they enjoy the pleasures o
the dance at their corrobborees, is not exceeded by the most entnu-
siastic frequenters at Almacks. Their conceptions of harmony an
melody are very low, and they have no instrument, however rude,
to produce musical intonations. Their wild yells o g ee> an
notonous crooning songs, are reduced to a barbaious vin ° ™
by striking two pieces of wood together at long and short intervals.
As exceptional cases of a better nature (our previous remarks -
ing strictly reference to the Australian aborigine in 1 P J
savage condition), we can speak of many instances where feelings
of great tenderness have been shewn, by the females more especi¬
ally, and European life and property have been voluntai ‘'T1,
from fire and shipwreck. We can likewise testify to the factof
finding faithful and honest followers among them during^rt -
vels in the interior. We treated them as children, and they were
obedient: had we resented supposed injuries they tried to inllic
upon us, as if they were responsible men, as some have done, w
should have exposed ourselves to their deadly enmity. In our trans¬
actions with them we dealt on the principle which they themselves
considered just. The fidelity and devotion of Jackey Jackey to-
wards the unfortunate explorer Kennedy, are sufficient ^ thel“-
selves to prove that the rudiments of a better nature than they o
dinarily display are implanted in their minds.
The history of this race is comprised within a small compass.
Records they have none, and their traditions are as evanescent as
their dwellings; and like the summer fires, which sweep every
vestige of these rude structures from the face of the earth, so their
history is buried in oblivion with each succeeding generation.. o
estimate their present population is likewise a matter of uncertainty.
Some years ago the governments instituted a calculation which gave
for New South Wales, including Port Phillip, 13,700, and for South
Australia, 4500 ; taking this as a criterion of the other portions ol
Australia at an approximate census, there would in. 1853 be some
210,000 aborigines on the entire island. In this.estimate we have
allowed for their rapid decrease before the colonizing races
rope; which may, ere long, render them an extinct people. Ibis
subject is fraught with intense interest to the ethnologist. Some
morbid philanthropists who have formed associations for the pre¬
servation of these races, attribute their extinction to the aggres¬
sions by fire and sword upon them by the settlers, and the deadly
diseases they introduce. Although to some extent this may be the
case, still there is a more powerful influence at work, which ulti¬
mately will cause the inferior race to be swallowed up by the supe¬
rior. Count Strzlecki, states his views in these terms “ The abo¬
riginal woman, after connection with a European male, loses the
power of conception on a renewal of intercourse with the male.ot
her own race, retaining that of only procreating with the white
man.” From our own investigations, and the testimony of others
whom we have consulted, we cannot adduce evidence sufficient to
corroborate this statement.1 The facts are before us that the abo¬
riginal inhabitants of Van Diemen’s Land have dwindled down,
from between 4000 and 5000, to 8 males and 10 females, who are
calculated to die out within 20 years, notwithstanding the efforts of
the government to preserve them ; whereas, in that time, the same
number of our prolific countrymen in the neighbouring isle, would
in all likelihood increase tenfold. The tribe also that inhabited the
country around Port Jackson and Botany Bay, which Governor
Phillip on his arrival found to number about 1500 individuals, is
now extinct. The last of its members died in 1849, little more than
60 years after the occupation of their lands by the Anglo-Saxon.
These facts are startling, and demand further investigation.
If the rocks and mountains, and the earths, resemble nearly the
inorganic substances that are met with in other parts of the world,
there is at least a very extraordinary and a distinct characteristic
difference in both the animal and vegetable part of the creation,
which makes a considerable class of subjects in both these kingdoms
peculiar to Australia. The fauna and flora of this arid region are
so unique, so far removed in their nature and habits from the gene¬
rality of species which exist in other parts of the world, so low in
the scale of classified animals and plants, and bearing so close an
affinity in their structure to the extinct tribes and genera whose
fossil remains are found imbedded in European rocks of the eocene
geological period, that some ethnologists are tempted to advance Austral-
the hypothesis that Australia exhibits the most ancient surface- asia.
geology for our investigations, of any portion of the terraqueous
globe. In other words, that this great south land has existed up-
heaved from the ocean, contemporary with the bygone epochs of the
paleozoic formation, which at a recent geological era was sub¬
merged below the sea; and that its groups of living creatures, and
its vegetation, have been perpetuated throughout subsequent epochs
which have extinguished whole genera of animals and plants in the
northern hemisphere. The recent investigations of naturalists in
Australia and the surrounding seas, have shown that certain forms
of star-fishes and bivalve shells found petrified in the chalk forma¬
tions of Europe, have existing types in the tropical seas of Australia,
and that the Port Jackson shark is the only living example ot the
ancient group of Cestrationte fishes. And while the superficia ob¬
server perceives, in the apparently anomalous examples of plants
in the grasses and gum-trees,—and animals, in the kangaroo and
duck-billed platypus, a mere assemblage of lusus natures, when com¬
pared with the productions of other regions, the attentive student
of natural history finds at every step some useful harmony between
the individuals of the organic kingdoms, and the peculiar physical
geography of this great southern land. Here he finds the grasses
containing an unusual pith in their stems, from which they derive
nourishment during the dry seasons which occur in this and cli¬
mate, when the hollow-stemmed grasses of Europe would perish.
And when he examines the structure of that curious animal the duck¬
billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus), he discovers that i s
organism is peculiar to the manner in which it secures food from
the water insects, where, in its burrowings in the earth, scarcely
any worms are to be found. These and other anomalous forms ot
the organic world in Australia, are doubtless reconcileable to the
universally harmonious system of nature, and require only further
investigation to be made manifest. . ,
The animals hitherto discovered, with very few exceptions, are Animals,
of the numerous species of kangaroo or the various opossum type ,
the former having their hinder legs long out of all proportion when
compared with the length of the fore-legs, and both families being
Marsupial, that is, having a sack under the belly of the female
for thf reception of the young ; of which families though divided
into different genera, there are at least a hundred distinct species.
To these marsupial genera may be added another of a singu ar me,
classed by naturalists under the genus Ai, represented by the wom¬
bat of the natives, or the native bear of the colonists, a herbivorous
animal of the sloth kind. Of carnivorous animals, there are very
few. The dingo or native dog has some resemblance to the Eng
fox in its appearance and predatory habits, and is the dread of the
sheep-farmer. It is supposed, however, not to be indigenous, and
with the buffalo, which is found on the northern coast, has no
doubt been brought by the Malays, who cross over to fish for tre-
pang, from Java, Timor, and other islands in the Indian Archi¬
pelago, as it exhibits very little specific difference from the jackal
of these countries. The feline tribe is represented by several
species of yellow-spotted cats; and these pretty nearly complete
the catalogue of Australian quadrupeds. One annual however
deserves some specific notice, from the discussions that have arii
regarding the nature and uses of the unusual organic sJructul® °
its head : we allude to the duck-billed water-mole of the colonists
(Ornithorhynchusparadoxus, or Platypus anatinus) ;a quadruped,
says the late Dr White of the British Museum, “ with the beak ot a
bird, which is contrary to known facts and received opinion,.
The investigations, however, of modern scientific men have isco-
vered that even this apparent paradox of nature, setting the bill
of a bird upon the head of a quadruped, ' is in harmony with er
laws. This organ, although it has the same function as the bil of
a duck, is not, like that appendage, affixed to the skeleton, but
merely attached to the skin. It was by Cuvier, along with a some¬
what similar Australian animal, the Echidna ranked among the
Edentata; but now they are both more usually arranged as a dis¬
tinct class of mammals termed Monotremata. They approach the
marsupials in possessing the abdominal bones of that order, thoug
they have not the pouch; and they approximate mammals to birds
in possessing a common cloaca. The echidna has also a bill-formed
mouth, and spines like those of a hedgehog on its body. Aus¬
tralia at the present period is the great metropolis of the order.
The flying phalangers (Phalangista) are likewise an interesting and
1 It may be remarked that the assertions of Strzlecki on this subject are more than doubtful, and are at variance wi a ana o^y
respecting sexual intercourse between other races of mankind. The same notion once prevailed regardingthe negro an w i e T 11
of the human species ; but is not founded on fact. The barrenness of the aboriginal females, under such circumstances, wi ex
surprise when we consider the well-known effect of promiscuous sexual intercourse in checking fecundity : while e rap .
the Australian native population is further explicable by the frequent practice of infanticide, especially of female chi ,
labour exacted from their women, the introduction of epidemic disorders by Europeans, and immoderate indulge t>
liquors.—Ed.
261
AUSTRALASIA.
Austral- beautiful group of marsupials. Crocodiles, turtles, and yangan,
asia. or dugong, one of the cetacese, inhabit the rivers and harbours of
/ ■*»— ^ tropical Australia ; and in the southern, eastern, and western
Animals streams> large fish of the perch tribe abound. The seas swarm with
scaled fish and Crustacea; many of them edible, others poisonous,
and some of the most brilliant colours. Reptiles are frequently met
with, but not abundant. There are several species of snakes; some
are venomous, but the majority are harmless. Lizards are more
plentiful, and all of them harmless; while a large species of iguana
affords the natives a delicate kind of food.
The birds are equally singular with the beasts, there being black
swans and white eagles; the former everywhere in such multitudes
as to spoil a proverb that had held good for two thousand years;
and their song as described by Mr Bass, “ exactly resembles the
creaking of a rusty sign on a windy day.” The Mcenura superba,
with its scalloped tail feathers, is perhaps the most singular and
beautiful of that graceful species known by the name of birds of
paradise; ducks, pigeons, cockatoos, parrots, and parakeets, are
innumerable, and of great variety and beauty. The mountain eagle
is a magnificent creature, and the emu is, next to the ostrich, the
tallest bird that exists, many of them standing full six feet high;
and the insect creation presents strange and brilliant forms.
Plants. The plants are no less singular than the animals. Of these the
distinguished botanist Mr Brown has given a very curious and in¬
structive account in his Geographical and Systematical Remarks,
in the Appendix to Flinders’s Voyage. He collected nearly 3900
species of Australasian plants, which, with those brought to England
by Sir Joseph Banks and others, supplied him with the materials
for a Flora terras Australis, consisting of 4200 species, referable to
120 natural orders; but he remarks that more than half the num¬
ber of species belong to eleven only of those orders. Of the Euca¬
lyptus or gum-tree, the largest yet discovered, there are not fewer
than 100 different species. “ The Eucalyptus globulus of Labillar-
diere,” says Mr Brown, “ and another species, peculiar to the S. of
Van Diemen’s Land, not unfrequently attain the height of 150 feet,
with a girth near the base of from 25 to 40 feet.” Of this magni¬
ficent genus there are 50 different species within the limits of the
colony around Sydney. Of the beautiful and elegant Melaleuca, Mr
Brown collected upwards of 30 species, all of which, with the excep¬
tion of the two species Leucodendron and Cajaputi, appear to be con¬
fined to Terra Australis. The tribe of Stackhousece is entirely pecu¬
liar to that country. Of the natural order of Proteacece, consisting
of about 400 known species, more than 200 are natives of New
Holland, of which they form one of its characteristic botanical
features; the Banksia, in particular, being one of the most striking
peculiarities of the vegetable kingdom. The Casuarina, of which
13 species have been discovered, is another characteristic feature of
the woods and thickets of Australia. The most extensive genus,
however, is the apetalous Acacia, of which there are more than 100
species; and this, with the Eucalyptus, “ if taken together,” says Mr
Brown, “ and considered with respect to the mass of vegetable mat¬
ter they contain, calculated from the size as well as from the number
of individuals, are perhaps nearly equal to all the other plants of
that country.” The Casuarina and the Eucalyptus are represented
as furnishing excellent timber for ship-building, and for all the pur¬
poses of domestic furniture and agricultural implements; the gum
of the Eucalyptus is medicinal; and that of one species might be
employed as pitch. Freycinet says they procured a resinous sub¬
stance fi’om the Xanthorrhea, which served them to caulk their
vessels. The bark of a tree (Acacia dealbata) is known to be more
efficacious in tanning leather than the oak-bark; and a shrub
(Leptospermum scoparium) was used by Captain Cook as a substi¬
tute for tea. Nutmegs were found by Flinders on the northern
coast, but they were small, and had so little of an aromatic fla¬
vour, that Mr Brown gave the plant the specific name of insi-
pida. Among the curious productions of the vegetable world is
the Nepenthes distillatoria, or pitcher plant, of which a very cor¬
rect and detailed drawing is given in the Atlas to Flinders’s Voyage.
The pines of the genus Auracaria have the double-dotted vascu¬
lar tissue of the carboniferous Coniferas. The Eucalypti or gum-
trees shed their bark annually instead of their leaves; while the
latter hang vertically from the branches, instead of horizontally,
as in most English forest-trees; and the Casuarina! or she-oak trees
have the jointed articulations of Hippuris instead of leaves. Alto¬
gether, the anomalous characters of Australian botany, though pre¬
senting organic phenomena distinct from those of the northern hemi¬
sphere, are in harmony with the branches of the animal kingdom
already alluded to. Since Brown’s Prodromus was published in
1810, very little has been added to that profound work. And it is
a remarkable fact, that few genera, if any, have been discovered
since that eminent botanist and his patron Sir Joseph Banks first
collected the plants of Botany Bay. Although Cunningham, La-
billardiere, and others, have added materially to the list of species,
there is still a vast region open to botanic enterprize, especially
in the unexplored mountain ranges of the great Australian Cor- * i
dillera. Austral¬
asia.
II. Having marked the progressive discovery of this fair
and fertile island, until it was ascertained to be such by Tas- General
man, Marion, Furneaux, Cook, D’Entrecasteaux, Bass, and view of
Flinders, we shall not think it necessary to notice the mi- Van Die-
nor discoveries of Bligh, Hunter, Cox, &c., but proceed to men 8
give a general account of its dimensions, surface, and natural Land-
productions. It is situated between the parallels of 41. 0.
and 43. 32. S. Eat, and 144. 32.and 148. 25. E. Long.; its
medial length from N. to S. being about 160, and breadth
from E. to W. 145 geographical miles. Its surface pos¬
sesses every variety of mountain, hill, and dale,—of forests
and open meadows,—of inland lakes, rivers, and inlets of
the sea, forming safe and commodious harbours,—that can
render a country valuable or agreeable ; and it enjoys a
temperate climate, which is perhaps not very different from
that of England, though less subject to violent changes. In
May, corresponding to our November, Labillardiere ob¬
served the mountains in the interior covered with snow.
The western and southern coasts are bold, steep, and rocky;
the latter terminating so abruptly as to appear as if it had
been broken off, and the group of islands named De Witt’s
Isles, to the southward, twelve in number, formed out of
the fragments. Cook found the cliffs on the eastern side
composed of sandstone ; but the vast buttresses that look
towards the southern seas of ice are stated by Flinders to
be composed of basaltic columns, appearing like so many
stacks of chimneys. Labillardiere found, near this southern
extremity, a stratum of coal 3^ feet thick and 200 fathoms
long, resting on sandstone.
The soil, in general, is represented as more productive
than that of the E. side of Australia; and the island has
the advantage of being intersected by two fine rivers, rising
near the centre; the one named the Tamar, falling into
Bass’s Strait on the N., and forming Port Dalrymple ; the
other, the Derwent, which discharges itself into the sea on
the S.E. extremity, spreading its waters, in the first in¬
stance, over the Great Storm Bay, which communicates
with North Bay, Norfolk Bay, and Double Bay, on the E.,
and with D’Entrecasteaux’s Channel on the W. The Ta¬
mar in its course receives three streams—the North Esk,
the South Esk, and the Lake River; and the tide flows about
30 miles up the river, to the point where it is joined by the
two Esks. At this spot is situated the flourishing town of
Launceston; having a population of about 6500. At the
head of the western arm of Port Dalrymple is situated
George 1 own, on the skirt of a beautiful, rich, and well-
wooded country. There is also a town named Hobart
Town, which is now the capital, on the right bank of the
Derwent, about five miles inland, with a population, in
1851, of 14,000 inhabitants. The country between these
two towns is everywhere rich and beautiful, abounding in
grassy plains, marshes, and lakes, bounded on each side by
hills, well clothed with wood, rising into high and rocky
mountains. A turnpike road now bisects the island between
Launceston and Hobart Town,—a distance of 130 miles,
which is accomplished by stage-coaches within 12 hours.
The description given by D’Entrecasteaux of the channel that
bears his name, and the surrounding shores, corresponds generally
with the following animated account of it from M. Peron, ten years
afterwards. “ Crowded on the surface of the soil are seen on every
side those beautiful Mimosas, those superb Metrosideros, those Cor¬
reas, unknown till of late to our country, but now become the pride
of our shrubberies. From the shores of the ocean to the summits
of the highest mountains may be observed the mighty Eucalyptus,
those giant trees of Australasian forests, many of which measure
from 162 to 180 feet in height, and from 25 to 30 and even 36 feet
in circumference. Banksia of different species, the Protea, the Em-
bothria, the Leptosperma, form an enchanting belt round the skirts
of the forests. Here the Casuarina exhibits its beautiful form;
there the elegant Exocarpus throws into a hundred different places
its negligent branches. Everywhere spring up the most delightful
262
Austral¬
asia.
New
Guinea
or Papua.
AUSTRALASIA.
thickets of Melaleuca, Thesium, Oonckyum, Evodia, all equally in¬
teresting, either from their graceful shape, the lovely verdure ol
their foliage, the singularity of their corollas, or the form of their
seed-vessels.”— Voy. aux Terres Australes. . e \t
All the navigators who have visited the southern part ot V an
Diemen’s Land describe the natives as a mild, affable, good-hu¬
moured, and inoffensive people ; with the exception of Marion the
effect of whose fire-arms, Labillardiere thinks, had made them afraid
of Europeans. Subsequently the settlers found them a hostile and
treacherous race, probably from the same cause. Flinders and Bass
conceived that the natives of this island were sunk still lower in the
scale of human existence than those in the neighbourhood of Port
Jackson, though they saw but one man, and he is described as
having “ a countenance more expressive of benignity and intelli¬
gence than of that ferocity or stupidity which generally charac¬
terized the other natives.” They are obviously the same people as
those of Australia. The women refused from Cook s people all
presents, and rejected all their addresses, not so much from a sense
of virtue, it was supposed, as from the fear of the men of whom
they stood in great awe. With the convicts and free settlers they
had free intercourse. In some places were found miserable huts of
twigs, and rude baskets made of a juncus or rush ; but these were all
the signs that appeared of civilization. Cook, D Entrecasteaux, an
Baudin, all observed many of the largest trees with trunks hollowed
out, apparently bv means of fire ; and as the hollow side invariably
faced the E. and S.E., the lee-side to the prevailing winds it was
concluded they were intended as habitations In ^ ^nt^ecf.ste^U^
Channel only were indications of huts made of the hark of the
Eucalyptus, consisting of three rolls stitched together. Of the nu¬
merous tribes who peopled this island when it was firstcolonized
bv the British, only 18 men and women now remain. At the early
settlement it was a penal colony, and the natives were considerably
thinned by a war of extermination carried on by the convicts and
settlers a-rainst them, which ended in their being conveyed to Hin¬
ders’ Island in Bass’s Strait, from whence the miserable remnant
now at Brown’s River, near Hobart Town, were brought to end their
days in peace—D’Entrecasteaux, Labillardiere, Flinders,-&c.
HI. New Guinea, or Papua, is, after Australia, not only the
first in point of magnitude, but claims a priority in discovery
over that and every other island in the Australasian Sea. In
the year 1526, when the Portuguese and the Spaniards were
disputing their respective claims to the Spice Islands, Don
Toro-e de Meneses, of the former nation, had, in his passage
frorn Malacca to the Moluccas, by extraordinary and acci¬
dental circumstances, discovered the N. coast of Papua, so
called, according to some, because the word signifies black,
which was the colour of the natives, or curled hair, accord¬
ing to others. Meneses remained at a port called Versija
till the change of the monsoon, and then returned to the
Moluccas. The next navigator who touched at Papua was
Alvarez de Saavedra, on his homeward voyage from the Mo¬
luccas in 1528, for New Spain ; and from an idea that the
country abounded in gold, he gave it the name of Isla del
Oro. He staid a month, and obtained provisions ; but some
Portuguese deserted with the only boat the ship had, and
were left behind. They found their way, however, to
Gilolo, and reported that Saavedra had been wrecked ; but
on his subsequent arrival they were tried, condemned, and
executed. He is supposed to have added about 50 leagues
of discovery to that of Meneses. In 1529 Saavedra sailed
a second time from New Spain, and, according to Galvaom
(or Galvano), followed the coast of Papua eastwards above
500 leagues.
In 1537 Gonzalvo and Alvarado were despatched on dis¬
covery by the viceroy of Peru; but the former being killed
in a mutiny, the crew chose another commander; and the
first land they made was Papua. The ship was in so crazy
a state that she was abandoned; the crew, only seven in
number (the rest having died of hunger and fatigue), were
made captives, and carried to an island called Crespos (curly-
haired men), whence they were sent to the Moluccas and
ransomed.
In 1545 Ynigo Ortiz de lletz, in his voyage from Tidore
to New Spain, came to an archipelago of islands near the
land of Papua; sailed 230 leagues along the N. coast;
and not knowing it had been before visited by Europeans,
he called it Nueva Guinea, from the resemblance of the na¬
tives to those of the coast of Guinea. .
In 1606 Torres made the E. coast of New Guinea, in his
way to the Moluccas, sailed westward 300 leagues, doubled
the S.E. point, sailed along the southern coast, saw the north¬
ern coast of New Holland, and passed the strait which now
bears his name. He describes the coast of New Guinea as
inhabited by a dark people, naked, except a covering round
the middle, of painted cloth made of the bark of a tree.
They had arms of clubs and darts ornamented with feathers.
He fell in with many large islands, ports, and rivers. To¬
wards the northern extremity he met with Mahometans, who
had swords and fire-arms.
In 1616 Schouten came in sight of a burning mountain
on the coast of New Guinea, which he named Vulcan, and
immediately after of the coast itself. The island was well
inhabited, and abounded with cocoa-nuts; but no anchoring
ground could be found. 1 he natives were black, with short
hair; but others appeared of a more tawny colour, with canoes
of a different shape. Among the islands in sight to the north¬
ward, four small ones continually smoked. On approach¬
ing the main land, the natives, whom he calls real Papoos,
came off, “ a wild, strange, and ridiculous people, active as
monkeys, having black curled hair, rings in their ears and
noses, and necklaces of hogs’ tusks. ’ d hey had all some
personal defect; one was blind, another had a great leg, a
third a swelled arm ; from which Schouten concluded that
this part of the country was unhealthy, an inference which
was confirmed by observing their houses built upon stakes
eight or nine feet from the ground. At the two little islands
of Moa and Insou, on the N.E. coast, the friendly natives
supplied them with abundance of cocoa-nuts. At 28 leagues
from Moa, Schouten fell in with a group of 14 small islands
covered with wood, and apparently uninhabited; but sailing
to the northward, they were followed by six large canoes,
the people in which were armed with javelins. Those in
some canoes from another island were of a tawny complexion,
had long curly hair, and appeared by their persons and lan¬
guage to be a different race from the natives of Papua: they
had rings of coloured glass, yellow beads, and vessels of poi-
celain, which were regarded as “ evidences of their having
communication with the East Indiesv” Schouten s Island is
the largest of this group. Tasman visited all these islands
and the coast of New Guinea in 1643, but made no dis¬
coveries in this part of his voyage. _ u
Our countryman Dampicr saw the coast in 1699, but clid
not land: the natives came off to his ship, and he speaks in
admiration of their large and picturesque proas. He dis¬
covered, however, a strait unknown before, which divides
New Guinea from New Britain, and is now called after his
name. Bougainville was less fortunate, when, in 1168, he
touched on the coast of what he considered a separate island,
and to which he gave the name of Louisiade. D’Entrecas¬
teaux, in 1792, passed along the northern coast of Louisiade,
and through Dampier’s Strait, but left the point of its iden¬
tity with or separation from New Guinea undecided.
Sonnerat published A Voyage to New Guinea, though
he evidently never was there, but describes the natives and
productions from what he saw and from what he could col¬
lect at the island of Gibby, to the eastward of Gilolo.
Forrest, in 1775, anchored in the Bay of Dory, on the
northern extremity of New Guinea, and collected some in¬
formation respecting the inhabitants from a Mahometan
Hadji, who accompanied him. Captain Cook, also, in his
first voyage in 1770, made the coast in about 6. 30. S. Lat.,
a little to the northward of Cape Valscher, but did not
bring his ship to anchor, on account of the hostility of the
natives. A party landed near a grove of cocoa-nut trees,
and not far from it found plantain and the bread-fruit tree.
The breeze from the trees and shrubs is said to have been
charged with a fragrance not unlike that of gum benjamin.
Austral-
AUSTRALASIA.
Austral-
Three Indians rushed out of the wood with a hideous shout,
j ran towards the party; the foremost throwing some¬
thing out of his hand which burnt like gunpowder, the other
two hurling their lances at the same time. Before they
reached the pinnace, from 60 to 100 had collected, all stark
naked; their appearance as to stature, colour, and crisped
hair, resembling that of the New Hollanders. They let off
fires by four or five at a time, but for what purpose could
not be imagined. These fires appeared to be discharged
from a piece of stick, probably a hollow cane ; and the fire
and smoke exactly resembled those of a musket, but with¬
out any report. 1 hose who were on board ship, at a distance,
concluded they had fire-arms; and even those in the boat
might have supposed them firing volleys, had they not been
so near as to ascertain that there was no report. Torres
had observed something of the same kind in about 4. S.
Lat. on the same coast, where, he says, the inhabitants were
black, but better clothed than those southward; that among
the weapons used by them were hollow bamboo sticks, which
they filled with lime, and by throwing it out endeavoured
to blind their enemies. This explanation, however, does not
account for the /m Forrest says that the Chinese from
Iidore trade with Papua under Dutch colours; perhaps
therefore, gunpowder may be one of the articles carried by
them in exchange for the slaves, ambergris, sea-slugs (Si-
punculus edulis), tortoise-shell, lories, birds of paradise, &c.
which they carry back to China.
Ihe S.E. coast of New Guinea was visited in June 1793
by Mr Bampton, master of the Hormuzeer, and Mr Alt,
mastei of the Chesterfield, two British merchant vessels, who,
in their endeavouis to find a passage to the N.W. while beat-
ing up the Great Bight of this island, added some valuable
information to what was previously known of that part of the
coast. Captain Bristow, also the discoverer of the Auckland
Islands, visited in 1806 the northern shores of the smaller
islands, which were described by D’Entrecasteaux in 1793.
But the southern shores of the Louisiade remained unex¬
plored from the period of Bougainville’s voyage in 1768 until
the year 1840, when a French navigator, Captain D’Urville,
attempted a flying-survey of them in the Astrolabe durino-
his voyage round the world. He was not sure, however,
whether the land he observed belonged to New Guinea or
the Louisiade, although he passed a multitude of islands with
navigable channels between them.
In 1845 Captain Blackwood, in H.M.S. Fly, surveyed 140
miles of the S.E. coast of New Guinea within the Great Bight.
Here he found a low muddy shore extending many miles
inland of the same character, intersected by channels, which
evidently are the estuaries of streams. One of these he
ascended for a distance of 20 miles in the ship’s boats, and saw
numerous native villages built at intervals along the banks ;
but being confronted by the inhabitants, who appeared to be
of warlike disposition, he considered it dangerous to attempt
a landing. This partial survey was followed up in 1846 by
Lieutenant \ ule in H.M. schooner Bramble, who laid down
t le coast-line from where Blackwood’s survey had terminated
E. of Aird s River, along the S.E. shore of the bight. As he
proceeded southerly, where the coast trends to the eastward,
ie found the country inland gradually improve in aspect from
ow mud banks to densely wooded hills; with a lofty range
o mountains in the distance. At this point where he sighted
a high peak of this mountain-chain—which now bears his
name he returned to Australia to await further orders.
tt TvrV^T> ^une 1848, Captain Owen Stanley in
H.M.S. Rattlesnake, accompanied by the Bramble, Lieu¬
tenant Y ule, as tender, commenced a further survey of the
doubtful S.E. peninsula of New Guinea, and Bougainville’s
Louisiade. During their combined indefatigable exertions
for rour months, they not only determined the fact that the
263
latter island is separated from the mainland, but that it forms Austral-
one of several groups of smaller islands, more or less sur- asia.
rounded by dangerous coral reefs, which extend for upwards of v—^
200 miles E. by S. of the great Papuan Island, between 151.
and 154.30. E. Long., and the parallels of 11. and 12. S. Lat.:
the entire assemblage of island and reefs, including the Calva¬
dos Group, being now denominated the Louisiade Archipelago.
Much valuable information has been added to the natural*
history and ethnography of those coral-bound isles which
Captain Stanley has now determined upon the charts of Aus¬
tralasia, by Mr John Macgillivray, the naturalist who accom¬
panied the expedition ; and who has furnished us with the
journal of the voyage, which the death of the captain pre¬
vented himself from publishing. In his graphic descriptions
of these new and interesting islands, he thus describes their
appearance : “From the anchorage we enjoyed an extensive
view of the south-eastern portion of the Louisiade Archi¬
pelago. On the extreme right is the large S.E. island, with
its sharp undulating outline, and Mount Rattlesnake clearly
visible, although distant 45 miles. Next, after a gap partially
filled up by Pig Island, Joannet Island succeeds, IQl miles
in length, not so high as South-east Island, but resembling it
in dimness of outline: its highest point, Mount Asp, is 1104
feet in height. Next come the Calvados, of various aspect
and size, some with the undulating outline of the larger islands,
others rising more or less abruptly to the height of from four to
upwards of nine hundred feet. They constitute a numerous
group upwards of 40—some of which, however, are mere
rocks: they are delineated upon the Rattlesnake’s chart, and
there are others to the northward. Behind them, in two of the
inteivals, the large and distant island of St Aignan (so named
after one of D’Entrecasteaux’s lieutenants) fills up the back¬
ground, falling low at its eastern extreme, but the western
half is high and mountainous, with an elevation of3279 feet.
Further to the westward, the last of the Calvados in this view
was seen to form a remarkable peak, 518 feet in height, to
which the name of Eddystone was applied; and still further
to the left,^lie Real of D’Urville’s chart shoots up to the
height of 554 feet, as a solitary rocky island with a rugged
outline and an abruptly peaked summit.” 1
Leaving these islands, Captain Stanley proceeded on his
general survey along the S.E. coast of New Guinea, until he
leached that point of land where Lieutenant Yule in the
Bramble had left off. On making the S.E. cape of the island,
the land appeared of a mountainous character inland ; and
this continued increasing in elevation for 250 miles, until he
came to \ ule’s Peak. It is evident that this great moun¬
tain-chain divided the watershed on each side of the penin¬
sula. _ On determining the altitude of this range of moun¬
tains, it was found to average double that of the Australian
• , pS7w ughest section of the great Cordillera of that
island Mount Owen Stanley is 13,205 feet in height, beinff
more than double that of Mount Kosciusko (6510 feet)—
the highest mountain in Australia. Of fifteen other peaks in
the range, whose altitudes are laid down on the Rattlesnake’s
c i<ut, eight are above 7000 feet. Doubtless there are rich
fields foi discovery to future naturalists on these tropical-
alpine ranges. At present, however, the hostile disposition
of its savage occupants renders it inaccessible to European
explorers.
e^C®iPt th? bouisiade Archipelago, New Guinea extends in General
a * * y * 11®c^10n from the Cape of Good Hope, nearly under the view of
equator, to South-east Cape, in 10.35. S., being in length about 1200, New
and medial breadth about 150 geographical miles. The accounts of Guinea,
all the navigators who have touched on the different parts of its
coast, describe it as a rich and magnificent country, containing, in
all uman probability, from its situation and appearance, the most
i a ua, e vegetable products of the Moluccas and the several Asiatic
isiands. Forrest found the nutmeg-tree on Manaswary Island, in
the Pay of Dory ; and he learned that a people in the interior, called
1 Vot/aye of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, Captain Owen Stanley. By J. Macgillivray, vol. i. p. 241.
AUSTRALASIA.
Animals.
New Bri¬
tain, New
Ireland,
and neigh
bouring
islands.
Discovery
General
descrip¬
tion.
Haraforas, cultivate the ground, and bring their produce do
the sea-coast; that they are very poor, and some of th®m have
hair; and that they live in trees, which they ascend by cutti g
notches in them. The people of New Guinea, in many parts ot tne
coast, live in huts or cabins placed on stages which are erecte o
posts, commonly in the water, and probably as a protecUon against
snakes and other venomous creatures, though ! orrest seems
against the Haraforas. On these stages they haul up th®ir ProaS ,
canoes. These people are invariably described as being hldeously
ugly Their large eyes, flat noses, thick lips, woolly hair, and blac
shining skin, impressed the early navigators with the idea that they
were of African origin; but closer investigation of late years c
shown them to be a very mixed race indeed. Mr Macgi ivray r -
solves them into several indistinct types with mtermedmte grada¬
tions. Thus, occasionally he met with strongly marked negro charac¬
teristics, bui still more "frequently with the Jewish
while every now and then a face presented itself which struck him
as Malayan. Although the hair of these aborigines ^invariably
frizzled out into a mop, and woolly, instances were met with m both
sexes where it was black, soft, and curly, while in others i* waSu-
and frizzly, and the males mostly beardless. The colour of the skin
variesfrom a light to a dark copper shade; and their stature does
not average more than 5 feet 4 inches. Instead, therefore of con¬
sidering them a pure race, these late investigations would lead us
to suppose that the races from all the neighbouring Polynesian and
Malayan islands had their representatives on this beautiful and fer¬
tile group of islands ; who have amalgamated and formed the most
warlike race in the Australasian seas. Their habits, however, are
much the same as their neighbours ; and they show eqoal 8k11^
the management of their canoes and weapons, and in the building
of huts. The Papuans also increase their natural deformity by pass¬
ing bones or pieces of stick through the cartilage of the nose, and
as already mentioned, frizzing out their curly locks like a mop, some¬
times to the enormous circumference of 3 feet. They appear, how¬
ever to be one degree farther removed from savage life than the
Australian aborigines, having permanent houses, and both men and
women wearing wrappers round the waist, which are among e
articles brought to them by the Chinese and Malays.
The only quadrupeds known to exist on this island are dogs, rats,
and wild hogs; but the feathered race are of great beauty and
infinite variety. New Guinea is the native country of the bird ot
paradise. They are said to migrate in large flocks, in the dry mon¬
soon, to the islands of Arroo, and other islands to the W. and N.W.
of New Guinea. The great crown pigeon, parrots, lories, and minas,
are natives of Papua. ,
The whole of this great country is indented with deep bays on
every side, some of which nearly intersect the island ; and the coast
is surrounded on every side by a multitude of small islands, all
peopled with the same description of blacks, excepting those already
mentioned on the N.W., near the equator, most of which are under
the government of Mahometan Malays, with whom both the Dutch
and Chinese have long kept up intercourse.
IV. There can be little doubt that this extensive range
of islands was partially seen by Le Maire and Schouten in
1616, who, after discovering the Groene Island and the
Marquen Islands, steered along the northern coast of New
Ireland, as did Tasman also in 1642. Dampier, however,
first ascertained New Britain to be an island distinct from
New Guinea, by passing the strait which has since borne
his name. He visited Port Montague on this island, and
speaks of the black natives resembling the Papuans, their
dexterity in managing their canoes, their woody hills, lertile
vales, and delightful rivulets. He also anchored in Slin-
ger’s Bay, on New Ireland, which he conceived to be the
same land with New Britain ; but Carteret, in 1727, dis¬
covered and passed through a strait which separates them,
and to which he gave the name of St George’s Channel.
The Admiralty Islands of Carteret, to the north-westward
of New Britain, had previously been discovered by Schou¬
ten, and named the Twenty-five Islands. New Britain was
seen by Roggewein in 1722, and by Bougainville in 1768.
D’Entrecasteaux, we believe, was the last navigator who
passed along the N. coast of New Britain, and through
St George’s Channel, which divides it from New Ireland,
and from thence to the Admiralty Islands ; and from his
voyage, published by Rossel, together with Labillardiere’s
and Carteret’s,' we shall extract a few gleanings.
The extent of New Britain and Ireland is not exactly
known, nor have they been sufficiently explored to enable
geographers to lay them down with accuracy, or even to state Au®^al"
what number of islands the group consists of. One of con-
siderable extent lies off the N.W. end of New Ireland, which
has been named New Hanover, and is itself surrounded
bv low woody islands. The whole group occupies a space
between 2. 30. and 6. of S. Lat., and 149. and 153. of E.
Long., and may probably contain an area not less than
10,000 geographical square miles.
Carteret, in passing through the strait, saw but few natives on Natives,
the S. coast of New Ireland. These showed marked signs of hos¬
tility and were armed with lances headed with flint; they had also
slings and good fishing-tackle. They were black, and had woolly
hair, but their lips, he says, were not thick, nor their noses flat;
their cheeks were streaked with white, and their hair and beards
were covered with a white powder. Their canoes were long and
narrow, and had generally outriggers ; one of them measured 90
feet in length, and was formed out of a single tree. The two
large islands, and the whole group, in fact, were nearly covered
with wood; and thick cocoa-nut groves skirted all the low parts ot
the coast. Labillardiere says that New Ireland produces nutmegs ;
and he also mentions a new species of the Areca palm, 108 feet
high, the stem consisting of hard solid timber.
The natives of the Admiralty Islands, lying to the N.\V\, were
found by Carteret to be less black than those of New Britain and
Ireland with agreeable countenances, not unlike Europeans ; their
hair was curly, smeared with oil and red ochre, and their bodies
and faces painted with the same material; the glans penis was
covered with the shell called the bulla ovum, serving the same pur¬
pose as the wooden sheath of the Catfres in South Africa, whom,
indeed, they seem to resemble as closely as the natives of New
Guinea do those of the western coast of Africa. The women wear
a bandage round the waist. The central island is tolerably large,
and of a beautiful appearance, clothed with the most luxuriant ver¬
dure, and cultivated to the very summit. Among the groves of
cocoa-nut trees are numerous habitations, and the natives have evi¬
dently attained to a higher degree of civilization than their southern
neighbours : they use earthen vessels, and chew the betel leaf with
chunam or lime. This central island is surrounded by nearly 30
small flat islets of coral, and reefs in the various stages of progress
towards islets.
Proceeding to the westward and to the north-west, we meet v. ith
other little clusters of islands, as the Hermites, the Portland the
Echiquier (chess-board), vulgarly called Exchequer Islands, all of
which consist, like the Admiralty Archipelago, of a larger central
island surrounded by a chain of islets a-nd reefs most of them
covered with beautiful verdure. The natives of these groups, as
they approach the equator, gradually assume a lighter colour and
longer hair, till they lose entirely the negro character, and merge
into that of Malays and other Asiatic islanders—See bchouten,
Dampier, Carteret, Labillardiere, &c.
V. This archipelago of islands was one of the first dis- SWom.’.
coveries of the Spaniards in Australasia, though the credit of
it is <nven to Alonzo de Mendana, who was sent on an expedi¬
tion of discovery in 1567 from Callao by the viceroy of Peru.
He anchored in a port on the island of Santa \ sabel, to
which he gave the name of Porta de la Estrella; and he
also built a brigantine to make further discoveries, in which
she was particularly successful, having fallen in with no fewer
than thirty-three islands, “ of very fine prospect. Many of
them were of considerable size, to which they gave parti¬
cular names, as Galera, Buonavista, Florida, San German,
Guadalcanar, San Christoval, Santa Catarina, and Santa
Ana. Guadalcanar, however, was the most attractive,
having a port which they named De la Cruz, and a nvei
which they called Galego. Of this island Mendana took
possession for the king of Spain When the voyage was
published, the name of Solomons Islands was given to the
group, “ to the end that the Spaniards, supposing them to
be those isles from whence Solomon fetched gold to adorn
the temple at Jerusalem, might be the
and inhabit the same but it has been said that Mendana s
advice was, that they should not be colonized, that the
English, or others, who pass the Strait of Magelhanes^to go
to the Moluccas, might have no succoui theie,
they get from the Indians.” The truth, however is, that
Mendana, on a second voyage for the discovery of
mon Islands, returned without being able to find them, whic
AUSTRALASIA.
Natives.
New He¬
brides.
gave occasion to the remark, that “what Mendana discovered
in his first voyage he lost in his second ” He discovered,
however, in this second voyage, the great island of Santa
Cruz, which is situated at the S.E. extremity of Solomon’s
Islands, and may very fairly be considered as one of the
group. This island, which has an excellent harbour, La
Graciosa, was first revisited after Mendana’s discovery bv
Carteret, in 1767, who changed its name to that of Eg-
mont, and made it the principal island of a group which he
called Queen Charlotte s Islands. Here Mendana died, and
Qmros succeeded to the command; but the search for So¬
lomon s Islands was abandoned when they were not more
than 40 leagues from Christoval. It is a singular fact that
Solomon’s Islands, whose name was sufficient to tempt ad¬
venturers, were lost to Europeans for two centuries after
their discovery, and that we know at present little, if any
more than Mendana gave to the world after his first voyage
They were revisited by Bougainville in 1768 ; by M. Se¬
ville in 1769, who, from a ridiculous mistake, called them
the Archipelago of the Arsacides, to mark the natives as
assassins; by Lieutenant Shorthand of the British navy, in
1788, who chose to call them New Georgia j and freouently
since that time, by various British and French navigators. ’
Santa 4rsabel, says Mendana, was inhabited by people who had the
complexion of mulattoes, with curly hair, and little covering to their
bodies; who worshipped serpents, toads, and such like creatures:
whose food was cocoa-nuts and roots; and who, it was believed ate
human flesh, ‘ for the chief sent to the general a present of a quarter
of a boy, with the hand and arm.” Buonavista is twelve leagues in
extent, very fertile, and well peopled, the natives living in regular
villages or towns. On Florida, twenty-five leagues in circuit, the
natives dyed their hair red, collected together at the sound of the
conch-shells, and ate human flesh. Sesarga was well inhabited, pro¬
duced plenty of yams and bread-fruit, and here the Spaniards saw
hogs. In the midst of the island was a volcano continually emitting
smoke. They saw bats which measured five feet between the tips of
the wings. At Gaudalcanar they received in barter two hens and a
cock, the first fowls that had been seen. At San Christoval the na¬
tives were very numerous, and drew up to give battle to the Span¬
iards, their arms being darts, clubs, bows and arrows; but they were
dispersed by the fire of the muskets, which killed one Indian, and
wounded others. In the neighbouring village was found a quantity
of cocoa-nuts and almonds, sufficient to have loaded a ship. Santa
Ana was well peopled and fertile. It has a good port on the E. side,
where the Spaniards were attacked by the natives, who wounded
three of the invaders, while a dart pierced through the target and
arm of the Spanish commanding oflicer. The blacks had boughs
on their heads, and bands round their waists. The Spaniards ob¬
served here hogs and fowls.
VI. To the S.E. of Solomon’s Islands, and between
the parallels of 14. 30. and 20. S. Lat., are found a num¬
ber of islands, some of very considerable magnitude, called
the New Hebrides or Hebudes. They were first discovered
in 1606 by Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, who, with Luis
Vaez de Torres, was sent by the king of Spain from Lima
with two ships and a zabra (launch) to establish a settlement
at the island of Santa Cruz, and from thence to go in quest
of the Tierra Austral or southern continent. This voyage
has been considered, and justly so, among the most cele¬
brated undertaken by the Spaniards since the time of Ma-
gelhanes. In April 1606 they discovered an island, to which
they gave the name of Santa Maria, from whence they saw
another island to the southward, “so large,” says Torres,
“ that we sailed for it.” On the 2d May they anchored in a
bay large enough to hold a thousand ships, to which they
gave the appropriate name of San Felipe y Santiago. Quiros
at once determined that he had now discovered the long-
sought-for southern continent, and in this conviction named
it the Australia del Espiritu Santo. Two rivers fell into the
bay, one the Jordan, the other the Salvador. The surround¬
ing country was beautiful, and is thus described by the his¬
torian of the voyage: “ The banks of the rivers were co¬
vered with odoriferous flowers and plants, particularly orange
flowers and sweet basil, the perfumes of which were wafted
VOL. iv.
265
to the ships by the morning and evening breezes; and at Austral-
the early dawn was heard, from the neighbouring woods asia.
the mixed melody of many different kinds of birds, some in
appearance like nightingales, blackbirds, larks, and gold¬
finches. All the parts of the country in front of the sea
were beautifully varied with fertile valleys, plains, winding
rivers, and groves, which extend to the sides of the green
mountains.”—Torquemada, as quoted in Burney’s Account
of Discoveries in the South Sea.
Of this terrestrial paradise, which the Spaniards regarded
as their own, it was intended to take immediate possession.
They landed in great numbers ; the islanders also were nu¬
merous, but became alarmed, made them presents, and signi¬
fied a wish for them to return to their ships. They landed,
however, from their boats, upon which the chief drew a line
on the ground with the end of his bow, and made signs that
the Spaniards must not pass that boundary. It is said that
Torres, to show his contempt of the idea of being restrained
by barbarians, immediately passed the line. A battle en¬
sued, in which the chief was killed, and all the rest fled into
the woods. This rash act, however, was fatal to the views
of the Spaniards, who never afterwards could prevail on the
islanders to have any friendly communication with them;
and they left this country, after some ridiculous formalities
of taking possession in the name of Philip HI., and found-
ing a city, dignified with the name of the New Jerusalem.
So anxious was Quiros of “ adding the Australia del
Espiritu Santo to the other possessions of the Spanish mo¬
narchy, that, after his return to Spain, he is said to have
presented no less than fifty memorials to the king. One of
these, which was printed at Seville, begins thus : “ I, Captain
Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, say, that with this I have pre¬
sented to your majesty eight memorials relative to the set¬
tlement which ought to be made in Australia Incognita?
In these memorials he enumerates the many valuable pro¬
ductions of this supposed southern continent,—cocoa-nuts,
plantains, sugar-canes, yams, batatas, oranges, limes, papas,
pumpkins, almonds, nutmegs, mace, ginger, pepper in great
quantities, and woods for “ building any number of ships.”
The animals are hogs, goats, and dogs ; fowls, and a variety
of useful birds; various good fish, and pearl oysters. The
climate is described as so fine, with such a freshness in the
air, that neither by labour, exposure to the sun, or rain, or
dews, nor by intemperance, did any of the Spaniards fall
sick ; and among the natives many aged people were seen.
They wear a covering round the middle: Torres says they
aie all black and naked. They are described by Quiros as
corpulent and strong, cleanly, cheerful, sensible, and grate¬
ful : their houses, built of wood and thatched, stood, not on
posts, but on the ground. They weave nets, and make
earthen vessels, have plantations inclosed with palisades,
construct vessels which navigate to distant countries, and
have places appropriated for burying the dead ; and, he adds,
as the last and decisive test of their progress in civilization,
“ they cut their hogs and make capons.”
This arehipBlago of islands, like that of Solomon, was lost to the Descrip-
a century and a half, when Bougainville revisited them tion.
in 1768. Except landing on the Isle of Lepers, however, he did Natives,
nothing more than discover that the land was not connected, hut
composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades; which, on
being more accurately and extensively explored by Cook in 1774
underwent another change to that of New Hebrides, which they
now bear in all our charts. According to the survey of our great
navigator, they consist of Tierra del Espiritu Santo, the largest of
the whoie, St Bartholomew, Mallicolo, the Isle of Lepers, Aurora,
'V hltsuntide, Ambrym, Apee, Paoom, Three-hills, Sandwich, Mon-
tagu, llinchinbrook, Shepherd’s Isles, Erromango, Tanna, Immer,
Annatom, and Erronan. The two which are more particularly de¬
scribed are Mallicolo and Tanna, the natives of which differ remark¬
ably in their persons and language ; those of the latter having curly
but long hair, dark but not black, and without anything of the
negro character in their features, which are regular and agreeable,
their persons slender, active, and nimble. They were found to be
2 L
266
Austral¬
asia.
New Cale¬
donia.
Natives.
AUSTRALASIA.
hospitable, civil, and good-natured; but they displayed a jealousy of
their visitors seeing the interior of the island, which could only be
equalled in Japan or China. All the plantations were fenced, and
laid out in a line; they consisted of sugar-canes, yams, plantains,
bread-fruit, &c. The yams were remarkably fine, one of them
weighing 56 pounds, every ounce of which was good ; and they had
pigs and poultry. The juice of the cocoa-nut and water appeared
to be their only beverage. Their arms were clubs, darts, lances,
and bows and arrows. Their canoes, clumsily sewed together, had
outriggers, and were worked by paddles and by sails. rl he men
wore a wrapper round the loins, and the women a sort of petticoat
reaching to the knee.
The natives of Mallicolo are called by Captain Cook an ape-like
nation,” the most ugly, ill-proportioned people he ever met with, and
different from all others, diminutive in their persons, dark coloured,
with black hair, short and curly, but not so woolly as a negro s,
they had long heads, flat faces, and monkey countenances; and a
belt round the waist, pulled tight across the belly, made them look
not unlike overgrown pismires. The women were equally ugly;
and the dress of both sexes was in other respects the same as that
of Tanna, as were also the productions of the island. Their houses
were low, and covered with palm thatch.—See Dalrymple, Lur-
ney, Cook, &c.
VII. This large island, surrounded with coral islets and
reefs, was wholly unknown till Captain Cook in 11 /4 fell
in with the north-western extremity in steering south-west
from Mallicolo, from which it is distant not more than about
eighty leagues. He anchored within a small island called
Balabea, and opposite to the district Balade. This great
island extends between latitude 20. 5. and 22. 30., in the
direction of N.W. and S.E., about 250 miles long by 60
broad. The land bears a great resemblance to that of New
South Wales, and many of its natural productions appeared
to be the same, but the natives were different.
The inhabitants are represented as a strong, robust, active, well-
made people, courteous and friendly, and not in the least addicted to
pilfering, in which respect they differ from every other tribe of Aus¬
tralasia. They are nearly of the same colour as the natives of
Tanna, and appeared to be a mixed race between that people and
those of the Friendly Isles, or of Tanna and New Zealand,, their
language being a mixture of them all. Of the same disposition as
the natives of the Friendly Islands, they were found to excel them
in affability and honesty; and the women, like those of Tanna,
were chaster than the females of the more eastern islands. They
wear a petticoat of the filaments of the plantain tree, “ at least six
or eight inches thick, but not one inch longer than necessary for
the use designed.” They paint and puncture their bodies, and
wear ear-rings, and necklaces, and bracelets, of tortoise and other
shells. Both men and women have good features and agreeable
countenances ; and some of the men measure in height six feet four
inches. Their hair is frizzled out like a mop, and is very black,
coarse, and strong, but different from that of a negro. The rough
mop-heads make use of “ scratchers,” composed of a number of
sticks of hard wood, about the thickness of knitting-needles, fas¬
tened together at one end like a sort of comb ; the women have
their hair cropped short. The men wear a wrapper round the loins,
made of the bark of a tree. Their houses resemble bee-hives, with
peaked roofs, entered by a hole just big enough to admit a man
bent double. The sides are of spars and reeds, and both these and
the roof well thatched with dry grass. They boil their roots and
fish in earthen jars. They have nets made of plantain fibres, and
the sails of their canoes are of the same material. These vessels
consist of two trees fixed together by a platform. They have plan¬
tations of sugar-canes, plantains, bread-fruit, and cocoa-nut, but
none of them very productive. The whole appearance of the coun¬
try, indeed, is described as unable to support many inhabitants.
The greater part of the visible surface consists of barren rocky
mountains; and though the plains and valleys appeared to be fer¬
tile, Captain Cook was of opinion that “ nature has been less boun¬
tiful to it than to any other tropical island we know in this sea.”
D’Entrecasteaux passed the opposite extremity of New Caledonia
in 1792, when on his search after the unfortunate La Perouse, but
was prevented by a barrier reef of coral from approaching the coast;
and, in the following year, he visited Balade on the N.W. The
account of the inhabitants, as given by Rossel and Labillardiere,
differs altogether from that of Cook. But their own account of
their transactions there, the confidence with which they straggled
over the country, and the readiness of the savages to serve them,
by no means warrant the bad character they have thought fit to
give them. Labillardiere thinks the inhabitants, as well as the
vegetable productions, resemble those of Van Diemen’s Land. There
was no want of different kinds of esculent plants, though a great Austral-
scarcity prevailed from drought or other cause when they arrived. asia.
The young shoots of the Hibiscus tiliaceus, the fruit of the Cordia ^ — v
sebestina, the Dolichos tuberosus, Helianthus tuberosus, Arum esculen-
tum, and Macrorrhizon, Hypoxis, Aleurites, figs, oranges, plantains,
sugar-canes, cocoa-nuts, and the bread-fruit, all afforded them ar¬
ticles of food. Yet Labillardiere says they eat steatite, and that
he saw one man devour a piece of this stone as large as his two
fists. They also eat a species of spider. They had lost the hogs
which Cook left them, but some half-dozen of cocks and hens were
seen by the French.—See Cook, Labillardiere, &c.
VIII. Though these islands geographically belong to New Zea-
Australasia, the natives are, in their physical character andland-
language, Polynesians. They were first discovered on the
13th December 1642, by Abel Jansen 'Tasman, on his
voyage of discovery from the Mauritius ; and, on the 18th,
the Heemskirk yacht and the fly-boat Zeehaan came to an-^
chor in a bay to which they afterwards gave the name of
Moordenaar’s or Murderer’s Bay, and to the island that of
Staaten Land, in honour of the states-general, and in the
possibility that it might join the Staaten Land to the east
of the Tierra del Fuego. “ It is a fine country,” says Tas¬
man, “ and we hope it is part of the unknown S. con¬
tinent.” The expedition of Hendrik Brower to Chili the
following year cut off the latter Staaten Land from any con¬
tinental connection, and the name of the former was then
changed to that of New Zealand.
On the 19th a boat with thirteen natives came within a
stone’s throw of the Heemskirk. The language in which
they hailed was unlike that of the Solomon’s Islands, of
which Tasman had a vocabulary. Their vessel consisted
of two narrow canoes, joined together by boards, on which
the people sat; their paddles, about a fathom long, were
pointed at the end ; their clothing appeared of mats or cot¬
ton, but their breasts were naked. They were invited on
board, but in vain. The ships, however, were moved nearer
in-shore, upon which seven double vessels came off. A
boat, despatched from one ship to the other, had previously
been attacked. Three men belonging to the Zeehaan were
killed, and one mortally wounded; one of the killed was
dragged into the canoes. After this, despairing of getting
water or provisions, they weighed and set sail, twenty-two
of the native boats following them, eleven of which were
full of people. The ships fired, and the canoes returned to
the shore.
The next visitor, at the distant period of a hundred and
twenty-seven years, was Captain Surville, who in 1769 put
into a bay on the north-eastern extremity, and gave it the
name of Lauriston Bay. In the same year Lieutenant
(afterwards Captain) Cook of the Endeavour, made the land
on the 6th of October, the enormous height of which be¬
came the subject of much conversation ; and the general
opinion was, that they had now discovered the Terra Aus¬
tralis Incognita. This voyage, however, and the circum¬
navigation of the islands of New Zealand, entirely subverted
the theory of a great southern continent. In 17/2 Cap¬
tains Marion du Fresne and Crozet put into the Bay of
Isles, where the former and some of the crew were mur¬
dered by the natives. In March 1773 Captain Cook in the
Resolution, with Captain Furneaux in the Adventure, re¬
visited New Zealand, where the latter had a whole boat s
crew with a midshipman murdered by the inhabitants. In
1776 and 1777 a third visit was made to these islands by
Captain Cook. In these several visits he was accompanied
by men well versed in every branch of natural knowledge;
and in the Voyages of Cook and Forster will be found every
species of information that the ferocious disposition of the
inhabitants made it practicable to collect.
The two great islands of New Zealand extend between Descrip-
latitude 34° and 48° south, longitude 181° and 194 east; tion.
that to the northward, called Eaheinomawe, is about 4UU
geographical miles long by 90 in medial breadth. I he name
AUSTRALASIA.
Austral- 0f the southern island is Tavai Poenammoo, which is about
a81l> 450 geoSraPhical miles long by 95 broad. The former has a
v ^ rich and fertile soil, well clothed with trees, some of them
more than 20 feet in girth, and 90 feet high, without a
branch. Some of them resembled spruce, and were “ large
enough for the mainmast of a 50-gun ship.” The highest
hills were covered with forests, the valleys with grass and
shrubbery, and the plains were well irrigated with rills of
clear water. The southern island is very mountainous ; one
peak, resembling that of feneriffe, was estimated by For¬
ster, but without sufficient data, at 14,000 feet in height:
it was covered with snow in the middle of January. Both
as to appearance and temperature, they may be considered
as the British Isles of Australasia. Fahrenheit’s thermo¬
meter in February was never higher than 66°, and was not
lower in June than 48°.
A great part of the western side of these islands had,
however, a desolate and inhospitable appearance ; exhibit¬
ing ranges of yellow sandstone, or white sandhills, with
scarcely a blade of verdure. It is worthy of remark, that
this extraordinary difference prevails between the two coasts
of South Africa, the two coasts of New Holland, and the
two coasts of Van Diemen’s Land.
The natives are stout and well-limbed, muscular, vigorous, and
active, excelling in manual dexterity; their countenances intelli¬
gent and expressive, of an olive complexion, but not darker than a
Spaniard. In the appearance of the women there is not much femi¬
nine delicacy; but on Cook’s first visit they found them more mo¬
dest and decent in their behaviour than any of the islanders they
had met with. They were covered from the shoulders to the ankles
with a sort of netted cloth made of the split leaves of the flax plant
(Phormium tenax'), the ends hanging down like fringes.
The black hair of the men is bound in a knot on the top of the
head, that of the women is cropped ; both sexes anoint their hair
with rancid oil, and smear their bodies with grease and red ochre.
The faces of the old men are covered with large furrowed black
marks, generally spiral lines, and have a horrible appearance. The
women wear in their ears pieces of cloth, feathers, sticks, bones,
&c., and bracelets and anklets of bone, teeth, shells, &c. Captain
Cook did not observe any appearance of disease, or bodily com¬
plaint, or eruption on the skin, or marks of any; and the most se¬
vere wounds healed most rapidly. Very old men, without hair or
teeth, showed no signs of decrepitude, and were full of cheerfulness
and vivacity. They are mild, gentle, and affectionate towards each
other, but ferocious and implacable towards their enemies; and it
unfortunately happens, that the little societies into which they ap¬
pear to be divided, are in an almost perpetual state of hostility,
which makes it necessary for them to dwell in happahs or vil¬
lages, fortified with embankments, ditches, and palisadoes. They
give no quarter, and feast with apparent relish on the bodies of
their enemies, which they cut up and broil in holes dug in the
earth; they suck out the brains, and preserve the skulls as trophies.
They made no hesitation in devouring human flesh in presence of
the English officers, and their provision baskets had generally a head
or a limb of a human subject.
The only quadrupeds on the islands are pigs, dogs, and rats, the
former of which they eat; but their principal food consists of fish,
potatoes, and the bruised roots of fern. They cultivate, however,
and with great neatness, sweet potatoes, eddas, and gourds, ajl
planted in regular rows ; and Cook observed near the villages both
privies and dunghills. Their houses have a ridge-pole to the roof,
which, with the sides, are built of sticks and grass, and lined with
bark; they sleep on the floors covered with straw; and the furni¬
ture consists of a chest to hold their tools, clothes, arms, and fea¬
thers, provision baskets, and gourds to hold water, which is their
oniy beverage; the New Zealanders being among the very few
people, civilized or savage, who are ignorant of the means of in¬
toxication.
Their double canoes or whale-boats are admirably constructed
with planks from 60 to 70 feet in length, and their prows and sterns
are tastefully and curiously carved and ornamented; all of which
is performed by adzes and axes of a hard black stone, or green talc
or jade, and with chisels of human bone or jasper. Of these mate¬
rials also their offensive weapons are made : these are lances four¬
teen feet long, sharp at both ends, of hard wood neatly carved ; and
a battle-axe of jade or bone about a foot long. Their war canoes
carry from 60 to 70 men each; they keep exact time with their
paddles, singing, with great vociferation and distorted features,
their savage war-song, when bound on any hostile expedition.
Their war-dances are conducted in the same furious and extrava¬
gant style: the only musical instrument, if it can be called one,
which they use, is a triton shell, which sounds like a cow’s horn.
They have, however, a taste for music, and the women are said
to sing in a soft, slow, and mournful cadence, making use of semi¬
tones. When their husbands are slain in battle, they cut their legs,
arms, and faces, with bone or sharp shells; and there are few of
them who do not wear scars on their bodies as testimonials of their
affection and sorrow for their deceased friends,
The natives of New Zealand exhibit a strange mixture, of civil¬
ized and savage life. It was hoped, from the state of their culti¬
vated grounds, of which several hundred acres were seen, that pre¬
sents of hogs, kids, and poultry, would have been most acceptable,
and considerable numbers were left with them on the first and second
visits of Captain Cook; but, excepting the cocks and hens, which
had bred plentifully, and flew about wild in the woods, the others
had been wantonly destroyed. In 1791 Vancouver touched at
Dusky Bay, and remained there for some time, examining the bays
and creeks in the neighbourhood; but he did not see one human
being. And in 1793 D’Entrecasteaux passed between the Three
Kings’ Island and Cape Maria van Diemen, but had no other com¬
munication with the natives except in their canoes. Unlike in
some respects to the Tahitians, they have evidently a common origin;
their language not differing more than the language of the two New
Zealand Islands from each other. The few notions they have of
superior beings also accord with those of Tahiti. (See Cook’s
Voyages.)
The following horrible transaction proves how well Captain Cook
described the character of these cannibals. In December 1809, the
ship Boyd, from Port Jackson, was at Wangaroa, in the Bay of
Islands, and admitted, without due caution, too large a number of
natives on board, when the crew were suddenly attacked, over¬
powered, and slaughtered. Captain Alexander Berry, of the ship
Edinburgh Castle, being on the coast, was soon after apprised of
this horrible event; and, proceeding to the bay, found the remains
of the Boyd, which had been burnt by the savages. On landing,
he discovered that the massacre had been directed by Tippahee, the
old chief who had been so much caressed at Sydney. The bones of
the unfortunate men lay scattered on the ground, where their bo¬
dies had been devoured by the savages. Sixteen were murdered
and cut up on the deck of the vessel; five others, who had fled for
safety upon the yards, were told by the old cannibal, that if they
would come down their lives should be spared, which, after some
hesitation, they consented to do. They were sent on shore, and in
five minutes after their dead bodies lay on the beach. The only
survivors which Captain Berry contrived to save, were a woman,
two children, and a boy. Well might Captain Berry conclude the
narrative-of this horrid murder by an admonition, “ Let no man
trust a New Zealander.”
The colonization of this group of islands by the British may well
be considered an era in the history of Australasia. Little more
than fifteen years has elapsed since the settlements of Auckland,
Wellington, and other towns were established on the Waitemata,
and the shores of Port Nicholson and other parts of the coast; and,
though much bloodshed has followed the occupation of the lands of
this warlike people—who are now known by their aboriginal name,
Maori—the stranger may travel at the present day through their
country, with as much security from robbery or violence as in civil¬
ized Britain. We speak from experience when we state that the
stranger white man who goes amongst them with a peaceful object
has everywhere the hand of fellowship held out to him, and is in¬
vited to partake of their hospitality. Strange to relate, but never¬
theless true, the descendants of the old race of wild cannibals rarely
speak of the practices of their fathers without horror, and exhibit
the most pacific desire to trade with the Europeans, whom their pro¬
genitors never saw but to deceive and to devour. They have yielded
to the all-powerful influence of Mammon; they love wealth; and
they have become a subdued race by adopting the luxuries of the
white man, which they cannot produce themselves. Where the
missionaries failed in their attempts to bring them within the
sphere of Christian civilization, and the strong arm of Euro¬
pean warfare could not crush the indomitable spirit of these brave
people, the slow but sure progress of commerce has laid that proud
race submissively at the feet of the trading Pakehas (foreigners).
I he horrors of cannibalism are now becoming lost in the traditions
of the past; for if the main cause of that practice was the desire
for animal food, which could not otherwise be gratified in a region
where no indigenous quadruped exists, the pigs, sheep, cattle, and
vegetable produce of all kinds introduced by the settlers have now
furnished them with abundance of the necessaries of life. A chief
now, instead of leading his followers on to plunder and massacre the
white men, may be seen walking into a banking office in Auckland
or Wellington, and writing a cheque for a portion of his money de¬
posited there; or sitting in a news-room perusing a newspaper
267
Austral¬
asia.
268
Austral-
AUSTRALASIA.
printed in his own language. The history of the British in New
Zealand is replete with interest; but it does not admit of more than
y  , a brief notice in this place. For further details see New Zealan .
To the eastward of New Zealand is an island of considerable ex¬
tent and well peopled, discovered by Mr Broughton hi 1791, when
on a voyage round the world with Vancouver. He called it Chat¬
ham Island. The people and the productions are the same as those
of New Zealand. (See Vancouver’s Foyasre.) _n
Auckland The Auckland Islands, or Lord Auckland’s Group, are m La .
Islands. 40. S. and Long. 166. 35. E., nearly 180 miles S. of New Zealand.
They were so named by the discoverer, Captain Abram Bus ,
master of a South Sea whaler belonging to Mr Samuel Ender y,
in gratitude to the nobleman whose name they bear, for having pro¬
cured him admission, when a boy, into Greenwich Hospital. This
group was first seen on the 10th of August 1806; and on the 20th
of October 1807, Captain Bristow came to anchor with his ship the
Sarah in a fine harbour in the largest island, which he quaintly named
Sarah’s Bosom. This harbour, sometimes called Laurie Harbour
and Rendezvous Harbour, has been renamed Port Ross by Mr Chas.
Enderby in honour of Sir James Clark Ross, who surveyed the port
These islands have subsequently been visited and briefly described
by Captain Morell of the American merchant service in iS-y; by
Commodore Wilkes of the United States exploring expedition; and
by Admiral D’Urville of the French, and Sir James (lark Ross ot
the English navy in 1840. „ . , ,
The group consists of one large and several smaller islands The
principal island, Auckland, is about 30 miles long and 15 broad, and
contains about 100,000 acres of land. The smaller islands of which
the principal are Adam’s and Enderby, contain together about
20 000 acres. They are all of volcanic formation, composed ot
basalt and greenstone, and present a wild and picturesque appear¬
ance. The highest hill (Mount Eden) rises about 1350 feet above
the level of the sea. Crawley’s Harbour in the south of Auckland
is described by Captain Morell and others as even superior to Laurie s
Harbour. This island is fertile and well watered. The hills, ex¬
cept a few of the highest, are thickly covered with lofty trees of
most vigorous growth, while the plains and valleys are clothed with
luxuriant vegetation. Dr Hooker, who, in his Flora^ Antarctica,
has given an elaborate account of the botany of these islands, says,
« The whole land seemed covered with vegetation. A low forest
skirts all the shores, succeeded by a broad belt of brushwood, above
which to the summit of the hills extend grassy slopes. On a closer
inspection of the forest, it is found to be composed of a dense thicket
of stag-headed trees, so gnarled and stunted by the violence of the
gales, as to afford an excellent shelter for a luxuriant undergrowth
of bright green feathery ferns, and several gay-flowered herbs. The
climate is described by Captain Morell as “ mild, temperate, and
salubrious. I have been told,” he adds, “by men of the first re¬
spectability and talent, who have visited the island in the month of
July, the dead of winter on this island, that the weather was mild as
respects cold, as the mercury was never lower than 38 in the val¬
leys, and the trees at the same time retained their verdure as if it
was midsummer. At the time we were there the mercury seldom
rose higher than 78°, although it answered to our July. The wea¬
ther is generally good at all seasons of the year, notwithstanding
there are occasional high winds, attended with heavy rain.’
The domestic pig, introduced by Captain Bristow, is the only
quadruped found in these islands. The woods abound with sing¬
ing birds, and on the shores seals and seafowl are plentiful. “ The
only game observed,” says Dr Holmes of the United States expedi¬
tion, “ were a few gray ducks, snipes, cormorants, and the common
shag. The land birds are excellent eating, especially the hawks.
Some officers of the French expedition, who visited the E. coast be¬
tween the two harbours, found the banks full of fish, with a regular
bottom varying from 15 to 20 fathoms.
The convenience of these islands as a station for the southern
whale fishery was remarked by the various navigators who visited
them, but has only recently been taken advantage of. Mr Charles
Enderby, F.R.S., and his two brothers, sons of Captain Bristow’s
employer, having obtained a grant of these islands from the British
Government, a company was incorporated in 1849 for the prosecu¬
tion of this important object.
Kergue- IX. Between the parallels of 40. 30. and 50. S., and lon-
leu’s Land. gitude 69° E., lies the barren and uninhabited land of Ker¬
guelen, so named from the French officer who first dis¬
covered it in 1772, and who, on a second visit in 1773, dis¬
covered some small islands near it, but on neither occasion
was able once to bring his ships to an anchor upon any part
of the coast. Captain Cook was more fortunate. He had
heard of Kerguelen’s discovery at the Cape of Good Hope,
and wondered he should not have seen this land when he
passed it so closely in 1770. In 1776, however, he fell in
Austral-
with these islands, and as no account of Kerguelen’s voyage
had been made public, he gave new names to each island. v ^Sia^y
Speaking of the main island, “ I should,” says Cook, “ from “~
its sterility, with great propriety call it the Island of Desola¬
tion, but that I would not rob M. de Kerguelen of the hon¬
our of its bearing his name.” He changed, however, the
Bale de VOiseau of the French, where they had landed in
a boat and lodged a piece of parchment in a bottle, into
Christmas Harbour ; and called a round high rock Bligh’s
Cap, which had been named by M. de Kerguelen the Isle
of Rendezvous,—although, says Cook, “ I know nothing
that can rendezvous about it but fowls of the air j for it is
certainly inaccessible to any other animal. Kerguelen
thought he had discovered the Terra Australis Incognita,
but Cook soon determined that it was ot no great extent.
The hills were but of a moderate height, and yet in the
middle of summer were covered with snow ; not a shrub was
found on this island, and not more than 11 or 18 different
plants, one-half of which were either mosses or grasses. I he
chief verdure was occasioned by one plant not unlike a saxi¬
frage, spreading in tufts, and forming a surface of a pretty
extensive texture, over a kind of bog or rotten tuif. the
highest plant resembled a small cabbage when shot into seed,
and was about two feet high. No land animals were met
with, but great plenty of the ursine seal {Phoca ursina).
Penguins were very abundant, as were also shags, coimo-
rants, albatrosses, gulls, ducks, petterels, and sea-swallows.
A few fish of the size of a haddock were taken with the
line, and the only shell-fish were a few limpets and mussels.
The steep cliffs towards the sea are rent from the top
downwards, but whether by rains, frost, or earthquakes,
could not be determined. The productions of the hills
were composed chiefly of a dark blue and pretty hard stone,
intermixed with small particles of glimmer or quartz. Lumps
of coloured sandstone, and of semi-transparent quartz, are
also common. Nothing appeared like an ore or metal of
any kind.—-Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. i.
X. These small uninhabited islands are interesting only St Paul
in a geological point of view. Situated in the midst of the ™
great Indian Ocean, at the distance of 2000 miles from the sterdam-
nearest land, and removed but 18 or 20 miles from each
other, they have no common point of resemblance ; the one
being the product of a volcanic eruption scarcely yet cooled,
with a few mosses and grasses on its surface ; the other
composed of horizontal and parallel strata, of rock, covered
with frutescent plants—an appearance which led the scien¬
tific gentlemen in D’Entrecasteaux’s expedition to conclude
that an organization so regular could not proceed from a vol¬
canic origin. A French seal-catcher from the neighbour¬
ing island had set fire to the shrubbery, which continued to
burn when the navigators passed the island ; and imagining
that they saw smoke issuing from the crevices between the
strata, some of them were disposed to consider this circum¬
stance as infallible indications of subterranean fire. Perron,
the seal-catcher above mentioned, with the gentlemen ot
Lord Macartney’s embassy, who explored the southernmost
island, Amsterdam, say that the shores of St Paul’s abounded
with pumice-stone. ......
Of the recent creation of Amsterdam there can be little
doubt; indeed, it is scarcely yet cooled, and is altered con¬
siderably since its first discovery by Vlaming m 1696.
From every part of the sloping sides of the crater, which is
nearly 1000 yards in diameter, and into which the sea has
forced its way, either smoke, or hot water, or hot mud, is
seen to issue; and everywhere is felt a tremulous motion,
and a noise heard like that of boiling water. In many parts
of the crater, in the centre of which the water is 174 teet
deep, the sea-water is tepid from the hot springs below;
and numbers of these springs are found on the margin,
below the high-water mark, of various temperatures, from
100° to the boiling-point. One very copious spring, slightly
AUSTRALASIA.
269
Austral- chalybeate, flows in a copious stream into the crater, nearly
asia- on a level with the lowest state of the tide.
Another singularity which this island presents is in its
mosses and grasses, which are all European. To these may
be added the Sonchus oleracea, or sow thistle; the Apium
petrosilenum, or parsley; and the common Lycopodium, or
club-moss, which grows luxuriantly on the bleak heaths of
North Britain, and seems to thrive equally well on the boggy
soil of Amsterdam, heated, at the depth of a foot below the
surface, to the temperature of 186° of Fahrenheit’s scale.
The crater abounds with an excellent perch of a reddish
colour, which is easily caught with the hook, and may then
be dropped at once into one of the hot springs on the
margin, and boiled. So caught and dressed, we are told
it affords an excellent repast. The bar across the mouth
of the crater is represented as one mass of cray-fish ; and
in the sea, outside the bar, the vast multitudes of whales,
grampuses, porpoises, seals, and sea-lions, render it dan¬
gerous for boats to pass. It was the same in Vlaming’s
time, who “ found the sea so full of seals and sea-lions that
they were obliged to kill them to get a passage through.
When they steered from the shore there was also an aston¬
ishing number of fish.”
Coral reefs XI. From the volcanic island of Amsterdam, we must
in the a'us n°W a S^ance those innumerable low islands and
tralasiari*18" reef's of rocks wllit'h are scattered over the greater part of
Sea. the Australasian Sea to the eastward and northward of New
Holland, and which are produced by an operation of nature
different from that which lifted up Amsterdam ; less violent,
indeed, in its character, than that by which the latter emerged
from the abyss, but affording a basis equally, if not more, so¬
lid and enduring. A volcanic island not unfrequently breaks
down its supporters, and sinks back into the cavity out of
which it was hurled, as was recently the case with the Sa¬
brina Island, near St Michael’s ; but the island of coral,
created by slow and imperceptible degrees, hardens with
time, and becomes one solid mass from the summit to the base.
Throughout the whole range of the Polynesian and Aus¬
tralasian islands, there is scarcely a league of sea unoccupied
by a coral reef or a coral island ; the former springing up to
the surface of the water perpendicularly from the fathomless
bottom, “ deeper than did ever plummet sound and the
latter in various stages, from the low and naked rock with
the water rippling over it, to an uninterrupted forest of tall
trees. “ I have seen,” says Dalrymple, in his Inquiry into
the Formation of Islands, “ the coral banks in all their
stages; some in deep water, others with a few rocks appearing
above the surface: some just formed into islands, without
the least appearance of vegetation ; others with a few weeds
on the highest part: and, lastly, such as are covered with
large timber, with a bottomless sea at a pistol-shot distance.”
In fact, as soon as the edge of the reef is high enough
to lay hold of the floating sea-wreck, or for a bird to perch
upon, the island may be said to commence. The dung of
birds, feathers, wreck of all kinds, cocoa-nuts floating with
the young plant out of the shell, are the first rudiments of
the new island. With islands thus formed, and others in the
several stages of their progressive formation, Torres Strait
is nearly choked up ; and Captain Flinders mentions one
island in it covered with the Casuarina, and a variety of
other trees and shrubs, which give food to parakeets, pigeons,
and other birds, to whose ancestors it is probable the island
was originally indebted for this vegetation. The time will
come—however indefinite that period may appear—when
New Holland, and New Guinea, and all the little groups of
islets and reefs to the N. and N.W. of them, will either be
united into one great continent, or be separated only by
deep channels, in which the strength and velocity of the tide
may obstruct the silent and unobserved agency of these in¬
significant but most efficacious labourers.
A barrier reef of coral runs along the whole of the eastern Austral-
coast of New Holland, “ among which,” says Captain Flin- asia.
ders, “we sought 14 days, and sailed more than 500 miles, ^
before a passage could be found through them out to sea.”
Captain Flinders paid some attention to the structure of
these reefs, on one of which he suffered shipwreck. “Having
landed on one of these creations,” he says, “ we had wheat-
sheaves, mushrooms, stags’ horns, cabbage leaves, and a va¬
riety of other forms, glowing under water, with vivid tints
of every shade betwixt green, purple, brown, and white.”
“ It seems to me,” he adds, “ that when the animalcules
which form the coral at the bottom of the ocean cease to live,
their structures adhere to each other, by virtue either of the
glutinous remains within, or of some property in salt water;
and the interstices being gradually filled up with sand and
broken pieces of coral washed by the sea, which also adhere,
a mass of rock is at length formed. Future races of these
animalcules erect their habitation upon the rising bank, and
die in their turn, to increase, but principally to elevate, this
monument of their wonderful labours.” He says that they
not only work perpendicularly, but that this barrier wall is
the highest part, and generally exposed to the open sea, and
that the infant colonies find shelter within it. A bank is
thus gradually formed, which is not long in being visited by
sea birds; saline plants take root upon it, and a soil begins
to be formed; a cocoa-nut, or the drupe of a pandanus, is
thrown on shore; land birds visit it, and deposit the seeds
of shrubs and trees ; every high tide and gale of wind adds
something to the bank ; the form of an island is gradually
assumed; and last of all comes man to take possession. If
we should imagine one of these immense coral reefs to be
lifted up by a submarine volcano, it would be converted into
an insular or continental ridge of hills of limestone.
It is worthy of remark, that, in this great division of the
globe, fully equal in extent to that of Europe, there is no
quadruped larger than the kangaroo; that there is none of
a ferocious character, and, in many of the islands, none of
any description. Man only in Australasia is an animal of
prey; and, more ferocious than the lynx, the leopard, or the
hyaena, he devours his own species, in countries too where
nature has done everything for his comfort and subsistence.
The time is not far distant, however, when these inferior
races must disappear before those exterminating influences
to which we have already alluded, or their characteristic
peculiarities be absorbed in the overwhelming tide of civili¬
zation. I he same depopulating effects to which we have
pointed in speaking of the aboriginal tribes in Australia and
lasmania, may be traced among the Maori race in New
Zealand a race which, fifteen years ago, was calculated at
its lowest estimate to number 80,000 individuals. In vain
do they strive to multiply their children, and to perpetuate
their families by the most tender care. During our travels
through the Kaipara country on the North Island, we ob¬
served chiefs with five, and as many as ten, wives, and only
three or four sons and daughters; and we have heard
1 irarau, chief of the Wairoa, lament in the following strain:
“ I see the white man with one wife have ten children,
while I with ten wives have only one child.” It was me¬
lancholy to hear such remarks from these intelligent people,
who are conscious of the decrease of their race; and that
their lands will become peopled by the “ Pakehas” when
they are no more, as they are aware is the case throughout
America. At a moderate calculation they are fewer by
12,000 now than they were fifteen years ago, when coloni¬
zation was begun to any extent by Anglo-Saxon settlers,
who have ever since kept up an indiscriminate intercourse
with the Maori women. It is also observed, that the num¬
ber of deaths is greatly above that of the births, which
are chiefly a half-caste progeny. See New Zealand.
(j. b—w.) (s. M.)
270
A U S T E A L I A,
Australia. Or New Hoeland, the largest island on the globe, is situ-
ated in the southern hemisphere ; and, as described in the
Geogra- preceding article, forms the mainland around which are clus-
phy. tered those groups of islands which in modern geography con¬
stitute the fifth great division of the earth’s surface. Wilson
Promontory, its most southern angle, is in Lat. 39.11. S., and
Cape York, its northernmost headland, in Lat. 10. 43. S. Its
greatest breadth from N. to S. is thus 1708 geographical
miles, or 1965 statute miles. Cape Byron, the eastern limit,
is in Long. 153.37. E., and Cape Inscription, in 112. 55. E.,
forms its westernmost point; making the extreme length of
the island from E. to W. about 2603 British miles, by an
average breadth of 1200 miles—a tract of land well entitled
to be called a continent, by which name it is frequently de¬
signated by geographers. Its superficies approximates to
2,690,810 square miles. That of the continent of Europe
being 3,684,841 square miles, we can form some idea of its
extent by comparison.
The nomenclature and geographical subdivisions of this
island-continent have undergone many alterations from time
to time, as the territory has become colonized. Before any
settlement had been effected by the British Government
upon its shores, the entire island was designated New Hol¬
land, not only by the Dutch—from whom it received its name
—but on our own charts and maps. The E. coast, first dis¬
covered and explored by Captain Cook in 1770, was named
by him New South Wales. The middle portion of the N.
coast bore the name of Arnhem Land, after the ship of its
discoverer Zeachen in 1618. The W. and S.W. coasts were
named in like manner by their discoverers, the Dutch navi¬
gators, in the seventeenth century, De Witt’s Land, En-
draght’s Land, Edel’s Land, Leeuwin’s Land, and Nuyt’s
Land. That of Van Diemen’s Land was given by Tasman
to what he supposed was the southern peninsula of New
Holland, but which was afterwards discovered by Bass to be
an island. The colonists have been anxious to name it after
its discoverer, but the government still retain the first title.
Since this great territory has become the undisputed pos¬
session of Britain, other names, with the exception just men¬
tioned, have, according to the law of nations, been substi¬
tuted for the old Dutch titles. New South Wales is only
applied now to about one-half the E. coast territory. The
name of the entire island also is changed from New Hol¬
land to the more appropriate designation of Australia, by
which it is now universally recognized and described. The
subdivisions South, North, and Western Australia woidd be
equally proper if their boundaries were defined according
to the ordinary rules of geographical dissection. But while
the first section, South Australia, is only the middle portion
of the S. coast, trending inland to the central region; and
the second, North Australia, embraces all to the N. of New
South Wales ; the third section, Western Australia, nearly
bisects the island, leaving a small tract of land between it
and South Australia with no name at all. A better division
would be to draw a line right across from E. to W. in Lat.
26. S.; thus bisecting the island near its intertropical parallel;
for although this line would be 3| degrees S. of the Tropic
of Capricorn, still the influence of the tropical rains and winds
ascend even higher than this parallel. At all events this
would be sufficient for us to designate the northern section
Tropical Australia, and the southern Temperate Australia.
Besides these two great meteorological divisions, they could
conveniently be subdivided into four political sections by
drawing another line from S. to N. in the meridian of 133. 30.
Each of these sections might then be designated, according
to its direction from the centre, South-western and North¬
western Australia, North-eastern and South-eastern Aus- Australia,
tralia. And these again might be subdivided into provinces,
as the last-named section includes the three colonies of New Geogra-
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. This arrange- Pay¬
ment would tend to simplify an important section of geo¬
graphy which at present is very much confused.
If, for the better elucidation of our subject, we suppose
these lines and boundaries to exist on the map, the northern
or tropical division has little to do with the history of Bri¬
tish colonization in Australia. It is within the temperate
zone that our colonies have been planted and successfully
nurtured. And this tract, again, separated by the meridian
line suggested, confines to a still smaller compass the sub¬
ject of our description. The group of colonies which absorb
the attention of the statesman and merchant in that far-off
land, are comprised within the last-named section, South¬
eastern Australia. On the W. it is bounded by a line drawn
from the S. coast in Long. 132. E., meeting another line
drawn at a right angle from the E. coast in Lat. 26 fe.; the
southern and eastern boundaries being formed by the coast
line ; which, by following the sinuosities of the gulfs and
bays, comprehends a sea-board of nearly 2000 miles. Again,
if a line be traced on the map, commencing about 150 miles
inland from the head of Gulf St Vincent, and continued more
or less (within half a degree) the same distance from the
coast until it reaches the northern boundary line, the inter¬
mediate space will give a fair average of the extent of country
at present colonized, which may be estimated in round num¬
bers at 1500 miles long by 150 miles broad, or 225,000
square miles ; or nearly three times the superficies of Eng¬
land.
This section of Australia is politically divided into three
provinces ; which, with the western colony and the unsuc¬
cessful settlements in the northern section, we shall treat of
severally under the following heads :
1. New South Wales.
2. Victoria, or Port-Phillip.
3. South Australia.
4. Western Australia.
I. New South Wales is bounded on the E. by the South New South
Pacific Ocean ; from Cape Howe to Wide Bay, forming a ales-
sea-board of 750 miles. A line drawn from Cape Howe in
a N.W. direction inland, crossing the Australian Alps to the
source of tho Murray River, and continued along the N.
bank of that stream, as far down as 141. E. Long, is the
southern boundary. From this point a line traced upon the
map due N. until it forms a right angle with the parallel of
26. S., the northern boundary, constitutes its limits westerly.
The jurisdiction, however, of the executive government and
legislature of the colony, extends beyond the northern boun¬
dary as far as Cape \ ork and Port Essington.
In reviewing the history of New South Wales from its ®nera
first settlement, there are three distinct eras in its political,
social, and commercial progress, which mark its short but
eventful annals to the present time. Firstly, its foundation
and existence as a penal settlement; when it depended solely
on support from the mother country. Secondly, the open¬
ing of the colony to independent and bounty emigrants; who
rendered it a self-supporting colony ; and, thirdly, the recent
gold discovery, which has made it one of the most wealthy
and self-dependent provinces of our colonial empire. Each
of these distinct eras has been marked by a complete change
in the previous condition of the body politic, according as its
destinies were influenced by a penal, a pastoral, and a mining
population. .
During the first period referred to, the history of New*^
AUSTRALIA.
Phillip
788.
Australia. South Wales may be considered solely an account of British
colonization in the Australasian seas.
New South It was after the separation of the United States from this
a es' country that it was first proposed to establish a colony for
the reception of convicts from Great Britain on the eastern
shore of Australia, or New Holland as it was then called;
and in the year 1787 preparations were completed for carry¬
ing the design into effect. On the 13th of May 1787, a fleet
consisting of eleven sail of ships, including a frigate and an
armed tender, and having on board 565 male and 192 female
convicts, with 200 troops, and several of their wives and
children, set sail from Portsmouth; and after a voyage of eiMit
months, arrived at their destination on the 18th, 19th, and
20th of January 1788. Captain Arthur Phillip of the royal
navy was appointed the first governor of the colony. Botany
Bay, where it was proposed to fix the settlement, was found
ill adapted for that purpose. In seeking for a more eligible
situation, Captain Phillip entered the inlet to which Cook
had given the name of Port Jackson, which he found one of
the most capacious and safe harbours in the world, navigable
for vessels of any burden fifteen miles from its entrance, in¬
dented with numerous coves, sheltered from every wind, and
possessing the finest anchorage. Within this harbour, on
the shores of Sydney Cove, thinly wooded, and the haunt of
the kangaroo, but now marked out as the capital of the future
empire, the British ensign was hoisted on the 26th of Janu¬
ary 1788. They immediately proceeded to clear the ground,
to land the live stock and the stores, and to establish the
colony, amounting to 1030 souls. In its early progress the
settlers encountered numerous obstacles, which it required
extraordinary courage, and perseverance, and untiring in¬
dustry to overcome. These arose from various causes,—from
the extremely sterile soil around Sydney Cove, from which
no industry could extract a sufficient supply of grain for the
wants of the people ; from the profligate habits of the con¬
victs, which occasioned continual disorders among them¬
selves ; from their outrages on the natives, and the retalia¬
tion which these produced. It was some years before an
adequate supply of provisions for the maintenance of the
colony could be derived from the ungrateful soil. The
settlers consequently depended on foreign supplies, which
did not arrive, and they experienced the severest privations.
The loss of the store-ship the Guardian, under the command
of Captain Riou, when proceeding to their relief with a large
supply of provisions and stores, was a severe blow to the
prosperity of the colony; and the general distress was greatly
aggravated by the unseasonable arrival of a convict ship with
female convicts on board, thus increasing the number of
consumers without any addition to the stock of provisions.
The consequence was a severe scarcity, during which the
weekly rations were, in April 1790, two and a half pounds
of flour, two pounds of rice, and two pounds of pork ; the
governor sharing equally with others in the common calamity.
Even this allowance, barely sufficient for the wants of nature,
could not have been afforded if the governor had not sent
off upwards of 200 convicts and troops to Norfolk Island,
which is about 21 miles in circumference, with a fertile soil.
Here the settlers, with even smaller allowance than at Syd-
ney, would probably have perished, but for an unlooked-for
supply from a flight of aquatic birds alighting on the island
to lay their eggs. Owdng to the length of their pinions, they
take wing with difficulty ; and they were so numerous that
from 2000 to 3000 were taken every night, besides an in¬
calculable quantity of eggs, which was a seasonable supply,
and saved the lives of this detachment from the main body.
Every effort was made to obtain supplies from China, India,
and the Cape of Good Hope. There were not at one period
four months’ provisions in the store on the most reduced
scale, and several persons had already perished. Shortly
271
after, thiee other vessels arrived with convicts, a large num- Australia,
ber of whom perished of the scurvy during the voyage For ^ ^ >
about three years the settlers were in danger of starvation, New South
and it was not till June 1790 that relief was afforded, by the Wales,
arrival of three transports from the Cape ; and in the follow¬
ing year a ship of war arrived at Sydney, conveying ten ves¬
sels, with 1695 male and 68 female convicts, after losing 198
on the passage. The arrival of this fleet changed the aspect
of affairs, and gave the necessary stimulus to the industry of
this rising community. Amid the difficulties with which the
colony had to struggle, its improvement was not altogether
neglected. Cultivation w^as begun, farms were established
at Rose Hill (Parramatta), at other places two towns were
commenced, and a few convicts were emancipated, and ob¬
tained grants ofland as settlers.
Governor Phillip embarked for England in December
1792, when Lieutenant-governor Grose succeeded to the
goveinment. He was succeeded, on the 15th December
1794, by Captain Paterson of the New South Wales Corps;
and, on the 7th August 1795, Governor Hunter, a captain in Hunter
the royal navy, arrived, and immediately entered on his im- 1795. '
portant office. From the year 1792 the improvement of the
colony was decisive and rapid. It was in 1789 that the first
harvest was reaped at Parramatta; and in 1793 the settlers
were enabled to sell corn to the public stores, which was
purchased at a given price. Trade began to make its appear-
ance ; passage-boats were established between the towns of
Sydney and Parramatta, and the settlers visibly increased.
1 he bulls and cows that had been originally brought to the
new settlement had, by the carelessness of the keeper, been
suffered to stray into the woods, and every subsequent search
had proved ineffectual, when a fine and numerous herd of
wild cattle was at length discovered in the interior of the
country, evidently the progeny of the animals which had been
so long lost to the settlers. At the close of the year 1795,
the public^and private stock of the colony consisted of 57
horses, 221 head of cattle, 1531 sheep, 1427 goats, 1869 hogs,
besides a numerous breed of poultry. The total quantity of
land in cultivation amounted to 5419 acres. At this period
the storehouses were so completely exhausted, that, on the
arrival of Governor Hunter, there were no salt provisions in
store ; and the settlement was, as before, reduced to rations.
The colony was in danger of falling back; and it was onlv
the speedy arrival of a store-ship at this critical and distress¬
ing moment that saved it from destruction in the seventh
year of its establishment.1 At the commencement of the
year 1800, the inhabitants had increased to 6000. The
stock consisted of 203 horses and mares, 1044 cattle, 1024
sheep, 2182 goats, and 4017 hogs. The quantity of land
sown with wheat was 4665 acres, with Indian corn 2930
acres, and with barley 82 acres.
Governor Hunter quitted the colony in the year 1800, on Kinrr,
" Ah September, and was succeeded by Captain Philip 1800.
ci it w^° ^Ia<^ effected the settlement on Nor¬
folk Island. His administration lasted six years, and was
distinguished by what is termed the “ Irish rebellion,” which
broke out about the year 1804. Several hundred convicts
attached to the government establishment at Castlehill, about
20 miles from Sydney, struck work and demanded their
liberty ; having armed themselves with pikes, they prepared
for resistance. I hey were, however, overthrown after a
brief contest by the troops at V inegar Hill, a few miles from
1 arramatta, on the Hawkesbury road; a few were shot by
the troops ; the leaders were apprehended ; three of them
were led to instant death ; two others were executed the
following day at Sydney, three others at Castlehill, and the
i emainder returned quietly to their labour. There is no other
instance of any insurrection in the colony by the convict po¬
pulation.
1 Collins’s Accowit of New South Wales, p. 253.
272
AUSTRALI A.
Australia. A printing-press had been established in the colony about
the year 1 795, by Governor Hunter, and in March 1803 the
New South Sydney Gazette was published by authority. In 1800 a
Wales
Bligh,
1806.
copper coin was issued by the government. . The colony
was at this time governed by general orders issued by the
government. Captain King does not seem to have been
adequate to the magnitude of the trust committed to him.
He quitted the colony in August 1808, and was succeeded
by Captain William Bligh, R.N., who was even less quali¬
fied than his predecessor. He had given ominous proofs of
his incapacity as commander of the Bounty, where by Ins
tyrannical conduct he provoked the men to a mutiny; and
his selection for the delicate task of rearing up this infant
colony evinced a marked indifference to its welfare which
merits decided condemnation. His administration produced
exactly the consequences which might have been expectec.
So unwarrantable was his tyranny, and especially his perse¬
cution of one influential person, noted alike for his public
spirit and for his private virtues, that the colonists, with all
the honest indignation of freemen, declared against Ins au¬
thority ; and being aided by the officers and men of the JNew
South Wales Corps, they deposed him, and marching up to
the government-house, they dragged him from his conceal¬
ment behind a bed, and carefully protecting his person and
property, sent him on board a sloop of war, in which he set
sail for Europe, after he had been governor for 18 months.
Macquarie, He was succeeded by General Macquarie on the 1st Janu-
1810. ary 1810; the government having in the meantime, trom
26th January 1808 to the 28th December 1809, been suc¬
cessively administered by Lieutenant-colonels Johnstone,
Foveaux, and Colonel W. Patterson. During the govern¬
ment of General Macquarie, which lasted for 12 years, the
settlement made great progress in wealth and improvement.
The population was increased by the influx of numerous con¬
victs, and some new settlers; though it was not till a later
period that the full tide of emigration began to set in to¬
wards Australia. By aid from the British treasury, many
public buildings were erected, roads were constructed, and
the colonists, compelled by a season of drought in 1813, and
animated by the spirit of discovery, made their way over the
barrier of the Blue Mountains, hitherto deemed impassable.
It was in search of new pasturage, and by following tie
course of the Grose river, that a pass was at last found, and
a road commenced in the following year, over this mountain
range, whose summits were considered by the aborigines to
be inaccessible, and who often declared that there was no
pass into the interior.1 One great principle of Governor
Macquarie’s administration was to encourage and bring for¬
ward the convict population. It was his maxim to consider
the European life of every convict as past and forgotten;
their arrival on the shores of Australia as a new era in their
existence, in which the errors of the past might be entirely
redeemed. It was a most enlightened and benevolent policy;
and if he erred in carrying it into effect with too little dis¬
cretion, as was alleged, it was the error of a generous mind.
Under his rule the convicts were patronized ; some were
chosen to be magistrates ; he conferred on others colonial
situations of trust, along with liberal grants of land. But
his further endeavours to introduce into respectable society
those who had been branded as felons, were opposed by the
invincible antipathies of the European settlers, who, though
they agreed in countenancing and rewarding good conduct in
the convict population, could not be persuaded that any after
purity of life could thoroughly efface their original disgrace.
Such an intermixture of classes could only be effected by
the debasement of European manners, and by lowering the
moral tone of society in the colony.
The departure of Governor Macquarie, on the 1st De¬
cember 1821, marks the close of the first era in Australian
history, embracing a period of 34 years. During that time Australia,
the convict-pioneers had cleared the wilderness, tilled the
ground, constructed bridges, roads, and other public works, New South
unaided by free labour or private capital, at an average ex- Males,
pense of L.300,000 per annum to the British treasury, and
a total cost, up to this date, of nearly L.10,000,000 sterling.
The armies of inexperienced immigrants who subsequently
opened up the resources of the interior, thus found the most
difficult preliminary task in colonization already accomplished
to their hands. Until the year 1820 the British govern¬
ment assisted free settlers to emigrate, by paying their pas¬
sages, and giving them grants of land, at peppercorn rents,
upon their arrival; allowing them, also, convict servants
under the assignment system, at the public expense, and
frequently giving them a bonus of live stock to commence
with. Very few, however, availed themselves of these in¬
ducements ; for there was no spot on earth at this period
the name of which sounded more abhorrent in the ears of
the British public than that of Botany Bay. The white
population, therefore, consisting at this date of 29,783 souls,
were three-fourths of them either prisoners of the crown
or emancipated convicts ; while scarcely one-third were fe¬
males. They were distributed in small detached settlements
along the coast and within the county of Cumberland, mainly
employed in constructing public works ; while a few were
engaged in tilling the ground, and tending the sheep, cattle,
and horses, thinly spread over the 19 counties of the colony,
as yet but imperfectly explored. The pastoral live stock at
this period did not muster more than 250,000 sheep, 5000
head of horned cattle, and a few hundred horses. The capa¬
bilities of the colony, however, for the growth of fine-woolled
sheep were by this time fully ascertained ; and the four me¬
rino rams and twenty ewes, first imported in 1803, under the
superintendence of Mr Macarthur, rapidly increased. Still
the amount of wool exported—the only produce of the co¬
lony available in a foreign market—was but a trifling set-off
against the enormous expenditure for the maintenance of
the colony ; an expenditure, however, which the subsequent
unparalleled growth of the free colonies of Victoria and
South Australia has amply justified.
Let us now, before passing from our first period, give a
cursory glance at the statistics of 1851, the close of the se¬
cond. The 30,000 inhabitants had increased in 30 years
to 359,158 in the parent colony and its two younger neigh¬
bours, of whom not 10,000 were convicts, and about five-
sixths were females. In that year, just before the gold dis¬
covery, the extent of country occupied by the flocks and
herds of the colonists covered more than four times the area
of the original 19 counties of New South V ales ; and
they could muster, on good pasture land, not far short of
18,000,000 of sheep, 2,500,000 head of horned cattle, and
150,000 horses. The value of their exports of wool and tallow
alone for the preceding year exceeded L.3,000,000 sterling;
and the public purse ot the colony was not only independent
of bounty from the mother country, but the expenditure for
military establishments and gaols was disbursed out of the
colonial revenue—the first example of the kind in the his¬
tory of our colonial empire.
Major-general Sir Thomas Brisbane, K.C.B., a man of Second
acknowledged science and talent, succeeded General Mac-Pf^ ^ ^
quarie; and with his arrival commenced that influx of Brisbane
free immigrants, which gives a distinctive character to his ■, 822.
and the succeeding administrations. As New South Wales
became more and more a community of free British sub¬
jects, the acts of the governors were of less importance in
marking the progress of events, than the efforts of the colo¬
nists themselves. Heretofore the orders of the governor
were supreme ; and there was none to demur against their
acceptance and enforcement as laws. But these mandates,
See History of Australasia, by K. Montgomery Martin, F.S.S.
Australia, although adapted to the constitution of the colony as a penal
settlement, in fact a huge gaol or penitentiary, were op-
Wales P°S ^ the ffe aml indePendent settlers, who found them
Wales. oppressive, and questioned their legality. Consequently the
absolute authority with which Sir Thomas Brisbane entered
UP011 the dutl?s of his administration, was modified in the
second year after his arrival. In 1823, an act was passed
authorizing the king to appoint a local council consisting of
seven members to assist the governor in making laws for
the colony, subject to His Majesty’s approval. This conces¬
sion, however, was not enough to meet the demands of the
hee colonists, and disagreements ensued, in consequence of
which the governor returned to England before the expiry
of Jus term of administration; delegating his power to
Colonel Stewart who acted as lieutenant-governor from the
0. „ ^ lst December 1825 to the 18th December 1826. He was
Un, 182TTCCe i i Y Die’itenant-genera! Sir Ralph Darling, who,
hug, 1820. during his harsh administration of five years, made himself
still more unpopular. The public press had by this time two
representatives m the colony, and the acts of the governor
were unsparingly criticized. General Darling was forced to
yield to the superior strength of public opinion, and left the co¬
lony on the 21st October 1831. His irresponsible acts, how¬
ever, probably accelerated the improvement of the internal
government of the colony. In 1829 a legislative council was
formed, which passed an act to establish trial by iurv and
several other beneficial measures. The free immigrants
about this period pressed rapidly forward into the interior,
and settled down amidst their multiplying flocks. Towns
began to spring up on a hundred spots in the interior, and
steam-boats were first launched on the Australian waters,
n the mother country the spirit of colonization was alive;
and a new colony was projected on free principles to occupy
the waste lands of Western Australia. The samples of fine
wools which arrived in the London markets vied with the
finest fleeces of Germany and Spain ; and the mania for emi¬
gration began to spread among the upper classes.
The eighth governor of New South Wales was Major-
general Sir Richard Bourke ; the most statesman-like, and
withal the most liberal-minded ruler the colony has yet had.
Steering a middle course between Darling’s tyranny and
Macquarie s amiable weakness, he organized anew the rela¬
tions between the independent settlers and the convict popu¬
lation. With mild yet firm rule he brought together the
contending interests of the free and the bond. And where-
ever.he deemed it necessary, he unhesitatingly established
the institutions of the mother country; endeavouring to
make the gentlemen settlers and their fhmilies realize that,
in staking their fortunes on the prospects of the colony, they
had not forfeited the privileges and immunities of their na¬
tive land. To the state of public morals he especially di¬
rected his attention, and caused acts to be passed to regu¬
late and endow public schools and places of worship. The
waste lands of the crown were no longer granted to absen¬
tee holders, or at peppercorn rentals, but put up to public
auction and sold to the highest bidder; the proceeds being
employed to assist the emigration of free labour. This fund
increased from L.3617 in 1831 to L.l 32,396 in 1836. The
revenue from the customs likewise increased rapidly, from
the extending commerce of the city of Sydney ; its harbour
being pronounced by maritime authorities to be the finest
commercial port in the world. The returns of the prosper¬
ous condition of the colony under the sway of its judicious
goyernoi, attracted an increasing number of emigrants from
Britain ; and the harbour of Port Jackson was thronged with
richly laden vessels, freighted by respectable families of
moderate means, in search of the “ Golden Fleece” within
the territory of the no-longer-dreaded shores of Botany Bay.
.f>Teo foreigners wh° bad formerly shunned these shores as
1 -i!-1 by Pla£ue’ now bmded their luxuries in safety, for
which they obtained high prices ; while the more fortunate
VOL. iv.
AUSTRALIA.
273
colonists rolled along in their carriages through stone-built Australia.
streets, lined with handsome warehouses and public edifices v  '
In the country gentlemen’s seats sprang up on all sidesNew South
and good turnpike roads intersected the settled districts Wales
winch were thronged by vehicles of the agricultural popu¬
lation bringing their produce to market. In fine, before
“by years this antipodal offshoot of British civilization had
taken deep root, and already began to extend its branches
to an unforeseen growth. In the far interior the settlers
found that the pastoral limits of the old colony were insuffi¬
cient for maintaining their increasing flocks ; and the neigh¬
bouring colonists in Van Diemen’s Land found themselves
in similar circumstances. Some adventurous settlers from
that colony crossed Bass’s Strait to the mainland, and settled
on the shoies of Port Phillip. The people and government
of New South Wales were not long in following up the en-
teipiize, and annexing the surrounding territory to their
colony. The result has been the formation of the most
flourishing province in Australia, the gold colony of Victo-
1'ia At the same time took place the establishment of
Sir R.
Bourke,
1831.
South Austialia, on the shores of Gulf St Vincent—a de¬
tailed account of which will be found under its proper head
in this article. The importation of so much wealth to the
southern shores benefited still more the parent colony on the
east coast; and the colony of New South Wales, upon the
retirement of Governor Bourke on the 5th December 1837,
had arrived at a state of prosperity unexampled in the his¬
tory of British colonization. To his representations and
exertions was attributed, as his crowning effort in establish-
mg free institutions among the colonists, the virtual abo¬
lition of transportation to New South Wales in 1839. At
his departure, he was followed by the heart-felt acclama¬
tions of the colonists, who, in grateful acknowledgment for
his services to their adopted country, have erected a statue
to his memory at the western gate of the Sydney domain.
rrom the 5th December 1837 to the 23d February 1838, Gipps,
Lieutenant-colonel K. Snodgrass administered the affairs of1838-
the colony. He was succeeded by Sir George Gipps. This
appointment was an unfortunate circumstance both for the
new governor and the colony. His preconceived opinions
of the high prerogatives belonging to the crown, in conse¬
quence of the settlement having been originally established
without the aid of free capital or labour, rendered his adminis¬
tration, which lasted eight years and a half, a period of bit¬
ter political hostility between his government and the entire
community, especially the higher class of free and indepen-
^dent colonists: and although no Australian governor’s do¬
mestic life was of a more unsullied character than his, the
acerbity of his temper banished from his presence many ex¬
perienced men, whose private counsel would have been
most beneficial to the newly-appointed governor. By this
time the social and moral condition of the people had un-
dergone a surprising degree of improvement from the in-
ux of free immigrants; this was not merely amongst the
upper circles in Sydney, and on the estates of landed and
stock proprietors, but among the community at large. A
moial tone prevailed in domestic society throughout the
colony quite equal to that existing in the best localities of
the mother country. Besides these beneficial effects from
the infusion of fresh and uncontaminated blood into the
body politic, many of the new settlers were related to fami-
.ies of lank, and with the advantage of wealthy connexions
in Britain, had come to engage in colonial pursuits with
huge funds in hand. It was not uncommon to meet with
gentlemen having L.20,000 in cash, ready to invest in land
oi to purchase stock; while private associations sent out
managers with sums varying from L.50,000 to L.l00,000
tor the purpose of growing wool, and producing tallow for
export as a means of profitable investment. Joint-stock
companies, also, were formed in the great metropolis, who
despatched their staffs of officers, with paid-up capitals rang-
2 M
274
A U S T It A L I A.
Australia, ing from L.250,000 to L.1,000,000 sterling, to facilitate the
operations of banking, effecting insurances and mortgages, so
New South as to obtain a high interest for their money. Wealth flowed
Wales. likewise into the treasury from the land sales and custom-
dues as it never had done before, until the governor found
a large surplus in the public coffers. The imports of Bri¬
tish merchandise, and the exports of colonial produce, ave¬
raged as many pounds per head of population as in the
Canadian provinces it amounted to shillings. During the
year 1846, when Governor Gipps left the colony, the former
amounted to L.1,320,000, and the latter to L.1,481,000,
amongst a population of 190,000 people. Thus the material
prosperity of the colony had progressed, uninfluenced by the
contentions of the higher powers ; and notwithstanding the
reckless speculations of the people, which brought about a
general bankruptcy in 1841—3, it is but fair to state that the
successful progress of the colony, throughout all its mone¬
tary difficulties, was maintained by the indomitable eneigy
and high intelligence of the upper class of colonists—the
merchants, squatters, landholders, and the representatives of
the people in the legislative council. The independent mem¬
bers of the legislature expressed their judgment on the mea¬
sures of the governor and executive, by passing a vote of
censure on the government, and rejecting a bill brought for¬
ward by the colonial secretary for the maintenance of the bor¬
der police. This proved a final blow to the administration
of Sir George Gipps, and served to hasten his departure,
which took place on the 11th July 1846.
Lieutenant-general Sir Maurice O’Connell, commander-
in-chief of the forces throughout Australasia, acted as gover¬
nor between 11th July and the 3d August 1846, when his
successor arrived and assumed the administration of affairs.
This was the tenth governor of New South Wales. Sir
Charles Augustus Fitzroy, K.G.H., who holds the appoint¬
ment at present, and who has lately been invested with the
power and title of governor-general of the Australian colo¬
nies, which gives him certain jurisdiction over the lieute¬
nant-governors of Victoria, South Australia, Van Diemen s
Land, and Western Australia. Happily the instructions
from the home government allow greater latitude to the
colonists in the management of their own affairs than under
Sir George Gipps. The government of Sir Charles Fitzroy
has been in consequence infinitely more popular than that
of his predecessor. Two significant facts have recently oc¬
curred, which tend to show the amicable relations between
the government and the elected representatives of the coun¬
cil. One was the council’s voting a considerable increase f
to the colonial secretary’s salary,1 and handing him over
back pay, with the full concurrence of all the elected mem¬
bers. The other was his Excellency recommending to Her
Majesty that their speaker should receive the honour of
knighthood in virtue of his office. This title was recently
conferred upon Sir Charles Nicholson ; but, not to form a
precedent in such cases, it was bestowed upon him in con¬
sideration of his private virtues and eminent abilities.
An important act came into operation during the first year
of the present administration, under the sanction of an im¬
perial ordinance, to the effect that the squatters, who were
formerly considered yearly tenants at will, occupying crown
lands, should henceforth obtain leases of their sheep and
cattle “ runs” for eight and fourteen years; with right of
pre-emption, and compensation for improvements on the
land. This was a great concession to the colony on the part
of the then colonial minister, Earl Grey ; and has proved a
boon to the pastoral interests. If he had dealt equally justly
with the agricultural population, and lowered the high mini¬
mum price of land from L.l to 5s. per acre, submitting par¬
cels for sale in small sections, as petitioned for by the colo-
Fitzroy,
1846.
nists, he would have been bestowing a benefit on the com- Australia,
munity at large, and offering advantages to the introduction
of a yeomanry-farmer class who have never emigrated much New Soutlt
to Australia. But that high minimum price on crown lands Wales,
is still in force; and as long as it is so, the mass of the
people will be an erratic labouring class ; whereas, with a
cheap and easy tenure in the land, they will become a
fixed population in spite of the attractions of the gold
fields. What made his measures still more obnoxious to
the colonists, that minister endeavoured to renew trans¬
portation to New South Wales after it had been virtually
abolished by a predecessor in office ten years before; and
despatched several ship-loads of convicts to Port Jackson
and Port Phillip, where they were landed under the specious
name of “ Pentonville Exiles.” The colonists were imme¬
diately up in arms. They assembled in public, they peti¬
tioned, and nearly opposed by force the landing of the con¬
victs, until the local government had to warn the imperial
legislature of the consequences. Ultimately, delegates from
the inhabitants of the three colonies, who had united and
formed themselves into an Anti-Convict League, were de¬
spatched for England to place before Her Majesty the disas¬
trous effects of a renewal of transportation under any form
to their shores. They showed with great truth that the evils
resulting from the introduction of a felon class amongst a
mixed population of emigrants, who were enjoying all the
privileges and institutions of a free people, was fraught with
the most demoralizing results, would utterly close their
colonies to the importation of free labour, and thereby tend
to ruin their prospects. We have already pointed out the
fact, and commented favourably upon the policy of selecting
pioneers for the purpose of encountering the first hardships
of a new colony such as this, from among the malefactors
of the parent country, both as a punishment and means of
reformation for the criminal; but we do not advocate the
continuance of this description of labour after the colony has
an abundance of free labour for all its wants. Not only is
it prejudicial to the moral and social condition of the colony,
but transportation under such circumstances becomes a re¬
ward instead of a punishment. These crying evils becom¬
ing apparent from the revolt of some convicts on board the
hulks at Chatham, who demanded to be transported, and
above all, the gold discovery, not only induced the govern¬
ment to accede to the representations of the delegate from
the Anti-Convict League, Mr. J. C. King of Victoria, but,
what was of equal importance to the colonies generally, to
rescind the order which made Van Diemen’s Land a penal
settlement. The growing wealth and prosperity of Port
Phillip—which until 1851 was a dependency of New South
Wales—likewise induced the Queen’s government in 1850
to grant the petition of the colonists in that section of
Australia to be separated from the parent colony, and de¬
clare it to be a distinct province of the British crown under
the title and name of Her Majesty, Victoria; at the same
time granting to the new colony a representative legislature,
besides extending the constitution of New South Wales.
These concessions on the part of the imperial government
are hopefully regarded by the colonists as the precursors of
a more liberal policy in future on the part of the colonial
office. ....
The political emancipation of the colonists in Victoria,
and the extended privileges granted to the people of New
South Wales, immediately preceded the astounding gold dis¬
coveries in 1851; and, as if still further to enable the poli¬
tical economist to draw his inferences from these events, it
so happened that, in the month of March, two months before
the gold discovery, the quinquennial census of the popula¬
tion was recorded. From it and the annual statistical re-
i This office is at present (1853) ably filled by Mr Edward Deas Thomson.
AUSTRALIA.
27o
Australia, turns, may be exhibited a correct view of the social condi-
 J tion and material prosperity of the colony of New South
N’ew South Wales in this eventful year, when, two months after the
Wales. gold discovery, Port Phillip was separated from it, marking
at the same time the close of the second, or pastoral era, in
the history of the country. Thirty years had elapsed since
emigrants in any considerable number began to settle in
this land of the felon ; and they had since increased and
multiplied so greatly, that the prisoner population was lost
in the general multitude. These industrious immigrants had
tilled and replenished the soil of their adopted country,
until the solitary plains and forests swarmed with their
flocks and herds ; and fields of yellow corn sprung up in de¬
sert places.
The population on the 1st March 1851 (exclusive of Port
Phillip) was 189,951, of which 108,691 were males and
81,260 females. The general statistics on the 31st Decem¬
ber 1850 gave:—Live stock in the colony, 5,660,819 sheep,
952,852 horned cattle, 63,895 horses, and 23,890 pigs;
69,219 acres under cultivation, exclusive of vineyards,
995 acres producing 103,606 gallons of wine. Imports,
L.1,333,413. Exports, L.],357,784, including 14,270,622
lb. of wool, valued at L.788,051 ; and 128,090 cwt. of tal¬
low, valued at L.167,858. Ordinary revenue, L.248,613.
Coin in the colony L.690,852. Paper currency, L.266,602.
Shipping inwards 421, of 126,185 tons. Shipping outwards
506, of 176,762 tons. Mills: steam, 64, water, 38, wind,
26, horse, 30. Six woollen-cloth establishments producing
200,000 yards, 5 distilleries, 20 breweries, 3 sugar-refining
manufactories, 16 soap and candle, 15 tobacco and snuff, 4
hat, 4 rope, 36 tanneries, 5 salting and preserved-meat esta¬
blishments, 93 tallow-melting do., 1 gas-work, 7 potteries,
1 glass-work, 1 smelting-work, 13 iron and brass foundries,
and 5 ship-building yards.
Altogether the aspect of affairs, and the future prospects
of New South Wales prior to the gold discovery were of the
most encouraging description. And while her material pros-
. perity was satisfactorily recovering from the depression con¬
sequent on the monetary confusion in 1841-3; her social
condition had reached a climax of unexampled security and
freedom from crime. These favourable symptoms of na¬
tional progress likewise extended themselves to a greater
degree amongst the lesser population of the newly-separated
colony of Victoria at this time. Five years, we believe, had
elapsed since a public execution had been witnessed either
in Sydney or Melbourne ; the greatest desperadoes in the
country having emigrated to California. The newly-arrived
stranger, on walking through these young cities, was struck
with the peaceable demeanour of the inhabitants, and the
respect they paid to the constituted authorities. But the gold
discovery, like some sudden stage transformation, changed
this state of general tranquillity into a chaos of public crime
and domestic confusion, universal Mammon-worship and sel¬
fish aggrandisement, which at one blow, in the course of a
few months, dislocated the structure of society, and the ma¬
chinery of the government.
Third From a letter written by Mr Edward Hammond Har-
penod. graves to the colonial secretary, dated the 3d April 1851,
L>iscov°ld we ^earn that on the 12th of February previous he had dis-
ver^' covered the existence of gold among the alluvium of the
surface rocks over a large area of crown lands within the
settled districts of the colony; which subsequently turned
out to be from 20 to 30 miles beyond the town of Bathurst,
an inland town 125 miles from Sydney. He was led to pro¬
secute a search for the precious metal in that locality, from
the similarity of that mountainous section of New South
Wales to the auriferous regions of California, where he had
successfully worked as a gold-digger. Governor Fitzroy was
doubtful of the discovery, from the circumstance of a similar Australia,
statement having been made to him two years before, by a
Mr Smith of Berrima, who allowed the matter to drop on New South
the governor’s refusing to pay him a large fixed sum for the Wales,
discovery. At the same time, Sir Roderick Impey Murchi¬
son, president of the Royal Geographical Society, and other
eminent geologists in the colony and in England, had pre¬
dicted the discovery of gold in the Australian mountain
ranges, from their presenting similar characters, both geo¬
graphically and geologically, to the gold-bearing mountains in
Russia. Partly from these representations, and partly from
the general claims of the colony to have its mineral wealth
scientifically investigated, the government had just recently
appointed Mr Samuel Stutchbury as geological surveyor ;
and that gentleman at this period was prosecuting his stereo¬
typed researches not very zealously in the mountain ranges
at a short distance from Mr Hargraves. It is worthy of
notice, that gold had been found in its native state from time
to time some 20 years previous, by a Scotch shepherd, who
was known to have sold a large quantity to the jewellers in
Sydney ; having kept the secret so long from a fear, as he
stated, that if any one dogged him to the spot, they might
murder him. Notwithstanding these and other evidences
which need not be specified, no one had prosecuted the
search systematically before Mr Hargraves, who demon¬
strated the fact publicly and without delay, To him, there¬
fore, is due all the honour of the discovery.
After having intimated to the government that he was
satisfied to leave to their liberal consideration any reward or
remuneration they chose to offer him for his discovery, he
posted off to Bathurst, and announced to the astounded in¬
habitants that they were living within a day’s journey of the
richest gold mines in the world. Followed by a number of
the enterprising inhabitants, he led the way to Summer-hill
Creek, and there, in a romantic vale, surrounded by hills,
where this streamlet wound its course round a picturesque
point of land, they dug the auriferous earth from the ad¬
jacent bank, washed it in the stream, and found that the
soil was mixed with grains of gold. These gold-pioneers
who thronged to the first “ diggings,” reminded of the
resemblance between their country and the rich gold mines
mentioned in Scripture, called this spot the Valley of
Ophir.
This was in May 1851, and it became the signal for the
colonists in other parts of the territory to be up and doing.
“ Ascertaining the nature and description of the rocks oc¬
curring in the vicinity of the gold deposits, they immedi¬
ately set to work in their own localities to search for the
hidden treasure, instead of flocking with the multitude to the
Bathurst mountains, concluding wisely that these comprised
only a small section of the great mountain chain where it
existed. Like the industrious tenants of an Australian ant¬
hill suddenly roused, the whole community of bushmen be¬
came alive amongst the rocks and valleys of the colony.
Stockwhips and shepherd’s crooks were thrown aside for pick-
axes and shovels, with which these adventurous men might
be seen exploring the gold regions, and with what success
is now well known to the world.”1 The Turon River, Muc-
kerwa Creek, Louisa Creek, Meroo Creek, Frederick’s Valley,
Abercrombie River, and Araluen Vale, had their hidden
treasures exhumed by the industrious diggers. And in three
months after the workings at Bathurst had been set in opera¬
tion, the newly-erected province of Victoria, within seven
weeks from the time of her separation from New South
Wales, disclosed her treasures at Ballarat; and before the
close of the year, the Mount Alexander gold region gave
forth that astounding yield of the precious metal, to which
no record of ancient or modern times can furnish a parallel.
1 Mossman and Banister’s Australia Visited and Revisited, p. 179.
276
AUSTRALIA.
Australia. The result of the latter discovery not only arrested the de-
v'—'' parture of the Victoria colonists who were flocking to the
New South Bathurst Mountains, but afterwards turned the tide ot ad-
Wales. venturers from the parent colony to the greater attractions
of the Mount Alexander gold fields, which threatened at one
time to decimate the populations of Sydney and the sur¬
rounding townships. ... ,
The gold was not merely found in the scales or grains
which at first came from the stream-washings at Ophir, but
it was now dug up in large masses, varying from several
ounces to many pounds in weight, which were familiarly
called “ nuggets” by the diggers, after the Californian name
(flven to these pepitas or nodules ; and m one instance, at
Louisa Creek, 106 lb. weight of pure gold was found by an
aboriginal shepherd, imbedded in the quartz matrix, whic i
formed one solid block of about 3 cwt. Neither was it found
in the beginning at any great depth in the ground, but in
many localities lay scattered among the surface soil, and hung
to the roots of trees and shrubs. So easily and plentifully
did it come to the hands of the gold-seekers, that it bore the
aspect (and such was the belief of many of the less-informed
diners) of having only then sprung into existence from the
earth, or having recently been scattered over the land by
some mysterious agency ; instead of carrying along with it
the geological fact that its veins are coeval with the primary
rocks. It was also discovered that the convicts had built a
bridge across a small stream on the Bathurst road to Car-
coar, above the gold formation, and that they had uncon¬
sciously paved the road with broken fragments of the gold-
quartz veins. Even in the streets of Bathurst and Mel¬
bourne, small particles of the precious metal were picked up
bv children in its natural bed: and several farmers and gar¬
deners found that they had been ploughing, digging, sowing,
and planting their grain and trees in the auriferous soil. A
knowledge of these facts industriously circulated by the co¬
lonial press, throughout a community possessed of all the
modern facilities of information, and keenly alive to the spe¬
culations of money-making, could not but fairly upset the
minds of the people. Consequently, a gold-mania seized
every class of colonists, to the temporary suspension of all
industrial pursuits. ,, „ . , ,
Then followed a heterogeneous scramble for the coveted
ore throughout the length and breadth of the land; whic
spread like wildfire to the neighbouring colonies of South
Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and New Zealand, threaten-
ino- to depopulate them of their male adult inhabitants.
Masons and bricklayers left unfinished buildings in the
towns ; shopmen left their counters, clerks their desks, sailors
their ships; and artizans of every description threw up
their employments, leaving their masters, and their wives
and families to take care of themselves. All other inte¬
rests were absorbed in the search for gold; scaicely any
other subject was talked of, or thought of; and the mass of
the people ran off to the “ diggings”—as this new occupa¬
tion was termed. Nor did the mania confine itself to the
labouring classes, for “ these were soon followed by respon¬
sible tradesmen, farmers, captains of vessels, and not a few
of the superior classes ; some unable to withstand the mania
and the force of the stream, or because they were really dis¬
posed to venture time and money on the chance ; and others
because they were, as employers of labour, left in the lurch
and had no alternative. Cottages became deserted, houses
to let, business was at a stand-still, and even schools were
closed. In some of the suburbs not a man was left, and the
women were known for self-protection to forget neighbours’
jars and to group together to keep house.”1 The ships in
the’harbour also were in a great measure deserted ; and in¬
stances were known, where not only farmers and respectable
agriculturists found that the only thing they could do, seeing Australia,
that the people employed by them had deserted, was to leave —'
their farms and join their men in the golden scramble ; “ but New Sout:
even masters of vessels, foreseeing the impossibility of main- Wales,
taining any control over their men otherwise, agreed to make
up parties among them, abandon their vessels, and proceed
with their crews to the gold fields.”'* The towns and their
environs being thus drained of their labouring populations,
the prices of provisions rapidly rose. The common neces¬
saries of life reached famine prices ; which fell heavily upon
those depending upon salaries. This, coupled with the high
wages demanded by domestic servants, forced the upper
classes of society to dispense with their services, and the
ladies had to perform the household drudgery. _ Clerks and
others under government, and in public and private oflices,
finding it impossible to make both ends meet, threw up
their appointments and rushed to the diggings, and even
the constabulary force were leaving the towns unprotected.
During this state of affairs, the government were obliged to
raise the salaries of their officers, in order to maintain a suf¬
ficient staff for the public service, and to preserve the public
peace, which was becoming sadly disturbed. The banks
and mercantile firms were obliged also to follow their ex-
Meanwhile, the governments of New South Wales and
Victoria—the two gold colonies—looked with apprehension
upon the probable result of this gold-revolution amongst a
pastoral population widely scattered over the country ; a
portion of whom had but recently been reclaimed from the
ranks of the felon. Therefore, how to regulate the prosecu¬
tion of this new pursuit on crown lands became a matter °t
grave consideration. The crime and anarchy which had
prevailed in California upon a similar discovery, brought the
worst fears to their recollection. Precautionary measures
were promptly taken, and all the available military force
which was but slender—was called into requisition, assisted
by the mounted police to maintain order and authority at
the localities where the diggers were working ; for at some
places communities had assembled, and erected tents, with
the rapidity of a military encampment, in larger numbers
than were to be found congregated within the ordinary town¬
ships scattered over the country. A proclamation was issued
asserting the right of the Queen’s government to all gold or
precious metals found on crown lands ; and that every per¬
son digging therein in search of it, or any individuals trad¬
ing or otherwise profitably employed at the diggings, mus
take out a monthly license and pay the sum of 30s. i ns
measure was at once acceptable to the peop e , an go
commissioners were appointed to see that it was carnet in o
effect. Notwithstanding the excitement which prevailed at
the first blush of the discovery, and during the subsequent
discoveries in other localities, which drew from time to tune
one-half of the adult male population to the gold fields, to
the honour of the people of New South Wales be it said
that no greater amount of crime existed in that colony uring
the following eighteen months than the usual average.
.“ Everywhere,” as stated in the despatches of his excellency
the governor-general, “ the gold-diggers were foyah order y,
and obedient to the laws,” and they cheerfully paid the fee
one shilling per diem for license to dig. The same flatter
ing testimony cannot be borne to Victoria, where a Cali¬
fornian state of anarchy at one time threatened the subver¬
sion of all law and order ; the consideration of which will be
reserved for our remarks on that colony. At the close
1851, six months’ experience had proved the most satis a'
tory results as to the extent and richness of the go 1 -
posits. In New South Wales, upwards of 20,0()0 hcem
were issued ; and the export sheet from the port of bydn }
Lieut.-governor Latrobe’s Despatches.
2 Ibid.
.
AUSTRALIA.
Australia, showed that 142,975 ounces, valued at upwards of half a
y—^ million sterling, had left the colony,
ew South By this time also, hundreds, nay, thousands, had ascer-
< ales. tained that they were morally and physically unfit for the
hard laboui and privations to be encountered in the search
for gold. The consequences were, that not only did many
clerks, shopmen, and artizans, come back to their former
occupations in the towns, but much distress was felt by those
who had abandoned lucrative employments, which were shut
against them on their return; in many instances impaired in
health from exposure to the rigorous climate of the gold
regions, which, it will be understood, were first worked in
the winter season in Australia. The beneficial effects which
accrued fiom this leaction in favour of the industrial pur¬
suits, was the supply of labour to be had, although at exor¬
bitant wages, for securing the wool-crop of the season. Not
only was this evil result anticipated among others at the be¬
ginning of the gold discovery, but at many sheep and cattle
stations in the far interior, the herds and flocks were aban¬
doned by their keepers, and at that period nothing short of
uttei ruin to the pastoral interests of the colony hovered
over the sheep-farmers and graziers. In one instance, an
enterprizing squatter drove 26,000 sheep into one flock,
which he shepherded with four trusty shepherds on horse¬
back. . Here, as in other matters, the gentlemen settlers and
capitalists in the colony proved themselves equal to the oc¬
casion ; and much consideration is due to them for assist¬
ing to maintain the peace and prosperity of the community,
by their untiring energy and support given to the govern¬
ment, under such an unlooked-for event. And where at
first the squatters anticipated a ruinous reduction in the va¬
lue of their stock, the demand for sheep and cattle to supply
the diggers with food raised the prices 50 per cent., while
the landholders found new purchasers of land among the
judicious and fortunate gold-diggers. So at the close of the
year 1851, the prospects of New South Wales, on all sides,
were most cheering, where the reverse was expected. The
population had increased to 197,168 persons. The value of the
imports was L.1,563,931, and theexports L.l,796,912. Thus,
the average of the former for every man, woman, and child
in the colony, would be at the rate of L.8 per head, and of the
latter about L.9. The ordinary revenue = L.277,728; and the
crown revenue L.208,969; the coin in the colony L.560,766;
and the paper currency L.418,541. The wool exported =
15,269,3171b., valued at L.828,342 ; the tallow 86,460 cwt.,
value L.l 14,168 ; and the gold 144,120 oz. 17 dwt., value
L.468,336. ^ Shipping inwards 553 vessels, of 153,002 tons,
having /955 men on board; and the shipping outwards 563
vessels of 139,020 tons, having 7988 men.
From the circumstance of gold mines having been hither¬
to only worked by barbarous or despotic nations, who from
ignorance or policy shrouded their operations in mystery,
our information regarding the extent and character of gold-
earing rocks throughout the world was of a very meagre
escription. I he “ great fact,” therefore, of gold regions
eing discovered, and worked within territories claimed by
tie Anglo-Saxon race in California and Australia, is not
on y an event of considerable interest in the history of the
world, but has proved of the utmost benefit to science, in
etei mining this important question in auriferous geology,
ot only was the gold found in the ordinary quartz ma-
nx, but the reports of the geological surveyors of New
outi Wales have shown that it is found in granite at
' CrGek ’ schistose or slaty rocks at the Turon ; and
ln redericks Valley specimens were found of a ferrugi¬
nous rock, beautifully dotted with globules of gold. It
J.0'1seem) therefore, that gold is the most universally
!s ri uted of metals among the unstratified rocks, although
oun in greatest abundance in the quartz veins which in-
ersect these rocks. However, the great bulk of the gold
un m Australia has not been extracted from its matrices,
*>77
but dug out of the gold alluvium formed by the disintegra
tion of these rocks. Hence the gold mines in this region
have received the familiar name of u diggings,” from the
practical-minded Americans and Australians. ’ What are
termed the “ gold diggings,” then, are spots where the
miners have to dig pits from 10 to 50 feet deep before they
arrive at the substratum of auriferous soil in which the par¬
ticles of gold are found loosely imbedded. This subsoil is
generally a stiff blue clay mixed with sand and gravel, and
the pure metal appears in scales about the size and shape of
bran or shellings ; and in rounded grains and lumps varying
from the size of a pin’s head to the form and dimensions of
flints as they occur in chalk, a specimen of which, when
gilded, gives exactly the appearance presented by these gold
nodules, or, as they are now universally called, “nuggets.”
This alluvium is collected and mixed freely with water in
a tub, which is termed “ puddling.” After having under¬
gone two or three washings, the residue is thrown into a
cradle or wooden trough, with “elects” or ribs fastened across
the bottom, and a sieve at the head, which prevents laro-e
stones or lumps of gold from passing through. The cradle
is then locked and tilted to and fro, while water is poured
over the auriferous sand or gravel. When sufficiently washed,
the residue at the bottom of the cradle is examined carefully,
the large pieces, if any, picked out, and the scales of gold
separated from any foreign substance by further washing in
a tin dish, until it is perfectly clean ; after which a magnet
is passed through it to extract small particles of iron-sand,
which are frequently mingled with it. Upon reaching the
“ washing-stuff,” as the “ diggers” term the gold alluvium,
they sometimes see the nuggets dotting the earth, and col-
lected into heaps or “ pockets,” which they extract easily
with the point of a knife. This pleasing operation to the
fortunate digger is called “ nuggeting.” Again, a similar
process is followed at some localities where the grains of
gold lie on the surface of the ground, technically termed
“ forsicking.”
The experiences of the diggers at this new and excitino-
occupation were by this time ascertained to be exceedino-ly
various, and the results of the undertaking, to a certain ex¬
tent, became more or less a lottery. While in some instances
hard-working able-bodied men strove in vain to dig up the
glittering ore, others of feebler constitution, and with less
labour, came upon heaps of the pure metal, which in the
gatherings of one day enriched them for life. Instances were
known from the best authority, where a party of two or three
men would, out of the auriferous earth, dig" pepitas or nug¬
gets to the value of L.8000 and L.l0,000 in a week ; while
masses of pure gold were dug up weighing from 100 to 500
ounces each; and one specimen intermixed with quartz was
brought to London, and exhibited by the fortunate diggers
weighing 134 lb. 11 oz., and calculated to be worth upwards
of L.8000, being the largest single mass of native gold ever
found, of which we have any record. The colour and qua¬
lities of Australian gold differ; that of the Turon and the
neighbouring gold fields being inferior in standard to the
Mount Alexander gold, which again is less so than the Bal¬
larat and Ovens gold. The Victoria gold is of a richer
yellow than the New South Wales gold; the former beino-
valued at the mint as high as L.4, Is. per oz., while the latter
brings only L.3, 19s.
In this age of scientific invention, it will be supposed that
this rude system of gold-washing would soon be superseded
by some ingeniously contrived machine to save time and
labour ; but up to this time, although numerous experiments
have been made, no machine or implement has been con-
stiucted which has proved more efficacious than the cradle,
and the modus operandi of washing the drift, as already de¬
tailed. Circular churning-machines have been tried, and
centrifugal engines applied to the separation of the gold from
the drift by forcing a stream of mercury through it, for which
i i
Australia.
New South
Wales.
278
AUSTRALIA.
Australia, it has such an affinity that an amalgam is at once formed,
and the dross easily separated ; but these and other intricate
Few South means of extracting the particles of gold have never been
Wales. adopted by the “ diggers.” However, not only has the amal¬
gamating process been successfully introduced, but steam-
machinery and stamping engines have been erected at Louisa
Creek,—where the enormous mass of 106 lb. weight in the
quartz matrix was found,—for the purpose of reducing the
auriferous rocks, and extracting the metal by the chemical
process referred to. These works, erected by the Great
Nugget Company” are replete with every improvement in
modern engineering, and may be strictly considered gold¬
mining works. The auriferous quartz is broken up into small
fragments and placed under a ponderous pestle, which re¬
duces them to a granular consistence. This falls under enor¬
mous rollers which crush it as fine as flour, and then it passes
through a cistern filled with mercury and water; the foimer
amalgamates with the gold and remains, while the lattei, in
which the quartz is diffused, passes away.
In like manner, as we have seen the appliances of ma¬
chinery unsuccessful at the gold-washings, so have all at¬
tempts to prosecute the search for gold at these deposits, by
the combined means of labour and capital as in ordinal y
companies, proved a failure. Beyond the association of two,
three, four, five, or six individuals at the most, upon mutual
terms of profit and loss, no company having its managers,
overseers, and labourers, is to be found amongst the 150,000
individuals assembled at the “diggings” throughout the gold
regions of Australia. At the first intimation of the discovery
in England, the speculators of the city of London were not
long in trumping up a host of gold companies ; as many
as fifteen figured on the stock-exchange within a few months.
Out of these, ten proved to be bubble companies, and the
other five abandoned the project of gold-washing by hired
labour, after incurring large expenses; and only one suc¬
ceeded in commencing operations in the colony, by uniting
with the local “ Great Nugget Vein Company.” As the lo¬
calities of gold-bearing quartz veins are discovered, there is
every likelihood of capital and machinery being brought to
bear profitably upon the resources unfolded by the gold dis¬
covery; but the employment of gold-digging wall always be
most successfully pursued by individual labour and means;
or mutual associations of individuals, where all must wrork
and encounter privation alike; and w;here the relations be¬
tween master and servant will never be recognised.
Not the least in importance among the benefits resulting^
from the gold discovery has been the establishment of
steam communication between this country and Australia;
and the colonists had the gratification of seeing fifteen ocean
steamers from time to time, wdthin the year 1852, arriving
at their ports from England. “ The Royal Australian Mail
Steam-Packet Company” obtained a charter to convey the
mails to these colonies; but from inefficiency in the boats
and their equipment the company lost the contract. It
is estimated that the voyage out will be accomplished in
sixty days, once the route is fairly established, which will be
the means of bringing those dependencies within one-third
the distance in time that they formerly were: and it is to be
hoped that this will tend to unite more closely the interests
of the colonies with the mother country, which were certainly
becoming estranged through the illiberal measures of the
colonial ministers. Coincident with these advantages from
steam communication with the parent country, is the active
renewal of a projected railway from Sydney to Goulburn,
125 miles into the interior, on the line of road to Melbourne.
This railroad was projected in 1846; but the matter had
remained dormant, for want of shareholders for the under¬
taking, till 1852, when the government not only granted the
company a local charter and free occupation of all crown
lands they should pass through, but assisted them with funds
to complete the undertaking.
The crisis of the gold discovery having mingled amongst Australia,
the records of the past, the colony of New South Wales is 'w
now fairly started, in 1853, on the third era of her eventful New South,
history, which may be literally termed the golden era. Al- Wales,
though she has not produced such brilliant results in her
material progress as her younger neighbour and sister Vic¬
toria, yet, during the past year, she can boast of a mine of
comparative domestic comfort and public tranquillity which
the latter cannot record. The present year has commenced
under the most favourable auspices. Wherever we look,
public and private works of improvements, which had been
stopped for a season, are now rapidly progressing; and the
statistics of the colony show a general advancement in every
branch of commercial enterprize over the preceding year,
quite equal to the most sanguine expectations of the colonists
and the government.
Exports.
Gold (value)....
Wool (bales) ...
Tallow (casks).
Hides 
Revenue.
General 
From gold 
Territorial 
Estates 
Total.
1851. 1852.
L .468,336 L.2,744,961
45,785 49,151
9,196 19,914
68,641 73,104
L.277,794 L.351,726
33,810 61,817
89,534 86,871
4,460 5,243
L.405,598 L.505,657
The colony of New South Wales, until the separation ofTopogra-
Port Phillip, comprehended within its present boundary only phy.
nineteen counties, namely, Cumberland, Camden, St Vincent,
Northumberland, Gloucester, Durham, Hunter, Cook, West-Plate Cl.
moreland, Argyle, Murray, Brisbane, Bligh, Phillip, Wel¬
lington, Roxburgh, Bathurst, Georgiana, and King. The
act which erected that district into an independent province,
divided the squatting districts S. and N. of the nineteen
counties into forty-nine more, namely, Cowley, Buccleuch,
Dampier, Beresford, Wallace, Wellesley, Auckland, Mac¬
quarie, Hawes, Parry, Buckland, Pottinger, Inglis, Vernon,
Dudley, Sandon, Raleigh, Gresham, Clarence, Richmond,
Rous, Buller, Ward, Churchill, Stanley, Cavendish, Can¬
ning, March, Lennox, Fitzroy, Aubigny, Merivale, Ben-
tinck, Drake, Clive, Gough, Hardinge, Darling, Napier,
Gowen, Gordon, Monteagle, Clarendon, Selwyn, Lincoln,
Ashburnham, Harden, Wynyard, Goulburn, making in all
sixty-eight counties. They extend along the coast about
800 miles, and into the interior about 180 miles. Not only
is the whole of that extent of country thoroughly explored
and occupied by the settlers, but a trigonometrical survey
has been nearly finished; so that the map of New South
Wales, in the tracing of its mountains and streams, is assum¬
ing that detailed appearance presented by the ordinary maps
of Europe.
The general aspect of the country in the interior may be General as-
called mountainous or hilly ; and covered with an open forest pect of the
occasionally intersected by brushwood thickets. On the coun ry
sea-coast, along which the great South Pacific Ocean rolls
its tremendous surge, it is bold and rugged, and for five
or six miles from the coast it wears a bleak and barren
aspect; presenting a soil composed mainly of drift sand,
scantily covered with stunted trees and shrubs. But this
would give an inadequate and unfair description of the
whole; for, like the entire island itself, it is the most
chequered country of good and bad land in the world. In
the interior, rich and fertile valleys lie in the lap of these
ranges, such as the Vale of Clywd, to the westward of the
Blue Mountains; and extensive undulating grassy PlaJn5’’
like those of Maneroo and Liverpool plains, are approachec
through a barren and rocky region. On the coast, also, the
romantic and fertile district of Illawarra in Camden, a ma-
AUSTRALIA.
Australia, ritime county to the S. of Cumberland, is surrounded by a
—^ desolate region of barren hills; and the rich valley of the
New South Hunter River system of waters contrasts with the Clarence
Wales. and Richmond to the northward. Again, the tropical aspect
of the jungles and mangrove swamps of Moreton Bay are
so different from the verdant prairies of the Darling downs
almost destitute of timber, and with few streams, that the
traveller approaching the former from the E. and the latter
from the S. could scarcely imagine them to be in the same
country within 1000 miles of each other; and yet they are
contiguous. To give, therefore, the most succinct view of
this territory, it would be necessary to describe each district.
As our limits, however, prevent this, it will suffice to give the
general character of the two great watersheds from the
main range or cordillera which divides the eastern from the
western streams. From Mount Kosciusko, 6500 feet high,
—the highest of the Australian Alps—situated 120 miles
inland from Cape Howe, this range of mountains extends
in a northerly direction through the whole extent of the
colony to the boundary line at Moreton Bay. The rivers
which flow to the eastward have 100 outlets on the sea-
coast ; descending rapidly from their sources—which are on
the average under 80 miles in a straight line from their out¬
lets, and 1800 feet above the level of the sea; passing
through a hilly region in a tortuous course. The streams
flowing to the westward, deriving their sources from 1000
fountainheads, flow through extensive valleys and plains,
describing a multitude of ramifications until they either join
in one great river 400 miles from their sources, or lose their
waters in extensive marshes. The land on the eastern
streams is for the most part inferior in quality, both for
agriculture and pasture, to that on the western streams.
While the latter enjoys a cooler climate than the former, it
consists also of a rich black and dry soil, covered with
luxuriant herbage, interspersed here and there with valleys,
open woodlands, and forests, whereon the herds and flocks
of the settlers now graze, and a busy population of gold-
seekers are digging up the ground for the hidden treasure.
Again, on the river banks which face the rising sun, the
orange, the banana, and the vine grow abundantly ; and the
day is not far distant when wine, tobacco, and cotton will
be among the staple exports from this coast. Between the
girdle of the coast and the mountain range, the country ex¬
tends in gentle undulations for many miles, clothed with
stately forests, which, where cultivation has made progress,
are diversified with farms and tenements, and intersected
by broad and excellent turnpike roads. Lastly, the coast is
indented with numerous bays and harbours, unsurpassed for
security and extent by any in the world; while the noble
city of Sydney, with its classic buildings, and 100 other
towns and villages, are visible throughout the length and
breadth of the land ; giving that air of dignity and of settled
comfort to its inhabitants which belongs essentially to older
countries, and which is not observable in the aspect of the
newer colonies in Australia.
climate Australia being situated in the opposite hemisphere to
Britain, its seasons are exactly the reverse of ours. July is
the middle of winter, and January of summer. The festi¬
vities of Christmas and of the new year are celebrated here,
not, as in the old country, with doors and windows shut,
and a cheerful fire to dispel the winter cold, but amid the
oppression and heat of summer, with doors and windows
thrown open to invite the refreshing breeze. We no longer
hear in this Australian climate of the “ gentle south wind,”
nor of “rude Boreas, blustering railer.” The north is here
the region of heat, as the south is of cold. The summer
extends from the 1st of December to the end of February ;
and the mean heat during these three months is about 80° at
noon. This great heat is tempered along the coast by the
sea breeze, which sets in regularly about nine in the morn-
ing, and blows with considerable force till about six or seven
279
in the evening, when it is succeeded by a land-breeze from Australia,
the mountains, which varies from W.S.W. to W. In very ^
hot days the breeze often veers round from N. to S., and New South
blows a hurricane. The hot winds to which the country is Wales,
exposed, especially in the interior, three or four times every
summer, blow from the N.W., like a current of air issuing
from a heated furnace, raising the thermometer to 100° in
the shade, and to 125° when exposed to their influence.
They imbibe their heat from the great central desert alluded
to in the article Australasia. They are generally succeeded
by a cold southerly squall, and by a thunder-storm and rain,
which cools the air. The spring months are September,
October, and November. In the beginning of September
the nights are cold, but the days clear and pleasant. The
thermometer varies from 60° to 70° towards the end of the
month ; and light showers occasionally prevail, with thunder
and lightning. The days become gradually warmer, and
in October the hot and blighting winds from the north be¬
gin to be apprehended. The three autumn months are
March, April, and May, The first is rainy, and more fer¬
tile in floods than any other in the year. Towards the end
of April the weather becomes perfectly clear and serene.
The thermometer varies from 72° at noon to 60°, and in the
mornings is as low as 52°. During May the thermometer
varies from 50° at sunrise to 60° at noon, with a perfectly
cloudless sky. During the three winter months of June,
July, and August, the mornings and evenings are cold;
hoar frosts are frequent, and become more severe in ad¬
vancing into the interior. At Sydney the thermometer is
rarely below 40° ; at Parramatta it is frequently as low as 27°
in the course of the winter. As the land rises from the
ocean, the temperature declines. The winter at Bathurst,
where snow falls in its season, is much colder than on the
sea-shore. On the loftiest hills heavy falls of snow take
place during the winter, and it remains for many days on
their summits; and some high ranges penetrate the level
of perpetual snow. In the valleys, however, the snow does
not lie. The greatest defect in the climate is the preva¬
lence of periodical droughts, in consequence of which the
vegetation is parched, a general failure of the crops follows,
and numbers of the cattle perish. Although in general a
large quantity of rain falls throughout the year, yet the co¬
lony has hitherto been subject to severe periodical droughts.
A drought took place in 1826, which continued till 1829;
another in 1839; and more recently, in 1849-50, another
severe drought took place, which occasioned general distress
in the colony. The climate is, however, on the whole highly
salubrious and agreeable. Out of a community of 1200
persons, it has been known that only five or six have been
sick at a time; and at some of the military stations, seven
years have elapsed without the loss of a man. The fact is
now pretty well ascertained, that its dry healing influence is
beneficial in pulmonary consumption. Hydrophobia is hap¬
pily unknown, although dogs abound. The Asiatic cholera
has never visited these shores: dysentery, however, is pre¬
valent amongst newly-arrived people. Cases of organic
lesion of the heart are frequent, and cause the majority of
sudden deaths. Ophthalmia, too, is not uncommon in the
districts of the Hunter and Moreton Bay. The only instance
of an epidemic visiting this country was in 1849, when the
influenza carried off a number of the inhabitants ; yet not¬
withstanding these facts, and the assertions of inexperienced
emigrants, the climate of New South Wales has been pro¬
nounced by good authorities to be one of the most healthy
and salubrious on the face of the earth. As the aspect of
the country, however, possesses no general feature whereby
to describe its character, so the varieties of soil and climate
in New South Males cannot be classed under one general
head. Not only are the warmer localities and poorer soils
on the eastern shed of waters greatly different from the rich
lands and cooler atmosphere on the western streams, but these
'
280
AUSTRALIA.
Vegetable
produce.
Australia, again are diversified by the variations of latitude. The ter-
ritoryof New South Wales, as before stated, extends between
New South the parallels of 26° and 38° S. Lat., or about 800 statute
Wales. miles; hence it will be naturally supposed to possess the gra¬
duated influence of solar heat at the sea-level alone to cause
local variations of temperature. And this, added to the
higher altitudes of the country inland, produces a variety
of meteorological phenomena which materially affect the in¬
digenous as well as the imported subjects of the animal and
vegetable world. In ordinary parlance, therefore, it is as
erroneous to speak of the climate of New South Wales ge¬
nerally as if there were one uniform recurrence of weather
throughout that territory, as it would be to designate as one
description of climate the varied weather which simultane¬
ously occurs between Switzerland and the African shores
of the Mediterranean. For there is as great a difference
in the weather which happens in the regions between the
Maneroo plains, elevated 2000 feet above the level of the
sea, and situated at the base of the Australian Alps, co¬
vered with snow, and the intertropical district of Moreton
Bay, within whose waters turtle abound; these being the ex¬
treme S. and N. boundaries of the colony. In the former
region, the gooseberry and the apple flourish in the frigid
atmosphere; in the latter the pine-apple and the banana
grow rich and luxuriantly in the open air. While the Mane¬
roo settlers rear coarse-woolled sheep upwards of 100 lb. in
weight, the Moreton Bay squatters have the finest-woolled
merinos under 50 lb.: and their proprietors may be distin¬
guished in the streets of Sydney, which lies midway be¬
tween them, by the ruddy English complexion of the one,
and the sallow Indian face of the other.
The agricultural products of New South Wales compre¬
hend all the cereals grown in Europe, and many which are
confined to tropical countries. Of the former, wheat, bar¬
ley, oats, and rye, with hay, lucerne, and other kinds of
fodder for cattle and horses, comprise the farmer’s list; of
the latter, maize, tobacco, and lately cotton, have been pro¬
fitably cultivated. The barren soil, however, around the
environs of Sydney, renders the inhabitants of that city and
its suburbs dependent upon Van Diemen’s Land for their
supplies of grain. The Hunter River and other districts
being subject to droughts, the cultivation of cereal crops
is precarious. So devastating were their effects in early
times, that the government had siloes on the Egyptian plan
sunk on an island (Cockatoo) in Sydney harbour, and
filled with grain in case of famine. In the above-named
district, a large quantity of maize or Indian corn is produced,
mainly for the food of horses, pigs, and poultry. In 1852,
there were 152,057 acres of land under cultivation, exclu¬
sive of vineyards. The culinary vegetables common in this
country thrive admirably in New South Wales; such as
potatoes, cabbages, carrots, parsnips, turnips, peas, beans,
cauliflowers, lettuces, cucumbers, and pumpkins, besides
sweet potatoes, yams, and plantains. Many of the former
attain to greater perfection than in Europe, as the cauli¬
flower and the brocoli; and green peas are to be had in
Sydney all the year round; whilst a few degenerate, such
as the bean. The colony is famed also for the abundance
and variety of its fruits. Peaches, apricots, nectarines,
loquats, oranges, grapes, pears, plums, figs, pomegranates,
raspberries, strawberries, mulberries, and melons of all sorts,
attain the highest degree of maturity in the open air.
Added to these, the northern districts produce pine-apples,
bananas, guavas, lemons, citrons, and other tropical fruits.
Excepting on the high mountain districts to the westward
and southward of Sydney, the climate is not so congenial to
the production of northern fruits, such as the apple, the
currant, the gooseberry, and the cherry. Grapes of the
finest quality are produced in the colony, not only for the
table, but for the manufacture of wine. Upwards of 1000
acres of vineyards are laid out in the most complete manner
for the culture of the vine, which in 1852 produced 84,843 Australia,
gallons of wine, and 1641 gallons of brandy. The Aus- v'—
tralian tobacco, both from its quantity and its quality, is now New Soul
fast superseding the importation of American tobacco. In Wales.
1852, 12,530 cwts. were manufactured in the colony. The
olive-tree, likewise, grows luxuriantly, and a superior sample
of oil has been produced. The cultivation of cotton upon
the Brisbane River at Moreton Bay realized to the experi¬
mental planters in 1852 a clear profit of L.12 per acre.
Altogether, the capabilities of this varied soil and climate for
the production of the universal staple commodities of cotton,
tobacco, and wine, are unlimited. All that the colony re¬
quires to raise them in sufficient abundance for her own
consumption and foreign export, is capital and labour.
Already much has been done by the enterprizing colonists
in this direction. While we write, Mr Hickey of Osterley,
Hunter’s River, has produced before the wine-tasters in the
London Docks samples of his vintage of light wines, which
have been pronounced equal to the best hock and Sauterne
imported into London ; while a parcel of cotton has been
sold in Manchester as high as 2s. 6d. per lb. from the
Moreton Bay district; and a company is now forming to
introduce the cultivation of the cotton plant there by free
labourers, so that the Manchester cotton manufacturers
may be independent of the American planters, which may
ultimately tend to abolish negro slavery throughout the
United States.
Of the indigenous animals in Australia, we have given Animal
some account in the preceding article. We shall notice Produce-
here, therefore, more particularly the capabilities of the
country for rearing imported stock, poultry, &c., and those
birds and fishes used as food by the colonists. The extent
of pasture land within New South Wales occupied by the
herds and flocks of the settlers is not far short of 50,000
square miles ; upon which there were grazing at the end of
1852,116,397 horses, 1,375,257 horned cattle, and 7,396,895
sheep. The climate is peculiarly congenial to the growth
and increase of these animals. The breed of horses, both
thorough-bred, and half-bred hacks, is such, that they are
exported to India for the purpose of supplying the East
India Company’s cavalry and artillery. The horned cattle
are, in many instances, of a gigantic size, weighing from
13 to 14 cwt. The sheep are mostly of the fine merino
breed; but, on the elevated downs, the Leicester breed
crossed with the merino, thrive best, and give a heavier car¬
case, with a greater quantity of coarse wool than the pure¬
bred stock. From the dry nature of the herbage, the mut¬
ton and beef has not that rich flavour which is so much
prized in English-fed cattle and sheep. Swine are abun¬
dant, the number of pigs in 1852 amounting to 65,510.
They are mostly fed upon the “ graves” of the tallow-melter ;
which neither produces as sweet pork nor such solid flesh
as the ordinary methods of feeding. Goats are not nume¬
rous ; and asses and mules are seldom reared. A few Timor
ponies have been imported; and the camel has been intro¬
duced, but hitherto has not thriven.
Domestic fowls of every description thrive admirably, and Birds,
may be reared at small expense. Geese become fat upon
the native grasses; and the barn-door fowl picks up suffi¬
cient food in summer amongst the insects in the bush.
Ducks likewise require very little artificial food; only they
are subject to some unknown disease which checks their in¬
crease ; while turkeys and pea-fowl, which are delicate to
rear in Europe, require little or no care. Guinea-fowl also
are easily reared ; and all of them fatten better upon cracked
maize than upon oats. The same holds true, also, in the
feeding of horses. Besides the domestic fowls, game birds
also are abundant, including the quail, snipe, land-rail, water-
rail, duck, pigeon, and the native turkey, or bustard of the
plains. Parrots are found in myriads, and at certain sea¬
sons make a tolerably good pie; and the cockatoo also is
AUSTRALIA.
281
Australia, eaten. We may here mention that the tail of the kangaroo
makes a richly-flavoured soup, which may be considered the
Kew South only part of an indigenous quadruped fit for food.
Wales. Fish are plentiful in the bays along the coast, but they
Pishes. are not so abundant in the rivers. The fresh-water cod¬
fish, however, in the Murray River, are of a large size,
weighing sometimes as much as 70 lb., and 30 lb. being com¬
mon. Eels are also caught in the marshes and lagoons,
12 and even 20 lb. in weight. The salt-water fish are nu¬
merous. The schnapper is like our cod, and the best and
largest fish in the Australian seas, with the exception of the
trumpeter at Hobart Town. Rock-cod, flat-heads, taylor-
fish, mackerel, soles, and guard-fish, constitute the ordinary
kinds brought to Sydney market; but few of them have the
substance and flavour of British fishes, from which they are
distinct in species. Cray-fish are abundant, and fine fla¬
voured ; the crabs are of the most beautiful colours, but none
of them edible. Prawns and shrimps are sold in the markets.
Fresh-water mussels are found of a large size, but not whole¬
some to eat; and the salt-water mussels are small. Oysters,
however, of three kinds are plentiful: the rock-oyster, the
stream-oyster, and the mud-oyster, which are all edible ; the
stream-oyster being of the most delicate flavour. Turtle
are found at Moreton Bay, where the aborigines are em¬
ployed by the settlers in procuring them for the Sydney
market; they are, however, not equal in flavour to the West
India turtle.
Minerals. Now that the mineral treasures of Australia have become
the leading item in the wealth of the country, the attention
of the government, and of the colonists generally, has been
directed to the geological structure of the country. To give
the most brief synopsis of this important subject woidd oc¬
cupy more space than we can afford. A general view of
the gold fields has been given in the section treating of the
discovery: we must content ourselves here with noticing
those other minerals which have been productive of wealth
and utility to the colonists. Between the Blue Mountains
and the sea-coast are those extensive sandstone plains where
the strata are lying in a horizontal position with a slight
dip to the westward. On this the city of Sydney is built,
and the great mass of its buildings are constructed of this
rock, which is more friable than ordinary freestone. The
roads are “ mettled” with the whinstone or basalt obtained
from the Blue Mountain ranges. In the county of Argyle,
a beautiful grained marble has been found, which makes up
into handsome chimney-pieces. Copper has been worked
for several years in the mountain ranges around Bathurst;
but the ores that are the richest (pyrites) are found only in
small quantities, while those most abundant are of inferior
quality. Oxydulated iron ore, from which is manufac¬
tured the finest description of steel, has been worked at Ber-
rima, but not successfully. Potters’ clay and rock porcelain
exist also among the rocks N. of Sydney harbour. But by
far the most valuable mineral worked in New South Wales,
prior to the gold discovery, has been coal. The coal mea¬
sures on the Hunter River extend over the great basin of
that river and its tributaries, down to the sea-coast at New¬
castle, where the seam of coal is seen cropping out on the
beach. Until within the last eight years, these coal measures
were worked under a monopoly held by the Australian
Agricultural Company. This, however, has been infringed
upon successfully by the adjoining proprietors of land con¬
taining coal, who work now under sanction of the authorities.
About 10 pits are in operation, and a considerable trade is
carried on between Port Hunter and the adjoining colonies,
as well as with New Zealand and California. For further
particulars upon this subject, and an analysis of the soils as
applied to agriculture, we refer the reader to the excellent
work of Count Strzlecki.
An account of the aborigines of Australia will be found
under the article Australasia,
vol. IY.
We shall now proceed to notice the increase of the Euro- Australia,
pean settlers in New South Wales. From our own expe-
rience, and the evidence of competent authorities, we know New South
of no region on the globe where natural phenomena combine Wales,
to render mere animal existence more desirable to the Anglo- Popula-
Saxon constitution, or more propitious to the increase of the tion•
race.
It will be remembered that the colony, when first esta¬
blished at Sydney, as detailed in the first section of this ar¬
ticle, consisted of 1030 individuals, 700 of whom were con¬
victs ; and that notwithstanding the famine and distress
which occurred at intervals, and the discouragement of emi¬
gration by some of the authorities, the population, owing to
the fineness of the climate and the number of convicts sent
out, rapidly increased. A census taken at eight different
times gives the following result in the month of March in
each year:—
Males. Females. Totals.
1810  ... 8,923
1821   ... 29,783
1828   ... 36,598
1833   ... 71,070
1836   55,539 21,557 77,096
1841   87,263 43,549 130,812
1846   114,709 74,813 189,522
1851   106,229 81,014 187,243
The apparent decrease at the last census was in conse¬
quence of the separation of Port Phillip, at which period it
numbered an additional population of 77,000, giving a total
of 264,000 for the old boundaries of the province before the
gold discovery.
At the date when the following statistics were computed,
transportation had virtually ceased for eleven years; hence it
was not necessary to specify the number of convicts in a re¬
turn of the population. Moreover, their influence on the
social and political condition of the colony had become ab¬
sorbed, and they were scarcely recognizable in the influx of
free emigrants. Our information from the colony brings up
the census to April 1853, exactly two years after the details
given in the annexed table ; and includes a fluctuating
population attracted to her shores during nearly all that
period by the gold discovery, and a re-emigration to Vic¬
toria upon the announcement of the superior gold-fields
there. “ The tide of emigration,” however, as stated by his
Excellency the Governor-general in his prorogation speech
to the Legislative Council on the 28th December 1852, “ is
now steadily setting back to the colony.” During 1852,
21,816 persons arrived in the colony, and 14,397 left it;
13,511 of whom went to Victoria and the other sister colo¬
nies, and of these 9886 returned; showing an excess of ar¬
rivals over departures of only 7419. The total population
on the 31st December 1852, according to the government
returns, was 197,168 ; 113,032 males, and 84,136 females ;
to which add the excess of arrivals over departures in 1852,
and we have a total of 204,587 on the 31st December last.
During this year, 1846 emigrants arrived at the public ex¬
pense, and 756 at their own. The number of births regis¬
tered during the year was 7675 ; of marriages, 1915; of
deaths, 2600.
1 he proportion of the colonists from the United Kingdom
and their descendants may be taken thus : out of 10 indi¬
viduals there are 4 English, 3 Irish, 2 Scotch, and 1 other
nations. Of course no apparent nationality of character has
as yet resulted from this intermixture ; but if we may judge
from the few native-born men and women we have met,
there is every likelihood of the future Australian people re¬
sembling their cousins of Anglo-Saxon descent on the other
side of the Atlantic.
The following table exhibits a more particular classifica¬
tion of the inhabitants in the colony of New South Wales,
within the restricted boundaries, according to the last general
census taken on the 31st March 1851 :—
2 k
282
Australia.
AUSTRALIA.
New South Wales Census, 1851 ; classified with reference to Sex and Age.
NAME
OF
DIVISION.
Counties.
Argyle 
Bathurst 
Bligh  
Brisbane 
Camden 
Cook 
Cumberland 
Durham 
Georgiana 
Gloucester 
Hunter 
King  
Macquarie  
Murray 
Northumberland..
Phillip 
Roxburgh  
St Vincent 
Wellington 
Westmoreland 
Total in the 20 1
counties  J
Stanley (reputed )
County) /
Total within set-1
tied Districts. j
Squatting
Districts.
Bligh 
Clarence 
Darling Downs ...
Lachlan  
Liverpool Plains..
Macleay 
Maneroo (includ-1
ing Auckland) J
Moreton (exclud- (
ing Stanley)... )
Murrumhidgee....
New England 
Wellington 
Burnett 
Maranoa 
Wide Bay 
Western Lower )
Darling J
Eastern Lower)
Darling J
Gwydir 
SEX AND AGE.
202
244
31
67
402
119
2488
336
61
128
40
92
61
154
614
20
95
95
51
57
5347
194
5541
13,831
Total in Squat-1
ting Districts J
Total in New)
South Wales. ]
38
48
65
116
69
14
163
149
140
40
17
18
896
6437
487
515
84
130
881
279
6,779
730
148
313
93
264
148
376
1,436
60
242
233
139
158
c £
13,495
336
88
123
89
242
118
18
315
382
308
120
19
2
19
1,903
15,734
376
437
59
117
819
321
6,544
721
114
295
108
172
109
312
1,361
56
227
204
109
135
a .
^ A
Sh +3'
t I
2 6
267
42
65
483
208
4085
373
74
195
68
127
74
184
718
33
95
129
59
82
12,596
279
12,875
81
99
66
203
132
15
296
8
304
247
87
19
2
10
TS
a
a
-a
§ .
§ £
o =<?
jb-S*
a o
% ^
1,322
1,703
348
460
1,891
598
15,460
1,662
401
734
175
584
337
936
2,989
182
640
597
441
333
7617 31,793
165
7782
33,555
1,605
14,480
45
71
96
135
103
19
214
11
196
195
38
70
6
14
1265
9047
1,762
512
683
1,229
848
1,106
132
971
191
1,744
1,652
616
552
56
253
75
161
361
ib.S
389
480
76
176
706
295
4,923
517
112
164
99
194
117
306
979
70
168
208
170
113
10,262
180
91
92
10
29
190
114
1756
75
23
42
39
43
66
48
183
12
52
34
26
34
2959
25
10,442
2984
11,142
44,697
145
87
139
267
213
36
272
13
283
309
169
58
6
16
9
20
45
2,087
12,529
208
241
43
68
386
145
2509
382
62
109
35
91
65
151
590
22
95
97
60
67
5366
162
5528
321
3305
34
76
51
99
56
15
135
141
124
46
15
2
3
833
489
566
82
152
915
326
6,672
779
153
283
96
212
146
335
1,391
50
218
205
140
138
13,348
346
e ©
cu r°
408
447
55
126
837
320
6,775
710
91
242
99
236
157
277
1,314
50
179
210
100
116
12,749
240
13,694
84
128
98
243
135
29
303
342
263
86
19
4
14
1,825
6361 15,519
12,989
58
92
56
160
120
25
260
256
216
75
6
1
12
273
320
23
79
566
212
6,129
372
50
137
51
98
84
165
852
17
127
136
55
64
9,810
262
H (S
o ,
G O
Eh
804
932
140
223
1250
437
13,584
1,066
197
425
122
323
228
526
2,232
76
341
337
209
201
23,653
785
10,072
24,438
30
52
42
124
48
19
147
157
132
32
20
1
7
1,395 848
14,384 10,920
141
235
206
335
231
52
483
15
591
510
155
46
3
44
14
22
72
E so
130
140
9
40
262
122
2664
227
34
70
29
63
41
100
461
24
51
79
46
36
4628
42
4670
3,155 372
27,503
5042
30
21
2
1
75
45
746
38
5
12
9
6
14
16
87
2
8
8
4
1136
9
1145
50
1195
TOTALS.
3,123
3,738
650
1,044
5,372
1,934
42,035
4,414
933
1,871
622
1,476
902
2,316
8,280
433
1,519
1,500
995
912
2,342
2,667
354
689
4,291
1,607
39,079
3,514
592
1,278
441
1,029
735
1,570
6,927
241
1,019
1,072
614
629
84,069
2,941
70,690
1,846
87,010
925
1,116
1,704
1,861
1,765
242
2,283
234
3,112
2,895
1,098
740
74
319
96
226
529
19,219
106,229
72,536
366
605
469
1,031
620
149
1,406
38
1,559
1,302
414
112
11
87
36
65
208
8,478'
81,014
5,465
6,405
1,004
1,733
9,663
3.541
81,114
7 928
1,525
3,149
1,063
2,505
1,637
3,886
15,20
674
2,538
2,572
1,609
1.541
154,759
4,787
159,546
1,291
1,721
2,173
2,892
2,385
391
3,689
272
4,671
4,197
1,512
852
85
406
132
291
737
Australia
New Sout
Wales.
27,697
187,243
AUSTRALIA.
283
Australia. A visitor to the city of Sydney, if he mingles among the
higher circles of its inhabitants, will find them surrounded
New South by those elegancies, and possessing much of that refinement
Wales. in their domestic relations with each other, which give the
charms to civilized society. The governor general and his
official circle, of course, form the central sphere around which
the lesser revolve ; and these combine upon state occasions,
when the hospitality of government-house is laid under con¬
tribution, to display a goodly assemblage of fashionable and
elegant people. Altogether the stranger is pleasingly im¬
pressed with the facts that there is much wealth and liber-
ality, and a tone of high intelligence, about the society of this
fair city, and on the estates and homesteads of the settlers
in the interior.
Govern- When the colony of New South Wales was first esta-
nent. Wished, the whole powers of the government necessarily
centred in the governor alone. In 1824, a council was ap¬
pointed to aid and to control him in the exercise of his au¬
thority. Several alterations have since taken place, and the
supreme authority is now vested, 1. in the governor ; 2. in
an executive council, which consists of the colonial secre¬
tary and treasurer, the commander of the forces, the au¬
ditor-general, and the attorney-general; and, 3. in a legis¬
lative council, consisting of the members of the executive
council, with the addition of four other official and nine non-
official crown nominees, and thirty-six elected members,
making in all fifty-four members ; who are presided over by
a speaker elected from one of their number. The legisla¬
tive power is vested in the governor and this legislative
council; a majority of which must concur before any law
can be passed, the speaker having a casting vote. Any
member has the privilege of introducing a measure upon
giving notice, as is customary in the House of Commons ;
the governor being represented by the colonial secretary,
who brings forward all government bills. The recent act
passed “ for the better government of her Majesty’s Aus¬
tralian colonies,” after erecting the “district of Port Phillip”
into the “ colony of Victoria,” enacts (§ 2), that the legis¬
lative council of New South Wales shall consist of such a
number of members as the governor and council shall de¬
termine, of which one-third shall be appointed by Her
Majesty, and two-thirds to be elected by the inhabitants.
Electors are qualified to vote on possessing freehold estate
of L.100 clear value, or occupying a dwelling-house for six
months at an annual rent of L.10, or holding a depasturing
license of the yearly value of L.10. The bills passed by
the council must not be repugnant to the laws of England ;
and they do not become the laws of the land until they ob¬
tain the governor’s assent; who has also the power of re¬
ferring any measure before coming into operation, to obtain
the sanction of Her Majesty, which entails great delay, if the
act is obnoxious to the local government. For the sole ad¬
ministration of the laws there is a supreme court, over which
preside a chief and two puisne judges. The supreme court
is a court of oyer and terminer, and gaol delivery ; it is also
a court of equity, and a court of admiralty for the trial of
criminal offences within certain limits : it is empowered to
grant letters of administration, and it is an insolvent debtor’s
court, h rom the supreme court lies an appeal for all actions
for less than L.500, to the governor or acting governor, who
is directed to hold a court of appeals, from whose decision
lies a final appeal to the queen in council. There are courts
of general and quarter sessions, which have the same powers
as those in England. Courts of requests have been esta¬
blished for summarily determining claims not exceeding
L.30; and their decision is final. Juries now sit in civil
and criminal cases. A very vigilant police has been esta-
blished throughout New South Wales. There are benches
of stipendiary as well as unpaid magistrates in Sydney and
other principal towns, aided by head-constables and a civil
and military police force at each station. The city of Sydney
is incorporated, and divided into six wards, each ward elect- Australia,
ing four councillors. From these twenty-four councillors, v—
six aldermen are chosen ; and from the aldermen and coun- New South
cillors, the mayor is elected annually. Wales.
The country of New South Wales, recently a pathless Internal
forest, is now intersected in all directions by excellent roads,inter-
The royal mail proceeds from Sydney to all the differentcourse’
towns in the interior, and letters are delivered with punctu¬
ality and despatch. Postage stamps are used for letters as
in Britain. Stage-coaches with four horses also start daily
from Sydney, and from other places ; so that there is every
facility of internal intercourse by land; while numerous steam-
vessels leave Sydney and ply along the coast to the different
sea-ports. A railway also has been projected between Syd¬
ney and Goulburn ; and there is every likelihood of the line
being in operation in 1854.
Great efforts have been made in New South Wales to Education,
promote education among all classes, and numerous excel¬
lent seminaries have been established. Sydney College was
instituted in 1830, where the youth of the colony are taught
the ancient languages, English literature, and the rudiments
of the sciences. On 11th October 1852, Sydney Univer¬
sity was inaugurated by the governor-general. A classical
professor, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of
chemistry and the philosophy of physics, were appointed.
The first session closed satisfactorily, with 24 matriculated
students, in December 1852. It is founded upon the same
liberal principle with regard to the exclusion of religious
tests, as that recognized by the government in extending
its support alike to all religious denominations. The num¬
ber of schools in the colony on the 31st December 1852
was 423; number of scholars, 11,118 males, 10,002 females ;
total, 21,120. Of these schools, 227 were private, and 196
public ones. The city of Sydney possesses a mechanics’
school of arts, a female school of industry, an infirmary and
dispensary, a benevolent asylum, an Australian subscription
library, a chamber of commerce, a museum and botanic
gardens, a botanic and horticultural society, and various
other societies connected with religion, literature, and
science. The press, as usual, lends its aid to the diffusion
of knowledge. In Sydney there are two daily and eight
weekly newspapers, besides one three times, and two, in¬
cluding the Government Gazette, twice a-week: also one
in Goulburn, two in Bathurst, two in Maitland, and one in
Brisbane, published weekly.
There is here, as in the mother country, a variety of re- Religion,
ligious sects, a statement of whose respective numbers will
be found in the annexed classified population table.
It is here to be remarked, that all classes, of whatever
creed, enjoy equal rights, and are equally eligible to offices
of honour or emolument. One-seventh of the land was for¬
merly appropriated to the support of the Episcopal Church :
it is still applicable to the general purposes of religion and
education, but without any distinction of sects, all of which
participate equally in the government fund. The Episco¬
palian Church was formerly within the diocese of Calcutta;
but is now subject to two bishops who reside in the country.
Iheie are, besides, 80 priests of this church, who have the
charge of different districts in the country. There are six
ministers of the Established Church of Scotland, and of
the Roman Catholic clergy an archbishop, a bishop coadju¬
tor, a suffragan bishop, vicar-general, and 38 clergy. The
M esleyan Methodists have 150 congregations, and about
10,000 attendants at public worship, with 24 ordained mi¬
nisters and catechists. The clergymen of the synod of
Australia in connection with the Established Church of
Scotland are 16 in number. Those maintaining the prin¬
ciples of the Free Church of Scotland are 10. There are
also 11 ministers belonging to the Presbyterian synod ; five
Congregational churches; one Baptist church ; one Ger¬
man evangelical church, and a Sydney Bethel Union.
284
AUSTRALIA.
Australia.
New South
Wales.
Finance.
New South Wales Census, 1851 ; classified with reference to Religion.
Religion.
Name of Division.
Counties.
Argyle   
Bathurst 
Bligh  
Brisbane 
Camden   
Cook 
Cumberland   
Durham 
Georgiana 
Gloucester 
Hunter  
King   
Macquarie 
Murray 
Northumberland 
Phillip 
Roxburgh  
St Vincent  
Wellington 
Westmoreland 
Church
of
England,
Total population in the twenty )
Counties /
Stanley (reputed County)  
Total within the Settled Districts
Squatting Districts.
Bligh   
Clarence 
Darling Downs   
Lachlan 
Liverpool Plains  
Macleay 
Maneroo (including Auckland) ....
Moreton (excluding Stanley) 
Murrumbidgee   
New England 
Wellington 
Burnett   
Maranoa  
Wide Bay 
Western Loiver Darling 
Eastern Lower Darling 
Gwydir  
Total in the Squatting Districts
2,511
2,686
513
965
4,810
1,947
40,526
3,701
680
1,710
805
1,076
1,051
1,835
7,799
402
1,271
1,065
934
508
Church
of
Scotland.
Wesley¬
an Me¬
thodists.
76,795
1,964
78,759
Total in New South Wales
578
1,111
1,091
1,181
1,494
270
1,765
106
2,417
2,257
727
412
59
207
63
153
487
499
695
47
231
1,145
330
6,046
1,513
215
623
40
94
207
323
1,451
60
274
485
118
123
Other
Protes¬
tants.
Roman
Catholics
14,519
526
15,045
14,378
93,137
182
196
280
187
228
19
429
35
500
621
158
104
6
29
31
36
70
237
698
8
32
563
245
5,182
534
26
188
25
148
35
78
1,111
20
163
47
11
173
43
59
8
5
119
18
4,964
83
2
18
2
44
6
77
198
10
11
17
9,524
262
9,786
24
17
19
44
4
9
12
3
56
4
14
7
3,111
18,156
222
Jews.
I Mahome¬
tans and
Pagans.
5,684
451
2,086
2,234
419
483
2,912
968
23,247
2,014
600
609
190
1,131
326
1,506
4,537
188
819
949
527
729
6,135
40
34
37
52
11
2
22
3
47
52
2
19
3
9
1
46,474
1,396
47,870
75
21
2
15
4
2
667
5
1
11
38
53
i
13
1
Other
Persua-
General
Totals.
16
12
112
1
1
1
1
17
10
909
9
9
10
7
2
94
19
370
77
1
1
11
12
48
4
”2
1
1
5,465
6,405
1,004
1,733
9,663
3.541
81,114
7,928
1,525
3,149
1.063
2,505
1,637
3,886
15,207
674
2,538
2,572
1,609
1.541
442
345
563
1,420
602
86
1,446
73
1,637
1,228
596
204
16
66
35
100
170
337 9,029
10,008 6,472 56,899
918
185
168
353
3
2
2
7
16
14
1
7
4
61
979
12
12
174
21
3
51
2
27
7
102
86
i
1
669
11
680
154,759
4,787
159,546
10
4
7
1
9
2
1
”5
4
8
3
1
2
2
499
60
1,291
1,721
2,173
2,892
2,385
391
3,689
272
4,671
4,197
1,512
852
85
406
132
291
737
27,697
852
740
187,243
Australia.
New South
Wales,
The following is an abstract of the revenue of New South
Wales in the years ending 31st December 1851 and 1852
respectively:—
Head of Revenue.
Customs. -   
Licenses, postage, fines, fees, &c. ...
Revenue derived from gold 
Territorial revenue     
From the clergy and school estates
1851. 1852.
L.153,540 L.217,021
124,253 134,704
33,810 61,817
89,534 86,871
4,461 5,243
L.405,598 L.505,656
The revenue of the customs chiefly arises from a duty on
the importation of spirits, tobacco, wine, tea, and sundry
other articles. The territorial revenue includes licenses and
leases to occupy crown lands.
For the last twenty years, the trade of this important com- Commerce
mercial colony has been forcing itself gradually upon the at¬
tention of our merchants and manufacturers. The rapid in¬
crease in the quantity and value of its exports, and the large
proportionate consumption per head of British merchandise
by its inhabitants, have ranked it among the first of our
trading colonies. So great is the demand for manufac¬
tured goods, according to the latest advices, that the ware¬
houses and stores are actually becoming empty, and the
colonial traders are reaching an unheard-of anomalous con¬
dition in the history of commerce, namely, having an in¬
creasing market with wealthy customers, but lacking wares
to sell to them. Even laying aside the value of the gold
AUSTRALIA. 285
Australia, exported, the staple commodities of wool and tallow raised
in the colony are sufficient to purchase for the colonists in
New South a foreign market as much as L.8 per head of ordinary im-
YVales. ports. The first of these articles demands some further
notice. The imports of this valuable staple from the Aus¬
tralian colonies have increased so abundantly, that it has
not only superseded entirely the importation of German
and Spanish wools, but lately the French manufacturers
have been large purchasers at the London sales of Austra¬
lian wool, which they consider the best wool in the world
for their fine fabrics. The origin and progress of this im¬
portant branch of industry is remarkable. In 1810, only
167 lb. of wool were imported into Britain from Austra¬
lia and Van Diemen’s Land; a portion of which was sold
for 10s. 4d. per lb. In 1815, 73,171 lb. were imported;
m 1825, 323,995 lb.; in 1830, 1,967,309 lb.; in 1836,
3,564,532 lb.; and in 1852, it has reached in the aggregate
from all our Australian colonies the enormous quantity, in
round numbers, of 45,000,000 lb. Of this total weight, New
South Wales contributed 15,268,473 lb. The colony was
indebted for the introduction of merino sheep to the enter-
prizing spirit of Mr J. M‘Arthur, in 1793. The flocks
now in Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and New Zealand,
number on their united pastoral lands, in 1853, upwards of
20,000,000 of sheep. The quantity of tallow produced is
also important, and materially affects the quotations of Rus¬
sian tallow in the British market. In 1850, the export of this
article was valued at L.l67,858, quantity 128,090 cwt., which
decreased in 1851, for want of labourers, to 86,460 cwt.,
valued at L.l 14,168; and in 1852, notwithstanding the ab¬
sorption of labour at the gold fields, the tallow exported was
84,464 cwt., valued at L.l 14,168. Gold, now forming the
largest item on this export list, shows a continued increase,
even by the month, at the rate of 50 per cent. From June
1, to December 31, 1851, the amount exported was, at co¬
lonial valuation, L.468,336; during 1852, it rapidly in¬
creased to L.2,744,961 for the year ; and from January 1,
to April 1, 1853, L.800,000. Hides also form a consider¬
able article of export. The number shipped in 1851 was
68,641 ; in 1852, 73,104. Whale oil formerly composed a
large staple export from New South Wales; but it has
decreased latterly, and only a few whaling ships leave the
port of Sydney. The bulk of the sperm oil exported is
obtained from the American whalers which frequent Port
Jackson to refit their ships. In fact, our more enterpriz-
ing neighbours in this peculiar pursuit seem to monopo¬
lize the whole trade in the southern seas, where it is esti¬
mated that they have upwards of 600 whaling ships afloat.
New Zealand flax {Phormium tenax) also formed once
a promising export from that country through New South
Wales; but the Maori race have almost given up the la¬
bour of dressing it, and the little that is prepared is manu¬
factured into ropes in the country. A small quantity of
timber, consisting of cedar-planks, is also exported. Coals,
as we have before remarked, form a large item in the
intercolonial export trade with the colony ; and grain, an
import of considerable value. The total value of the im¬
ports in 1852, according to accounts laid before parliament,
was L.l,563,931; of the exports, L.l,796,912; which, how¬
ever, does not include the value of gold taken away by pri¬
vate hands. Amongst a population of 197,168, these give Australia,
an average import of about L.8 for every man, woman, and ^ ^
child in the colony, and an export of upwards of L.9. The New South
shipping has increased along with the commerce. In 1850, Wales,
the shipping inwards consisted of 421 vessels, of 126,185
tons, and outwards 506, of 176,762 tons; in 1851, 553, of
153,002 tons, carrying 7955 men, inwards, and 503, of
139,020 tons, with 7988 men, outwards ; and in 1852, 673,
of 183,002 tons, 9377 men inwards, and outwards 654
ships, of 139,020 tons, and 8130 men. Ship-building has
not increased in proportion with the requirements of the
colony. In 1841, 35 were built, of 2074 tons, and 110
vessels registered, of 11,250 tons; and in 1849, only 38
ships were built, equal to 1834 tons, and 126 were regis¬
tered, equal to 8504 tons; the decrease being still greater
in 1852.
Prior to 1817 the currency consisted principally of the Currency,
private notes of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, publicans ;
and the amount was sometimes as low as sixpence. In that
year the Bank of New South Wales was established, with
a capital of L.20,000, whose notes superseded this objec¬
tionable currency. Subsequently the capital was increased
to L.300,000, and the bank exists in a flourishing state to
this day. The same cannot be said, however, of the second
bank, established by local shareholders in 1825, known as
the Bank of Australia, with a capital of L.300,000 paid up ;
for after eighteen years’ mismanagement, the directors had
to prop up their bankrupt circulation by borrowing at a
large interest from other banks, which ultimately not only
swallowed up the assets of the company, but the unfortunate
shareholders sustained further loss than their shares. In
1834, British capital and experience was brought to bear
upon the commercial transactions of the colonists, by the
establishment of the Bank of Australasia, with a paid-up
capital of L.900,000, which obtained a charter of incorpora¬
tion, and, with varied success, still exists. The most suc¬
cessful bank in Australia, is the Union Bank of Australia, an
Anglo-Australian joint-stock bank, with unlimited liability,
having a paid-up capital of L.820,000. From a report of
the directors now before us, the amount of profit for the six
months ending in the colony June 1852, was L. 107,344,
enabling them to pay a dividend, by way of interest, at the
rate of 13 per cent, for the half year,—an unparalleled re¬
sult in legitimate banking. There is another colonial bank
which has met with but indifferent success, from the unscru¬
pulous tampering of its directors and officers with the funds.
This is the Commercial Bank, which in consequence has
been completely remodelled, and is likely to succeed. All
these banks issue notes, which are more readily accepted by
the colonists than gold or silver; and since the advert of the
gold discovery, they have a plethora of gold in their coffers,
with a large paper currency. The two Anglo-Australian
banks have branches throughout all the principal towns and
cities in Victoria, South Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and
New Zealand. Besides these joint-stock banks, there is a
savings-bank under the control of the government, con¬
ducted on the same scale as British savings-banks. The
private banks give no interest upon deposits. The following
table shows the amounts of their respective circulation, total
liabilities, coin assets, and capital paid up.
New South Wales..
Commercial 
Australasia 
Union of Australia.
Notes in circu¬
lation.
L.311,174
146,899
182,074
238,424
Total Liabi¬
lities.
Coin and
Bullion.
Total Assets.
Capital paid up.
L.l,602,119
588,627
651,623
726,847
L.565,216
224,794
297,297
341,567
L.l,996,280
784,203
599,052
743,970
L.878,571 I L.3,569,216 L.l,428,874 I L.4,123,505
L.300,000
198,556
900,000
820,000
L.2,218,526
286
AUSTRALIA.
Australia.
Victoria.
Geogra¬
phy-
History.
Bass, 1798.
The whole amount of British coin in the colony, at the
J end of the first quarter of 1853, was estimated in round
numbers at L.2,000,000.
II. Victoria, or Port Phillip, is situated in South-
Eastern Australia, between the colonies of New South Wales
and South Australia. It is separated from the former by a
straight line from Cape Howe to the nearest source of the
Murray, and thence by the course of that river to the east
boundary of South Australia. From the latter province it
is divided by an artificial boundary in the meridian of 141°
E. Long., marked out by pits and cairns of stones. Its
area is not far short of 85,000 square miles, or about 2000
square miles greater than that of England, to which it
bears a remarkable resemblance in shape. At an approxi¬
mate calculation, it is about ^-d part of the entire island of
Australia.
While the history of the parent colony of New South
Wales exhibits throughout the fostering care of the go¬
vernment, and the small part taken by the free settlers in
effecting a settlement on its shores, the early accounts of the
settlement of Port Phillip exhibit the contrary, where the
former were unsuccessful in their attempts, and the latter
successful to a degree unparalleled in the history of British
colonization. It must be remembered, however, that the
pioneer-settlers who planted the germ of that now great and
flourishing colony, were either old colonists, or the native-
born sons of the first settlers in Van Diemen’s Land and
New South Wales, and, consequently, brought all the ex¬
perience of practised colonizers to bear upon their enter-
prize. Moreover, its contiguity by sea to the one, and by
land to the other, rendered it more available for the speedy
occupation of the settlers than the more distant settle¬
ments of South Australia, King George’s Sound, and Swan
River.
In reviewing the history of this colony, there are no
changes in the administration to interfere with the con¬
tinuity of the narrative. The present lieutenant-gover¬
nor, Charles Joseph Latrobe, was appointed to the office of
civil superintendent of the Port Phillip district, then a de¬
pendency of New South Wales, in 1839. This appointment
was the first held by a government official possessed of ple¬
nary powers over this young colony; although Mr Stewart,
a magistrate of the territory, as early as 1836, proclaimed
the jurisdiction of the New South Wales government; and
in 1837—8, Captain Lonsdale held the office of police ma¬
gistrate. Since that period, Mr Latrobe has conducted the
affairs of the colony, under the control of the Sydney exe¬
cutive, with uninterrupted sway under Sir George Gipps
and Sir Charles Fitzroy, until the 1st July 1851, when
the colony was erected into an independent province, and
he was continued in his appointment under the title of
lieutenant-governor.
In 1 /98 the adventurous Mr Bass, a navy surgeon sta¬
tioned at Sydney, with the slender means and equipment
fmnished by a whale-boat, discovered the strait which now
bears his name. During this cruise, he entered one of the
harbours on the mainland, which he called Port Western,
which lies about twenty miles eastward of Port Phillip’.
The latter harbour was first entered on the 10th January
1802, by Lieutenant John Murray in the Lady Nelson.
Governor Hunter, who ruled the colony of New South
Wales at that time, named it after his predecessor, the first
governor of Australia. Ten weeks afterwards,’ Captain
Matthew Flinders, in H.M.S. Investigator, surveyed its
shores, and constructed a chart, wfith sailing directions for
vessels entering the harbour. In 1803 Colonel Collins was
despatched to form a penal settlement on the southern shore
of the bay; which, after a short trial, was abandoned as a
failure. Another attempt in 1826 by Captain Wetherall,
with a party of soldiers under the command of Captain
Wright, to form the nucleus of a settlement on the shores of
Western Port, was likewise abandoned at the end of two Australia,
years. Although the geography of the northern shores of
Bass’s Strait from Cape Howe to Cape Otway was well Victoria,
known to sealers, and the crews of whaling vessels who fre¬
quented the bays and estuaries in the pursuit of their avoca¬
tions, still nothing was done in the way of occupying or
forming a station on the mainland, either by public or private
enterprize, until the year 1834, when the brothers Henty of
Launceston, Van Diemen’s Land, established a whaling
station at Portland Bay. This was followed up in the en-
suing year by a party of colonists in the same town, who had
formed themselves into an association for the purpose of
colonizing the shores of Port Phillip. These gentlemen,
however, through some unforeseen delay, were forestalled in
their objects by John Batman, an enterprizing native-born
colonist of New South Wales. He entered between the
heads of Port Phillip in May 1835, and at once took up a
commanding position on the bluff where the lighthouse now
stands, with the view of appropriating the whole territory.
For this purpose, he entered into a preliminary treaty with
the aborigines on the spot, to cede to him a large tract of
land for the consideration of a few gewgaws and blankets.
He then crossed over to Van Diemen’s Land; formed an
association with fifteen Hobart Town colonists; returned
and took formal possession of 600,000 acres of land in the
present Geelong country, for an annual tribute of mer¬
chandise to the ignorant natives, amounting to the value of
about L.200 sterling.
Meanwhile the Launceston association were equipped for
their enterprize, and, headed by John Pascoe Fawkner—a
newspaper editor—entered between the heads of Port Phil¬
lip in November 1835. Batman stood anxiously watching
the progress of the little schooner from his doubtfully-ac¬
quired territory, and warned the intruders off. Nothing
daunted, however, they sailed up to the head of the harbour,
and entered a deep and narrow river, until they were stopped
by a rocky precipice, over which flowed a cataract of fine
fresh water. Finding the country not only fair to the view,
but covered with a black loamy soil, they at once landed
their live stock and stores, taking possession of a large tract
of country in the same manner as Batman had done, by
making a contract with the aborigines. Both of these con¬
tracts were afterwards declared untenable by the govern¬
ment, and they were ousted from their possessions, receiving,
however, ample compensation for their enterprize. The
river which Fawkner and his party had ascended, is now
called the Yarra Yarra; and the ground he first encamped
upon is the site of the present city of Melbourne. Eighteen
harvests have been reaped upon the fertile lands around that
spot since Fawkner first ploughed the soil; and where his
green pastures and fields of corn then stood, with scarcely a
dozen occupants, there are now massive stone edifices and
densely-packed streets; while a town and suburban popula¬
tion of 80,000 souls swarms along the banks of the busy
river, forming a chaos of human happiness and misery, brute
wealth and educated poverty, distress and luxury, virtue and
vice, in such extremes as nowhere else can be found in the
British dominions.
This vigorous colony made early and rapid progress to¬
wards material prosperity. Ship after ship crossed the
straits from Van Diemen’s Land, laden with sheep, cattle,
horses, and merchandise. Over hill and dale, by stream
and lake, these flocks and herds cropped the luxuriant grass,
which waved in the breeze like a corn field. The shores rung
with the shouts of the mariner and the herdsman, and the
woods re-echoed the bleating of the sheep, the lowing of the
kine, and the bark of the white man’s dog, which soon scared
the timid kangaroos and emus from their disturbed haunts.
The destroying axe soon converted the primeval trees into
human habitations; while the busy ring of the anvil told the
wondering aborigines that the workers in metals had become
AUSTRALIA.
Australia, the lords of their land. These simple children of nature
looked on at the strange doings of the white people, not so
Victoria, much with terror and amazement, as with childish curiosity
and confidence. In the midst of a group of their black,
filthy, attenuated, and diminutive forms, a tall giant-man of
a lighter complexion stood forth one day and tried to jabber
a few English words. This savage was an Englishman,
named Buckley, an escaped convict from Colonel Collin’s
settlement, who had lived amongst them for thirty-three
years. This man, so far from attempting to raise the abori¬
gines with whom he lived nearer the condition of the civil¬
ized man, had cast off his civilization with his last worn-out
garment; and, assuming no other clothing than the skins of
opossums and kangaroos afforded, and armed with the spear
and the boomerang, he descended to the condition of the
savage.
By the year 1837, these practical colonizers, amount¬
ing to 450 individuals, could muster 140,000 sheep, 2500
head of horned cattle, and 150 horses. Governor Ar¬
thur of Van Diemen’s Land was desirous of annexing the
new colony to that island; but Governor Bourke of New
South Wales, within whose jurisdiction it was, forthwith took
possession of the territory and its harbours by deputy in the
name of King William IV., whose name was given to the
sea-port in Hobson Bay. Shortly after he visited the colony
in person, scattered the claims of contending parties to the
winds, and planted an official staff in the newly-acquired
district, headed by Captain Lonsdale as chief magistrate.
He likewise brought surveyors with him, who laid out the
towns and sold the land. Melbourne on the Yarra Yarra,
William Town on Hobson Bay, Corio on Geelong harbour,
were sites chosen by this active and intelligent governor for
the future sea-ports and capitals. The settlers bought the
town allotments at from L.30 to L.100 per acre, which was
then considered full value. The squatters from New South
Wales soon found their way overland with their beeves and
flocks, and the Sydney merchants shipped valuable cargoes
of merchandise for the consumption of the new inhabitants.
The settlers from New South Wales re-emigrated thither in
such multitude, that in 1839 they w7ere as numerous as their
neighbours from Van Diemen’s Land. By this time, also,
the fame and prosperity of this obscure dependency was
bruited abroad throughout the United Kingdom ; and thou¬
sands of emigrants sailed from the British ports in that and
the two following years, until their numbers formed the ma¬
jority of the population. Consequently the previous jar-
rings, jealousies, and contending interests of the rival set¬
tlers from the two colonies of Van Diemen’s Land and New
South Wales, were absorbed in the general welfare of all,
which brought together a united and intelligent community.
The spirit of speculation, however, ruled the transactions of
the majority, and “ Van Diemonians,” “ Sydneyites,” and
“ New-Comers,” were hurried round and round in a vortex
of commercial, land-jobbing, and live-stock schemes of
speedy aggrandizement which fairly upset the ordinary trans¬
actions of sober-minded men, until the most cautious capi¬
talists, who had ventured into the market with substantial
means, found them swept away by a bubble system of paper
currency. Land which had been originally purchased at
L.100 per acre in town allotments at Melbourne, realized
enormous sums varying from L.5000 to L.15,000. Sheep,
cattle, and horses, which, in New South Wales and Van
Diemen’s Land, had cost respectively not more than 3s.,
15s., and L.8 per head, sold for 50s. L.12, and L.100. In
consequence, also, of a drought which prevailed in the old
districts, coupled with the great demand for grain, flour rose
from L.15 to L.80, and in some instances as high as L.100,
per ton so that the usual sixpenny 2 lb. loaf sold for Is. 9d.
Tea from L.3 per chest rose in a few months to L.18;
and sugar from 3d. per lb. to Is.; while manufactured ar¬
ticles for immediate consumption brought equally extrava-
287
gant prices, which altogether more than quadrupled the or- Australia,
dinary expenses of living in the town of Melbourne.
Notwithstanding the high prices of the necessaries and Victoria,
luxuries of life, all classes of people were able to indulge in
good living. Money, or its representative, seemed plentiful
among them; for the banks freely discounted the bills and
promissory-notes of doubtful parties. In fact, the whole rou¬
tine of business throughout the colony was conducted on a
universal loose system of credit and paper transactions ; from
the family grocer’s bill to the sale of a sheep station, or the
allotments of a whole towmship. Consequently almost every
one lived in an extravagant manner, indulging in the most
expensive luxuries, from the wealthy merchant down to the
common bullock-driver. The land sales by auction were
conducted under gay booths ; where a dejeune was laid out
for all comers to partake of, and the bids of the purchasers
were obtained after they had gulped down plenty of cham¬
pagne. A sort of mania existed among the people in their
taste for this expensive wine; for the shepherds and bul¬
lock-drivers would imitate their “betters” by vulgar bravado,
and empty a dozen bottles at a time of that liquor into a
bucket and drink it out of tin pots. Governor Gipps sig¬
nificantly remarked, in one of his despatches at this time,
after a personal visit to Port Phillip, that the “neighbourhood
of Melbourne was literally strewed with champagne bottles.”
Still, it is interesting to record, that although the labouring
classes committed many extravagancies in the flush of ma¬
terial prosperity, the criminal records of the colony exhibit
less than an average amount of crime.
This state of affairs continued until it reached its climax
in 1841, after which a rapid decline in the soundness of
commercial transactions followed, and the people became
sobered down. Days of reckoning came amongst the land
purchasers, when the “ men-of-straw,” through whose hands
the conveyances passed, fell to the ground. Property of
every description was forced upon the market for the pur¬
pose of raising funds to meet engagements, and thus sold at
ruinous prices. Money was borrowed on landed property, and
on sheep and cattle stations, at 20 and 30 per cent.; and
the stockholders got heavily into debt with the merchants,
while their wools were declining in value in the English
market. The British merchants became clamorous for their
returns, which the colonial agents had used in their general
speculations, and locked up in local securities, while the
banks restricted their discounts, and disallowed interest on
deposits. At last the commercial fabric of society through¬
out the entire community, gave way with a crash which
ended in a general insolvency. Bankers and money-lend¬
ers could recover nothing but paper from their borrowers;
all credit was stopped in new transactions, and for a season
mutual confidence amongst mercantile men was at an end.
d he affluent merchant and stockholder of to-day became
the insolvent beggar of to-morrow. Everywhere a gloom
was cast over the social aspect of the recently gay and
lively town of Melbourne; and despair at a return of pros¬
perity drove many of the colonists back to the mother
country.
For the relief of insolvent debtors, and the better distri¬
bution of their assets, an act was framed by Justice Burton,
one of the puisne judges of New South Wales, and passed in
1842 by the governor and council. This act “purged”
1356 insolvents in Sydney, and 282 in Melbourne during
the three years which followed; and these 1638 insolvencies
cancelled debts to the amount of not less than three and a
half millions sterling; the assets producing an average divi¬
dend of eighteenpence in the pound.
The Port Phillip district, as the colony was termed in the
government reports, suffered least from this commercial
crisis. The monetary depression was of shorter duration
there than in the middle districts of the colony; which was
accounted for by the more recent date of her transactions.
Australia. Her young and vigorous constitution, however, soon reco-
vered from the paper epidemic. The colonists still pos-
Victoria. sessed their rich pastures and agricultural land ; and, putting
their shoulders to the wheel, they soon overcame the difficul¬
ties in their way, and arrived at even a more flourishing con¬
dition than before, having learned prudence and caution
from this short lesson of adversity.
Since this period a valuable article of export has been
added to the staple commodity of wool, by boiling down the
surplus stock for the sake of the tallow, skins, and hides ; and
a cattle station in Australia has become as profitable as a
sheep station. The colonists, turning in disgust from the
visionary speculations of the town, looked towards the country,
where they saw in their boundless pasture lands the true
source of wealth in the colony. From the lakes of Geelong
in the S., to the Lachlan River in the N.; from the Murray
River in the W., to the Australian Alps in the E., their in¬
creasing flocks and herds had spread over the lowlands and
uplands, the plains and the forests ; and during the succeed¬
ing years of her history, until the date of the gold discovery,
this “ Australia Felix,” as Sir Thomas Mitchell had appro¬
priately termed it, was one vast pasturage. She exported no¬
thing but the produce of her rich pasture lands, and yet the
value of these alone, in the year 1850, yielded an average of Australia
L.15 a-head for every man, woman, and child in the colony,—
an export average never yet attained in the statistics of any Victoria,
similar community in the world. The gloomy years of bank¬
ruptcy had now passed away, and the enterprising colonists
looked forward with hope to the future; and they were not dis¬
appointed. While, in the early days of the colony, they im¬
ported their sheep and cattle from Van Diemen’s Land, that
country, with its large convict population and limited pas¬
ture land, now received importations of live stock from the
mainland. So genial was the climate, and so extensive were
the grazings for the support of these flocks, that they in¬
creased on an average 90 per cent, per annum. From
250,000 sheep in 1839, when they ceased to be imported,
they had increased in 1851 to 6,320,000. Though their
value had fallen with their increase, still the quantity of wool
they produced was the same, and it had now reached its full
value in the London market of from Is. 6d. to 2s. 3d. per lb.
After 1844 the state of the colony was very satisfactory ;
things looked more cheering as old debts became cleared
off, and the mercantile class with renewed energy exerted
themselves to keep the balance of trade in favour of the
colony. There was bustle once more in the port, as the
Articles.
Beef, tons 
Cattle, head
Sheep, do.
Tallow, tons.
Wool, lb 
1844.
284
2,435
44,515
492
4,326,229
1845.
412
3,538
28,320
377
6,841,813
1846.
1,126
4,925
31,107
112
6,406,950
1847.
867
6,057
54,535
561
10,210,038
1848.
614
6,696
64,191
1,345
10,524,663
1849.
1,205
5,168
55,670
3,482
14,567,005
1850.
975
5,287
57,422
4,489
18,091,207
articles of export crowded the wharfs and warehouses. The
shipping outwards to England nearly equalled that from the
port of Sydney ; and there was considerable coasting traf¬
fic with that port, Launceston, and Hobart Town, while a
regular steam communication was established between these
seaports, Geelong, and Melbourne. For the increased pro¬
duction of tallow, extensive “ boiling-down ” establishments
were erected on the banks of the Yarra; large beef-salting
works had previously been built; and every year the ex¬
port of wool increased in a ratio of 50 per cent. The above
table will show the increase and decrease of these exports
during the seven years of progress which followed the com¬
mercial depression, and more particularly their enormous in¬
crease after the gold discovery.
The amount of imports increased in like manner as the
population augmented; and there were attracted to the
shores of Port Phillip, not merely immigrants from the
mother country, but old settlers from the neighbouring colo¬
nies. Farmers left Van Diemen’s Land to employ their agri¬
cultural experience on the rich alluvial soils of the country,
which were found to be from 5 to 20 feet deep. Vine-
growers, likewise, from Switzerland, were induced to settle
at Geelong for the cultivation of the vine. Gardens and
corn fields sprung up in all directions as the forests were
cleared and the ground tilled. The squatters in the inte¬
rior grew a sufficient quantity of grain for their own use, so
as to become independent of foreign supplies. In the town
of Melbourne large steam-mills were erected to grind the
corn; ship-building yards and docks were constructed on
the banks of the Yarra ; handsome stone and brick build¬
ings everywhere replaced the old wooden erections; and
churches, banks, custom-house, gaol, and other public edi¬
fices, gave a substantial and dignified appearance to the
principal streets. The warehouses and stores were becom¬
ing again well supplied with merchandise; the banks were
thronged with a class of customers, who dealt more in ready
cash than formerly; and the shipping in Hobson Bay re¬
sounded with the cheerful cry of the sailors packing the bales
of wool. In 1850—fifteen years after the first settlement of
the colony—the annual export of a population of 70,000
amounted to upwards of one million sterling. To lay this
remarkable result fully before the reader, we extract some
valuable statistical matter from Mr Westgarth’s Report to the
Melbourne Chamber of Commerce, in April 1853.
Imports, Exports, and Population of Victoria, from com¬
mencement to 1850.
18361
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
Imports.
71,000
205,000
392,000
335,000
264,000
183,000
151,000
248,000
316,000
438,000
374,000
480,000
745,000
Exports.
| 14,000
21,000
78,000
155,000
139,000
204,000
278,000
257,000
464,000
425,000
669,000
675,000
755,000
1,042,000
Total of
External
Trade.
92,000
283,000
547,000
474,000
468,000
461,000
408,000
712,000
741,000
1,107,000
1,049,000
1,235,000
1,787,000
Population.
Average of
Year.
1,200
3,000
5,000
7,800
10,000
14,000
19,000
22,000
24,000
28,000
34,000
42,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
“ Altogether, considering the advantages possessed by the people,
and the general capabilities of this province for the maintenance
of a large and prosperous community, we were always inclined to
give it the preference over its sister provinces as the most desirable
field for the means and labour of the intending colonist. Its greater
fertility of soil (Van Diemen’s Land excepted)—its richer pasture
land—its possessing more permanent streams—and, above all, its
central position in the midst of this group of colonies,—marked it
1 From JL 1th October 1836.
AUSTRALIA.
289
Victoria.
Gold Dis-
:ov ery.
Australia, out from its first settlement, in our opinion, as the most eligible
i , J location for the first province in Australia. But we were not pre¬
pared to see the fulfilment of our predictions so rapidly approach¬
ing, at the late discoveries of incalculable treasures of gold, in the
very midst of its rich pasture lands, and in the subsoil beneath its
loamy corn fields, where the precious metal has been found in
abundance, far surpassing the wildest tales of Mexico or Peru. A
country naturally calculated to support as dense a population
as England—to which it bears a close resemblance in its shape
and superficies—must soon outstrip the less favoured provinces
contiguous, and draw, as in fact it is now doing, the labour and
wealth from them to her own shores ; so that we may look upon Vic¬
toria as destined to be the Great Britain of the southern hemisphere.”1
When the news of the gold discovery in the Bathurst moun¬
tains reached Victoria, the excitement among the popula¬
tion was as great as it had been in New South Wales; and it
would just be a repetition of our previous account to describe
the effects on the industrial pursuits of the colonists through¬
out Victoria. These are fully detailed in the despatches of
Lieut.-Governor Latrobe. By sea and land the people flocked
to the new Dorado. A reward of L.200 was offered, by public
subscription, to the first discoverer of gold within the boundary
of Victoria. Three months had scarcely elapsed when it was
completely proved that gold deposits existed within a short
distance of Melbourne. In August 1851 a number of persons
established themselves on Anderson’s Creek, 16 miles from
that town, where they were profitably employed. In Oc¬
tober 7000 individuals were congregated at Ballarat, near
Mount Buninyong, where diggings, and a canvas town, were
established upon a tract of land less than a square mile in ex¬
tent. In November there were 10,000 persons on the creeks
around Mount Alexander, digging with ease the most as¬
tounding treasures from the earth. Not only did the diggers
at Ballarat flock to the newer gold field, but the tide of adven¬
turers was turned from the Ophir and Turon, and other New
South Wales diggings, to the great centre of attraction at
Mount Alexander. There was no fable in the matter. The
government and private escorts established for the safe transit
of gold to Melbourne showed a return from that locality alone
of 63,300 oz. within the month of December, while the yield
from Ballarat gradually diminished, as will be seen in the ac¬
companying table from Mr Westgarth’s calculations :—
a i ^ Total
Ballarat.
Mount
Alexander.
September 30   121 —
October 2   247 —
8   2.298 —
15   1,830
22   2,708
29   2,337
November 5  4,719
12....  3,480
15   2,737
26   1,745
December 3  2,886
10  2,906
17   1,302
24   779
31   216
228
965
6,443
10,588
13,783
23,650
18,192
10,077
10,598
Ounces.
121
247
2,298
1,830
2,708
2,565
5,684
3,480
9,180
12,333
16,669
26,556
19,494
10,856
10,814
30,311 94,524 124,835
The year 1852 was ushered in with prospects such as no
community ever possessed before. The fame of the gold
fields attracted adventurers of every class and nation, not only
from New South Wales, South Australia, Swan River, and
Van Diemen’s Land, but from New Zealand, South Ame¬
rica, and California. Unfortunately a large number of des¬
peradoes managed to escape from Van Diemen’s Land, and
began that system of bushranging which spread such terror
among the colonists in the first occupation of Australia.
The small force of military and constabulary at hand was in¬
sufficient to protect the people from the ravages of these
marauders. Not merely in the country and at the gold fields, Australia,
but in the city of Melbourne itself, were their depredations ^
systematically carried on. Even in the public roads adjacent Victoria,
to the city, and in broad daylight, they committed the most
daring robberies. For a time the inhabitants dreaded going
abroad after dark; and the gold-diggers travelled in large
bodies, and well armed. The hesitation of the government
in raising the wages of the constabulary, and increasing the
force, was justly censured. Towards the close of the year,
however, matters were somewhat amended by the enrolment
of large numbers of immigrants into the police force.
By this time the news of the Australian gold discovery
had spread to all parts of the world; and the arrival of several
ships in the port of London, in the beginning of 1852, with
some hundred thousand pounds value of gold, satisfied the
most sceptical that this discovery was a “ great fact.” No
immediate effects, however, were visible amongst the British
public; no excitement existed as was the case when the
Californian gold discovery was first known. Whether the
people were more cautious than formerly, or that the season
of the year was unfavourable for leaving the British shores,
or whether the class most likely to emigrate were unpre¬
pared to encounter the expense of so long a voyage, or,
most probably, from a combination of all these causes, no im¬
mediate or considerable emigration took place. The spring
came, and no greater number of emigrant ships was an¬
nounced for departure to the Australian colonies than in the
previous year, although news had arrived of the astounding
discoveries in Victoria, borne out by large consignments of
gold to London merchants from these colonies, with earnest
solicitations from their constituents to press upon the govern¬
ment and the public of Britain the necessity of sending out
labourer emigrants to save the staple articles of export, wool
and tallow, from destruction from want of hands. Notwith¬
standing that the most powerful organs of the press agitated
the necessity of an immediate and extensive emigration, the
people read and listened with a strange apathy. In May
1852, however, when the news of the gold discovery was
eight months past, and upwards of L.1,000,000 sterling of
the precious metal had been imported from Sydney and Mel¬
bourne into England, the sluggish disposition of the British
public was at length fairly aroused. The people, as usual,
rushed into the opposite extreme, and a reckless and hetero¬
geneous emigration took place amongst the classes least fitted
to encounter the privations of a new country. The tide of
emigration, once commenced, increased with energy through¬
out the summer and autumn. Crowds of intending emi¬
grants flocked from all parts of the United Kingdom to the
ports of London and Liverpool, impatiently suing for pas¬
sages at any price that was demanded. Ship-owners and
merchants could not find vessels enough to supply the de¬
mand. Freights were doubled, fares increased, and charter-
parties were concluded upon most exorbitant terms. Needy
ship-owners and unscrupulous ship-brokers sent the oldest
“ tubs ” they could find, badly provisioned, on the fine-
weather voyage out; the freight and passage-money col¬
lected in several instances amounting to twice the value
of the ship. So great was the increase of shipping in the
London Docks bound for the Australian colonies in the
month of July 1852, that 75 square-rigged vessels, averag¬
ing 500 tons register each, were advertised in the Times
alone ; and the weekly departures for that month from the
ports of London and Liverpool averaged 8000 tons, having
on board upwards of 3000 passengers. The Australian
Exodus, as it was termed by the public journalists, continued
unabated throughout the year. The great attractions of the
\ ictoria gold fields drew thither four-fifths of these emi¬
grants ; one-third of whom at least were physically unfitted
2 o
VOL. rv.
1 Mossman’s Gold Regions of Australia, p. 90.
290
A U S T E A L I A.
Australia, to encounter the privations before them. Heedless of all
v—warnings from experienced colonists, clerks, shopmen, and
Victoria, sedentary people, foolishly embarked with their delicate wives
and children, to risk their fortunes upon the chances of gold¬
digging, while in most instances they left certain advantages
behind. Unaccustomed to sea fare and accommodation,
they were huddled on board these badly-provisioned ships ;
and without the smallest assistance from the ship to land
on a shore, two and nine miles off, upon arrival, the de¬
luded people, at exorbitant charges, were landed at the rate
of 3000 weekly on the shores of Port Phillip harbour. Here
they were if anything worse off than ever. There was not
house-room in the city for one-fourth of their numbers; hence
they were packed ten and twelve in sleeping apartments
not more than that number of feet square, for which they
paid extravagantly. The demand for provisions was such,
and the supply so limited, that famine prices were attached
to the commonest necessaries of life ; and hence arose a state
of confusion, distress, and suffering amongst the human chaos
which peopled the city of Melbourne and the road to the
Mount Alexander gold fields during the last quarter of 1852,
such as no pen can describe.
Meanwhile the riches of this extraordinary region were
disembowelled from the earth by these armies of treasure-
seekers ; who found not only gold, but indications of diamonds,
rubies, and other gems amongst the gold alluvium. Here,
in the nineteenth century, the fairy tale of Aladdin finds
a counterpart in the admirable statistical report of Mr West-
garth, the first chairman of the Melbourne Chamber of Com¬
merce, at their second annual meeting on the 1st April 1853.
“ Export of Gold from Victoria, the produce of that Colony, according
to official returns to the end of the year 1852, distinguishing the
port of shipment, and the place to which shipped.
pensating operation, we have a quantity of gold amounting to Australia
nearly five millions of ounces, the whole of which, excepting some
fractional proportion, has been raised from the soil of this colony yictorja
within the period of 16 months. This quantity, namely, in exact
figures, 4,890,926 oz., gives us by troy weight 407,577 lb., or 203f
tons weight of gold.
“ Of this proportion, I have estimated that only about the one-
fourteenth part was raised during the year 1851, leaving 4,548,780
oz. as the produce of 1852. If we value this latter produce at
the rate of 75s. per oz., a rate which is to-day lower than the cur¬
rent market-price, the result in round numbers is the amount of
seventeen millions sterling, as the value of one year’s produce of
the gold of this colony.”
The following more recent returns show the comparative
yield of the gold fields during the first four months of the
years 1852 and 1853:—
1852.
Ounces.
January   64,834
February   56,108
March   51,865
April   67,556
Total  240,363 689,429
The increase is 449,066 ounces above the produce of the
same period last year, or 187 per cent. But it must be re¬
membered that the fields are now more extensive, and
worked by a greater number of persons. There is no indi¬
cation, however, that the yield is falling off. Another re¬
turn gives the quantity brought down in the last two months
from the several diggings:—
By Government escort.—April 2 to May 19.
J Ounces.
From Mount Alexander  137,485
From Ballarat   34,671
From the Ovens  26,486
From the M‘Ivor   1,410
1853.
Ounces.
186,015
172,329
169,654
161,431
Port of Shipment. Oz. \
Melbourne   1,996,660
Geelong  118,732
Portland  3,039
Port Fairy  1,690
Total  2,120,121/
Oz.
London  1,739,504
Liverpool  20,120
Calcutta  22,000
Singapore   5,396
Sydney   313,912
Hobart Town  1,965
Adelaide  13,813
Hamburgh   3,411
Total  2,120,121
“ In addition to the result shown by the following table, the over¬
land escort, established by the South Australian Government, con¬
veyed direct from the gold fields to Adelaide 228,532 oz. The
first of these overland escorts, after an arduous journey of 450 miles
through the Australian wilderness, entered Adelaide on the 19th
March last, amidst the acclamations of the people, conveying 5190
ounces of gold.
“ General Summary of the produce of the Gold Fields of Victoria, from
commencement in August 1851 to December 31. 1852.
Ascertained- Estimated.
Exported per official return ...
Ditto overland to Adelaide
Unrecorded export, viz., to—
New South Wales 
Van Diemen’s Land  
South Australia 
England, India, &c 
Total exported 
On hand in the colony...
Total quantity produced
Proportion of gold produced 1
in 1851  |
Proportion of gold produced 1
in 1852   J
2,120,121
228'533
364.913
177,680
327.913
3,219,160
709,766
3,928,926
145,146
3,783,780
465,000
67,000
20,000
50,000
602,000
360,000
962,000
200,000
762,000
Total.
2,348,654
829.913
244,680
347.913
50,000
3,821,160
1,069,766
4,890,926
345,146
4,545,780
“ From this estimate, therefore, that is probably not materially in¬
correct in any one particular, and where errors may have a com-
Total  200,052
By private escort.—April 2 to May 15.
From Mount Alexander   48,520
Total brought down by escorts  248,572
To this must be added 20,121 ounces, completing the re¬
turns to the 25th of May, making the whole amount for
April and May 268,693 ounces.
Selected from this aggregate amount of wealth, there are
instances recorded of individual fortune which illustrate the
inexhaustible character of the mines. Within a few days
of each other, in February 1853, three enormous masses of
gold were brought to light—such as perhaps the world has
never seen before. The largest of them weighed 134 lb.
11 oz., of which 120 lb. at least were pure gold. The other two
lumps were 93 lb. 2 oz. 5 dwt., and 83 lb. 9 oz. 5 dwt. respec¬
tively, only a very small proportion being quartz.
Prior to the erection of Port Phillip district into a pro- Topogra-
vince, there were only two counties, Bourke and Grant, phy. i
mapped out; the former embracing Melbourne and its en¬
virons within its boundary, and the latter the town of Corio
and suburbs around Geelong harbour. Since the date ofPlateCI. j
separation from New South Wales, 22 counties have been
added, making 24 in all, which divides two-thirds of the ter¬
ritory into electoral districts. Their names—^beginning at
the eastern boundary and proceeding westward—are, Howe,
Combermere, Abinger, Bruce, Haddington, Douro, Bass,
Mornington, Evelyn, Anglesey, Dalhousie, Bourke, Grant,
Talbot, Grenville, Polworth, Heytesbury, Hampden, Ripon,
Villiers, Normanby, Dundas, Follet, and Rodney. The
capital of Victoria is the city of Melbourne. The next prin¬
cipal towns are Corio (Geelong), William Town, Portland,
Belfast, Kilmore, Wangeratta, Alberton, &c.
What has been stated as generally descriptive of the New
South Wales territory applies to Victoria; the southern^he
shed of waters being analogous to the rivers on the E. coast; country.
and the northern streams of the latter, like the western
AUSTRALIA.
Animal
produce.
Australia, streams of the former, merely tributaries of the great Mur-
ray River. There is in Victoria, however, a greater propor¬
tion of good pasture land, which is indicated by the more
close proximity to each other of the squatting stations. As
an agricultural country, likewise, it is much superior to New
South Wales; not only from the abundance and greater
richness of its alluvial soils, but from its enjoying a cooler
atmosphere, and a more certain fall of rain. Neither is it
subject to the long-continued droughts, which are so de¬
structive in the neighbouring colony to the crops and live
stock, At the same time the blighting influence of the
hot winds —a species of sirocco which blows at midsum¬
mer horn the central desert region—occurs here with greater
devastating power to vegetation than in any other of the
Vegetable Australian colonies. Being situated at the most southern,
produce. and consequently the coldest section of Australia—its settled
districts being almost all between the parallels of 36° and
39 S. Lat. the fruits and other vegetable products are
more restiicted to those of European, we had nearly said
English growth, for the orange does not thrive well; the
banana and pine-apple not at all, while gooseberries and
currants grow very ivell. From the abundance of natural
herbage, nourished by the frequent showers brought by the
westerly winds which prevail, cattle and sheep fatten, and
grow larger than in any of the adjacent colonies. In this
respect, the beef and mutton of Victoria resemble the
butcher-meat of England more than Australian-bred meat
generally ; which may be described as being leaner and
Inferior in flavour to the original stock. Poultry thrive
better also in the colder regions of the Austral isles ; hence
the largest and fattest fowls are reared in Van Diemen’s
Land, and next to it in Victoria. But the supply of fish is
poor; and oysters have to be brought all the way from
Corner Inlet in Gipps Land to the Melbourne market. The
mineral wealth of Victoria is at present confined to her gold ;
but there are indications of coal at Western Port, copper in
the mountain ranges, and cinnabar (sulphuret of mercury)
near Portland Bay.
By the quinquennial census of New South Wales in
1836, the population of the Port Phillip district, exclusive
of aborigines, was 224 persons ; in 1841 it was 11,738; in
1846, 32,879; in 1851, 77,345 ; and on the 31st December
1852, it was estimated at 200,000,
“ Nothing can more decisively attest than this comparison the
marvellous rapidity with which this colony is springing forward
into a mighty nation. Eighteen years ago there was not a civilized
human being residing in the colony of Victoria. In March 1851,
the population of Melbourne was 23,000 : at this moment it is esti¬
mated that the city and its outskirts contain 80,000 souls. The
town of Geelong contained 8000 souls two years ago ; its population
cannot at present be much lower than 20,000. Such are the com¬
mercial aspects of the colony at the moment we write.
“ From a list furnished to me by Mr Khull, it would appear that
the excess of arrivals over departures for the past year has averaged
rather more than 1500 persons weekly, 104,683 having arrived, and
27,022 having left the colony, leaving a net increase of 77,661.
“ ^he following tabular view exhibits the monthly progress of
this immigration and emigration. The great increase observable in
September arises from the tide of emigration from Britain that
commenced to flow into Victoria during that month, and which has
ever since continued. The accessions to the population previousfy
were chiefly from the adjoining colonies.
Month. Arrived. Departed.
January,     7,494 550
February,   7,460 847
March,   5^073 1239
April,    4,111 1511
May>    5,631 1629
June,..  3;872 1614
July,   4,271 2883
August......  6,552 1618
September,    15,855 1841
October,     19,162 3637
November, 10,947 4287
December, 14,255 5866
291
Popula¬
tion.
“The census of March 1851 gave the population of Victoria as Australia,
over 77,000. To the recorded number of arrivals, must be added a i , , ,
large proportion of unrecorded, who arrived in the overcrowded
vessels from adjacent colonies. Some overland immigration also ^ictoria*
took place, chiefly from South Australia, to the gold fields. Adding
the increase by excess of births over deaths, the estimate of 200,000
colonists, as at 31st December last, may be deemed to be within the
actual number. The following is an estimate of the distribution of
this population ;—
Melbourne and suburbs      70 000
Geelong and suburbs    20 000
Other towns and villages     12 000
Other settled population (pastoral and agricultural) ... 25,000
On the mines      73,000
Total..,..., 200,000”1
These extracts require no comment—the figures speak
for themselves. The proportion of sexes at the last census
was, males, 46,202, females, 31,143; total 77,345. Of these,
there were born in the colony, 20,470 ; in England, 28,908 ;
Wales, 377 ; Ireland, 14,618 ; Scotland, 8053 ; other Bri¬
tish dominions, 3425 ; foreign countries, 1494.
Until the 1st July, 1851, this colony was a dependency of Govern-
New South Wales, and was governed by a superintendent ment.
who was amenable to the governor and executive council of
the colony ; and it had the privilege of sending six members
to the legislative council. On that day the district was pro¬
claimed to be in future a separate province, with a lieutenant-
governor, an executive, and legislative councils, on the same
model as the elder colony ; the former to consist of the
colonial secretary, colonial treasurer, attorney-general, and
auditor-general; and the latter to be composed of one-third
ex-officio and nominal members of the government, and two-
thirds elected members. The governor’s salary has re¬
cently been raised by the legislative council from L.2000 to
L.5000, the same as that received by the governor-general.
The same religious equality exists among the various Religion,
denominations in Victoria as in New South Wales. The
Church of England has a bishop and twelve chaplains; the
Presbyterian Church has eight ministers; the Wesleyans
have many preachers and missionaries scattered throughout
the country ; and the Roman Catholic Church has a vicar-
general and several chaplains. The relative proportions of
the religious persuasions by the census in March 1851 stood
thus: Church of England, 37,433 ; Presbyterians, 11,608 ;
Wesleyans, 4988 ; other Protestants, 4313 ; Roman Catho¬
lics, 18,014; Jews, 364; Mahometans, 201; other persua¬
sions, 424 ; total, 77,345.
Educational seminaries have been lacking amidst the ma- Education
terial progress of the colony. In 1851 the number of schools
of all denominations was 74, and the number of scholars
attending the same, of all ages and sexes, was 4890. Not
merely did the turmoil and agitation created by the gold
discovery check the progress of education, but many schools
were shut up, the scholars dispersed, and the shoolmasters
gone to the diggings. From recent accounts a reaction has
taken place in this direction, and in the right quarter. At
Ballarat and Bendigo some of these instructors of youth,
finding it more profitable and easy to resume teaching, have
opened schools under the tents of the diggers at the gold
fields ; while the legislature have voted the sum of L.79,000
for education during the year 1853.
I he revenue of the colony has increased in the same Finance
proportion as everything else. In 1851 it was L.379,824,
and in 1852 it amounted to L.1,576,801. Out of the latter
sum L.452,975 was collected during the last quarter of the
year; and L.253,579 was derived from gold. There is
every probability, therefore, of the revenue keeping up to
this sum during the year 1853, or perhaps beyond it to a
reasonable amount, say a gross revenue of two millions per
annum. . I he expenditure voted this year is upon an
equally gigantic scale ; post-office, L.64,000; public works,
L.719,000; police, L.317,000.
1 Westgarth’s Report to the Melbourne Chamber of Commerce, 1st April 1853.
292
Australia.
AUSTRALIA.
The tariff of the colony, like that of New South Wales,
is framed upon a liberal free-trade scale. They stand re-
pectively as follows :—
Victoria,
s. d.
5 0
New South Wales.
s. d.
2
2
0
0
nil.
n
Oh
0
10
0
0
6
6
9
6
6
H
p. cwt.
2
Brandy, per gallon  1
Other spirits, ditto J
Wine.—In wood, ditto  I
In bottle, ditto  J
Tobacco, per lb 
Sugar.—Raw, per cwt "1
Refined, ditto  J
Tea, per lb 
Coffee, ditto  
Beer.—In wood, per gallon... 1
In bottle, ditto J
Yet the revenue derived from this source alone in the year
1852, was L.342,000 ; while the total value of imports
amounted to L.4,043,896. The exports for the same year
are laid down at L.7,451,549; but on this head Mr West-
garth, from whose valuable report we derive the informa¬
tion, says,
“But with regard to this amount of nearly L.7,500,000, as the
value of the exports for the past year, large as it may appear, the
sum has been ascertained to be very far short of the actual truth.
The greater proportion of our colonial export produce now consists
of gold, and it may readily be apprehended that a large quantity of
this commodity is constantly being exported from the colony with¬
out any official record. The Customs returns gave 1,975,000 oz.
as the quantity exported for the year 1852 ; but an additional quan¬
tity of 1,600,000 oz. had been traced into the adjacent colonies,
or otherwise exported without official record. It may also be re¬
marked that the quantity of gold, as officially recorded, was valued
at the very low rates that were then temporarily current. A care¬
ful estimate on this subject, exhibited in the minute alluded to, gave
as the value of export produce raised in Victoria during the year
1852—no less a sum than L.18,500,000 sterling. But, deducting the
quantity of gold assumed to have been on hand throughout the co¬
lony at that date, this amount is reduced to L.14,880,000, or about
twice the amount set forth in the official records of the custom¬
house.”
Thus it appears that the official returns were far below the
actual value of produce exported from the colony. Much
also of the apparent amount of gold on the export lists of
New South Wales and South Australia was not raised in
those colonies, but in Victoria. More correctly speaking,
therefore, the exports amounted to double the sum on the
Customs returns. In the language of Mr Westgarth, who
at the same time institutes an interesting comparison, it is
thus stated:—
“ The value of the produce of this colony actually exported in
the year 1852 was in round numbers L.15,000,000. With so en¬
couraging a fact we may venture upon an interesting research, and
compare the results of the commerce of Victoria with those in seve¬
ral other instances that are naturally suggested to the mind by our
own present position and more recent history.
“ l. California is our great competitor in the production of gold.
The latest statements that have come into my hands on the subject
of the gold produce of that country are up to March of last year.
California had then entered the sixth year of her golden harvest,
while Victoria had attained the second. At that time the produce
of gold, the sole export produce of California, amounted in value, by
official record, to L.12,000,000 sterling annually, and to this quan¬
tity it was estimated that one-fourth should be added for the
unrecorded export—making a total of L.15,000,000 sterling, the
amount which we have just ascertained to be the annual value of
the export of this colony about the same period.
“ 2. Among British colonies, those of India have hitherto stood
first, as far exceeding all others in the magnificent scale of their
wealth and commerce. The exports for the year 1851 from Cal¬
cutta, the capital and seaport of Bengal, the greatest of the Indian
presidencies, amounted in value to L.11,040,000, or rather less than
three-fourths of the amount of the exports of this colony for the year
succeeding.
“ 3. To proceed to still higher standards of comparison, let us
take the export commerce of Britain itself. The average annual
value of the exports for the four years from 1848 to 1851 amounts
to L.65,565,000 : so that the value of the export produce of this
colony already approaches to one-fourth of that of the parent state.”
It is satisfactory to record, that notwithstanding the ab- Australia,
sorbing influence of the gold fields on every description of
labour, the wool-clip for the year was secured, and showed Victoria,
an increase on the previous two years. In 1850,18,091,207
lb. of wool was exported ; in 1851 it fell to over 16,000,000
lb.; and in 1852 it rose to 20,000,000 lb., the great in¬
crease being accounted for by a proportion of the wool of
the preceding year having been thrown into 1852. Never¬
theless, a gradual increase in the production is evident.
Tallow, however, had decreased to one-half the quantity ex¬
ported in 1850, which was 89,788 cwt., valued at L.132,863.
Before the gold discovery the only two banks in the Currency,
colony were branches of the Australasian and Union Bank
of Australia, which had branches likewise at Geelong and
Portland. At present it possesses five banks, with a circu¬
lation of L.1,327,311 ; and coin and gold in their coffers to
the amount of L.3,034,538. 1 o recapitulate, therefore,
what has been said relative to the revenue, finance, com¬
merce, and currency, we cannot do better than extract the
following summary from Mr Westgarth’s report:
Comparative Summary, 1850—1852.
Revenue Ordinary
Revenue Crown ...
Total Revenue 
Imports 
Exports 
1850.
L.
124.469
136,852
261,321
744,925
1,041,796
Shipping Inwards-
nage  
-No Ton- 11 555
Bank Deposits, 4th quarter
Circulation, ditto 
Coin and Gold  
Number of Banks  
1851.
1852.
Valuation of Melbourne (an- 1
nual value)  J
Population, 31st December...
108,030
X
2
154,063
75,000
L- J
180,004*
199,820
379,824
1,056,437
1,423,909
669
126,411
822,254
180,058
310,724
3
174,723
95,000
L.
845,834t
730,967
1,576,801
4,043,896
7,451,549
1657
408,216
4,334,241§
1,327,311
3,034,538||
5
638,000
200,000
* Includes L.24,404 of gold revenue,
t Includes L.438,845 of gold revenue.
J There are no bank returns for Victoria, as distinct from
New South Wales, prior to 1st July 1851.
§ Of this amount, nearly L.700,000 is deposited by the go¬
vernment. The banks give no interest on any deposit.
|| Of this amount L.1,129,420 consists of gold-dust estimated
either at cost or valuation.
We can give no better retrospect of the foregoing than
the following remarks from the Times newspaper of July 5.
1853:—
“ Eighteen years ago the province of Victoria was a savage and
unknown wilderness, inhabited by a few barbarous tribes, and con¬
tributing no more to the wealth and progress of the world than it
would have done if its shores had been submerged beneath the waves
of the Southern Pacific. From that time to 1851 its progress was
wonderfully rapid—its population had risen to 95,000 souls—its
shipping inwards to 669 vessels, with a tonnage of 126,000 tons,
and its revenue to L.380,000; an increase, we believe, never ex¬
ceeded by any community. Now, mark the difference of a single
year. In 1852 the population had become 200,000, the shipping
inwards 1657 vessels, with a tonnage of 408,000 tons, and the re¬
venue L.1,577,000, of which L.342,000 was raised from Customs.
During the year 1852 the value of imports amounted to L.1,056,000;
in 1852 it increased to L.4,044,000; the exports in 1851 were
L.1,424,000; in 1852 they had reached L.7,452,000 ; but, taking
into consideration the large amount of gold which has left the co¬
lony without being recorded, the total amount of exports is not
probably less than L.15,000,000 per annum; that is, every man,
woman, and child in Victoria produces an export to the amount of
L.75 per head. But even this statement does not do full justice to
this astounding influx of prosperity. The production of gold is
taken from its commencement, when most of the labourers were in¬
experienced, and the machinery they employed rude and imperfect.
The colony was unprepared for so vast an accession to its popula-
AUSTRALIA.
Australia, tion ; and bad roads, and imperfect supplies, and every other physi-
v, / cal difficulty, have impeded the industry of the miners. There is no
symptom of falling off or exhaustion in the gold field ; the supply
Victoria. js practically boundless, and seems to admit of an increase in pro¬
portion to the number of hands employed, and the greater facilities
of transport, supply, and machinery. Seven hundred and twenty
thousand pounds have been voted by the legislature of Victoria for
public works, and, besides this, three railroads have been sanctioned,
one to connect Melbourne with the port, another to connect Mel¬
bourne and Geelong, and another to unite Melbourne and the gold
fields of the interior, each at a guarantee of five per cent, on the
capital advanced for a period of 21 years. We may remark, in
passing, that the town of Melbourne, which in 1851 contained 23,000
inhabitants, had increased by the end of 1852 to a population of
80,000, an amount probably much kept down by the impossibility
of finding house accommodation, and that the population of Gee¬
long had increased in the same period from 8000 to 20,000. Of
the prospects of railways some estimate may be formed from the
fact, that the carriage of supplies to Bendigo and Mount Alexander
last year was at the rate of L.l per ton per mile, and that it is esti¬
mated that the cost of the carriage of supplies during the last Aus¬
tralian winter from Melbourne to these two places would have de¬
frayed the expense of constructing a railway. The fluctuation of
prices has been as extraordinary as the increase in wealth and po¬
pulation. Hay is dearer, weight for weight, than the best quality
of flour, and oats are twice the price of the best imported oatmeal.
Cabbages are Is. fid. a-piece; pears, lettuces, and turnips are 6s. a
dozen; potatoes 24s. a cwt.; ducks, 12s. a pair ; geese and turkeys,
14s. each; and this in a country which until the discovery of gold
had some claims to be considered the cheapest in the world.”
South HI. South Australia. When Captain Sturt discovered
Australia, and explored the Murray River in 1830, and traced its course
down to its embouchure into Lake Alexandrina,—now called
Victoria,—he was of opinion that to the westward of that
river, towards Gulf St Vincent, a rich and fertile land ex¬
isted ; and that probably the lake disembogued into the gulf.
His men at the time had suffered so much from fatigue and
privation, that it would have endangered the safety of the
party if he had attempted to prosecute his researches further
than ascertaining generally the extent of the lake. On his
return to Sydney, however, he represented the matter so
strongly to Governor Darling, that he sent instructions to
Captain Barker, Commandant at King George’s Sound—who
was under orders for New South Wales—to land at Cape
Jervis and explore the eastern shore of the gulf, and ascer¬
tain the outlet of the lake. Unfortunately that gallant offi¬
cer, just as he had completed his task, was inhumanly mur¬
dered by the aborigines at Encounter Bay, while in the
performance of a perilous portion of his duty. Mr John
Kent of the commissariat department, who accompanied
Captain Barker during the expedition, has recorded the par¬
ticulars of this first exploration of the Adelaide country.
The party, consisting of seven persons, landed on the east¬
ern shore of the gulf, and proceeded inland in a north-east¬
erly direction, ascending a range of mountains, of which
Mount Lofty formed the highest peak ; from whence they
could overlook the gulf to the westward as far as York Pen¬
insula. To the northward this range trended in an unbroken
line, which settled the point that the lake had not an outlet
in that direction : they descended accordingly and traversed
the country through some fertile valleys and rich lands on
Sturt’s Creek, until they reached Encounter Bay, where the
lake disembogued itself into the sea through an insignifi¬
cant channel between hummocks of sand. Here Captain
Barker gallantly stripped and swam across the channel, with
a compass to ascertain its position. Mr Kent, in his MS.
narrative, describes the circumstance in these words : “ Cu¬
riosity prompted me to time his crossing. The current was
running out strong; but he accomplished the feat, at 9*58
A.M., in 3 minutes. On arriving at the opposite shore, he
ascended the sandhill, gazed around for a few moments, and
disappeared.” He was never seen afterwards. It was,
however, subsequently ascertained that three aborigines had
speared him, as he rushed into the water to escape from
them : his body was carried away by the tide. Mr Kent on
his arrival in Sydney gave a favourable report to Captain
293
Sturt of the country explored, coinciding with that gentle- Australia,
man’s own impressions. This partial exploration was de- v''*~
scribed by Captain Sturt in his account of his discovery of South
the Murray River, in which he pointed this out as a desir- Australia,
able locality for the establishment of a new colony. Here
accordingly the colonization commissioners of South Aus¬
tralia fixed the site of the future province ; and forthwith de¬
spatched a surveying staff, followed by crowds of emigrants
and a governor, before anything further was known of the
capabilities of the country. The territory claimed by the
ambitious and fallacious colonizers of this province was not
less than 300,000 square miles—about 8^ times the size of
Victoria; but notwithstanding the subsequent explorations
of Captain Sturt to the N. and E. of the Gulf St Vincent,
and Mr Eyre to the westward of Spencer’s Gulf, the country
traversed by Captain Barker and Mr Kent, including what
they saw from the Mount Lofty range, comprises nearly all
the arable or pasture land occupied by the settlers at the pre¬
sent day—an area not exceeding, at the most, 10,000 square
miles of ordinary pasture-land.
The boundaries of South Australia, according to the sta- Geogra-
tutes of 4th and 5th Will. IV., cap. 95, are fixed between Phy-
132° and 141° E. Long., for the eastern and western boun¬
daries ; the parallel of 26° S. Lat. for the northern limit;Plate Cl.
and the southern boundary defined by the sea-coast, includ¬
ing Kangaroo Island. As already observed, this extensive
tract of country measures nearly 300,000 square miles, or
about 192,000,000 acres ; the greater portion explored hav¬
ing been ascertained to be a barren waste, diverging into the
stony desert of central Australia. The portion of this im¬
mense territory actually occupied by the colonists may be
described as all that tract of land situated between Lake
Victoria, ascending the Murray River as far as the “ Elbow”
in 34° S., on the E., and the eastern shore of Gulf St Vin¬
cent to the westward. The attempts to form small settle¬
ments at Spencer’s Gulf and on Kangaroo Island have failed;
and even York Peninsula possesses very little available
country for the sheep-farmer or agriculturist.
This colony was occupied as a British province on theldstory‘
26th December 1836, by Captain Hindmarsh, R.N., who
was appointed the first governor of South Australia. The
powers with which he was delegated, and the constitution
of his government were very different from those possessed
by the early governors of the older colonies in Australia.
With Mr Edward Gibbon Wakefield originated the new
scheme of colonization. That gentleman wrote a series of
pamphlets and letters to prove that colonization may be
reduced to an art; of which he believed he had discovered
the true principle. He held that, by placing a high value
on the unreclaimed lands of a new country, and forwarding
a labouring population out of the sale of those lands, the
emigrants would of necessity work at low wages, as the pur¬
chase of the dear lands would be above their means ; there¬
by securing to the capitalist investing in the land, a large
interest for his money ; and forming at once a community
of labourers and artizans who wovdd minister to the benefit
of the landholders. But, besides these large landholders,
a class of small farmers were to be induced to emigrate, by
disposing of the land in small sections, to be cleared and cul¬
tivated by their families. The allotments of an embryo city,
9 square miles in extent, were to be thrown open at once
to purchasers; so that the whole population should be con¬
centrated around the emporium of trade. The principle
contended for, therefore, was the opposite of what had been
pursued in the pastoral colonies of Australia ; for, while the
latter consisted in the dispersion of the settlers, the new
scheme was that of centralization. Which of them may be
considered the most successful plan of colonization, the
sequel will show. Meanwhile, by the industrious promul¬
gation of these views before the British public, the press,
and ultimately the government, looked favourably upon the
294
AUSTRALIA.
Hind-
marsh,
1836.
Australia, scheme. The result was the formation of a company called
the “ South Australian Colonization Association,” and in
South 1835 they obtained a grant from government of the immense
Australia, tract of land we have already described. The conditions
were, that the land should not be sold at less than L.l per
acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of such lands
should be appropriated to the emigration of able-bodied la¬
bourers to till the soil; that the control of the company’s affairs
should be vested in a body of commissioners approved of by
the colonial office; and that the governor of the province
should be nominated by the crown.
Under these auspices, Governor Hindmarsh landed on the
swampy shores of Holdfast Bay in December 1836, and
with difficulty found his way to the contemplated site of the
proposed city of Adelaide. The distance from the intended
port being seven miles, he was at once impressed with the
error of the iGommissioners’ agents in fixing upon such an
ineligible spot for a seaport town—a fault common, how¬
ever, to new settlements in these distant colonies. His ar¬
guments upon this and other points with the local officers of
the company, led to an unseemly discussion ; so that after
two years’ administration of affairs he was recalled, and left
the colony in 1838.
Meanwhile the emigrants, consisting mostly of “ sur¬
veyors, architects, engineers, clerks, teachers, lawyers, and
clergymen,” with traders and adventurers of every descrip¬
tion, were landed in thousands upon the mangrove swamps
around the anchorage of the future Port Adelaide. After
a very short time the majority of these settlers saw the naked¬
ness of the land, and the absurdity of forming a colony
without cultivating a foreign export. They thought it better,
however, to keep silent, leaving the unscrupulous represen¬
tations of the local agents to go forth, so as to induce others
to come out, that they might dispose of their lands to better
advantage. Then commenced a system of land-jobbing
which can only find a parallel amongst the gambling trans¬
actions during the great railway-mania in England. The
land-orders issued by the commissioners were negotiated like
railway-scrip; and where the land had been actually sur¬
veyed, it passed nominally through, in some instances, as
many as twenty purchasers, rising in value as it was con¬
veyed from one party to another ; payment being made
generally by bills at long dates. In this manner town allot¬
ments which were originally set up to auction at L.2, 10s.
per acre, soon reached the apparent value of L.2000 and
L.3000 ; while country sections obtained at the upset price
of L.l per acre, realized as much as L.100 per acre. Those
who had secured special surveys of 16,000 acres upon pay¬
ment of L.4200 for that number of acres selected from the
whole, sold allotments in imaginary townships at enormous
prices. To this land-mania were added building speculations
on an equally extravagant scale ; and the wages of ordinary
labourers increased to 15s. and L.l per day. These facts, set
forth in the most attractive light, were extensively circulated
throughout England and Scotland, till the emigration fever
rose to a pitch hitherto unprecedented; while the South Aus¬
tralian commissioners in London fanned the flame by pub¬
lishing reports to raise the value of the land-orders issued by
them. These, in several cases, were negotiated oiUChange
at a premium of L.500 upon the order for 80 acres issued at
the upset price of L.l per acre,
Colonel Gawler was appointed to succeed Captain Hind-
marsh, in 1838; and he arrived in the colony on the 13th
October of that year. The apparent success of the land and
building speculations deceived the new governor into a pro¬
digality of expenditure during his administration, for which
he has been unjustly condemned. It was, in fact, not more
than equivalent to the apparent revenue of the country, but
was found, however, at the close of three years, to exceed
that income by L.400,000. Like the majority of the colo¬
nists, he imagined that all this interchange of ■pa'per gave
Gawler,
1838.
value to the land; and as there was plenty of it belonging to Australia,
the commissioners, there was little fear of the territorial
revenue decreasing. As to ordinary revenue there was an South
increasing amount from the customs alone, which promised Australia,
to meet all demands in time. But in 1839 the reaction took
place, followed by a universal bankruptcy amongst the land¬
holders, and the ruin of most of the small moneyed settlers.
As the colony was established at its commencement upon
an insecure foundation, it was no wonder that the inexpe¬
rienced settlers, induced to build up the superstructure,
should have failed in the attempt; for they were mostly
townspeople who knew little or nothing about growing suf¬
ficient food for themselves. Hence their means were all
expended on purchases from the neighbouring colonies. After
three years’ occupation of the country—while they had been
buying and selling land by the thousand acres, and building
towns and villages throughout the country—there were not
1800 acres of land under cultivation, and that mainly con¬
sisted of vegetable and flower gardens in the vicinity of their
mushroom city. In 1840, when the writer of this article ar¬
rived in the town of Adelaide, there was a population of 8489
persons in the town, and only 6121 in the country, making a
.total of 14,610 for the colony in the fourth year of its exist¬
ence. The exports for that year were L.l5,650, or a fraction
over L.l per head; while the imports from Great Britain and
the neighbouring .colonies were above L.273,000, or at the
rate of L.l 8, 10s. per head of population. While the revenue
was not more than L.30,199, the expenditure amounted to
L.169,966. This state of affairs was bolstered up as long
as there was sufficient English capital brought by the emi¬
grants to disburse private accounts, and money raised upon
the governor’s debentures to balance the public debts.
But when the former ceased, and the latter were returned
dishonoured, then the bubble burst. Great distress existed
among the inhabitants of Adelaide at this time; food had
risen to famine prices; and house accommodation was not
to be obtained at any price. Consequently the incoming
emigrants, unaccustomed to hard labour, suffered all the pri¬
vation and disappointment which have so recently been re¬
newed on a more gigantic scale in the neighbouring colony
of Victoria. The writer of this article has paid 3s. 6d. for
the 4 lb. loaf, and Is. 3d. per lb. for meat; and he has seen
100 sovereigns paid for a ton of flour—the surplus stores of
an emigrant ship. These facts are mentioned to show that
there is nothing new in the high price of provisions quoted
at Melbourne in 1852: it is merely the recurrence of a
periodical state of affairs in the history of Australia. It will
readily be supposed that much distress and privation oc¬
curred amongst these intelligent, well-educated, well-inten¬
tioned, but misguided colonists; the record of which should
be a warning lesson to those amongst the middle classes
who put faith in the schemes of colony-mongers.
The Anglo-Saxon race, however, are not easily crushed
by disappointment; and it may be said with truth, that no¬
where in the southern hemisphere has the energy of the race
been better vindicated than here. The men rose up from
their despondency ashamed of their unproductive hands, when
they saw with what cheerful activity the weaker sex turned
from the refinements of drawing-room life, to all the drud¬
geries of household work. Hundreds who had never put a
spade in the ground before, left the town, and, on the fer¬
tile lands of the Mount Lofty range, and in the interior,
cultivated the soil, and herded cattle and sheep. The result
was that the colony not only became self-supporting but ac¬
tually exported its grain, besides wool, tallow, and beef. Here
were the true elements of colonial wealth and prosperity. It
was by this labour, and these animals that value was given
to the land; and it was at length found that the true principle
of self-support was that of dispersion instead of concentra¬
tion. The healthy progress of the colony for the next five
years is honourable to the industry and perseverance of the
AUSTRALIA.
Australia.
Grey,
1841.
Discovery
of copper,
1842.
Effects of
the gold
discovery.
people of South Australia; and the flourishing condition of
the colony in 1845, compared with 1840, as laid before a par¬
liamentary committee in 1847 by Mr T. F. Elliott, is a bright
spot in its history.
1840.
Total population  14,610
295
In town
In the country 
Number of public houses.
Convictions of crime 
Acres in cultivation  
Exports of colonial produce L.15,650
Revenue  30,199
Expenditure  169,966
8,489
6,121
107
47
2,503
1845.
22,390
7,41.3
14,977
85
22
26,218
L.131,800
32,099
36,182
Meanwhile Governor Gawler was recalled in 1841, and
succeeded by Captain Grey (now Sir George Grey, Gover¬
nor-general of New Zealand), who had some previous know¬
ledge of the colonial affairs from a residence in Western Aus¬
tralia, and who had visited the notorious model colony on
the way home. By a course of strict retrenchment he
reduced the expenditure in two years from L.104,47l to
L.29,842. Added to this also was the discovery of copper
in 1842, which increased the value of exports. The great
yield of the Burra Burra copper mine did not occur, however,
until after the above statistics were taken. This new article
of export gave a fresh impetus to the trade and commerce
of the port, which was by this time shifted a mile lower down
the creek, while a good road was constructed between
it and the capital. The history of copper-mining in Aus¬
tralia—as represented by the Burra Burra mines—like every
other discovery and produce in this wonderful land, eclipses
all that has been recorded of such workings in the Old World.
It was not mining in the ordinary sense; it was quarrying.
The leviathan mass of oxidated and carbonated copper ore
lay on the surface in a kind of hollow where it was con¬
nected with a vein afterwards worked in the rock below.
Success attended the efforts of the colonists in every
direction as this new source of wealth distributed its bene¬
fits to all around. The fortunate discoverers and early
shareholders realized fortunes; and one proprietor, who
bought 100 shares at L.5 each, was in the receipt of
L.l 1,000 per annum three years after it had been worked.
Miners were brought direct from Cornwall; and every de¬
scription of machinery was used to excavate the ore. Coal
not being found in the colony, smelting operations were
but slowly proceeded with. Many cargoes, however, were
shipped to Sydney to undergo this process. Altogether the
province of South Australia stood in as fair a position to
rival its neighbour Port Phillip in the beginning of 1851,
with the large export of its copper, and the probable yield
of lead, silver, iron, and other valuable metals ascertained
to exist in its mountain ranges at that date, as the most
sanguine colonists could wish. That year, however, brought
about a second period of depression in its short history which
threatened to annihilate its commerce.
The gold discovery, which was the precursor of unex¬
ampled prosperity to New South Wales and Victoria, proved
deeply injurious to South Australia. The very fact of her
population having become more a mining than an agricul¬
tural or a pastoral people militated against her. In twelve
months after the discovery of gold in the Bathurst Mountains,
it has been calculated that, out of a population of 70,000,
12,000 adults, and 4000 children, almost entirely of the male
sex, left that colony. The city of Adelaide was left nearly
destitute of able-bodied men, the mines were deserted, the
stations abandoned, and almost every industrial occupation
was at a stand still; while the government of the colony was
for a time paralyzed. It was but for a time ; for the legisla¬
tive council—recently elected by the colonists—and the
governor, Sir H. E. F. Young (Sir George Grey having
gone to New Zealand), passed an act making ingots of gold,
stamped by authority, a legal tender throughout the colony. Australia.
This, added to the successful attempt of Mr Tolmer in form-
ing a practicable route from Adelaide to Mount Alexander, South
brought a large portion of the gold from the colony of Vic- Australia,
toria, and some from New South Wales, into the coffers of
the South Australian merchants and the treasury. Those
also who had left their families behind—which four-fifths had
done—sent their earnings by this overland escort. These,
to a certain extent, were expended in the country, while
large quantities were purchased by the merchants, which
drained the coin and bullion out of the banks. According
to an estimate made by Mr Khull, bullion broker at Mel¬
bourne, the quantities of gold dust taken to Adelaide by
land and sea from Victoria were as follows :—»
“By overland escort, March to December 1852, 228,533 oz.;
shipped from Melbourne, 17,331 oz.; taken by private hand,
178,160 oz.; estimated quantity taken in addition to above,
166,687 oz.; shipped from Adelaide to London, February to De¬
cember 1852, 263,564 oz.
“ Amount remaining in the banks, assay office, and private hand
at Adelaide, 299,816 oz.”
Valuing the gross amount at 76s. per oz., this would
give a sum not less than L.2,215,167 added to the wealth
of the colony; which, during the quarter ending on the
23d March 1853, has been the means no doubt mainly of
swelling the exports to the enormous sum of L.954,760,
a sum out of all proportion for the ordinary exports of that
now insignificant colony when compared with its flourish¬
ing neighbour. W ith all their undoubted and praiseworthy
energy, the South Australian colonists have not been suc¬
cessful in discovering a profitable gold field of any extent
within their territory. The Echunga diggings, which pro¬
mised much at first, have been almost abandoned. The fol¬
lowing notice, which we extract from the South Australian
Register, of the 7th February 1853, gives some idea of the
latest yield of the Adelaide gold fields.
“Although there is at the diggings everything to indicate gold
in large quantities, none have succeeded in realizing their hopes.
The majority content themselves with what they can get on Chap¬
man’s hill and gully, knowing that, if a fresh place is discovered,
they will stand as good a chance as those who have spent months in
trying to find better ground. The quantity of gold taken to the
assay-office having, during four consecutive weeks, amounted to less
than 4000 oz., the governor has proclaimed that after the 17th
of February 1853 the office will be closed,”
With these favourable returns, a reaction has taken place
in favour of the copper mines. Many who had been unsuc¬
cessful at the gold fields, or who preferred working for the
baser metal, returned to the colony where they had more
comfortable homes. The Kapunda, Burra, and other mines,
which had ceased working for more than twelve months, were
again put into operation ; and the shares of the latter which
had fallen from L.270 to L.60, were quoted in March 1853
at L.l34^-. Land likewise had risen in value. On the 1st
June 1853, town lots were selling as fast as they were of¬
fered, at an average value of L.l 15 per acre; amount¬
ing to L.26,000 per month. The government had trans¬
mitted L.45,000 to the emigration commissioners in London,
for the introduction of labour, although the colony had
L.l41,000 in the hands of that body for the same purpose.
Agricultural operations were likewise progressing satisfac-
torily, and high prices obtained ; while the ensuing harvest
promised to be abundant. Until, however, this colony can
raise from her own soil an equal amount to that which she
now borrows, she cannot be classed along with the rich co¬
lonies of Australia. 1 hat no community in that land is more
deserving of such a position is allowed on all hands. “ Our
neighbours of South Australia,” says Mr Westgarth, in al¬
lusion to the delays, expense, and obstruction on every
hand, which swell up an enormous account against the
colony of V ictoria, “ have in these respects set us an
example. Inferior in natural resources, they have sur¬
passed us in energy of character, both of government and
296
Australia.
South
Australia.
AUSTRALIA.
Topogra¬
phy-
General
aspect
of the
country.
Soil.
people. The misfortunes of 1840 and 1841 with which they
were bowed down had scarcely passed over ere they appear
again erect and prosperous before us, as producers of the
finest wheat on the London Corn Exchange ; an expression
equivalent, I may add, to that of the finest in the world. 1 he
gold fields of Victoria have again depressed them, but they
are up and doing, as before, to make the best of what is left.
Our highly auriferous soil is an accident, but the immediate
projection of a road between Adelaide and Mount Alexander
is a principle ; and the first escort that traversed the new line,
bringing with it L.21,000 worth of gold, gave alike the
triumph and the renewal of such energy.”1
The settled lands of this partially explored colony were
divided at an early date into nine counties, namely, A e-
laide, Hindmarsh, Gawler, Light, Sturt, Eyre, Stanley,
Flinders, Russell. In August 1851, two new counties were
added—Robe and Grey. The territory is also divided into
hundreds, each averaging about 100 square miles. 1 he capi¬
tal of the province is the “ City of Adelaide, which is laid
out upon nine square miles of land, of which about one-mnth
is built upon and inclosed. Within the environs of this town
are scattered a number of villages; including Klemzig, a
village composed entirely of German immigrants, luent}-
five miles over the Mount Lofty range there is a larger ham¬
let of the same people called Hahndorf.
If we speak of the general aspect of South Australia as
contained within the limits of its available country, it comes
under the general description of the Victoria territory and
New South Wales; the greater proportion, however being
what is locally termed a “ broken country” more allied to the
east-coast ranges of the latter, than the extensive midu-
lating open forest lands of the former. The Mount Lofty
range, at the same time, is not more than ten or twelve miles
distant from the eastern shore of Gulf St Vincent; whereas
the ranges in New South Wales are seldom less than 80
miles distant from the coast. The shed of waters, likewise,
which flows from the hills through the narrow flat where
the town of Adelaide stands, consists of a few insignificant
streams ; and although they have mostly been denominated
“ rivers” by the company’s surveyors, there is not one deserv¬
ing more than the ordinary appellation of “ creek.” The
only navigable stream amongst them is an inlet, through a
mangrove swamp from the gulf. On the eastern shed of t e
Mount Lofty range lies the great lake Victoria, and its equally
gigantic feeder the Murray, which we have described else-
where. The two peninsulas which form Spencer’s Gulf, are
at the best indifferent forest land, with small particles °f al¬
luvial soil, the great mass being barren and worthless. The
settlement at Port Lincoln has been abandoned on account
of the poverty of the country.
The country between the eastern boundary of Lake I or-
rens and the Darling has been stated to be available for
pasture land. We must be cautious, however, in accepting
the reports of explorers despatched purposely to find good
land in a barren country. The explorations of Captain Sturt
to the northward, and Mr Eyre to the westward—on whose
accuracy we can place implicit reliance—described the great
mass of this territory as a region of desolation, where the har¬
diest indigenous plants and animals cannot find sustenance.
On the alluvial slopes of the Mount Lofty range there is
some of the finest agricultural land in Australia. The com¬
mon average of wheat grown there is 45 bushels to the acre.
So abundant was the yield in 1845, that after exporting about
195,000 bushels, chiefly to the Mauritius and England, the
farmers had upwards of 150,000 bushels on hand over and
above what was required for home consumption. And it is
a fact significant of the progress of the colony, and the energy
of the settlers, that, while in 1840 they were dependent al¬
most solely upon foreign supplies of flour and grain, having Australia,
only 2503 acres under cultivation, it increased in 1841 to ^
6722 acres ; in 1842, to 19,790 ; and in 1843, to 28,690, ofSouth
which nearly 23,000 acres were in wheat crop. In the year Australia,
ending April 1850 there were 64,728^ acres under cultiva¬
tion ; of which 41,807 were in wheat crop ; potatoes, 1780;
gardens, 1370; vineyards, 282; and 13,000 acres in hay.
In 1851 the land under crop was not less than 71,728 acres.
The climate at Adelaide and its environs is about the climate,
same average temperature as Sydney; although the latter
city is more than 1° in Lat. N. of it. From its situation,
likewise, on a sand flat, very little elevated above the waters
of the gulf, and its distance from the cool sea-breezes on
the S. shore of Kangaroo Island, the atmosphere is in gene¬
ral more oppressive than the open country around Port Jack-
son. At the same time South Australia enjoys the salubrity
of climate generally maintained throughout the temperate
regions of Australia from Cape Leeuwin to Cape Howe ;
and it has also its share of the Austral simoom. Accord¬
ing to the observations of Mr Wyatt, communicated to the
government by the colonial surgeon, James^George Nash,
“the thermometer in summer averages 73 Fahr., and in
winter 55° Fahr., shewing a mean temperature for the year
of 65° Fahr.; being only 1° higher than the mean tempera¬
ture of Madeira.” “ There is no endemic disease in South Diseases.
Australia. Bilious, remittent, and intermittent fevers are
scarcely known. The prevalent fever is closely allied to the
congestive fever of Bengal, and chiefly affects persons uevvly
arrived. Eight-ninths of those cases that terminate fatally
occur in persons who have not been one year in the colony.
Organic disease of the liver is rare. Dysentery is one of
the prevalent diseases, but yields readily to treatment.
As already shown in treating of New South W ales under yegetable
this head, the soil and climate is equally adapted for the and animal
growth of grain and of European fruits and vegetables. The produce,
indigenous grasses, however, which have made the pastoral
productions of Australia equal to the most extensive in the
world, are but limited. The live stock within the colony
in 1851 was estimated at 1,350,000 sheep, 105,000 cattle,
and about 7000 horses. Cattle thrive better on the pasture
lands than sheep. Within the hundreds, pastoral leases are
annual; without, they are of 14 years’ duration ; and the
present leases comprize about 10,686 square miles, ihe
revenue derived from occupation of land for pastoral pur¬
poses is only L.7984. „ , .
The native birds are similar to those of the other soutn- Animals,
eastern colonies; and poultry of every description thrive
equally well. The fish in the gulf are also of a like kind; and
the fresh-water cod found in the Murray River are so large
and abundant, that at one time some enterprizing colonists
preserved them for market. Like many other useful pursuits,
this has been temporarily abandoned during the gold mama.
The mineral productions of this colony are numerous and Minerals,
varied; including jasper, chalcedony, and opal; iron, lead,
and copper. The quantity of copper ore exported in the year
ending 31st March 1852 was 7122 tons; and of smelted
copper, 39,225 cwts.
In 1840 the population was 14,610 ; in 1845, 22,390 ; m Popu a;
1850, 63,900, of whom 7000 were Germans. Ihis latter lon*
element in the population of South Australia gives it a dis¬
tinctive character from any of the other Australian colonies ;
and it is pleasing to see these industrious Saxon emigrants
live so peaceably amongst their Anglo-Saxon brethren. “ In
the course of 1851 as many as 4221 emigrants were re¬
ported to have left the colony for the gold fields. This emi-
o-ration subsequently increased to such an extent, that at one
time the capital was said to be almost abandoned by its male
population. Subsequent accounts, however, appear to show
1 Mr Westgarth’s Report to the Melbourne Chamber of Commerce, April 1, 1852.
2 Thirteenth General Report of the Colonial, Land, and Emigration Commissioners, p. 141.
AUSTRALIA. 297
Australia, that the emigration is in great measure only temporary—that
the bulk of the emigrants leave their families behind them,
iiouth and after a short stay at the gold-fields return with the pro-
iustralia. fits of their venture, which in many instances they invest
in the purchase of land.”1 “ At the end of 1851 the inhabi¬
tants, exclusive of a small detachment of military and the
aborigines, are estimated at 66,538, and on the 31st March
1852 at 61,218 ”2
rovern- Before the promulgation of the recent act granting to
nent. all the Australian colonies a free constitutional government,
the administration of affairs was vested in the governor, as¬
sisted by an executive council, composed of the colonial se¬
cretary, the advocate-general, the surveyor-general, and the
assistant commissioner: to these were added four crown no¬
minees. The elective principle has now been introduced
into the legislature ; and the governor-general of Australia
is empowered to act as local governor within the province,
when he visits it in person.
teligion In this colony, as in Victoria and New South Wales, there
ndeduca- }s n0 dominant church recognised by the state. From 1847
to 1851 an act existed empowering the governor to grant a
sum out of the public funds in aid of religion (not less than
L.50, nor more than L.150), to any religious body collect¬
ing an equal amount by voluntary contributions. The new
legislative council, however, refused a renewal of this act,
when it expired on the 31st March 1851. The number of
churches and chapels, during the year ending at that date,
which had received public bounty in aid of buildings and
stipends, was 103, and the sum appropriated L.4431. The
number of schools receiving aid on the same terms, a con¬
tinuance of which was sanctioned by the new legislature,
was in 1851, 132; the amount of aid being L.3310, and
the number of scholars 4276.
inance. The revenue of the colony has increased in a satisfactory
manner from the period of reaction in 1843, though unfor¬
tunately burdened with the debt incurred during Colonel
Gawler’s administration. This debt originally amounted
to L.405,433 in 1841. In that year, however, Parliament
struck off L. 155,000 for necessary disbursements, and the
treasury agreed to pay L.45,936; thereby reducing the debt
to something more than L.200,000. This became a colo¬
nial bonded debt, represented by debentures guaranteed
by the government. Governor Grey reduced this sum to
L.85,800 in 1848, at the period of his departure for the
governorship of New Zealand. From that date until Oc¬
tober 1851, the present Lieutenant-governor Young has re¬
duced it to L.l0,300, having refrained from paying it off
entirely on account of the depression of the Land Fund re¬
venue. A comparison of the revenue and expenditure for
the years 1840, 1845, and 1851, will show the revolution in
the finances of this colony since it became a British pro¬
vince, independent of the company and the colonization
commissioners. The latter body was dissolved shortly after
its declared inability to meet the drafts from the colony, and
the former association has recently become extinct.
1840. 1845. 1851.
Revenue  L.30,199 L.32,099 L.l69,469
Expenditure  169,966 36,182 143,981
The items for 1851 are exclusive of the territorial re¬
venue, which amounted to L.107,201, and the expenditure
to L.72,292. The amount expended under the head of pub¬
lic works in 1851 was L.l8,228.
amerce The commerce and currency of South Australia have
cur- undergone various fluctuations. In 1841 the imports from
'' Great Britain and the colonies amounted to about L.273,000,
and the exports to L.53,500 ; in 1842 the former fell to
L.l63,000, and the latter to less than L.40,000. The latter Australia,
gradually rose as the corn and copper swelled the import list,
until 1849, when it amounted to L.485,951; and it felf slightly South
in 1850, on account of a decrease in the mines, to L.483,745. Australia,
For the quarter ending 23d March 1853, the imports were
L.440,328, and the exports L.954,760. The export of
wool in 1849 was 2,243,086 lb.; in 1850, 2,841,131 lb.;
and in the year ending 31st March 1852, 3,281,648 lb.
The export of tallow was in 1849, 3867 cwt., and in 1850,
5271 cwt. The tonnage inwards and outwards at Port
Adelaide for the year ending April 1849 was 112,338 tons;
in 1850, 160,497 tons ; in 1851, 166,950 tons. The cur¬
rency, which was of a very objectionable kind issued by
private traders at the commencement of the colony, was
superseded by the establishment of the South Australian
Bank, and a branch of the Bank of Australasia, and latterly
a branch of the Union Bank of Australia. These banks
gave great facilities to the mercantile portion of the com¬
munity by negotiating their paper currency ; which, at the
time of the gold discovery, had reached an unusual amount.
This event influencing the local trade, created a panic
amongst the merchants; but with their usual judgment and
foresight, they shipped off their surplus stock of merchan¬
dise to the gold colonies, receiving the dust in payment,
which at once relieved them from their engagements. “ The
amount of current paper under discount in the three local
banks before and after the panic is reckoned thus:—South
Australian Bank before, L.280,000, after, L.120,000 ;
Bank of Australasia, L.l60,000, afterwards, L.60,000 ;
Union Bank of Australia, L.120,000 to L.70,000 ; that is,
L.560,000 reduced to L.250,000 in about three months, an
improvement quite unprecedented, and which before its ac¬
tual occurrence might have been deemed impossible.”3 Not
the least important result of the gold discovery will be
the effect of the intercolonial trade with Van Diemen’s Land
and South Australia in uniting more closely in social and
political unity this whole group of colonies; especially New
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. Hitherto the
intercolonial traffic between their capitals was very limited,
especially between Melbourne and Adelaide. Their origin
having been contemporaneous, and their products similar,
they had no variety of commodities to interchange, while
their tariffs were formed on the old protection principle. Not
only has the latter been modified to modern free-trade po¬
licy since the gold discovery, but the value of the gold
transmitted by land and sea from Melbourne to Adelaide
during the year ending 31st December 1852, amounted to
L.2,215,167. Ihe farm produce and bread stuffs alone
shipped in return realized during that period L.250,000, or
more than half the imports into Victoria under that head. Al¬
though a certain amount of jealousy still exists between New
South Wales and her more fortunate younger sister, the
traffic between the ports of Sydney and Melbourne has aug¬
mented in proportion with the prolific yield of the Victoria
gold fields, thus materially cementing all interests. In al¬
lusion to this subject in a political point of v iew, we quote
the liberal observations of Lieutenant-governor Young.
“ The year 1851 is memorable for the introduction of the
elective principle of representation into the legislature, the
free action of constitutional government, and for Her Ma¬
jesty’s gracious appointment of a governor-general of Aus¬
tralia, empowered to act as governor of each of its provinces
when within the territory. This last-mentioned preliminary
step towards a political confederation of the Australian co¬
lonies has proved very opportune and provident. The dis¬
coveries of rich deposits of gold, the more frequent inter¬
course thereby occasioned not only between Australia and
1 Thirteenth Report of the Colonial, Land, and Emigration Commissioners, p. 38.
2 Reports of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions, presented to Parliament 1852, p. 221.
3 Despatch of Sir II. E. F. Young, Reports of the Colonies, p. 228.
VOL. IV.
298
Australia.
AUSTRALIA.
Western
Australia.
Geogra¬
phy-
General
History.
Swan
Kiver.
Great Britain, but also between the different settlements
themselves both by sea and land, and the certainty that the
steam navigation of the River Murray will now at last be
effected, are circumstances which must accelerate, and were
perhaps providentially designed to produce, that social union
of the provinces on this continent, of which a common origin,
allegiance, language, and legislation have formed the natu¬
ral foundation, constantly strengthened and extended as it is
by increased migrations from the parent state.
IV. Western Australia.—A line drawn due A. and S.
upon the maps of Australia from the middle of the Great
Bight on the S. coast to the head of Cambridge Guh on
the N. coast, along the meridian of 129 E. Long., forms the
eastern boundary of this colony; the coast line to the west¬
ward forming its N., W., and S. boundaries. Its extreme S.
is West Cape Howe, in 35. 10., and its extreme Cape
Londonderry, in 13. 45., both headlands being m . a .
Thus, the greatest length of Western Australia is 1457
British miles, by an average width of 700 miles, giving an
approximate area of 1,019,900 square miles. One-half may
be considered within the influence of tropical meteorology,
the other half within the temperate zone. This territory in¬
cludes the earliest discovered portions of Australia. I he
proclamation of such extensive boundaries for this colony
was apparently intended for the purpose ot excluding any
other power from forming a settlement on the coast; as
there was ample room at the S.W. angle known as Leeuwin
Land for any settlement likely to take root in the country.
As it is, there are not more than 3000 square miles ot land
around the Swan River settlement, and only a few hundred
square miles in the vicinity of Albany, King George s Sound,
occupied by the settlers as agricultural or pastoral lands
in 1853. When we take into consideration that this colony
has been established so far back as 1829, we cannot but
conclude that it must either be naturally ill-adapted for a
British settlement, or that something radically wrong in-its
management must have retarded its progress so far behind
its contemporaries on the E. coast. As will be shown after¬
wards, both of these influences have checked the auvance-
ment of Western Australia.
In August 1829 Captain Stirling, who had previously ex¬
plored the coast, arrived at the proposed site of the new
settlement on the Swan River, to which he was appointed
lieutenant-governor. He found that several ships had ar¬
rived from Britain in the previous months of June and July
with numbers of anxious settlers ; who, at the veiy outset,
were discouraged by the appearance of the land on the banks
of the Swan and Canning Rivers, besides encountering the
inclemency of the weather (for it was winter in Australia)
without any other shelter than the tents they had brought
with them. By the end of the year there were 1290 per¬
sons in the colony including non-residents ; and others
were gradually flocking in without any previous preparation
having been made for the accommodation of their wives and
families. In fact so little care had been taken to plan out
the proceedings of the government and the situation of the
colony, that there was not an acre of ground surveyed until
several months after the first arrivals. All that was known
of the proposed settlement existed only on the map—where
counties and towns were liberally scattered over the sup¬
posed surface of the land. This, coupled with the fact that
the majority of the newly-arrived settlers were townspeople
or small capitalists, unaccustomed to manual labour, and un¬
fit under any circumstances to struggle with great difficulties,
soon produced a state of general suffering and distress. The
governor did all he could to alleviate the hardships and dis¬
appointments of the settlers; but his own circumstances
were hardly better than those of the rest, both he and his
officials having undertaken their duties on the stipulation of
payment in land. Instead of a thousand or fifteen hundred Australia
pounds a-year, he was to obtain a grant of 100,000 acres z-*"
of land, and his subordinates 20,000 acres, down to 2000 Western
and 3000 acres in proportion. In like manner, if a settler Australia.,
brought wealth, in the shape of agricultural implements,
live stock, or labourers, he was to receive an equivalent for
the benefit he thereby bestowed on the colony, by a grant
of land. If a builder erected government works, or a sur¬
veyor parcelled out the land, they were both to receive a
portion of their remuneration in land. In fact so much had
been left to this system of barter, that the government and
the colonists had entirely overlooked the necessity of a suf¬
ficient metallic currency to negotiate ordinary transactions.
Hence they were often unable to purchase the necessaries
of life from the neighbouring colonies. Meantime, so ut¬
terly paralyzed were the authorities, that they even neglected
to survey the land which they considered the pabulum ot
their existence. Persons settled down where and how they
liked on the banks of the Swan and Canning Rivers. The
land they had expected to be surveyed, and the towns they
had expected to be built, were nowhere to be found. Up¬
wards of fifty ships had arrived by March 1830 and nearly
2000 immigrants with property to the amount of L.100,000,
while scarcely twenty houses had been erected for their ac¬
commodation. At last a township was marked out on the
Swan River, called Perth, and some degree of order began
to appear out of the chaos by the close of the year, as the
governor took up his quarters at this future capital; not,
however, before many of the most energetic emigrants had
either left for the neighbouring colonies, or returned home
to warn their fellow-countrymen from proceeding to this
Utopian colony. . . , .
The history of New South Wales recorded the sufferings
and privations experienced by the pioneers of that colony,
although they were selected from a proper class for the pur¬
pose. Much more, therefore, was it to be expected that
such hardships should fall to the lot of the first settlers at
Swan River, who were totally unfitted for the laborious
enterprize of founding a colony. The ladies and gentlemen
who formed the 'pioneer corps of settlers were landed upon
the shores of a naturally sterile region without any greater
preparation for the grave and difficult undertaking ot found¬
ing a new British province, than if they had gone out upon a
holiday excursion in the woods. There is no greater fallacy
entertained by theoretical colonizers, than this romantic
method of forming new colonies. Colonization is a work ot
the most profound and serious nature, and does not bear to
be handled by quacks and empirics in political economy. It
is a matter for the grave deliberation of the state, which oug it
to protect the people from the cruelty of those who receive
their money for lands which have no value imparted to them
by labour. The agrarian system of colonization attempted
in this instance proved a total failure, and to this day not one
tithe of the lands granted has ever been properly surveyed.
For twenty years after the disembarkation of the first co¬
lonists, the Swan River settlement has struggled through
a feeble existence. Governor Stirling was succeeded by
Governor Hutt, who tried manfully to restore confidence
to the colonists, and induce new settlers to come out. tie
in turn was succeeded by Governor Fitzgerald, tie Pr^se
ruler. In vain have they attempted, with the assistance
of the colonists, to raise the colony on a par with her sister
provinces in South-eastern Australia a1nd.Van, p a
Land. So late as the year 1848, things had reache
state of general depression, that the inhabitants had take
it seriously into consideration whether it would notbe adv
able to abandon the settlement altogether. this ^
there was a demonstration on the part ot the neigh > &
lonists—which we have noticed elsewhere—against the Jana
1 Despatch of his Excellency Lieutenant-governor \oung. Ixepoits, p. -28.
AUSTRALIA.
Australia, ing of convicts on the eastern shores of Australia. It oc-
curred to this^ remote community to petition for what their
Western more successful neighbours refused. Consequently in 1849,
Australia, exactly twenty years after the first settlement, a band of
convicts arrived from the parent state, and at once gave new
life and vigour to this languishing colony. A correspondent
of the Times at Perth, writing in January 1853, says, “The
advent of convicts, after three years’ experience, has been
found to contribute more to the well-doing of the pockets of
the settlers than detriment to their morals.” The most satis¬
factory results have been received of the progress of the
colony under these circumstances to the 8th June 1853.
The inhabitants at Perth had held public meetings express-
ing a desue for the importation of 1000 convicts annually.
Up to that date 2000 had arrived; and a less severe system
had been adopted towards them than that which had pre¬
vailed in Van Diemen’s Land and New South Wales, and
with the most beneficial results. If this class of labourers
had been sent out to clear the wilderness, and construct
roads, prior to the arrival of Governor Stirling, and the well-
meaning non-labouring colonists who accompanied him, how
different a position might Swan River now have held amon0-
the flourishing provinces of Australia!
King The settlement at King George’s Sound was formed much
iieorge s earlier than that at Swan River, in anticipation of a projected
Sound. scheme of colonization by the French government. It was
effected in 1826 by the government of New South Wales,
who despatched a detachment of the 39th regiment under
Major Lockyer for this purpose. After four years’ occupa¬
tion as a military post, the settlement was ordered by the
home government in 1830 to be transferred to the go¬
vernment at Swan River, both being within the new colony
of Western Australia. During the next twenty years of its
existence it survived actual desertion, in consequence of its
excellent harbour being frequented by whaling ships, which
found abundance of whales off the coast. Since the esta¬
blishment of steam communication between England and
Australia, it has come into notice as the first coaling station
for the steamers on their outward voyage, via the Cape, to
South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales; and there
is every likelihood of the little township of Albany becoming
a thriving seaport. “ The Sound is a magnificent road¬
stead, with from 7 to lo and 20 fathoms water, completely
sheltered from S.W. to E., and partially by two islands to
the S.E. It is only open to southerly winds, which in
this locality bring fair weather. On the W. the Sound is
separated by a long tongue of land, terminated at its north¬
ern extremity by Point Possession, from the Princess-Royal
Harbour. The entrance to this nearly circular bay is be¬
tween Point Possession and Mount Clarence ; being not
more than 200 yards across, with a depth of 4^- fathoms water.
Princess-Royal Harbour is capable of containing many hun¬
dred vessels : it is the finest harbour known to exist in Aus¬
tralia to the W. of Spencer’s Gulf. It enjoys an equable
climate, the thermometer, during nineteen months’ obser¬
vations, ranging from 40° to 76° Fahr. Vegetables also grow
luxuriantly.”1
Topogra. At the outset of the colony there were fifteen counties
aid out on the map, arranged in apparently compact sections
of about forty miles square, along the coast from Cape Le-
schenault to Point Hood, namely, Twiss, Perth, Murray,
Wellington, Nelson, Sussex, Lanark, York, Grantham,
Wicklow, Goderich, Stirling, Hay, Plantagenet, Kent. Sub-
SqUxint y elcven were added t0 these along the territory to
the N., which was named generally Australind; and from
recent explorations promises to furnish good pasture land for
sheep and cattle. These counties are, Melbourne, Glenelg,
299
Grey, Carnarvon, Victoria, Durham, Lansdowne, Hawick, Australia.
Beaufort, Minto, Peel. The principal places claiming the -v/-—
title of towns are Freemantle, Perth, and Guildford, on the Western
Swan River; Kelmscott on the Canning, and Albany at Australia.
Princess-Royal Harbour.
The general aspect of the forest scenery, mountains, rivers, General
and coasts, is the same as on the E. coast, which has been view of the
already described ; with this difference, that the mountains country,
and rivers are upon a less extensive scale. In comparison,
the former seldom attain half the height and extent of range;
while we have no evidence as yet of any stream approach¬
ing to the Murray in its ramifications. Much however re¬
mains to be explored in this quarter. “ The highest moun¬
tain known is Koikeunneruf near King George’s Sound,
which attains the altitude of 3500 feet. The principal rano-e
of hills extends in a northerly direction from the S. coast,
near Cape Chatham, for at least 300 miles.”2 This range
no doubt is continued more or less parallel with the N.W.
coast, about the same distance inland, j udging by analogy, as
its greater counterpart on the eastern coast; the great Aus¬
tral desert between forming a barrier to any internal com¬
munication from the one coast to the other. Although the Plants,
botany of these two great meridian ranges, trending in a
general course N. and S. from the middle of the S. tem¬
perate zone, to the middle of the Tropic of Capricorn, is
generically the same, yet the majority of the plants are spe¬
cifically different. Probably from the lesser heights of the
mountain ranges failing to absorb the same amount of mois¬
ture as those in the higher altitudes of the Australian Alps,
the vegetation of the temperate regions of Western Aus¬
tralia is of a more arid nature than that in the S.E. lati¬
tudes. Here succulent plants are not only rarer, but the
native grasses are scantier ; and the extent of pasture land Pasture
within the known boundaries is of a very limited description, land.
To give some idea of this limit, we shall quote the latest re¬
turns of live stock.
1850. 1851. Increase,
Horses  2,635 2,978 343
Horned cattle   13,074 15,315 2,241
Sheep   128,111 141,413 13,302
The value of the wool, which is considered the staple ex- Wool,
port of the colony, amounted in 1850 to L.15,482, and in
1851 to L.17,883. Governor Fitzgerald remarks upon this
head, in a despatch dated Government House, Perth, April
12. 1852, “ I fear that unless new grasses spring up, or are
introduced into our pastures, we shall never be able to rival
in this respect the production of the eastern colonies. Our
lands fit for sheep are so small in extent in proportion to the
lest of the colony, that a limit will soon be arrived at unless
better pastures be discovered. Should such exist, they pro¬
bably lie far to the N.E.” This is conclusive, without even
referring the reader to the statistics of the eastern colonies
already given, to satisfy the most sceptical mind of the infe¬
riority of its pasture lands compared with the verdant plains
and valleys of Eastern Australia. There are single settlers
in New South Wales who possess as much stock as the co¬
lony altogether ; and this after a growth of 22 years. These
facts will show that natural disadvantages have retarded the
progress of the colony as well as original mismanagement;
for although the colonists could raise enough of vegetable
produce and animal food for their subsistence, they lacked a
sufficiency of the pastoral exports of wool, tallow, and hides,
to constitute them a successful producing community.
1 his poverty of production is also apparent in the agri- Agricul-
cultural records of the colony. Up to 1851, the colonists ture*
were dependent upon shipments of agricultural produce
from the eastern colonies. The number of acres in crop
l lS-J0tes of Assistant Commissary-general Kent, late of King George’s Sound.
Well s Australian Geography. Sydney, 1848.
300
AUSTRALIA.
Western
Australia.
Soil.
Climate.
Australia, that year was 72975-, showing a decrease for the year of
v'—^ 1211 acres. “ This is attributable to many causes, the high
price of labour, and the distressed state from which the colo¬
nists were only just emerging. Many of the agriculturists,
however, have now freed themselves from their great diffi¬
culties, and there is every reason to hope that a very large
breadth of wheat will be laid down this year.”1 There is
no doubt that when the colonists obtain that cheap labour
of which they are in want, much will be done to render them
independent of foreign supplies of provisions. This, how¬
ever, sufficiently testifies the poverty of the land, and corro¬
borates the statement of disinterested parties, that the soil
is not remarkable for that richness of loam and decayed
vegetation which distinguishes the soils of Van Diemen’s
Land and South-eastern Australia, which yield averages
of 40 and 45 bushels of wheat to the acre. At the same
time there is abundance of land for all ordinary farm pur¬
poses around both settlements, on Swan River, and at King
George’s Sound, suitable for the growth of all esculent roots
and fruits required by the colonists. There is no doubt also
that the extreme dryness of the climate, and the devastating
summer conflagrations throughout the forest lands, prevent
that accumulation of mould from decayed vegetation which
characterizes the virgin soils of all lands throughout the
world. This arid climate, however, is even more conducive
to the health of Europeans, than that of the eastern colo¬
nies. Endemic or epidemic diseases are unknown, and “ the
country maintains its character of being perhaps the most
healthy on the globe ; there having been only 37 deaths re¬
corded during 1851, in a population of 7096 souls.”2 This
average, however, is taken after the introduction of con¬
victs in the previous year, which augmented the white popu¬
lation by nearly 1000 persons. In 1850 the population
was 5293, which increased to 7096 in 1851. Of these
4523 were males, and only 2444 females, or nearly two of
the male sex to one of the female. This disparity of the
sexes has called forth a petition from the colonists to equal¬
ize the numbers, by requesting the government to forward
females from the pauper institutions in England. The
government have not acceded to this ; but the Colonial Land
and Emigration Commissioners report, “ That under instruc¬
tions from Sir John Pakington, they have endeavoured
partially to remove this disparity, by sending out at the
expense of the parliamentary vote, an additional number
of women. Thus, since October (1852), we have de¬
spatched three vessels, carrying about 760 souls, of whom 26
were convict families, 36 were single men, while as many as
278 were single females ; and the desire to emigrate to any
part of Australia is now so strong, that we experience no
difficulty in selecting for this colony very eligible females,
without having recourse to the workhouses”3
Religion and education are less zealously nurtured in this
small community, than in the eastern colonies. Governor
Fitzgerald, in the able despatch we have already quoted, re¬
marks, “ I regret to state, that the schools at the Vasse and
Murray have been discontinued for want of scholars; and it
appears to me, that if a superior description of masters be
not furnished for our colonial schools, education generally
throughout the colony will be regarded as of so little impor¬
tance, that great difficulties will hereafter arise against any
endeavours that may be made to establish a regular system
of superior instruction.”
The revenue for the financial year ending April 1851,
amounted to L.25,167, being an increase over the year 1850
of L.6029, which was mainly attributed to the increase in
Popula¬
tion.
Female
emigra¬
tion.
Religion
and educa¬
tion.
Finance.
the customs caused by a greater amount of duties paid on Australi*
spirits and wine in bond. The expenditure for 1851 was
L.23,926, being an excess of L.7252 over 1850. This is Western
to be attributed chiefly to the exigencies of the service Australia
consequent on the introduction of the convict system ; and
to the high price of food, a result no doubt of the gold dis¬
covery in the east, rendering necessary an increase of the
salary to the government officers. The colony is now free
from all debt bearing interest, which it was found necessary
to incur during the distressed period of its existence. The
imports during the year 1850 were L.52,351, and in 1851, Commerci
L.56,958, the latter giving an average of L.8 per head of
population. The exports, during the same years, were re¬
spectively L.22,195, and L.26,870, or less than L.4 per head
of population for 1851 ; showing a balance of trade against
the colony of more than 100 per cent. This is not a very
encouraging balance-sheet; but we presume the anticipa¬
tion of a large government expenditure has been the cause.
The shipping has doubled itself within two years. In 1849
7952 tons arrived in the ports, which had increased in 1851,
in consequence of the arrival of the convict-ships, to a gross
tonnage of 16,540. These figures give no very high idea
of the commercial state of this colony ; but the. future is
not without hope. No rich gold field has as yet been dis- Mine™ls.
covered, but copper and lead ore, and other metalliferous
minerals, have been ascertained to exist in large quantities,
indicating the proximity of valuable mines. The Geraldine
lead mine is now in operation; and the company who work
it have smelting works on the spot. It is satisfactory to
find, that one of the most sanguine men in the community
is the governor, whose despatch in 1851 ends as follows:
“ In conclusion, I have to remark, that such are the induce¬
ments to remain in the colony, from the government expen¬
diture, the high rate of wages, and from the circumstance
that most persons who have been any time resident in the
colony have some interest therein, comparatively few per¬
sons as yet have left us either for Melbourne or Sydney;
all classes appear prosperous and contented ; and should the
present system of the introduction of convicts continue, I
have little doubt but this will become one of the most im¬
portant dependencies of Her Majesty’s dominions.” And
Besides these successful colonies, situated within the great ^|)“_doncl'
southern or temperate division of Australia, there have been ^en^s
several attempts on the part of the British government to
establish settlements on the north and eastern shores of
tropical Australia, which require a brief notice. The first
attempt was made by Captain Bremer, in H.M.S. Tamar,
who, in company with two store ships and a party of mili¬
tary and convicts, established the stockade of Fort Dun- f°rt,
das at Melville Island, in Lat. 11. 28. S. Long. 13G. 30. E.,
in Apsley Strait. “ This settlement, however, after an ex¬
istence of four years, was abandoned on 31st March 1829,
in consequence of the continued unfavourable accounts
transmitted to the home government.”4 “ The settlement rt Wel.
of Fort Wellington was formed by Captain Stirling in H.M.S. ji°Un_
Success, on the 17th June 1827, on the N.E. side of Raffles
Bay, in Lat. 11. 14. S. Long. 132. 24. E., for the purpose
of carrying on a traffic with the Malays, from Maccassar in
the Celebes, who frequent the coast of Northern Australia
in quest of the Trepang or sea-slug. This settlement was
abandoned on the 29th August 1829, at a time when the
objects for which it was formed were about to be realized.”
On the 27th October 1837, a military post, with H.M.S. ^
Britomart as tender, was established at Port Essington, “ for Essingt0n.
the double purpose of affording shelter to the crews of ves-
1 Despatch of Lieutenant-governor Fitzgerald. Reports of the Colonies, 1852, p. 220.
2 Despatch of Lieutenant-governor Fitzgerald, dated April 12, 1852.
3 Thirteenth Report of the Colonial Land and Emigration Commissioners, p. 37.
4 Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake. By J. Macgillivray, vol. i. p. 140.
5 MS. Notes of Assistant Commissary-general Kent.
AUSTRALIA.
Port
Curtis.
Australia, sels wrecked in Torres Strait, and of endeavouring to throw
open to British enterprize the neighbouring islands of the
Indian Archipelago.”1 After twelve years struggling to rear
sufficient food for themselves, the sappers and miners to the
last subsisted upon salt meat and biscuit, such as sailors have
at sea, which, with the unhealthiness of the climate, caused
the deaths of 1 officer and 12 men, out of 6 officers and 58
men, in five years. The settlement named Victoria was
finally abandoned on the 30th November 1849. In January
1847, the staff of a new penal colony to be called “ North
Australia, headed by Colonel Barney, R.E., as temporary
governor, settled on the shores of Port Curtis on the E.
coast of Australia beyond the Tropic of Capricorn. After
five months occupation, and an expenditure of upwards of
L.15,000, the attempt to form a settlement was abandoned.
The remains of the proposed township of Gladstone are a
monument to this day of the folly of the projectors, and the
waste of public money. It is to be hoped that the next at¬
tempt to colonize some portion of tropical Australia will be
more successful than either of the above, both for the sake
of the colony and the credit of the parent state. The prac¬
ticability of carrying any such projects into effect is much
to be doubted, notwithstanding the favourable views of some
competent authorities. First, because the ordinary food of
Europeans cannot be produced within the influence of the
tropics; secondly, because there is no native labour to till
the ground fbr the production of tropical vegetation as a
substitute; and, thirdly, the exports which could be raised
cannot be cultivated by our ordinary emigrant labourers,
who, doubtless, would suffer fearful mortality if attempting
to work under a tropical sun. In the tropical colonies under
the dominion of the Anglo-Saxon, there are industrious
native tribes to work the ground, and produce exports which
our countrymen trade in, but who are never known to assist
in their actual growth by manual labour. Until, therefore,
an industrious population of Asiatics, or other races accus¬
tomed to labour in a tropical field, are introduced to the
shores of northern Australia, the day is far distant when any
settlement, attempted there under the usual auspices, will
prove successful.
General . From the preceding accounts of the prosperous colonies
in temperate Australia, it will be seen that the group on
the S.E. territory display already the elements of a power¬
ful nation a nation, doubtless, whose future dominion will
be supreme on the shores of the Pacific. At the same time
we have shown, in the article Australasia, that the vast
interior, in all probability, will for ever remain unpeopled
by a European race ; and that the northern section will fail
to rival the south. There is sufficient territory, however, in
the golden quarter of Australia alone, for the enterprize
of the next five generations at least to find a home and
tion^ra" independence upon her shores. The impetus given to
emigration from the mother country by the recent gold
discoveries, need leave no fear in the public mind that
there will be a scarcity of capital and labour for the future,
SOI
to develop the resources of the country. All that is to be Australia,
considered is the description of emigrants best adapted for
that purpose. Unfortunately for all concerned, the first
rush of emigrants to Australia was mainly from that class of
the community who had just sufficient means to reach these
colonies, but lacked the physical and moral energies neces¬
sary to ensure success at the gold fields, or who, by their
manual dexterity, were unable or unwilling to assist the or¬
dinary labour market. These emigrants had been mostly
townspeople in their native country, such as shopmen,
clerks, and the like—men who were not only unaccustomed
to out-door labour of the lightest description, but most of
whom probably were innocent of having done a day’s hard
work in their lives. Hence they were either unfit to en¬
counter the privations of gold-digging, or their pride or in¬
dolence restrained their energies. To such causes are to be
attributed the distress and misery in the colony of Victoria.
While these people go about in idleness, the colonists call
out for able-bodied labourers. Large sums of money are
annually voted by the local legislatures to assist in sending
out eligible emigrants, under the control of the Colonial
Land and Emigration Commissioners. In their thirteenth
annual report, for July 1853, they state the amount of emi¬
gration to Australia—including Mrs Chisholm’s assisted emi¬
grants—to have been 21,532 in 1851, and 87,881 in 1852;
while the assisted emigrants who went out under their auspices
numbered 8143, in 68 ships, in 1851; and 44,796, in 217
ships, in 1852 ; making a total of 162,352, who have emi¬
grated from British ports alone to Australia since the date
of the gold discovery. This number has been largely aug¬
mented by emigrants from California, New Zealand, Ame¬
rica, the West Indies, and many other distant parts of the
world; so that we are within the mark in calculating that the
population of Australia has been increased since the gold
discovery, up to the latest advices in April 1853, by not
less than a quarter of a million of people.
Although the people of Australia have received from the Political
imperial parliament concessions towards their political free- aspect,
dom which were refused to the American colonies before
the declaration of independence in that country; still there
are many privileges denied to them which these colonists
from the United Kingdom consider as their birthright. The
right of taxation, and appropriation of taxes; control over
the land revenue, customs, and all other departments;
offices of trust and emolument open only to the settled in¬
habitants ; plenary powers of legislation, without the reser¬
vation of bills for Her Majesty’s assent, and a perfectly free
representative legislature—are openly demanded and peti¬
tioned for. Should these be withheld, or at least some por¬
tion of them not be granted by the imperial parliament, while
the community continues increasing, for the next ten years
or so, in the same ratio that they are now doing, we may
anticipate not merely a renewal of the revolutionary spirit
manifested recently by the colonists on the subject of the
convict question, but the more serious event of a final dis¬
ruption from the parent state. (s.m.)
1 MS. Notes of Assistant Commissary-general Kent.
302
A U S T fi I A.
Austria. This great empire is situated nearly in the centre of
Europe, extending from the 44th to the 51st degree of N.
Lat., and from the 8th to the 26th degree of E. Long. Its con¬
figuration is irregular, but its extent corresponds to that of
I late CII. an oblong of fully 600 miles in length from E. to W., and
above 400 miles in breadth from N. to S. Compared with
France, the Austrian dominions have a form nearly as com¬
pact, but their frontiers are by no means so strongly defined,
nor so well guarded by physical barriers. France resembles
a five-sided figure, having on three sides the sea, and on the
other sides the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Vosges ; while
in Austria the chief ranges of mountains are in the interior.
In extent of surface, the Austrian dominions considerably
exceed those of France, for they cover, including Cracow,
incorporated into the Austrian empire in 1846, 256,958
English square miles. They comprise a r-emarkable diver¬
sity of tribes, and even nations, differing from each other in
language, habits, religion, and comparative civilization.
The component parts of this great empire consist of six
countries bearing each the name of kingdom, viz., Flungary,
Bohemia, Galizia, Lombardy and Venice, Illyria, and Dal¬
matia; one archduchy, Austria; one principality, Transyl¬
vania ; one duchy, Styria ; one margraviate, Moravia ; and
one county, Tyrol. After the accession of the present em¬
peror Francis Joseph, the various provinces of the empire
received the title of crown-lands, tv/enty in number, and
subdivided into minor districts. This new arrangement,
however, must upon the whole be regarded as provisional,
since the new constitution, in virtue of which Austria was
to be transformed into one uniform empire, was, as will here¬
after be seen, abrogated in the year 1851, two years after its
promulgation.
We shall begin with an historical notice of this empire,
showing, first, the means by which Austria, originally a small
state, progressively rose into importance; second, the re¬
sources by which she withstood the reverses sustained in
her long contest with revolutionary France ; next, her con¬
dition and policy during the subsequent years of peace ;
and finally, the manner in which she came through the
latest and most dangerous crisis in her history.
History. The cradle of Austrian power was the fertile tract lying
along the southern bank of the Danube to the eastward of
the river Ens. It is said to have been overrun and partly
colonized by Germans under Charlemagne; but be that as it
may, after the empire of Germany was constituted in the
ninth century, the district in question, afterwards called
Lower Austria, was declared a military frontier for repelling
the incursions of the Huns and other barbarous tribes to the
eastward. It was called Ost-reich, the east country, from
its position relatively to the rest of Germany ; and its go¬
vernor received from the head of the empire the title of
margrave (in German mark-graf, or lord of the marches),
which his descendants bore for centuries without anticipating
the future greatness of their house. Towards die middle of
the twelfth century their territory received an important ac¬
cession in the province W. of the Ens, which, from its vi¬
cinity to the Alps, and the greater elevation of its surface,
was called Upper Austria. The governors of this augmented
domain were now raised by the emperors of Germany from
the humble rank of margrave to that of duke ; and it was
one of their number, Duke Leopold, who, towards the end of
the twelfth century, ungenerously detained our Richard I.
in confinement on his return from the Holy Land. It was
at this time also that the important province of Styria
came to the dukes of Austria by bequest. Hitherto the
ducal residence had been in a castle on the high ground of
Kahlenberg, near Vienna ; but it was now removed to that
city. In 1246 the male branch of the ducal line, originally Austria,
from Bamberg in Franconia, became extinct, and Austria
underwent a long interregnum. The reigning emperor of
Germany declared both that duchy and Styria to have lapsed
to the imperial crown, and appointed a lieutenant {statt-
halter) to govern them on the part of the empire. But
claims to the succession were brought forward by descend¬
ants of the female branch of the Bamberg line ; and after
various contests, Ottocar, son of the king of Bohemia, was,
in 1262, duly invested with the government of Austria and
Styria. Carinthia, Istria, with part of Friuli, soon after de¬
volved on Ottocar by succession ; but he forfeited all these
advantages by his imprudence in refusing to acknowledge as
emperor Rudolph of Hapsburg, who had been regularly
elected to that high station. Hostilities ensued; the fortune
of Rudolph prevailed ; and, in 1276, Ottocar was obliged to
renounce his title to Austria and its appendant states. Not¬
withstanding this renunciation, Ottocar re-entered Austria
with an army, but soon after fell in battle. The ducal throne
being then vacant, Rudolph vested the succession to it in his
sons ; and having obtained the sanction of the electors of
the empire to that important act, the reign of the Haps¬
burg dynasty over Austria commenced in 1282.
In the beginning of the following century the dukes of
Austria lost a part of their Swiss territory by the insurrec¬
tion of the cantons. This they never recovered ; but in 1364
they acquired Tyrol; and Austria, hitherto known only as a
remote province, little connected with the improved part of
Germany, was soon after brought into contact with the ge¬
neral politics of the empire. The rank of emperor of Ger¬
many had been held successively by Saxon, Franconian,
Suabian, and Bohemian princes, Austria having as yet sup¬
plied only one of the number (Albert I.) ; but, in 1438,
another Albert, duke of Austria, was raised to that dignity,
and, from close connection with Bohemia and Hungary, the
power of Austria became so much greater than that of any
other state in the empire, that from 1438 the imperial crown
was regularly vested in the chief of the Austrian family. In
the latter part of the century of which we are treating (the
fifteenth), Maximilian I., an emperor of the Austrian line,
made great additions to the power of his house by matri¬
monial connections, having himself espoused the heiress of
the Netherlands, and afterwards married his son to the heir¬
ess of the crown of Spain. Of the latter marriage the issue
was the well-known Charles V., who held the crown of Spain
by inheritance, and the empire of Germany by election. In
the third year of his reign (1522), Charles made over the
German provinces to his brother Ferdinand I., who, in con¬
sequence of his marriage with Anne, sister of Louis II., king
of Hungary and Bohemia, succeeded in gaining the crowns
of these two countries. In 1555, Charles, whose ambition
had appeared insatiable, all at once retired from his worldly
career, leaving the German crown to his brother Ferdinand,
and his other possessions to his son Philip II. Ferdinand,
already king of Hungary and Bohemia, was elected emperor
in 1556, and thus became the head of the Austrian Haps¬
burg line. The formidable power united in one dynasty,
was thus split up by the very monarch who was its creator,
though, even after its partition, both the Spanish and Aus¬
trian branch were still large enough to rank as first-rate
powers. In Flungary, Ferdinand found a rival in Zapolya,
elected king by the majority of the people; nor during his
life could Ferdinand obtain possession of the whole country.
The general rule of the Flapsburgs, and especially the
religious persecutions under the reigns of Rudolph II., Fer¬
dinand II., and Leopold I., were productive of protracted
and bloody wars, during which time the Turks made them-
AUSTRIA.
Austria, selves masters of the greater part of Hungary, frequently
assisting the malcontents against their Austrian masters.
Ferdinand was succeeded by Maximilian II., his eldest son,
whose successor was the dreamy and bigoted Rudolph II.,
subsequently compelled to resign his crown to Matthias II.
In the year 1618, Ferdinand II., archduke of Styria, suc¬
ceeded to the throne, after the death of his predecessor with¬
out issue. I his emperor is well known by his sworn hatred
against the so-called heretics, the Protestants, and scarcely
had he commenced his reign when his cruelty against the
Bohemians gave rise to the Thirty Years' War, one of the
most remarkable events in modern history. On the one side
were the Catholic princes of the empire, with Austria at their
head; on the other, Saxony and the Protestant states, as¬
sisted at one time by Sweden, and subsequently by France.
The most distinguished commanders were Gustavus Adol¬
phus on the part of the Protestants, and, on that of the Ca¬
tholics, Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland. Both were greatly
superior to the age in which they lived, and evinced, at the
battle of Lutzen, fought in f 632, talents not inferior to those
displayed on the same fields in 1813. Wallenstein survived
his illusti ious opponent, but met a tragic end: having been
suspected of treating with the Protestant princes for his own
aggrandizement, a suspicion never afterwards verified, he,
with some of the chief officers of his staff, was most cruelly
assassinated by order of his imperial master. The war was
at last ended by the peace of Westphalia, by which Austria
was obliged to relinquish Lusatia to Saxony and Alsace to
France.
The peace of Westphalia, like that of Utrecht in a sub¬
sequent age, restored tranquillity throughout Europe. It
continued many years, and might have lasted much longer,
had not the ambition of Louis XIV. alarmed the neigh¬
bouring states, and obliged them to look for safety in arms.
Belgium, held at that time with a feeble hand by Spain, was
the prize at stake ; and the dread of that fertile and popu¬
lous country falling into the power of France called forth the
greatest efforts on the part both of Austria and of Holland,
which, from the extent of its financial means, was at that
time a power of great influence. Louis was surrounded by
able generals and well-disciplined armies. Flattered with
the prospect of success, he attempted the conquest of the
Netherlands in no less than three wars, in two of which
(those begun in 16/2 and 1689) Austria bore a principal
part. In the last she received the co-operation of England,
which then, for the first time, came forward as a principal
in continental coalitions, contributing largely both in troops
and subsidies. I he chief scenes of conflict were the Nether¬
lands and the banks of the Rhine. The French, acting
with all the advantage of unity, had frequently the superior¬
ity in action; but the allies, numerous and resolute, were
never discouraged by defeat. At last, in 1697, came the
peace of Ryswick, which left, as peace often does, the con¬
tending parties in nearly the same relative positions as at
the outset of the contest. The allies had the satisfaction,
however, of having compelled the aspiring Louis to stop
short in his encroachments and schemes of aggrandizement.
But with so restless a prince at the head of a population
of 20,000,000, peace could not be of long continuance; and,
on the death of the king of Spain, Austria, England, and
Holland, found it again necessary to take the field. The
question now related not merely to the Netherlands, but to
whether a French or an Austrian prince should succeed to
the crown of Spain. Hence the name of War of the Suc¬
cession, given to this long contest, which, beginning in 1701,
asted no less than twelve years. The superiority in mili-
tary skill was now for the first time on the side of the allies.
1 he Austrians and other Germans, assisted by Holland
and England, were led to repeated victories by Eugene and
Marlborough. France sent forth numerous armies, and
snowed, in Villars and Vendome, generals worthy of the
303
better days of Louis ; but in Italy and the Low Countries Austria,
the allies were completely successful; and it was in Spain v-
only that they failed. Such was the state of affairs in
1/11, w'hen the death of the reigning emperor unexpect¬
edly took place, and the election to that dignity fell on his
brother, who had been destined by the allies to the throne
of Spain. The prospect of the union on one head of the
crowns of Spain and Austria brought to recollection the am¬
bitious projects of the Emperor Charles V.,and inclined many
who had supported the war from a dread of France, to con¬
sider the transfer of Spain to a grandson of Louis XIV. the
less dangerous alternative of the two. This, joined to the
change of ministry in England, the removal of Marlborough
fiom the command, and the impatience of the Hutch under
so long and burdensome a war, led to the peace of Utrecht,
to which Austria, after urgent remonstrances with her allies,
and fiuitless efforts in the field, acceded, by a treaty con¬
cluded in the year after (1714) at Baden. Well might she
give her assent to a treaty which transferred to her not only
the Low Countries, but extensive possessions in both the
north and south of Italy.
I he emperor, anxious to confirm his authority in Llun-
gary and Transylvania, now directed his troops against the
lmk». I he latter, who, during the space of 150 years,
weie in possession of the capital of Flungary, and of the
greatest part of its territory, evinced considerable sympathy
towards the Hungarians, whom they, on many occasions,
proved ready to assist in their struggles against Austria. In
fact the impotence of the Austrian rulers, as evidenced by
theii inability to expel the lurks from LIungary, and their
readiness to appease the anger of the sultans by annual tri¬
butes, seiyed only to keep alive in the Turks the ambition
of rendering themselves masters of the Austrian capital.
Accoi(Singly, in 1683, the Mussulman host appeared before
the walls of Vienna, and the capital wras only saved by the
appeal ance of the intrepid Polish king Sobieski, who would,
no doubt, have found the Turks within its walls, but for the
singulay carelessness with which the vizier carried on the
siege. I his was the first serious check given to these con¬
fident barbarians. At a subsequent date Prince Eugene
defeated them in several actions, and the peace concluded
with them at Carlowdtz, in 1699, by the intervention of
England, secured to Austria a considerable accession of ter-
ntory on the side of Hungary. Still that country continued
divided and doubtful in its allegiance to Austria. Eup-ene
led thither, in 1716, a part of the armies with which he had
conquered in Italy and the Netherlands, and applied Euro-
pean tactics against the ^ I urks with distinguished skill.
1 he result was a series of splendid successes, and a treaty
or peace highly favourable to Austria.
Such, however, was not the case in the last scene of the
nnhtary career of Eugene, when, nearly twenty years after
'm 'V5'’ , e *lea^ec^ th0 Austrian armies on the Rhine.
1 he h rench had taken the field in support of the claims of
Spain on the south of Italy. Austria was evidently over-
matched in force; and England, guided by the pacific coun¬
sels of VV alpole, declining to interfere, the result was a treaty,
y w rich the emperor relinquished to Spain the contested
territory in Italy.
In 1740 the death of the reigning emperor, Charles VI.,
bi ought to a close the male line of the house of Hapsburg,
the succession devolving on Charles’s daughter, Maria The-
lesa. he death of Charles became the signal for attack on
us dominions by almost all the neighbouring powers; by
1 russia, Bavaria, Saxony, and even by France. But Eng¬
land came forward to support the cause of Austria with' a
liberal subsidy, while the Hungarians, now united and loyal,
i eci uited her armies. The aspect of affairs was soon altered;
the Bavarians were driven back; and the French, who had
ventured to advance as far as Bohemia, were obliged to re¬
tire to the Rhine. Frederick II. of Prussia proved a more
804 AUSTRIA.
Austria, obstinate opponent; and, as the interest of England and
—■-'v—*-'' Holland called the Austrian forces to the Low Countries to
maintain the great contest carrying on in that quarter against
France, Maria Theresa was induced to subscribe, first in
1742, and afterwards in 1745, a separate treaty with Fre¬
derick, by which she ceded to him the chief part of Silesia.
But the unprovoked attack of Frederick sunk deep in her
mind; she watched an opportunity of revenge; and, in 1756,
formed that coalition of powers against Prussia, which gave
rise to a war of seven years, and to an extent of devastation
such as Germany had not witnessed for more than a cen¬
tury. On one side was the whole Austrian force, aided by
80,000 French, and, at particular periods of the war, by the
Russians and Swedes ; on the other stood Prussia and Eng¬
land, numerically inferior to their antagonists, but managing
their resources, and directing their military efforts, with all
the ability that belonged to the character of Frederick and of
Lord Chatham. On the side of the French there appeared
no commander of eminence; but on that of the Austrians,
Marshals Daun and Laudohn were generals worthy of being
opposed to Frederick. After a number of battles and great
alternations of success, both sides became tired of the waste
of blood ; and a contest, waged for a time with a rapidity of
movement and an eagerness for conflict almost equal to those
displayed in the French revolution, was marked towards its
close by the cautious tactics of Turenne. At last, in 1763,
a general peace was concluded, and the rival powers were
left very nearly in the same position as at the beginning of
the war.
From this time Germany enjoyed peace during thirty
years. In 1778 the death of the Elector of Bavaria gave rise
to pretensions on the part of Austria, which drew once more
into the field the great Frederick, now grown gray in com¬
mand. Austria opposed to him forces fully equal in num¬
ber and scarcely inferior in discipline, but happily the cam¬
paign proved bloodless, each side anticipating a close of the
dispute by negotiation. In that manner, accordingly, it
ended ; Austria being content with the cession by Bavaria
of the frontier district, called the quarter of the Inn.
Maria Theresa had married Francis Duke of Lorraine,
who was afterwards elected Emperor of Germany, but died
in 1765. Their son, Joseph II., was then joined in the
sovereign power with his mother; and, on her death, in
1780, he became sole ruler. The princes of the house of
Austria, disposed rather to follow than to lead, have seldom
been the authors of political change ; but the Emperor
Joseph was imbued with all the ardour of a sanguine inno¬
vator. He gave a loose to this disposition after 1780, issu¬
ing a number of edicts, of which several were praiseworthy
in their objects, but abrupt and premature in their opera¬
tions, having besides set at defiance all the municipal and
other authorities of the various provinces, under the pre¬
tence that he was the best judge of the wants of the coun¬
try. He established general toleration in religion, abolished
a number of monasteries and convents, dismantled various
fortresses, and took steps for new-modelling the existing
systems both of law and of national education. But his
commercial legislation, based on the prohibition system, gave
undoubted evidence of the narrowness of his views as a
statesman. Had the public in his dominions been ripe, as
in France, for a general political change, Joseph would have
perhaps been hailed as a subverter of abuses, and as the
author of general improvement; but the Austrians, attached
to old usages, understood little of his plans, and merely re¬
ceived them with passive acquiescence, while the arbitrary
manner in which his improvements were introduced could
not fail to provoke hatred. The actual effect was thus very
limited, notwithstanding the example of new institutions in
the United States of America, and soon after in France.
But in Belgium the case was different: the contagion of
the French revolution spread over the country, and pro¬
duced a sudden rising against the Austrians. This unex- Austria,
pected revolt, and the chequered success of the war then v--■v——'
carrying on against Turkey, are understood to have preyed
on the sensitive mind of the emperor, and to have caused
his death in 1790.
Leopold, the brother and successor of Joseph, had a
very short reign, the crown devolving in 1792 on his son
Francis II. Francis had hardly succeeded to the throne
when he found himself involved in a contest with France,
the length and vicissitudes of which proved such as to cast
into the shade all former wars between that country and
Austria. The first important blow was struck in Novem¬
ber 1792 at Jemappes, where the numbers and audacity of
the French obtained a signal success. Next year the supe¬
rior efficiency of the Austrian armies secured to them a
temporary superiority; but, in 1794, the multitudes of
Frenchmen brought forward by the energetic measures
of the terrorists, and the talents of commanders such as
Pichegru, Moreau, and Kleber, young in years, but full of
enterprize and activity, led to the conquest of the Nether¬
lands, and the retreat of the Austrians beyond the Rhine.
France now offered to Austria a separate peace ; but Eng¬
land engaging to furnish large subsidies, the emperor de¬
clined a treaty that would have involved the cession of Bel¬
gium. The French, determined to obtain this cession by
force of arms, crossed the Rhine, in the autumn of 1795,
with two formidable armies. Prussia had withdrawn from
the contest, and allowed the whole weight of it to fall upon
the emperor. It was then that the talents of Marshal Clair-
fayt, as yet known only to military men, became apparent
to Europe at large. With numbers inferior to the two
French armies collectively, he found means, by rapid move¬
ments, to concentrate a force superior to either singly, and
drove them across the Rhine with great loss. Next year,
however, the French, undismayed by failure, resumed the
offensive, and crossed the Rhine again with two armies ;
one of which penetrated into the heart of Franconia, whilst
the other overran Suabia and part of Bavaria. But these
armies had not the means of affording each other ready sup¬
port ; they were separated by the Danube, while the Aus¬
trians were in possession of the bridges on that river, and
could .move within a smaller circle. They were thus en¬
abled to repeat their manoeuvre of the preceding year, by
detaching a superior force against the French army in Fran¬
conia, and thus obliging it not only to evacuate the country
it had overrun, but to seek safety beyond the Rhine. Such
was also the case with the southern army of the French, al¬
though the retreat conducted by Moreau was the subject of
general commendation.
But whilst in Germany success inclined to the side of
Austria, the case was very different in Piedmont and Lom¬
bardy. In Piedmont, indeed, the war had long been car¬
ried on between the French and the allies without decisive
success on either side. The opposing forces were nearly
equal, and the mountainous nature of the country afforded
so many strong positions, that there seemed no means of
bringing the contest to a speedy termination. But all this
was suddenly changed by the genius of one man. Buonaparte
appeared on the scene, and in less than a month after re¬
ceiving the command, defeated the allies in three engage¬
ments ; obliged the court of Turin to make a separate
peace ; and, pouring his forces into Lombardy, drove the
Austrians from every position in that country except Man¬
tua. The strength of the latter place, however, bade de¬
fiance to the attacks of the French, and enabled the em¬
peror to make repeated attempts for the recovery of Lom¬
bardy. No part of the war is more deserving of attention
than this campaign ; for none displayed in a more striking
light the extensive resources of Austria, or the inventive
genius of Buonaparte. Threatened in the end of July by an
Austrian army of great strength, but which was imprudently
AUSTRIA.
305
Austria, advancing in two bodies, he hesitated not a moment in
—sacrificing his artillery, that by sudden marches he might
assail his opponents before they effected a junction. In this
he succeeded; but his loss was heavy, and the Austrians
were rather repulsed than defeated. Six weeks after, a re¬
petition by Buonaparte of these daring movements was at¬
tended with decisive success. When apparently marching
against the Austrian troops in Trent, he turned suddenly
to the right, and advancing by a valley, reached the head¬
quarters of their army before they were prepared. The re¬
sult was a series of actions, which cut off the retreat of their
main body, and obliged it to fly for refuge to Mantua. But
ere two months had passed, the Austrians prepared another
army, which Buonaparte marched to encounter as it advanced
towards Verona, using in his despatch to Paris these remark¬
able words : 11 faut frapper Vennemi comme la foudre, et
le balayer des son premier pas. On this occasion, how¬
ever, fortune was not favourable to him. He was worsted
twice in action (on the 6th and 12th November); yet, far
from being discouraged, he conceived the extraordinary plan
of quitting his camp at night, and gaining the rear of that
army which had twice repulsed him. He reckoned on the
effect of a surprise ; but his hopes were disappointed by the
time unavoidably lost in attacks on the village of Arcole,
which stood in his way. The main body of the Austrians
had time to advance, and the result was a series of conflicts,
attended with great loss on both sides.
Thus ended the campaign of 1796, sanguinary beyond
example even in those days of blood, and not altogether
conclusive in its results. Next year, however, the chances
of war were no longer doubtful. The Austrians having
reinforced their army, made a final effort to relieve Man¬
tua ; but Buonaparte having intercepted a despatch with
their intended plan of operations, was enabled to make
such a disposition of his troops as to ensure success ; and
the results were, the victory of Rivoli, the surrender of the
force destined to relieve Mantua, and the complete expul¬
sion of the Austrians from Italy. The French now crossed
the mountain barrier, and advanced toward the heart ot
Austria. This, joined to the approach of their armies from
the Rhine, obliged the emperor to conclude preliminaries
of peace at Leoben, and afterwards a treaty proceeding on
these as a basis at Campo Formio. This treaty involved
the cession by Austria of Belgium and Lombardy, but gave
her, in return, Venice and its dependent provinces, making
an absolute loss in population of 1,500,000 souls.
This peace, however, proved-only a truce. The absence
of a portion of the French armies in Egypt, and the evident
misgovernment of the directory, induced England to form
. a new coalition, and renew the continental contest early in
1799. The Austrian troops took the field, powerful equally
in numbers and in discipline ; and the French, commanded
for the first time by inferior leaders, were driven back both
in Germany and Italy. The arrival of Russian auxiliaries,
and the talents of Suwaroff, bore forward the tide of suc¬
cess, until the autumn of the year, when increased levies on
the part of the French, and a better choice of generals, be¬
gan to turn the scale in their favour. The capricious Paid
now withdrew from the coalition, and the Austrians entered
on the campaign of 1800 with their own forces only. These
proved, as formerly, insufficient to withstand the French,
especially when the latter were commanded in Germany by
Moreau, in Italy by Buonaparte. Battles, unfortunately
too decisive, took place; the victories of Hohenlinden and
Marengo led to the treaty of Luneville, and to the cession
by Austria of almost all her Venetian acquisitions.
This peace, though not so short as the preceding, lasted
only four years. In 1805 Austria and Russia, provoked by
Buonaparte’s aggressions, and stimulated by English sub¬
sidies, took the field with numerous armies; but the suc¬
cessive overthrows at Ulm and Austerlitz rendered peace
VOL. xv.
again indispensable to Austria. It was obtained (6th Au- Austria,
gust 1806) by the surrender of the remainder of the Vene- '
tian territory, of the Tyrol, and of various districts, com¬
prising a sacrifice in all of three millions of subjects. Soon
after these reverses, Francis II. renounced the title and au¬
thority of Emperor of Germany, and assumed the title of
Emperor of Austria. Taught by repeated disasters, he re¬
mained passive in the great contest in 1806 and 1807 be¬
tween France, Prussia, and Russia; but in 1809 the war
in Spain having withdrawn a very large portion of the
French force, he ventured once more to try his fortune in
the field. The Austrian armies were numerous ; but Buona¬
parte had still a powerful French force at command, and
was aided by all the troops of the confederation of the
Rhine. The Austrians, worsted in Bavaria, retreated to
Vienna; and although temporary hopes were excited by
their success at Aspern (21st and 22d May), they were
blasted by the disastrous day of Wagram, and peace was
again purchased by a sacrifice of territory containing more
than three millions of inhabitants. Austria, now reduced
to a population of twenty millions, remained in peace dur¬
ing the years 1810, 1811, and 1812 ; but when the disasters
of the French in Russia once more raised the hopes of Ger¬
many, and brought friendly standards into Saxony, Austria
took part with the grand alliance, and her troops bore a con¬
spicuous part in the battle of Leipsic and the invasion of
France. The definitive treaties of 1814 and 1815 rein¬
stated her in all her former territories, except Belgium,
and gave her substantial additions on the side of Italy. It
must, however, be observed, that according to the new
territorial division, as determined by the Congress of Vi¬
enna, the extent of the Austrian Empire was diminished by
400 German square miles. The public debt, as reduced
in consequence of the state-bankruptcy of 1811, amounted
to something above 500,000,000 florins (or L.50,000,000
sterling).
The subsequent history of Austria may be divided into
two distinct periods. The first of these, beginning with
the year 1816, after the definitive settlement of the negotia¬
tions of Vienna, and terminating with 1848, was, so to speak,
one of comparative peace, especially with regard to foreign
powers; the other commenced with intestine commotions
and wars, resulting in the complete subversion of the Aus¬
trian states-machine, and has left the whole empire in a
provisional and unsettled condition up to the present day.
These two periods we shall treat separately in their order.
AUSTRIA FROM 1816 TO THE WAR OF 1848.
Prince Metternich, one of the most conspicuous person¬
ages among the diplomatists assembled at the Congress of
Vienna, became, from this time, the uncontrolled director of
the helm of the state. His policy, in which he persevered
until the hour when he was hurled from his post by the
movement of 1848, was based on the principles of legitimacy
and strict conservatism. In conformity with the former, Aus¬
tria ever proved ready to assist any acknowledged or legiti¬
mate prince against revolutionary movements, while her
conservative policy rendered her averse to anything like
progress or innovation. “ The transition from an old state
of things to a new is as dangerous as that from a new state
to one which no longer exists. Both are productive of dis¬
turbances which must be avoided at any price.” Such was
the doctrine which Metternich proclaimed after the restora¬
tion of peace, and which became ever after the basis of the
Austrian policy. To follow up this system in all its conse¬
quences, the Austrian government established a strict cen¬
sorship, whose office was to watch over the home press and
literature, and to survey the importation of foreign literary
productions. The secret police, which received a thorough
organization since the year 1820, had to perform the office of
censor in the department of social conversation ; its reports
306
Austria.
AUSTRIA.
serving to the government as a means of estimating the sen-
timents of the people. It is needless to observe, that this
was not the best method for furnishing the cabinet with
correct information as to the state of the public mind; tor
the people, knowing the system of espionage by which they
were surrounded, either avoided conversing on political to-
sion of the Emperor Ferdinand,” says Baron Pdlersdorf (the
successor of Metternich), “ the monarchy was not menaced
by external dangers. Circumstances permitted an unin¬
terrupted enjoyment of peace, but the necessity for inter¬
nal ameliorations became, by so long a delay, more urgent,
the demand for them more sensible ; whilst, owing to the
Austria,
were surrounded, either avoided conversing on po 1 ica procrastinations of the government, faith and confidence
pics altogether, or, if at all advertmg to such sub^, pur- r™c““^d° |t is8 true that’the prosperity of the
posely expressed sentiments totally at variance wrth their did not decline ; 'on the   
real convictions. „ r. n n
At the new territorial division of Europe after the tall ot
Napoleon, Austria renounced her pretensions to Belgium
for the acquisition of the Italian provinces, which she deemed
more secure. A few years, however, sufficed to prove the
fallacy of this policy. In 1822, when a rebellion broke out
in Naples and Sardinia, the movement soon spread to Lom¬
bardo-Yenetia ; and the Austrian government, after having
quelled the disturbances in her own provinces, deemed it
necessary for her own security to put down, by force ot arais,
the risings in the other states of the Italian provinces. I en
years later Parma and Modena suddenly rose in rebellion,
when, guided by like principles, Austria sent her troops to
restore peace in the Romagna. In short, the Italian pos¬
sessions have proved one of the most vulnerable points ot
the Austrian Empire.
The French revolution of July 1830, however, was the
first external event after the Napoleonic era which deeply
affected and embarrassed the commanding attitude ot the
The very accession of Louis Philippe to
court of Vienna. - — - ~-j — - - , . „ - - . .
the Bourbon throne was a sort of declaration of war against before the troubles of 1848.
£ such circumstances the state of Austria necessarily
the Orleans king by Great Britain led Austria to acquiesce
in the event, and to follow the example of the court of St
James, she had soon after to encounter various difficulties
directly arising from this French revolution. Her first task
was in Poland. Tired of Russian rule, the Poles, hoping
to be supported by France, took arms to regain their in¬
dependence, when Austria aided the Czar in crushing
them. The second manoeuvre was in Germany, to which
the revolutionary impulse had been communicated from
France. Here Austria acted in concert with Prussia in
establishing some new restrictive laws with reference to
the German Confederacy. But more important was the
desire for reform simultaneously manifested in several of
her own provinces, which, with the exception of Hungary,
provinces generally did not decline; on the contraiy,
many branches of commerce manifested an increase in
their development; but in spite of this the situation o
the whole empire inspired, in different respects, serious
apprehensions, arising from the disordered state of the eco¬
nomy of finance, the yearly augmentation of the public
debt, the inefficiency of the measures adopted, and still more
from the oppressed disposition of mind of the clear-sighted
and intelligent classes of the population. The Austrian
Empire was partly surrounded by, and was thrown into mani¬
fold relations with, countries in which the constitutional
form had developed itself in place of that which had pre¬
viously existed; and as the defects of our own system had
been publicly scrutinized and discussed, the spirit of con¬
stitutional freedom was transferred from without to the sen¬
timents of all strata of the people. Contemporaneously
with this arose a contrast, the more striking in the empire
of Austria (the author here alludes to Hungary), where one-
half of the people enjoyed thoroughly, during many cen¬
turies, a constitution, and consequently a right to participate
in legislation.”1 These few remarks may suffice to show
. .. „ .^Under
became
perplexed. In Germany she saw the rising influence ot
Prussia, whose free institutions and superiority in culture
and science were gradually raising her to be the leading
power of the German Confederacy; which very circumstance
induced her to support the German element in her own do¬
minions at the expense of the other nationalities.^ IJ16
non-German population were thus discontented with the
court of Vienna for its Germanizing measures, while the
Germans knew well that it was not Vienna which repre¬
sented German learning and civilization. It may be re¬
marked that the aversion of Austria to foster the develop¬
ment of the Sclavonic element in particular, was greatly
owino- to the apprehensions that it might lead to the ulti-
rv, OWIIIL? IU LUC  " - O .
nci wvvn ij*w......—,   — - , . .. i “i i ^ orUrarucxTP nf Russia, which was continually enctea-
had been stript of all their ancient mstitutionsandjule^^y attfch t0 itself all the Sclavonic tribes. No Aus-
edicts from Vienna. As all the means of expressing public
opinion were wanting, the government persevered with
seeming confidence in its old policy, without encountering
many obstacles ; though in Hungary matters looked some¬
what different. Deprived, equally with the other provinces,
of the liberty of the press, Hungary retained its diets and
county assemblies, institutions which gave ample opportu¬
nity for the expression of free opinion, and which, at the
same time, operated as a check on the grasping power of
the crown. The diet of 1832 loudly demanded the re¬
dress of old grievances, the states intimating their deter¬
mination not to vote supplies till their wrongs were re¬
moved, and asking, moreover, the introduetion of the Hun¬
garian language into the courts of administration and jus¬
tice instead of the dead Latin. Meanwhile the spirit of
nationality awoke in Bohemia, the Czechs or Sclavonian
party attempting to defend their nationality against the ab¬
sorbing superiority accorded to the German element by the
government.
In 1835 the Emperor Francis died, leaving the throne to
his son Ferdinand. The mental weakness of this good-
natured monarch, far from contributing to any change in
the maxims of the state policy, served only to allow free
scope to the omnipotent prime minister. “ On the acces-
vourme iu     ,
trian statesman, in fact, was more alive to ^ encroach¬
ing power of Russia than Metternich. In 1830 Austria
accordingly refused to join the rest of the European powers
in the protocol which declared the independence ot Greece,
while ten years later, when Turkey was threatened by Ma-
hommed Ali the pacha of Egypt, whose interests were loudly
advocated by France, the court of Vienna readily joined
England as an ally of the Porte. Both these instances pi ov
of how much importance the integrity of Turkey appeared
to Austrian statesmen with reference to the menacing atti¬
tude of Russia. . , i n
In 1846 the court of Vienna was again frightened tro
its sense of security by the Poles. Having ^PFe^ed this
revolution, Austria, in concert with the other two powe
which dismembered Poland, determined to blot out
the last remnant of Polish independence, from the map ot
Europe. This step, being contrary to the treaties ot Vien jq
was of course discountenanced by England, and more strong y
remonstrated against by France. This disapproval, h
ever, did not prevent the incorportion ot that small repub
can territory with the Austrian empire; but lt
be assumed that, if the question of the Spanish #
had not for the time being occasioned a rupture bet 
The Political Movement in Austria during the year 1848-9. By Baron Pillcrsdorf. Londo ,
AUSTRIA.
Austria, the cabinets of London and Paris, their conjoint interposi-
tion would not have been so utterly disregarded by the
northern powers. Not satisfied with the advantages gained
in Poland, Metternich thought fit to meddle with the inter¬
nal affairs of Switzerland, which engaged his special atten¬
tion from the circumstance of its vicinity to the Italian
provinces of Austria. This country was at that time agi¬
tated by two contending parties, the Sonderbund, a Jesuit¬
ical party, and the Liberals. Metternich, who advocated the
cause of the Sonderbund, succeeded in gaining over France
to his side, coming into direct opposition to England, which
gave its support to the party of progress.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1848, AND SUBSEQUENT EVENTS.
The French revolution of 24th February, which convulsed
almost the whole of continental Europe, caused the Aus¬
trian empire to totter to its very centre. Scarcely had the in¬
telligence of the fall of Louis Philippe reached Vienna, when
that capital, proverbial for its carelessness about politics,
presented all at once a counterpart on a smaller scale of Paris
in the last days of Louis XVI. On the 13th of March the
whole city was in a state of open rebellion ; the populace,
forcing the magistracy along with them, broke their way into
the imperial palace, and loudly demanded from the Emperor
Ferdinand the dismissal of his old counsellors and the im¬
mediate grant of a new charter. Three days afterwards
an imperial proclamation was issued declaring the abolition
of the censorship, the establishment of a national guard,
and the convocation of a national assembly.
These measures, however, as well as the nomination of
a new ministry, headed provisionally by Count Colowrath,
and afterwards by Pillersdorf, (in place of Prince Metter¬
nich, who by this time was in full flight towards London,)
were far from sufficing to arrest the popular movement, en¬
couraged and led on by the students and other members
of the university. The national guard just called into be¬
ing, along with the academic legion, formed themselves into
a permanent committee, and dictated laws to the govern¬
ment. The ministry, unable to resist, promised the convo¬
cation of a constituent assembly, while the emperor and the
court fled from the capital and retired to Innspruck (May
17). The old system lay thus in ruins, its supporters or
rather creators turned fugitives, while the prospects of a
new organization were continually defeated more and more
by the condition of the rest of the provinces. The Lom¬
bards and Venetians, already half in arms before the Pari¬
sian revolution broke out, were afterwards all the more de¬
termined to fight out their independence ; and after having
expelled the Austrian troops from Milan, they found an
ally in Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, before whose arms
the Austrian force under Kadetzky was compelled to re¬
treat. Meanwhile the movement propagated itself into Bo¬
hemia, where the Czechs, or Sclavonic party, determined
to obtain redress against the Germanizing measures of the
government In a petition forwarded to the emperor, they
demanded a united and independent national assembly for
Bohemia and Moravia, independent municipal institutions,
and in the distribution of public offices an equal selection
from among the Sclavonians and German part of the popu¬
lation. Shortly afterwards the Sclavonian party in Prague,
already in open collision with their German fellow-citizens,
organized a club under the title of Slowanska Lipa, with
the object of concerting common measures in the interest
ol all the Sclavonian inhabitants of the Austrian empire. A
general summons was accordingly issued to the Sclavonians
of the different provinces, calling upon them to send repre¬
sentatives to the Sclavonic congress to be held in the Bo¬
hemian capital. Delegates accordingly arrived, and the
congress was opened in the beginning of June.
The people, who hated the Austrian commander, Prince
Windischgratz, petitioned the emperor for his removal;
307
meanwhile, however, a collision ensued between the Scla- Austria,
vonic militia and the regular troops, the result of which was ^
the bombardment of the town and the final dispersion and
imprisonment of the leaders of the Sclavonic party. Nor
did matters wear a more peaceable aspect in Hungary.
Here the national diet succeeded in carrying a measure for
the abolition of feudality, as well as the appointment of a
responsible and independent Hungarian ministry. These
reforms soon gave rise to a civil war, commenced by the
Sclavonians of Hungary, and, to say the least, encouraged
by the Austrian government, which disliked to see an inde¬
pendent Hungarian ministry by its side. The imperial
dynasty was thus menaced on every side.
In addition to this distracted and threatening state of
affairs within the bosom of the empire itself, may be added
the terrible blow inflicted upon Austrian influence on the
side of Germany. The national assembly which met at
Frankfort determined on the reorganization of Germany
into one integral empire, excluding the German possessions
of Austria from the confederacy, and offering, besides, the
imperial crown to the king of Prussia. It was under these
circumstances that the constituent assembly, composed of re¬
presentatives from all the provinces of Austria except Hun¬
gary and Lombard-Venetia, was opened at Vienna by the
Archduke John (July 22). It may easily be imagined that
the Sclavonian element, largely preponderating over the
German in these provinces, also greatly preponderated in
that assembly ; a circumstance the more distasteful to the
government, in that its influence in Germany had already
received so severe a blow, as already related. Notwithstand¬
ing, the aspect of affairs in Italy and Hungary, and the desire
to flatter the Sclavonian population for the sake of its sup¬
port, induced the government to allow free scope to this as¬
sembly in its schemes for the re-organization of the empire.
But even whilst the assembly held its sittings, the committee
of safety and the academic legion exercised, in many respects,
the chief authority in the capital, which was the scene of re¬
peated tumults until the month of October. At this period
the people became incensed by the appearance before the
walls of Vienna of a Croatian army, led on by the Ban Jella-
chich, who had previously been foiled in his attempts to ad¬
vance upon Pesth. The popular fury became concentrated
on Latour, the minister of war, who was known to have
supplied the Ban with arms and ammunition for the inva¬
sion of Hungary. The war office was stormed by the peo¬
ple, after a severe conflict with the troops, when Latour was
taken and cruelly murdered, his body stript of its clothes,
and suspended to a lamp-post. After this event Windisch¬
gratz began to collect a large army, and soon after appeared
before Vienna. The defence was carried on under the com¬
mand of General Bern, a Polish officer, subsequently so dis¬
tinguished in the Hungarian war. Windischgratz, however,
conjointly with Jellachich, succeeded in storming the town
(October 30). Among those who suffered death at the
instance of Windischgratz was Robert Blum, member of
the parliament of Frankfort, who was accused of having in¬
cited the people to rebellion. While Prague and Vienna
were thus subjected by military power, the fortune of war
began also to turn in favour of the Austrians in Italy. The
Austrian government, which had been ready a few weeks
before to relinquish its claims on Lombardy, and which im¬
plored the British cabinet to mediate a peace on the con¬
dition of its retaining only Venice, now saw Radetzky repel
the Sardinian troops and re-enter Milan (August 1848). See
Lombardy and Sardinia. In Hungary, however, matters
had now begun to assume a threatening aspect. By an im¬
perial edict the diet met at Pesth (July 2), with the special
purpose of providing for the safety of the country, when, on
the other hand, it became notorious that the invasion of Hun¬
gary by the Croats, under Jellachich, was determined on by
the Austrian government. This diet, therefore, after the
308
\
Austria.
AUSTRIA.
resignation of the Hungarian ministry m consequence of
the double dealings of the court, appointed a committee
public safety, having previously voted a national ai;my
200,000 men. Meanwhile the court, then sitting m
mutz, determined upon persuading the iv'eak-mmded f er-
dinand to abdicate his throne in favour ofFrancis J oseph,
son of the Archduke Francis Charles, Ferdinands brother,
and heir-presumptive to the throne. In a manifesto date
December 2.1848, Francis Joseph announced his accession
to the throne, promising to rule on the basis of true hbe y,
of the equality of the rights of the different popuktu^ com-
prising his empire, and indicating, moreover his determ -
nation to suppress the rebellions then raging throughout h
dominions. This announcement, as may be imagined had
the effect of still more powerfully rousing both Lombard-
Venetia and Hungary. The former was henceforth the
more determined to regain its complete independence, while
the latter regarded the abdication of Ferdinand and the ac¬
cession of his successor as unconstitutional, illegal, and null,
inasmuch as it did not take place with the knowledge and
consent of the diet. After a levy of recruits had been effected,
the new emperor intrusted Windischgratz with the subju¬
gation of Hungary, of which he was nominated civil and
military governor. Joined by the Ban, W indischgratz broke
into Hungary, and in a few days possessed himself of Buda-
Pesth, the capital (January 1. 1849) ; the Hungarian diet
meanwhile transferring its seat to Debreczin in Lower
Hungary. After a short respite allowed to his troops, the
Austrian general marched on towards the new seat of the
Hungarian diet, but after the first battle, fought about the
end of February, at Kapolna, Windischgratz, instead of ad¬
vancing, was compelled to prepare for a retreat. I he em¬
peror, probably relying too hastily on the success of his arms
in Hungary, dissolved the constituent assembly of Vienna
which had been transferred to Kremsir, and, rejecting the
constitution they were preparing, issued a self-granted (oc-
troye) so-called constitution (March 4. 1849).
This charter, meant to sweep away all the ancient insti¬
tutions of the various provinces, proclaimed constitutional
liberty, the responsibility of ministers, the liberty of the press,
and other safeguards common in constitutional governments,
as its groundwork. The establishment of a general diet in
Vienna, and of provincial assemblies, and also of courts of
central administration in the capital, were likewise among its
more prominent provisions.
That Hungary could only see in this charter the abolition
of its independent parliaments, and the subversion of all its
ancient institutions, will be readily manifest; nor was Lom¬
bard-Venetia likely to be reconciled to Austrian rule by
the proclamation of such a charter. In Italy, accordingly,
the war continued, but very visibly in favour of the Aus¬
trian arms; and on the 23d of March 1849 the cause of
Italian independence was crushed on the disastrous field of
Novara, where the Sardinian forces were completely routed
by Radetzky. But although Austria obtained so unexpected
and speedy a triumph in Italy, its cause looked sufficiently
desperate in Hungary in the spring of 1849. The Aus¬
trian army suffered one defeat after another in rapid suc¬
cession, and were driven back, broken and dispirited, up to
the vicinity of Presburg. Emboldened by the successes of
its army, the Hungarian diet proclaimed the dethronement
of the house of Hapsburg, and nominated Kossuth provi¬
sional governor of Hungary (April 24). In this emergency
Francis Joseph applied for assistance to the Czar, which
the Russian emperor readily granted, and the more so that
his interference was objected to neither by France nor
England. The Russian army, under the command of Pas-
kiewics, was not long in penetrating into Hungary, and the
whole war was at once extinguished by the disgraceful surren¬
der of the Hungarian general Georgei to the Russian com-
jnander (August 13). See Hungary. Thus did the Haps¬
burg dynasty pass through a crisis more formidable than it ^ us ria'
had ever before experienced; owing its final preservation to
the timely assistance of Russia, a power the increasing in¬
fluence of which Prince Metternich, during his long ad¬
ministration, kept steadily in view and endeavoured to ob¬
struct, but which, from the services it rendered, naturally
assumed forthwith towards Austria the attitude of a pro-
tector.
To complete the summary of the events resulting from
the movement of 1848, a few words must be said on the re¬
lation of Austria to Germany, subsequent to the war we
have narrated. , . . .
Though the king of Prussia declined accepting the im¬
perial dignity, tendered to him in 1848 by the diet of I rank-
fort, he concluded a treaty with the kings of Saxony and
Hanover (May 1849), with the view of forming a strict union
with the different states of the German Confederacy, to the
exclusion of Austria. To this treaty, which is known by
the appellation of the “ Treaty of the T hree Kings, the ma-
ioritvof the lesser states soon acceded, Prussia proposing, be¬
sides, to convene a diet at Erfurth under its own presidency,
for the final settlement of the reorganization of Germany.
This assembly was accordingly opened (March 1850), and
obviously tended materially to raise the influence of Prus¬
sia at the expense of Austria, hitherto the leading power in
the German Confederacy. But Austria, having now esta¬
blished her authority in her own provinces, began vigor¬
ously to counteract the efforts of her rival, and, on her part,
invited the different states to send their representatives to
Frankfort, where she assumed the lead. The legality of
this assembly was at once acknowledged by Bavaria, always
jealous of Prussian influence, as well as by Saxony and Han¬
over, which were subsequently gamed over by Austria.
While these two parliaments were thus playing at cross
purposes, disturbances arose in Hesse-Cassel. Ihe mar¬
grave invoked the assistance of Austria, while the popu¬
lation, on the other hand, looked to Prussia for support.
In accordance with the decision of the diet at Frankfort,
Austria determined to march its armies into Hessia, a course
of action opposed by Prussia and threatening immediate
war between these two powers. (See articles Germany
and Prussia.) This conflict, which seemed unavoidable, was
however averted by the conferences of Olmutz, Austria being
represented by the prime minister Prince Schwartzenberg,
and Prussia by Manteuffel. These deliberations ended m
the entire humiliation of Prussia, which acknowledged the
right of Austria to march its troops into Hessia, and even
Schleswig-Holstein; a circumstance attributed, not without
reason, to the influence of the Czar, with whom the Emperor
of Austria and the Prince of Prussia held a conference at
Warsaw (October 25. 1850), and who, as may be easily
imagined, from his aversion to every species of innovation,
pronounced in favour of the policy of Austria to re-esta¬
blish the old status quo in Germany. About the close
the year 1850, Austria and Prussia convoked a congress
alf the German states at Dresden when the mfluence »f
the former so far preponderated that Prussia, bent a
while on the reorganization of Germany, was fai p
pose that the final solution of the affairs of the confedera y
should be submitted to the decision of the old tiank™
diet. Having thus achieved so many
rival, Austria now proposed to the diet of krankfo
corporation into the German Confederacy of all P
vinces, including Hungary and Lombard-Venetia.
bold proposal, materially threatening the balance of P
in Europe, was met by the remonstrances of the gove
ments of France and England, though its faihir J
more directly traced to the policy of Russia, w
not be supposed to look with indifference on the m^a , a
power to the Austrian empire by the success of s
scheme of ambition.
AUSTRIA.
Austria. Population of the Austrian Empire according to the cen-
/ sus of 1846: the Provinces classed by the comparative
density of the Population.
309
Provinces.
Population.
Inhabitants per
German
square mile.
7120
5439
4809
4731
4322
3616
3339
2776
2573
2566
2286
2222
1849
1796
1746
Lombardy  2,670,833
J;®11106:  2,257,200
-Donemia     4 34^ gg^
Moravia and Silesia  2,250 bdk
Lower Austria    i’494’399
Istria, Gortz, and Trieste  *500,101
Galizia and Bukowina   5 105'558
}fUI1ga7 n’oooiooo
Upper Austria.,  856,694
^riaV  1,003,074
Iransylvania  2,182,700
Garinthia and Carniola   734 ygg
Dalmatia      410988
Military frontiers  1,226,408
Jlro1   859,250
Phe army  492,486
Total  37,443,033
The increase of the population of the Austrian empire
since 1816, thus amounts to 10 millions. The approximate
estimate of the population in 1852 is given by Hain in his
last statistical work at 38 millions.
Such is the respective population of the different pro¬
vinces of the empire. These differ so widely in climate, soil,
language, and customs, that any general description cannot
appiy to the whole; we shall therefore describe the chief
characteristics of those which form a part of the German
Confederacy; for Hungary, Lombardy, and Venice, the
reader is referred to the respective heads of each, while
Gahzia will be found under that of Poland.
AUSTRIA, THE ARCHDUCHY.
The archduchy of Austria consists of two nearly equal
parts, viz., Upper and Lower Austria. The river Ens
flowing northward from the Alps to the Danube, intersects
the archducal territory nearly in the middle; the country
to the E. of the river being Lower, and that to the W., Up-
per Austria. Lower Austria, in particular the fertile tract
adjoining the Danube above and below Vienna, formed ori-
ginally the nucleus of that union of states which now con-
stitutes the Austrian empire. That district is the seat both
o the capital and of extensive manufactures, and is, in this
lespect, after the Italian provinces and Bohemia, the most im¬
portant. Vienna itself, with its environs, produces silk, the ma-
nu acture of which is carried to a degree of considerable per¬
fection, amounting in annual value to more than 12,000,000
orms. The other branches of industry consist principally
o woollen, cotton, and hardware manufactures, the yearly
value of which, added to the lesser fabrics of hardware,
leather, glass, hats, and paper, is computed at three or four
millions sterling. In the mountainous part of the pro¬
vince are mines of iron, coal, and rock-salt; but the wealth
derived from these is slight compared with that result-
mg rom the agricultural products of the more level part
of the country. These consist of wheat, barley, oats, and
0 er coins raised in England; and in the warmer situa-
10ns o maize and vines. Advantage is taken here, as in
Lombardy, of the numerous streams which flow from the
mountains in the S. towards the Danube. They are used
or irrigation, the great desideratum of the agriculturist in a
warm locality. The produce of the land along the Danube,
rom ■enna to the Bavarian frontier, has been greatly in-
creased likewise within the last half century by the use of
marl. ihe traveller, in pursuing this track, sees in all di-
recuons a quantity of marl-pits, wrought with great activity;
out still the crops raised are much smaller than they would
e under a system like that of our improved lands.
Upper Austria, or the country W. of the Ens, was added Austria
to the sister province in the twelfth century; it is called ^^
Upper from its comparative vicinity to the Alps and its
greater elevation of surface. Its wealth consists not in ma¬
nufactures, but in agricultural produce. It is too cold for
the culture of the vine; but the low grounds are produc-
tive in corn, while the pasturages are extensive, both in
tie hills and the valleys. The sides of the mountains are
covered with forests, the timber of which finds to a certain
extent an outlet by navigable rivers, of which the chief are
the Ens, the Salzach, the Traun, and the Trasen. One of
the principal sources of employment to the lower orders in
the forest-lands consists in felling their timber and convey¬
ing it to these rivers, whence it is floated to the towns alono-
their banks, or to the Danube, the great channel for the
transport of bulky commodities. Upper Austria, since the
acquisition of Salzburg, has an extent (about 7500 square
miles) nearly equal to that of Lower Austria; but in popu¬
lation it is far inferior, containing only 856,694 inhabitants,
wtnle the lower province reckons 1,494,399.
Population of the Chief Toivns.
Lower Austria. Upper Austria.
yTienna 431,147 Lintz ...:..  26 618
Aeustadt   12,862 Salzburg  17009
•^•rems   8,700 Steyer  10,380
The early inhabitants of Austria are understood to have
come partly from among the Germans in the W., partly
from the Sclavonian tribes in the N. and E. German is
now almost the sole language of the inhabitants, but it dif¬
fers considerably from the German spoken in Saxony. As
to religion, almost all the inhabitants are Catholics. Situ¬
ated to the S.E. of Germany, and comparatively backward
in civilization, Austria is considered as rather an outwork
than an integral part of the empire ; it was not until 1438
that the election to the imperial crown fell almost invariably
on the head of the house of Hapsburg.
BOHEMIA.
Bohemia, which ranks immediately after Hungary among Situation
tne great members of the Austrian union, bears the title ofantl extent,
kingdom, and is amply entitled to it by its extent, its popu-
lation, and its progressive improvement. Backward as it
sti is, its resources, as the imperial government is well
aware, are of a nature very different from those afforded by
the mountainous provinces of the Alps, or the half-civilized
distncts on the side of Turkey. It is situated between the
48th and 51st degrees of N. Lat.; its form is an irregular
square 5 Us area, not yet accurately ascertained, is computed
at fuhy 2°,000 square miles, or three-fourths of the extent
o Scotland. It is separated from the surrounding countries
by ranges of mountains which encircle it on every side,
from this, and from the general appearance of the interior,
tieie seems little doubt that in an early age the chief part
of Bohemia was covered with water, and that such continued
tlie case until an outlet was opened at the northern and
east-elevated part of the chain, in the direction by which
the LIbe still flows, carrying with it the waters of tributary
streams from almost every part of the kingdom.
his separation from the adjacent countries, particularly
from the comparatively improved states of Saxony on the
J\. and hranconia on the W., necessarily operated to the dis¬
advantage of Bohemia, and retarded its advance in civil¬
ization. German settlers resorted to it from time to time,
but individually or in small parties, never in numerous bo¬
dies, or in such a manner as to disseminate extensively the
improvements of their respective countries.
Of the aboriginal inhabitants of Bohemia there are no History,
c istinct accounts ; but the name of the country confirms
t le current tradition that they were the Boii, a well-known
Celtic tribe. Christianity appears to have been introduced
310
Austria.
Climate
and soil.
Forests,
rivers.
A U S T
among them only towards the close of the ninth century,
the era of the commencement of their historical records.
The ruler or governor then bore the name of Grand Duke ,
and the succession under that, as under the subsequent title
of King, was for a long time elective. In the thirteenth
century Ottocar I., a prince of ability, passed laws similar
to those which were enacted in England about the same
time by Edward I., exempting the inhabitants of villages
from dependence on the neighbouring barons, and enabling
them to possess their little properties in security. His son
and successor, Ottocar II., followed a similar course , a sys¬
tem of laws was compiled and reduced to writing in Ger¬
man ; and Prague, the capital, became a town of import¬
ance. Bohemia was, as is well known, the country ot tie
martyr reformers, John PIuss and Jerome of Prague, w 10,
at a date as yet too early, exposed the errors of the Church
of Rome ; for the public, not then enlightened by the art ot
printing, and the circulation of sound doctrines, misunder¬
stood their views: a civil war burst out, and the resu t
tended to perpetuate the abuses which these well-meaning
men had laboured to remove.
The crown of Bohemia, like that of Hungary, had at dif¬
ferent intervals been held from marriage connection by
princes of the house of Austria; but in 1526 both crowns
devolved on the head of that house, and have ever since
been held by it in hereditary succession.
The climate of Bohemia varies greatly, according to the
elevation of the ground; the plains and valleys being warm,
while the mountains, both in the S. and N., are cold and
bleak. The annual fall of rain differs in like manner, ac¬
cording to situation; but 20 inches a-year is said to be a
frequent average. The soil of Bohemia is in general good,
but the agriculture is extremely backward. The chief pro¬
ducts, as in a similar latitude in England, are wheat, barley,
rye, oats, potatoes ; also hemp, flax, and hops. In some
warm situations, vines are cultivated, but as yet on a small
scale. The pastures, on the other hand, are extensive, and
in many parts as good as those of Saxony and Silesia ; but
the inhabitants are far behind their neighbours in the man¬
agement of their flocks and the quality of their wool. In
the rearing and training of horses considerable impiove-
ment has been made ; studs having been established in dif¬
ferent parts of the country by the Austrian government,
which draws a large proportion of its cavalry from this
quarter.
The forests of Bohemia are of great extent; and large
quantities of timber are annually cut down and shipped in
the parts adjoining a navigable river. The Elbe and Mol-
dau are of great use for the conveyance of these as well as
of other bulky commodities. The Elbe rises in the E. of
the kingdom; but the Moldau, which at their junction is
the larger river, rises in the southern extremity of Bohemia,
and has a course of above 150 miles, nearly the whole width
of the kingdom. The Eger, the river next in size, rises in
the W., and has a course of about 100 miles, with a less
rapid current than the Moldau.
Bohemia is divided into sixteen circles or counties, vary¬
ing of course in extent and population, but containing on
an average nearly 1300 square miles, and 270,000 inhabi¬
tants.
Population of the Chief Towns.
Prague 118,4:05
Eger  H,170
Reichenberg  13,184
Pilsen 11,486
Budweis 12,311
Konig-groetz  7,000
Besides these there are about fifteen petty places with
2000, 3000, or 4000 inhabitants each ; but altogether, the
town population, with the exception of the capital, is in¬
significant. That of the country is very different; it ap¬
proaches in density to that of Ireland,—the farms being
small, and the cultivation being carried on almost wholly
by manual labour.
R I A.
The manufactures of Bohemia have made considerable Austria^
progress in the last and present age : they consist chiefly of
woollens,—which are mainly produced in the town of liei- ^nutae-
chenberg and its environs,—of linen and leather; but the\
comprise also cottons, hardware, and glass. I he glass-
manufactories are principally situated in the mountainous
parts of the province, and the largest empona of these
branches of industry are in the towns of Neuwelt, Snber-
berg, and Georgenthal. Besides the above, Bohemia is re¬
markable for the large number of its breweries, furnishing, it
is said, the third part of all the beer produced in the empire.
The annual value of the total industry of Bohemia is com¬
puted at 150,000,000 of florins. Great part of the woollen
and linen is woven, as in the last age in England, in cot¬
tages. The mountains contain ores of iron, lead, tm, cobalt,
and silver; but iron alone is extracted on a large scale.
The foreign trade of Bohemia with Saxony and the north
of Germany is carried on by the Elbe, on which, during the
last few years, regular steam communication has been esta¬
blished ; and the intercourse with the other Austrian pro¬
vinces has been greatly extended by means of the different
lines of railway recently established in the various parts ot
^ ThTpopulation of Bohemia has greatly increased in the
last and present age. In 1791 it consMerably below
3 000,000. At present it amounts to 4,347, Jd2. ut tnese
about a third part are of German extraction, the other two-
thirds being descended from the aboriginal stock, the
ancestors of the Germans settled here from time to time, as
mechanics, miners, and traders; employments which the
uninstructed natives, like the cottagers of Ireland, were not
capable of exercising. At present, even, it is by the Ger¬
man part of the population that whatever relates to public
business or to foreign trade is conducted; the Bohemians
generally confining themselves to husbandry in the country,
or to common labour in towns. The middle classes, in
general, speak both German and Bohemian ; but the latter,
a Sclavonic idiom, and quite different from German, is the
only language of the lower orders, particularly in remote
districts. The power of the sovereigns is as absolute in
Bohemia as in any part of the Austrian dominions. T e
parliament or states consists of four classes of members; the
clergy, the great nobility, the nobility of the second class,
and the representatives of the chief towns. But their duties
are little more than nominal; and the sphere of their voca¬
tion and authority does not extend much beyond executing
the orders of the chief court of Vienna, and is almost con¬
fined to the collection of the taxes imposed upon them by
the central government. They deliberate on the measures
proposed to them by the royal commissioner, but they have
no power to originate a bill. As to public revenue, Bohe¬
mia1 contributes fully two millions to the impend treasury,
and maintains a force in regulars and militia of 50,000 me.
A few years before the war of 1848, the feeling of Sclavo-
nian nationality began to manifest itself in this province m
loud discontent against the Germanizing policy, and the
bureaucratic system of the government. These manifesta¬
tions exhibited themselves without restraint during the
year 1848; and, as the government was in °Pen ^ar wfr
Lombardo-Venetia and Hungary, were at frst kff un-
checked though, as the reader will find from the general
history of the^late war, the idea of Sclavonic nationality
and independence was speedily silenced by martial law.
Moravia, and Austrian Silesia, which is now annexed to Moravi
it, contain an area of 11,000 square miles, with a population
of 2,250,594, a degree of density approaching to t
England, and nearly double the average population of Ge -
many. This is owing chiefly to the fertility of the «ofl ’ fo
although chains of mountains cross the country in severa
directions, the plains and valleys are extensive, yie g
abundance wheat, rye, oats, barley, and, in the warmer situ
AUSTRIA.
Austria.^ ations, vines. The pastures also are good, and a number of
horses and horned cattle are exported annually. Here, as
in Bohemia, the majority of the inhabitants are of Sclavo-
nian descent; and the language of the lower orders is not
German, but a dialect of the Sclavonic. Moravia resembles
Bohemia in other respects,—in the religion of its inhabi¬
tants, who are chiefly Catholics; and in the limited power
of its states or parliament, who deliberate on such subjects
only as are proposed to them by the executive government.
But it surpasses Bohemia, and every part of the Austrian
dominions, except the Vienna district, in the extent of its ma¬
nufactures and the use of machinery. Woollens, linen, and,
since the beginning of the present century, cottons, are here
made in large quantities, both for home consumption and
export. I he chief seats of the manufacture of cloths and
other woollen goods are Brunn and Iglau. The manufac¬
ture of hnen fabrics is carried on in Schonberg, Tribau,
oternberg, and Briinn. An article of recent production, and
piomising much success, is the manufacture of beet-root
sugar.
Austrian Silesia has an area of 1900 square miles, with a
population of 467,420. It consists of two circles or coun¬
ties, called, from their respective chief towns, Troppau and
leschen; but, for the administration of justice and other
public purposes, Austrian Silesia is considered as united with
Moravia. It resembles that country, too, in the activity of
its productive industry. The density of its population is
owing less to an advanced state of tillage than to extensive
manufactures of linen and woollens ; the former, as well as
the manufacture of thread, obtaining much celebrity. Of
no Jess importance are the iron trade and the manufacture
of hardware. The pastures of this country are in general
rich, and the export of wool, already considerable, is likely
to increase. J
311
Austria.
Styria.
THE ALPINE PROVINCES.
The duchy of Styria, one of the earliest acquisitions of
the Austrian family, has an extent of nearly 9000 square
miles, with a population of 1,023,153, of whom more than
laif are of German descent, while the remainder are Wends
or Sclayonians. I he inhabitants differ in language, but are
agieed in religion, being almost all Catholics. Styria bears
a resemblance to the adjoining province of Carinthia, both
mwi -a r c^mate ’ Upper Styria being very mountainous,
while m Lower Styria the ground has less elevation as it
recedes from the Alps. Hence a corresponding difference
in temperature and products; the mountainous part being
covered with forests, and fit only for pasture, while the plains
and valleys produce wheat, barley, oats, rye, and, in the
warmer situations, maize. The culture of potatoes, though
introduced less than a century ago, has now become general,
mid has been the means of adding largely to the population.
I he mines are extensive, particularly those of coal and iron ;
the steel of Styria is as noted in Germany as the Swedish
s ee m the north of Europe. Salt also is obtained here in
&reat abundance. Styria produces many articles of iron
manufacture among which may be chiefly noticed its ex-
ce ent scythes and reaping-hooks; and the government
oun cues at Maria Zell and St Stephen are deservino- of
particular mention. °
and Voni ^ kears 0^cia^ papers no higher name than that
berg. , county (m German Graf-schaft); but it is by far the
argest county in Europe, having an extent of above 15,000
square miles, with a population of 866,078. It is traversed
in. e-y direction by mountains, many of them of great
^le ^ow grounds consist, not of plains of any
‘ en a succession of long valleys to the number of
°re 1 lan. twenty. . In these the climate is comparatively
an the soil in many parts fertile, producing corn in
Th81 fra 1° qu^ntity, anc^ iu favourable situations, vines.
A he ploughs and agricultural implements used in this coun¬
Tyrol
try are extremely rude; but the inhabitants show both
ingenuity and industry in cultivating slopes and summits
wherever there is enough of soil to reward their labour. In
this mountainous region waterfalls are frequent, and many
of them are made available for the movement of mills and
other machinery. Mineral ores are found in Tyrol to an
extent that justifies the expectation that they may eventually
be made to afford considerable employment and income
to the inhabitants; but in a country so rugged in its surface,
and so deficient in machinery, little progress has as yet been
made in working mines. Manufactures are equally back¬
ward ; the work required for them, whether spinning, knit-
ing, or weaving, being almost all performed by the hand.
Southern Tyrol partakes more of the character of the
Italian provinces, and has recently made great progress in
the manufacture of silk goods, as also of leather.
The domestic animals in Tyrol are, in general, of a di¬
minutive size. The forests contain wolves, bears, goats, and
many other animals in a wild state; hence the number of
the Tyrolese chasseurs or sportsmen, and their dexterity as
sharp-shooters, so frequently evinced in the late wars. The
I yrolese, though of a warlike character, and strongly at¬
tached to the house of Austria, dislike the restraints of dis¬
cipline. They perform, however, militia duty, and are called
out for training during several weeks in the year.
The language of the Tyrol is German. Like the other
piovinces of the Austrian empire, it had its states or parlia¬
ment, composed of deputies from the clergy and nobility, to
uhom there have been added, for some time past, deputies
from the peasantry. It is needless, however, to observe that
the functions of these states have always been much more
nominal than real.
Carinthia adjoins Tyrol, and, like it, consists of a succes- Carinthia.
sion of mountains separated by narrow valleys. It contains
a number of lakes, formed, as in the highlands of Scotland
and other mountainous countries, by water collecting in hol-
lows, and finding no outlet, except at a considerable height.
I dlage is here on a very limited scale ; but the pastures are
moie extensive, and the forests which cover the sides of the
mountains would be very valuable, were it practicable to
convey the trees to a navigable river. The mines of this
province are extensive, particularly those of iron, lead, and
quicksilver. The extent of Carinthia is 4000 square miles;
its population 316,224. The chief towns are Clagenfurth
and Villach. As in the case of Styria, the manufactures of
Carinthia consist chiefly of hardware. The most profitable
branch of industry, however, is that of sugar-refining, which
flourishes most at Laibach.
Carmola, the adjacent province, is more populous than Carnioln.
Carinthia; because, theugh mountainous in the north, it has
in the south extensive valleys and fertile plains. Here are
also a number of mines of iron, lead, and quicksilver. The
agricultural products are not merely wheat, rye, and barley,
in Carinthia, but maize and vines, the sure indication of
a warmer sun. Of a population of half a million, only a
tenth part are of German descent; the rest are Sclavonians.
Caimthia, Carniola, Istria, and part of Friuli, form the pre¬
sent kingdom of Illyria.
Dalmatia, though dignified with the title of kingdom, is a Dalmatia,
ong, narrow, and, as yet, thinly peopled tract, extending
along the east shore of the Adriatic, from Lat. 42° to 45°. It
compiises the whole of what was formerly Venetian Dal¬
matia, along with the smaller territories of Ragusa and Cat-
auQrvfiQ e^tent Is about 6000 square miles ; its population,
< ,064.. One of the chief occupations of the working po-
pu ation is ship-building. Its agricultural products, maize,
vines, olives, and silk, give proof of a climate considerably
warmer than in any of the above-mentioned provinces. Here,
as in those provinces, the ranges of mountains are extensive ;
but tlieie are also beautiful and fertile valleys. The iron
mines and the marble quarries of Dalmatia are both of great
312
AUSTRIA.
Austria, extent; but as yet they are little wrought, on account chiefly
i y—/ of the thinness of the population. Such parts of the forests
as adjoin navigable rivers, or have ready means of convey¬
ance to the coast, are made available for ship-building ; the
Austrian government adopting the views ot Buonaparte in
considering Dalmatia of great importance towards forming
a navy. No part of Europe abounds more with good har¬
bours than the mainland of Dalmatia, and the numerous
islands along the coast.
Physical Aspect, Soil, and Climate.
Rivers. Of the rivers in the Austrian territory, by far the most
interesting is the Danube. Before entering the imperial
dominions, it receives a number of rivers flowing northward
from the Alps, of which the principal are the Inn, the Iser,
the Iller, and the Leek. It next receives the Ens, and flows
eastward with a full stream, varying in breadth from a quar¬
ter to half a mile. It is bordered throughout this part of its
course by high gi'ounds or ridges of mountains, the distance
of which from the water is generally -greater on the south
than on the north side. It is of sufficient depth to bear
barges and large boats throughout the whole Austrian ter¬
ritory, and in Hungary it admits vessels of considerable size.
Its navigation, however, is not easy, its banks being in va¬
rious parts steep and rocky ; while in the level countries, in
which its waters are more widely spread, its bed is often en¬
cumbered with shoals. In the year 1830 a Danubian Steam-
Navigation Company was established, which in 1848, pos¬
sessed already more than thirty steam-vessels, which gave
an unusual stimulus to commerce. The Danube, as con¬
necting Austria with Turkey and the East, countries which
produce no manufactures of their own, might undoubtedly
be the means of greatly increasing the foreign trade of Aus¬
tria, were it not for its restrictive and prohibitive commer¬
cial system.
The other great rivers in the Austrian dominions are the
Save, the Drave, and the Muhr, which convey to the Danube
the waters from the eastern face of the Alps. The Marsch
or Morawa brings to it the tribute of Moravia, while the still
larger streams of the Theiss and Maros collect all that flow
from the southern side of the Carpathians. All these rivers
abound with fish, and are of sufficient depth to be naviga¬
ble ; but flowing through poor and thinly-peopled countries,
they have as yet been of little use in a commercial sense.
A few years ago the Theiss was in part rendered navigable
for steamers, an improvement for which Hungary is mainly
indebted to Count Szecheny.
Lakes and Lakes and marshes are both numerous and extensive in
marshes, the Austrian dominions. In Styria, Tyrol, and other moun¬
tainous tracts, they are formed, as in the highlands of Scot¬
land, by water collected in valleys which, from the structure
of the ground, are pent up in all directions. In Hungary,
Galizia, and other level countries, their origin is different:
they are a consequence of neglect of drainage, and of that
backward cultivation which prevails in almost all countries
until population and agricultural improvement attain a cer¬
tain height. It was thus that marshes, heaths, and forests
covered the surface of England in former agesrand that large
tracts are at present lost to every useful purpose along the
banks of the Danube, the Theiss, the Drave, the Save, and
other rivers in Hungary, which inundate the country, when
swelled by heavy rains or the melting of the snow. To
drain these low-lying tracts would require skill, capital, and
machinery, and, above all, the countenance of the central
government at Vienna; all of which, however, have been
hitherto wanting in these poor and backward countries.
Mountains. The other striking physical features of the Austrian ter¬
ritory are successive chains of mountains, viz. the Alps in the
S.W., and the Carpathians in the N.E. of the empire, all of
great'height and extent. In the bleak climate of Norway
the higher parts of mountains present little else than con¬
tinued sterility; but in the central and southern parts of Austria.
Europe vegetation is seen to rise to a great height. The
base of a mountain is often covered with vines and maize ;
the ascent with green pastures, or with wheat, barley, and
similar kinds of corn. 1 he trees in the lower and middle
region are often the oak, the elm, or the ash; while, in the
approach towards the summit, the yew and the fir are chiefly
seen to brave the fury of the tempest. Many parts of T yrol,
Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, abound with picturesque
views, and recal to the traveller the scenery of Switzerland.
Styria, in particular, has, like that country, its cascades, its
glaciers, its perpetual snows, and its tremendous avalanches.
German writers are in the habit of dividing the climate Climate,
of the Austrian empire into three regions or zones, viz. the
northern, situate between the 49th and 51st degrees of N.
Lat., and comprising nearly the whole of Bohemia, with the
high-lying parts of Hungary, Moravia, Galizia, and the
Buckowine ; the whole extending over a surface of 70,000
square miles. The weather in these countries, though colder
in winter and warmer in summer than in England, bears, in
its average temperature, a considerable resemblance both to
our climate and to that of the north of France. In products
also there is a remarkable correspondence ; wheat, barley,
oats, and rye, forming the great bulk of the yearly crops.
The middle region of the Austrian dominions is consider¬
ably more extensive; containing the whole of Lower Aus¬
tria, with the chiefpart of Upper Austria, Moravia, Hungary,
Transylvania, and Galizia, It extends along the entire length
of the empire, and has a surface of fully 150,000 square miles.
This vast tract lies beween Lat. 46° and 49°. The summer
and autumn heats are here much greater than in England;
and, in addition to wheat and other products mentioned
above, vines and maize are cultivated in favourable situa¬
tions, as in the middle part of France. ^Lastly, comes the
southern region, extending from Lat. 46 to 42 , and com¬
prising Lombardy, the Venetian States, the coasts of Croatia
and Dalmatia, with the southern line of Sclavonia, and the
Bannat of Temesvar. In these different countries the winter
lasts during two or three months only, and the cold, seldom
exceeds that of our month of March. Here are raised not
only maize and vines, but olives, myrtles, and other southern
products, as in the south of France. This temperature ex¬
tends over a surface of from 30,000 to 40,000 square miles.
We have stated these distinctions of climate according to
latitude ; but it is proper to add, that in no country does
there exist greater difference of temperature in the same
latitude, in consequence of the very marked differences in
the elevation of the soil; one line presenting a succession
of mountains, and another of plains and valleys. Thus, the
Alpine Provinces, with the extensive tracts adjoining the
Carpathian range, and the lofty barrier between Bohemia
and Moravia, partake of all the rigour of the north, though
situated to the S. of Lat. 49° ; while Galizia and the inte¬
rior of Bohemia, though to the N. of that line, are consider¬
ably warmer, because their surface is in general even, and
little elevated above the level of the sea.
The average fall of rain is considerably greater in the
mountains than in the plains. In Vienna, and the low-lying
tracts generally, 28 inches are a frequent average for the
year ; but in the mountains it often amounts to 40 inches
and upwards. .
From its geographical position, the summer heats m Aus¬
tria are considerably greater than in the same latitude in
England, while the cold of winter is often more intense. In
this country, and still more in Ireland, the vicinity of the
ocean induces a frequency of rain, with a medium degree
of heat and cold in the prevailing winds, which by no means
exist in Poland, Austria, or any country in the interior ot the
continent. But the transitions from heat to cold, and vice
versa, are in many parts of Austria as frequent and as re¬
markable in degree as in this country.
AUSTRIA.
Austria.
Mines and
minerals.
Products, Manufactures, and Trade.
In a country covered in so many parts by mountains, the
extent of mineral produce can hardly fail to be lame. Iron
ore is abundant in many parts of Bohemia, Upper Austria,
btyna, and Cannthia ; and if the quantities of tin or copper
hitherto wrought in these provinces be comparabvetyS" [L'eristenVo^a ^e'Lidtog pertad'f
“ 18 °W,ng t0,thf fact’ ‘^.mostof the mountain districts are military service customary in A^striZ n nlll R.™d°f
. . . ^ r ~ v^v/niijciL&LI vtziy siiiaii,
it is owing to the fact, that most of the mountain districts are
as yet imperfectly explored. The mines already wrought in
Bohemia afford good tin, and those of Hungary excellent
coppei. In the latter country, particularly at Schemnitz and
Kremnitz, are rich mines of gold and silver, partly the pro¬
perty of government and in part of private individuals. The
aggregate value of the mines and minerals belonging to go¬
vernment amounts to 4,457,135 florins, and of those which
are private property to more than 13,000,000. In this com¬
putation Hungary and Transylvania are not included. The
respective quantity of the more important metals and mi¬
nerals belonging to the government, as obtained in 1847,
was as follows Copper, 2753 cwt.; lead, 1418 cwt.; zinc,
3360 cwt.; raw iron, 494,089 cwt.; cast iron, 58,043 cwt.;
iron vitriol, 12,136 cwt.; cobalt, 300 cwt.; sulphur, 13,238
cwt.
Coalmines. A far more important mineral than silver ore, namely
coal, has been found in many parts of the Austrian domin¬
ions,—m Bohemia, Moravia, Austria Proper, Hungary, and
btyna; but the quantity raised is large only in situations
contiguous to a navigable river. One of the main sources
of the superiority of England to other countries, has been
the ease of conveying coal in former ages by sea, and latterly
also by canals and railways, to situations where fuel is of im¬
portance for manufactures. But in a country like Austria,
which has no coast, where canals are almost unknown, and
railways have been heard of only of late, the opportunities of
such conveyance are as yet very rare. This, joined to the
abundance of wood fuel, has prevented the working of many
coal mines ; but they bid fair to be a source of general em¬
ployment to the lower classes, and of advantage to those who
manage them, when manufactures shall be conducted on a
larger scale, and the communications assimilated to those of
England or the Netherlands. The whole amount of coal
belonging to government was, according to the official com¬
putation of 1847,158,219 cwt., and that belonging to private
individuals exceeded 14,000,000. It may be stated that in
rlungary the produce of the government coal pits is nearly
Salt minpo 0UJ-f°k! tha5 of a11 ,tlie rest of t*16 empire as above given.
imilar observations apply to the raising and distributing
oi rock salt, mines of which are found in various parts of the
empire. Those of Bochnia and Wieliecka in Galizia are
known to be the greatest in Europe. A number of others
are found along each side of the great Carpathian range, and
may be said to extend with greater or less intervals all the
way rom Moldavia to Suabia. This very extensive tract
comprehends the salt mines of Wallachia, Transylvania,
? n PPJlHungary’ UPPer Austria, Styria, Salzburg,
__ na 7 op Tyrol. They are found either at the base or
vernment towards manufactures; a policy which, while it
tended on the one hand to turn all the capital of the country
into the channel of the manufacturing interest, compelled the
agriculturist, on the other hand, to purchase home-made im¬
plements that might have been procured abroad at a cheaper
rate and of a better quality. T o these two causes may be added
riirm* avrv-iTr o*-»^ 1     • i /*
313
military service customary in Austria, which bereft the rural
population of the stoutest of its labourers. Farther, the ab¬
sence of personal liberty and the right of free discussion, ele¬
ments the most important towards the increase of national
wealth, have also unavoidably contributed to the same result
In addition, it may be stated that the Austrian population
have hitherto remained in complete ignorance of the modern
scientific and practical improvements in agriculture, adopted
by the other nations of Europe. Nowhere, however, is there
a fairer field for improved husbandry, for no part of Europe
presents a greater extent of good soil. Lower Austria has
like Lombardy, the advantage of extensive plains watered
by streams flowing from a range of mountains which form
the background of the prospect contemplated by those who
travel along the banks of the Danube. Moravia has a simi-
lar . .mate’ ant\ alm°st equal advantages of soil and position.
Gahzia is likewise fertile, the most so perhaps of any of the
Polish provinces ; while in the S. and E. of the empire, many
of the plains of Hungary and Transylvania might be ren¬
dered productive were the population more dense, and ac¬
quainted with the method of draining, irrigating, and pro¬
perly tilling the ground. The land of second-rate fertility
is in the Alpine provinces. The slopes of the mountains,
up to a certain height, are favourable to pasture, and the
raising of oats and other like grain ; but in many parts the
height is so great as to outweigh the advantage of latitude
and to confine the inhabitants to a scanty return for their
labour.
Comparative culture of Great Britain, France, and Austria,
exhibited in proportions of 100.
Great Britain -r. The Austrian
and Ireland France. „—.
and Ireland.
Land under tillage  34  44..
Vines, orchards, gardens ... I.....'""" 5.'
Land in grass, whether natu¬
ral or sown   40 44
Forests, plantations, copses 5  47.
Poor land, as heath, marshes,
commons ; also land to¬
tally unproductive, as
rocks, summits of moun¬
tains, lakes, beds of ri¬
vers, roads   20  20
Empire.
34
3
^ . . 10°-
Comparative population.
Inhabitants per square
mile   220.
.100.
17
26
.. 20
.100
.165.
.130
on the ascent ofgreat mountains the a^ie .^ase This table suggests several conclusions of importance,
zontal or undulatE extending in hon- First the proportion of land altogether uncultivated is nearly
strata’ and alternating with strata of clay, equal in the three cm in tripe • tW j .iA
i %ricul-
I Jure.
1 1 1 ° tlic dait eAltMlLUIle) 111 lion-
zontai or undulating strata, and alternating with strata of clay.
Q ncnro™duCe of salt was in 184:7 as follows Rock
S9 yo?6 ,850 CWt‘; boiled salt, 2,050,362 cwt.; sea salt,
022,726 cwt.; total, 5,633,938 cwt.
whnf18*™1] af’r*cubure bas made, so to speak, no progress
hacfeVeri1 unn?tle ^ast fWrty years, and continues in a very
ofthpTr*diStatema11 parts of tbe empire, with the exception
rp, e a ian provinces and the archduchy of Austria itself.
nS ° this bapkwardness are very obvious. While
Nanni6’ .ewise an agricultural country, issued from the great
mpoleome war with a free population, feudality continued
sufficS?! d°Wn 1° the >,ear 1848 5 a circumstance in itself
and still r 0.fnpP ei the agricultural produce of the country,
vol jy rt ler enbanced by the protective policy of the go¬
equal in the three countries ; the mountains of Scotland, the
bogs of Ireland, and the commons of England, containing a
surface corresponding to that of the high mountains in the
Alpine provinces of Austria, and the marshes and sandy
levels of Hungary. But the proportion of land covered with
forests, and thus lost to useful cultivation, is far greater in
Trance, and still more in the Austrian empire, than in this
country. I he inducement to convert such land into pasture
is far greater in Britain and Ireland, in consequence of our
numerous population, and the high price of butcher-meat,
wool, and hides. To this is to be added a very different con¬
sideration, viz., that the facility with which all our large towns
ai e supplied with coal makes it quite unnecessary to keep up
forests, as on the continent, for the purpose of fuel; and
2 R
Austria.
AUSTRIA.
Land un¬
der tillage
Vines.
above all, the high value of arable land in England, owing
chiefly to the density of the population.
Next, as to the land under tillage, the great proportion ot
such in France is owing to the lower orders living almost
wholly on bread and vegetables, to the exclusion ot animal
food. In Austria the proportion of land in tillage is equal
to that in Great Britain ; but there is the greatest difference
in the nature of the cultivation, the produce in even the best
districts of Lower Austria being thirty per cent, less than
would be obtained from similar soils in this country, in the
nature of the produce there is a considerable resemblance ;
the bulk of it in either country consisting of wheat, barley,
oats, rye, pease, beans, potatoes, along with flax and hemp.
Of rye, the proportion raised is larger in Austria ; that ot
potatoes much smaller. Maize is raised in the southern pro¬
vinces of Austria, as of France, and is said to yield much
more nourishment for either men or horses than could be
obtained from wheat on a similar soil.
The total cultivated soil of Austria amounts, in round num¬
bers to 54,000,000 hectares, that of France to 38,000,000;
while that of Britain is not above 25,000,000; while the
estimate of the comparative value of the agricultural pro¬
duce of the three countries gives the following remarkable
result:—
Austria.
Austria.
I 3,000,000,000
Manufac¬
tures.
Approximate value, |
in francs, of agri-1
cultural produce! Britain. France.
(not including \ 6,900,000,000 | 4,000,000,000
live stock), in r
Britain, France, |
and Austria.
The northern parts of the empire, viz. Bohemia, Galizia,
and part of Moravia, are too cold for vines; but in the cen¬
tral part of the empire they are cultivated extensively, and
wine is sold in large quantities for home consumption. The
prices of the different qualities vary from sixpence to one
shilling a bottle. The port is far inferior to that obtained
from France, in consequence chiefly of the want of convey¬
ance. Lower Austria and Hungary, the fittest countries for
the vine, have navigable rivers only to the eastward, and
these lead to countries which either raise wine for their own
use, or are too poor to make purchases from their neigh¬
bours. The exports from the Austrian states are thus li¬
mited to small quantities of choice wines, such as the well-
known Tokay, which is raised on the last chain of the Car¬
pathians, near the district of Zemplin. This wine is culti¬
vated along a tract of about 70 square miles : its qualities
are various; the richest kind proceeding from the grape with
little or no pressure; while the inferior sort is said to be
made from the dried grape, reduced into a sort of pap, and
mixed with other Hungarian wines. But it by no means
follows that all the wine sold under the fashionable name of
Tokay is the product of the district in question; for even
in Vienna there is not perhaps a tenth of real Tokay among
the wines which bear that name.
The total produce of wine is estimated at more than
27,000,000 hecatolitres, of which 22,000,000 are supplied by
Hungary alone. This evinces certainly a degree of abun¬
dance in that article, though it is much inferior to the quan¬
tity raised in France, which is computed as above 40,000,000
hecatolitres.
Manufactures have in the last and present age received
considerable extension in the Austrian dominions. They
in almost every place of considerable population; a sure .
proof that their establishments are on a small scale, and that
they avail themselves very imperfectly of local advantages
or of the division of labour. In many parts, indeed, weav¬
ing and other sedentary work is performed in cottages, as
was the case in England a century ago. Spinning wool and
flax has from time immemorial been the habitual employ¬
ment of the lower class of females in Germany; and still con¬
tinues to be so, notwithstanding the competition of ma¬
chinery. Silk is most largely manufactured in Vienna and
the Italian provinces. Linens are woven in every province
of the empire; but the finest qualities are made in Lower
Austria, Moravia, and certain parts of Bohemia. These
countries supply little for export beyond the limits of the
empire, but a great deal to the adjacent provinces. Wool¬
lens also are a very general manufacture throughout the
empire. As to hardware, the mines in the mountainous dis¬
tricts supply an ample store of materials, the manufacture
of which takes place partly on the spot, partly in the lai ger
towns, such as Vienna, Prague, and Karlsbad. Bohemia is
celebrated for the number of its glass works, a consequence
of fuel being cheap in several districts which have the ad¬
vantage of water conveyance. Hungary, Transylvania, and
the Buckowine, having extensive pastures, as well as forests
containing vast herds of cattle in a wild state, hides are an
article of export from the same cause as in the thinly-peo¬
pled provinces of Russia or the wilds of Buenos Ayres. The
most important articles of export, however, are corn, wool,
wine, and cattle. Paper also is made to a considerable ex¬
tent in the Austrian states, in consequence of the cheapness
of linen rags.
All these are manufactures of old date ; but cottons are
comparatively of recent introduction, and are confined to
Vienna and some of the principal towns; as is also the re¬
fining of sugar, which has lately received a great impulse.
The cheapness of labour is in favour of such undertakings in
Austria. One of the chief obstacles, up to a recent date, was
the distance which the raw material, whether landed at
Trieste or Hamburg, had to be conveyed by land, a disad¬
vantage now partly overcome by the establishment of several
lines of railway. c
Comparing these different manufactures with those of an
improved country like England, we find the foreign ai tides
generally higher in price and more homely in appearance,
but at the same time more durable than ours. This dis¬
tinction is found to hold in regard to fabrics the most dif¬
ferent in their nature ; the muskets made in Germany and
France being heavier, exactly as their woollens, cottons, and
linens, are thicker than ours. Lightness of workmanship
and despatch in completing an article are the resu t o ong
practice: the comparatively limited experience of foreigners,
and their imperfect subdivision of work, require both longer
time and a larger consumption of raw mateiial.
In her intercourse with foreign countries, Austria expe- Foreign
Fences all the disadvantages of an inland position, and ot a trade.
' very limited access to the sea; the portion of coast belong¬
ing to her being in a corner of the empire. Its extent is
about 500 miles, comprising the north and east shores o
the Adriatic, from the mouths of the Po on the west, to
Ragusa and Cattaro on the east. The commercial seaports
are Venice, Trieste, and Fiume ; the first being theinletto
Friuli and Lombardy, the second to Carmola, and the tlnr
to Croatia. From Venice the access to the interior is easy.
considerable extension in the Austrian dominions, liiey to uioaua. rium ^ :ntersection by
are still, however, on a footing very different from those of the country being flat, and S h t
’ .• T„ ® ' nil.. ™ • W F ume. and still more ineste, have to me exist
our country. In England they are generally conducted on
the plan of particular towns or districts restricting them¬
selves to specific branches; as Manchester to cottons and
Birmingham to hardware. Hence our minute division of
employment, our nicety in workmanship, and the surprising
quantities produced. But in Austria the case is different:
woollens, linen, hardware, and of late years cottons, are made
canals; but Fiume, and still more Trieste, have to the east
ranges of mountains, over which the transport of bulky com¬
modities is attended with great labour and expense. ^
be remembered, moreover, that the Austrian tan was
highest in Europe up to the year 1848, and that many -
tides of manufacture, such as rock-salt, rouge, go >
and tobacco, were entirely prohibited, while the import du y
.Austria,
on other articles of commerce almost effectually prevented
their admission. Hence it followed, that the price of many
of the most common articles of clothing (as stated in the
witish and Foreign Review, vol. xi.), was higher from 75
to 100 per cent than in London. This narrow commercial
legislation coupled with the inland toll, subsisting till 1849
between Hungary and the rest of the empire, could not but
materially impede the free development of the commercial
lesouices of the country. In no other department however
has so great a progress been perceptible within the last 20
years as in commerce ; for we find that in the decade between
2 , a"C A 84 ’.the of foreign commerce rose from
1/0 to 290 millions of florins; while in the year preced-
ing the late war, it increased to upwards of 240 millions.
1 his advance must undoubtedly be attributed in a laro-e
measure to the construction of different lines of railway; of
winch the chief are, the Northern or Ferdinands Line
touching the Prussian frontier at Oderberg, and bringing
Berlin within slightly more than a thirty hours’ journey from
the Austrian capital, the Cracow-Silesian Line, and the
bouth-hastern Line, running into Hungary. The most im¬
portant line, however, by which it is contemplated to unite
Vienna on the one hand with Galizia, and on the other with
Ineste, and thereby with the Italian provinces, is as yet far
from completion. In regard to foreign commerce, the sea¬
port of Trieste occupies the foremost place, and owes its
flourishing condition to the existence of the Lloyd Company
established in 1833, and three years after taken under govern¬
ment patronage. The steam vessels of this company are
nearly forty m number; and, by means of their connection
™ the German railways, have already rivalled the London
Oriental Company by opening up a communication with the
Last through Trieste. The value of the commerce of Trieste
with foreign countries is, according to the latest statistics,
86 millions; that of Venice, 11 millions; and that of Fiume
4 millions of florins. ’
In the year 1851, considerable alterations were effected in
me Austrian tariff, the object of the government being to
form a union with the German Zollverein; though it will be
seen by a few examples that the duty on many articles of
manufacture still amounts to a virtual prohibition. The im¬
port duty per cwt. on the following articles stand thus:—
Raw tobacco 10
Raw and spun silk 15
Cotton goods (according to
w ~    quality), from 12 to 250
oollen and silk manufactures are taxed in the same ratio
as the foregoing.
I he aggregate value of Austrian manufactures is, accord¬
ing to the last official return, estimated at 795 millions of
onns. In this computation the following are the more im¬
portant branches, and their respeptive value is thus stated:—
Stone and earthen ware 25*000,000
Wass and mirror manufacture 15 Q00 000
Hardware .,..’.49,000^000
Flax and hemp 57,000,000
Beer and spirits 44,000,000
S gar 14,000,000
mill! har,b0Urs alor1lg the c°ast of Dalmatia are both nu-
siderll ant commodious, but their trade must be incon-
weabh erUnfti t le C,OUntry inIancl acquire population and
are' akn n "h nort|lern Part °f the Austrian empire there
nicafp, ,5fT.au0bStaC eS,t0 fbreign trade- Bohemia commu-
m0re diffir,hbhtSeai°n^by tbe Elbe> and Galizia with still
now almost'r^ ^ t ie Vistula; but these impediments are
i„ezvh^^t“ment of ^rom-
AUSTRIA.
r> ,v> Florins,
Law coffee 10
Fine spices   25
Tea  
Refined sugar 14
National Income and Finances,
In commercial countries, the public revenue arises prin¬
cipally from the excise and customs; but in a country chiefly
agricultural, the case is very different. Ip Austria the li¬
mited extent of foreign trade renders the customs compara¬
tively small; while the small number of towns, and their
scanty population, lessen greatly the produce of the excise.
An extra share of the public burdens must therefore fall on
and the assessment of which ought from time to time to
be altered according to the amount of rents. In England
since the first imposition of the land-tax in 1692, there has
been no renewed survey, or attempt to adapt it to the aug-
mented rental; but in France and Austria the absolute in¬
sufficiency of other taxes rendered an increase of the land-tax
indispensable. In Austria, the Emperor Joseph, among other
changes, proposed a land and poll tax on a uniform plan, and
attempted a general survey of the empire. Several years
were devoted to this great work; but it encountered many
obstacles, as well from the difference of value between the
plain and mountain territory, as from the difficulty of com¬
puting rents in almost any province of the empire, the pro¬
perty of the peasantry obliging them to pay their landlords
m produce or in labour instead of money. Since 1815 the
Austrian government has endeavoured to correct defects in
the existing assessment, but it is still in a very imperfect
state. In 1819 a new regulation of the land-tax was esta-
i«r«ed,T uh^nder1Went material changes after the war of
1848. In the Hereditary States, as well as in Bohemia and
Gahzia, the land-tax was levied without distinction of class or
rank; but in the aristocratic countries of Hungary and Tran-
sylvama the noblesse or gentry were exempt from it till
Public Revenue of Austria.
From fhe year 1831 to 1841 the average revenue of Aus-
tna was 133 millions of florins, which from 1841 down to
tne time of the last war amounted to an average of 170 mil-
!'°ns:f 1 If lncrease, perceptible in the second decade, may
be uttributed chiefly to the introduction of the stamp-duty
and other financial measures by Baron Kiibeck ; and it mav
be remarked that the increase of the indirect taxes by far
exceeded tlut of the direct. From this revenue, which nearly
covered the state-expenses, the military establishment alone
absorbed m the year 1832, in consequence of the French re¬
volution of 1830, as well as in the year 1846, during the
“rJS’ m°re than 60 miIli°"S’ “-r
at The !’"!i’l,Cr V'' wl'ich> 1as “'ready observed, amounted,
t the end of the war with Napoleon, to 500 millions of
fheTar'onsTV1! to, 80° 7"^’ Up 1111 the date
to 33 mill' c'fl • iG Int,erest a^one of this debt amounted
to 33 millions of florins. From this general view, the reader
whchn whifofd 116 reSOUrc.es of Austria at the eve of a war
ich, while for two years it materially diminished her in-
lic debt^rv rp °n 0i!her h?d a great addition t0 the pub-
b.Et b> ^easf ,of the vastly increased expenditure it oc-
and the rulp<j t le end °f the War’ the system of taxation
a the rules m respect to states-revenue and expenditure
in general, underwent fundamental alterations.
he injurious effect of the war upon the finances may be
gathered from the following statement:—
Deficit in round
numbers.
65,000,000 fins.
140,000,000 fins.
Income. Expenditure.
islo "ifo flns' I 186-679,486 fins.
1849...149,617,132 fins. | 289,468,048 fins. ,   
i eaT showed a considerable increase of income,
qfommn h”g. the Sect a"d indirect taxes, rose to
250000000 °nns’ wbile the expenditure amounted to
I he income and expenditure of 1851 were as follow:—
315
Austria.
316
Austria.
1. Direct Taxes.
Land tax  58,684:,661
House tax.,  7,371,944:
Inheritance tax... 130,063
Income tax on) 3,925,860
Property tax.'..... 3,704,957
Direct taxes of) 156 771
Cracow J
Other direct taxes 104,574
AUSTRIA.
2. Indirect Taxes.
25,055,640
Tax on consum-l
able articles... J ^ e
Customs 
Salt monopoly.-... 28,677,167
Tobacco monopoly 1o,oo/,too
Stamps,and taxes! 15,758,968
on processes... j *
iclnlvz::::::: SS
Turnpike tolls  2,291,271
Other taxes  c>oo,biy
Total  74,078,830 Total 109,419,174
3. Income from State property  7,166,169
Total income, in round numbers, including the indemni¬
fication paid by Sardinia, 223,000,000 florins.
The total expenditure of this year amounted in round
numbers, to 278,000,000 florins. Deficit for 1851,55,000,000
^iTmay be observed that the year 1852, the financial state¬
ment for which has not yet been made public, promises a
continued increase in the revenue ; though the state of the
provinces, as well as the general aspect of Europe, do not
entitle us to calculate upon a reduction in the chief item o
expenditure, viz. the army, which, in 1851, of itself absorbed
more than 111,000,000 florins. The public debt amounted,
in 1852, according to the estimate formed by the .judicious
and accurate Otto Hubner, in his Jahrbuchfur Volkswirth-
schaftund Statistik, to 1200 millions of florins, or at the rate
of 32 florins per head. . . . . .
It is thus seen that the revenue of Austria is surprising y
small if compared with England and France. I his how¬
ever is explained by the mere consideration of the manner
in which human labour is employed. In manufacturing
and commercial countries, such as Englant, agneu ture
is conducted with the benefit of capital and machinery;
and the labour of 30 or 40 persons in 100 is sufficient to
raise subsistence for the community at large. But m other
countries of Europe the case is very different, the labour of
half or of more than half the inhabitants being required to
raise the needful subsistence. Thus in France, a great part
of which is more backward than an untravelled Englishman
can readily conceive, between 50 and 60 persons in 100 aie
and must be employed in country work, in consequence o
the great inferiority of their agriculture, their farms being
small, their ploughs and other implements miserably defec¬
tive, their capital scanty, and machinery, such as threshmg-
mills, in a manner unknown. Hungary, Transylvania, and
the southern frontier along the Danube, being still more
backward than any part of France, more destitute of capi¬
tal, and more deficient in machinery, the consequence is,
that of the average population of the Austrian empire, the
labour of not fewer than between 60 and 70 persons in 100
is needed for raising provisions; thus reducing to a com¬
paratively small number the population of the towns, the
persons disposable for trade and manufacture. This is at
once apparent from a comparison of the town population in
these different countries, which, as is evident, is by far the
least in Austria. The largest towns in the latter besides
Vienna, are Milan, Venice, Prague, and Pesth, each with
a population above 100,000, which, taken together, does not
much exceed the population of Paris alone, not to mention
the immense population of London and other large towns
in Britain. i
Another very important point in estimating the resources
tive dTiT of different countries is the degree of density in the popu-
sity of Po- lation generally. In England, by the census of the year
pillation. 1851^ it was 4835 persons to a German square mile; in
France, 3678; while in Austria it was only 3150, though
its territory by far surpasses that of France. As to the
comparative density of the town and agricultural populations, ^
no satisfactory result has hitherto been obtained by the sta¬
tistical writers ; the prevailing opinion, however, is, that the
population of the towns is in the proportion of 1 to 7 in
comparison with the remainder. It is necessary, however,
to bear in mind that the population of those towns which
number less than 2000 inhabitants is generally classed
among the agricultural. Now, it almost always happens
that in a thickly-peopled district the wages are better and
the consumption of taxed articles greater, per head, than in
one that is thinly peopled; and hence the contribution to
the public treasury is larger. Thus the inhabitants of Eom-
bardy, Bohemia, and the Vienna district, pay considerably
more per head than those of Hungary, Carinthia, or Upper
Austria. Add to this, in the third place, that while Eng¬
land has all the benefit of an insular situation and liberal
institutions, and France possesses an extensive line of coast,
with considerable trade, the maritime provinces of Austria
are both limited in extent, and but recently acquired; in
short, the empire may be said to have as yet wanted almost
entirely the stimulus to industry arising from communica¬
tion by water, from a universally established steam-commu¬
nication, and, above all, from a liberal commercial legisla¬
tion.
Austria.
Military Establishment.
Austria has taken so prominent a part in the wars of the
last and of the present age, that the nature and extent of her
military means are subjects of great interest. 1 he disposi¬
tion of the inhabitants of Hungary, and of the more remote
provinces of the empire, is well adapted to a military life.
They are accustomed to pass their time out of doors, to in¬
dulge in active exercise, to follow the chase, and to occupy
themselves with the care of horses. To such men marc ing
and encamping are but a slight deviation from t leir es a
Wished habits. The fire of the nightly watch is not more un¬
comfortable than that of their smoky cottages ; whilst a loaf
of bread, a slice of coarse pork, and a glass of spirits, are a
the food and drink they desire. It is now more than a cen¬
tury since the Prussians began to take a lead in military dis¬
cipline, the father of Frederick II. having carried both the
manual and platoon exercise to a nicety unattempted by a-
most any other tactician. He left a highly disciplined army
of nearly 80,000 men to his son, who, on the death of the
Emperor Charles VI. in 1740, conceived that such a force
would soon enable him to accomplish the conquest of Silesia.
He lost no time in making preparations for war. I he cou
of Vienna, alarmed, sent a special envoy to dissuade
from it; but Frederick was not to be deterred by any re¬
monstrances, however urgent. The envoy adverting on he
one hand, to the careful training of the Prussians, and ori
other to the recent practice of the Austrians in the field, de¬
clared to the king, “ Vos troupes, Sire, sont
nbtres ont vu le loup.” “ Vous convenez, replied the king,
“ nue mes troupes sont belles, je vousferai convemr qu el es
sont bonnes” * The words of the king were made good ; the
events of the war which ensued, as well as of the m°re ar
duous contest begun in 1756, having proved, on many frying
occasions, the great advantage of a high state of <hs
This led the Austrian generals and war mimsters t
the example of the Prussians, as well by carefully train g_
their infantry, as by new-modelling the free corp
horsemen, Croats, Sclavonians, and Hungarians, who had
hitherto been left to their national mode of J
dint of perseverance, Marshal Lascy and other military men
in Austria succeeded at last in bringing these half-civili
combatants under the discipline of regular cavalry.
The French, in the wars of the revolution, were
able for celerity of movement in collective bodie®’^
stowed comparatively little attention on t \eminu
cipline. The Austrians were charged with following a con
AUSTRIA.
Austria trary system ; with too much care as to details, and too little
''—as to general movements. Their lines are said to have suf¬
fered on various occasions, in particular in the dreadful con¬
flicts at Essling and Wagram, from continued exposure to
the field-pieces of the enemy ; and their infantry was said
to be slow in executing most movements except those from
front to rear.
most indefinite in its resources. The long duration of se¬
veral of her wars is to be ascribed to two causes ; her in¬
ability, on the one hand, to overpower her opponents by a
great effort; and her power on the other, to keep up a cer¬
tain degree of exertion for a long period. It was thus that
Austria carried on the religious war in Germany during
thirty years, and persisted in the war with France in 1713^
T r . i a • jco-io, chili pciaiatcu in uie win wiui rrance m i/io
In former times the Austrian government, conscious of after England and Holland had withdrawn. Maria The
p npnr'ipnl prlupQtinn  • , , i i i i ~
Magnitude
of the re¬
sources of
Austria.
the deficient education of its subjects, gave important com¬
mands to Italian officers, amongst whom the most remark¬
able were Montecuculi and Prince Eugene. At present
there are military schools at Vienna and several of the pro¬
vincial towns. Up to the year 1848 the Austrian army,
though by far inferior in general instruction to those of Prus¬
sia and France, was, in a strictly military point of view, and
in discipline, held equal to any in Europe. Its prestige was,
however, entirely lost during the war of 1848, when a large
part of the army, and especially the Hungarians, deserted
from the imperial standard to rally round their national co¬
lours; a circumstance which led to the complete military de¬
moralization of the whole army. At the conclusion of the
war, many of the revolutionary troops were forcibly enrolled
into the imperial ranks, a policy which can only serve to in¬
fect the whole military force with new ideas, and an anti-
dynastic spirit.
The whole army, including the landivehr, is computed
at 500,000 men, and consists of 63 infantry regiments of
the line, 20 grenadier battalions, 14 frontier regiments, and
24 rifle battalions ; the cavalry consists of eight regiments
of cuirassiers, 7 of dragoons, 12 of hussars, and 11 ofTancers,
besides the different corps of artillery, and the sappers and
miners.1
In most of the provinces of the Austrian empire the levies
were at first made for militia service (landwehr), and the
regular regiments were kept up by successive draughts from
that force ; while in Hungary the diet voted the respective
contingents. Since the end of the last war, however, one
uniform system of arbitrary recruiting has prevailed through¬
out the whole empire.
The horses for the Austrian light cavalry are drawn from
Hungary and Galizia; those for the heavy cavalry chiefly
from Bohemia and Moravia. Clothing, arms, ammunition,
and harness, are all furnished at different stations, in Bo¬
hemia, Moravia, and the Hereditary States. The duration
of military service in Austria was long unlimited; but in
the early part of the present century it was reduced, as in
this country, to specific periods. For invalids and veteran
soldiers there is a provision similar to what is made for our
military ; they are either received into hospitals or allowed
small out-pensions. For further details connected with the
Austrian military establishment, see Army.
The limited revenue of Austria, and her equally limited
credit in a financial sense, prevent her from making a great
military exertion at short notice. She cannot, unless when
aided by foreign subsidies, equip for offensive operations,
or send to a distance, armies of any very considerable force.
Hence her power in attack is restricted so as to form a re¬
markable contrast to the extent of her means for continuing
a contest by filling up the blanks in her regiments, year after
year, by fresh levies. In her long and arduous struggle with
France, the losses of each campaign appeared to be sup¬
plied without making a serious impression on her numbers,
or distressing her productive industry. The causes of this
are obvious. A country like England, possessing monied
capital, can at short notice embody an army, and send it to
a distance, amply equipped and provided ; whilst an agricul¬
tural nation like Austria is limited in its extent of exertion
at the moment, but, from the amount of its population, al-
resa would have done the same towards Prussia in 1763,
had she not been forsaken by her allies ; whilst, in the wars
with revolutionary France and Buonaparte, we have seen
Austria, worsted in five successive contests, return as often
to the charge. At present, however, the whole condition of
Austria, in regard to her resources, has been altered in con¬
sequence of the late internal revolutions, and the unceasingly
disaffected condition of the various nationalities, many of
which only await the embroilment of Austria in a foreign
war in order to free themselves for ever from her dominancy.
The Austrian navy is as yet merely in an incipient state, Ships of
and is only entitled to notice because the possession of Ve- war.
nice, Trieste, and the fine harbours along the coast of Dal¬
matia, gives great facility for the creation of a maritime power.
At present it consists of 4 frigates, 6 corvettes, 11 brigs, and
6 schooners ; in all 27 sailing vessels ; besides 10 steamers,
the largest of which does not exceed 300-horse power.
Religion, Education, National Character.
The population of the Austrian empire, classed accord- Religion,
ing to their respective creeds, will stand thus
Catholics 26,357,172
Greek Church  3,694,896
Non-united Greeks 3,118,605
Lutherans  1,286,799
Calvinists  2,161,765
Unitarians  50,541
Jews  729,005
Other religions  2,350
Austria, as is known, was the hereditary foe of Protestant¬
ism in the seventeenth century, cruelly persecuting the po¬
pulation of Bohemia, the country of the unfortunate John
Huss and Jerome of Prague. In Hungary the struggle of
the Protestants against the Hapsburgs continued into the
eighteenth century ; nor have they ever been permitted the
enjoyment of the liberties so often stipulated to them. In more
lecent times no actual persecutions have taken place, but the
Catholic faith has always remained the predominant and pri¬
vileged religion of the empire. The north and west of Ger-
many fiequently exhibit Catholic and Protestant communi¬
ties in the same vicinity; and nowhere are the superior
industry and intelligence of the latter more strongly marked.
The traveller who passes from Saxony into Bohemia can¬
not fail to regret that the Reformation should not have
made its way into the Austrian dominions ; the result would
doubtless have been a very decided advancement in science
and productive industry. Literature, manufactures, trade,
would then have been cultivated in the south and east of
Germany with the same zeal, and probably with the same
success, as have marked their progress in the south and west.
n Ausfria) as in France, the Catholic clergy are gene¬
rally educated in humbler seminaries than universities. Ora¬
tory forms no part of their studies, and would, in fact, be
misplaced before a German congregation, which meets for
the purpose of fulfilling, soberly and tranquilly, a. religious
duty.. Sermons, therefore, are, in almost all parts of the
Austrian dominions, little more than plain moral lessons,
deduced from the sacred writings ; and the reputation of a
c eigyman, particularly in country parts, rests chiefly on his
attention to the sick, and the performance of private and
unostentatious duties. The sovereigns of Austria have in
geneial lesisted the pretensions of the popes; reserving to
themselves several important rights, such as the imposing
o taxes on church property, the nomination of bishops and
41. U.he variation between some of the numbers in this estimate and in the article Army will he underntonrl
that the strength of the Austrian military establishment fluctuates with the chances of peaS or war J ° °
318
Austria.
National
education.
AUSTRIA.
archbishops, and the option of restricting or even prevent¬
ing the circulation of papal bulls. After the late war, how¬
ever, the Austrian emperor surrendered his right in spiritual
affairs to the pope.
The extent of landed property in Austria belonging to
the Catholic Church is very considerable, as may be inferred
from the number of abbeys and convents. Though a good
deal reduced within the last half-century, there are still
nearly 300 abbeys and above 500 convents in the empire.
The head of the Austrian church is the archbishop of Vi¬
enna ; but the bishop of St Polten appoints the regimental
chaplains, and is the superior of all clergymen doing duty
with the army.
A deficiency in national education has long been a sub¬
ject of reproach to the Austrians ; and their apathy in re¬
gard to literature and politics may undoubtedly be ascribed
to the strict censorship, tending to stifle all liberal and use¬
ful inquiry. Always surrounded by the police and by se¬
cret spies, the Austrians, and especially the Viennese, have
at last naturally become totally disused to anything like
serious conversation in public, and appear seemingly satis¬
fied to make up for this deficiency in the enjoyment of the
other pleasures offered by life. I he desire of acquiring
property is of course as strong, or nearly as strong, in this
as in other countries ; but the inhabitants have still to ac¬
quire that intellectual activity which stimulates so largely
to exertion in England and France, and, above all, in the
Protestant part of Germany ; a consummation, however, not
to be brought about under absolute rule. Saxony is, the
centre of literature for that country ; and the society which
is within the reach of a youth at the university of Vienna
is not to be compared to that of Dresden or Leipsic. The
Austrian dialect of Germany is unpleasant, having a slow¬
ness of accent and a hissing tone, particularly in the mouths
of the lower orders. Hence French is the language used,
not only at court, and by diplomatists, but by genteel so¬
ciety generally. The universities in the Austrian empire
are as follow :—Vienna, Prague in Bohemia, Pesth in Hun¬
gary, Femberg in Galizia, Innspruck in Tyrol, Gratz in
Styria, Olmiitz in Moravia, and Padua and Pavia in Fom-
bardy ; in all, 9 universities, attended by more than 12,000
students. There are besides 43 academies, 33 lyceums or
high schools, and 266 gymnasia or Fatin schools. Of mili¬
tary schools there are in all 10 in the empire ; the two prin¬
cipal in Vienna, the others in provincial towns. The primary
or elementary schools throughout the empire correspond in
some measure to the parish schools in Scotland. They
were greatly increased half a century ago in the reign of
Joseph II., and in the Austrian provinces they appear to
be adequate to the wants of the population ; but in Hun¬
gary and the remote parts of the empire there are still
great deficiencies in the provision even for this, the first
stage of education. The university of Vienna dates from
the middle of the thirteenth century, the time when the
residence of the court, being fixed in that city, began to
give importance to it, and to call for improvements in pub¬
lic education. It was long under the management of the
clergy, who, in the middle ages, were the only men of let¬
ters ; but a century ago Van Swieten, the celebrated phy¬
sician, induced the government to take it into their own
hands, and to give a great extension to the medical depart¬
ment ; Vienna, from the number of its inhabitants and the
extent of its hospitals, being much fitter for a medical
school than any other city in Germany. The consequences
of Van Swieten’s representations were the fitting-up of a
botanical garden, an anatomical theatre, a military hospital,
and, at a subsequent date, a veterinary school. The uni¬
versity of Vienna is now at the head of the medical schools
in Germany. It contains also public classes for law, theo¬
logy, classics, philosophy, and general literature, in most of
which the reputation of the professors is respectable, though
not greater than in other universities, such as Gottingen, Austria.
Leipsic, and Halle. The number of students at the Vienna
university in 1848 was 3215. Vienna contains also an aca¬
demy for the fine arts, a seminary for the Eastern languages,
and facilities for the study of modern Greek. Among the
military institutions are a school for cadets, and of late years
a polytechnic school for engineers. This capital has also
several normal seminaries for training teachers for provin¬
cial towns and villages. The imperial library at Vienna is
very extensive, as is the collection of medals and coins. The
university of Prague is of old date, and well attended by
Bohemians, but it does not rank high in the scale of German
seminaries. Pesth, Lemberg, Gratz, and the other universi¬
ties, are of importance only to the population of their respec¬
tive towns, and their vicinity.
In travelling for instruction, the Austrians, like the
French, are far behind our countrymen, in consequence
partly of the want of pecuniary means, partly of their unam¬
bitious and uninquiring character. Individuals, however,
may be cited among the Austrians, who, like Baron Hum¬
boldt among the Prussians, have traversed remote regions
in quest of information; but their number is small when
compared with the extent and population of the empire.
Still Austria can boast of several names of eminence in lite¬
rature, though the greater part of its distinguished writers,
and in particular the poets, have always thought it safer to
exchange Vienna for some town of Germany. The most
eminent poets of whom the Austrian capital can boast are.
Anastasius Greun, and the well-known humourist M. G.
Saphir. Hammer, the founder of the Oriental Society at
Vienna, has long been known for his acquaintance with Per-
sian literature ; while there are many able writers on natural
philosophy and geography, connected with the various Aca¬
demies of Science in the empire.
In painting and sculpture, as in architecture, the Aus¬
trians have as yet made no great figure; but the case is
very different in regard to music. Haydn and Mozart were
both formed at Vienna; and it has been said with truth, that
a foreigner can hardly receive a higher gratification than by
being present at the oratorio at Vienna in commemoration
of Haydn. If in vocal music the Germans are inferior to
the Italians, they fully maintain the competition in instru¬
mental performance. In short, the passion for music exists
here in the humblest ranks, and under circumstances ap¬
parently the least favourable to it. This is equally the case
in the populous districts adjoining the Danube, and in the
secluded spots of Tyrol and Carniola.
Statistical writers class the population ot the Austrian Nairnd
empire according to national descent, thus,—
Of Sclavonjan origin, including the Poles,
Croats, and Serbs   15,282,245
Of German  7,917,195
Of Magyar  5,418,773
Of Italian   5,042,225
Of Wallinn  2,640,492
Besides Jews, Armenians, and Gypsies, forming a compar¬
atively small number.
The Sclavonians (called in Latin Slaci or SclarL and in
their own language Slowacs) inhabited, in remote ages, a
part of the vast tract of country known to the ancients by
the name of Scythia. Their descendants are widely spread;
for their language and habits are to be traced in the Illyrian
provinces, in Hungary, Poland, the east of Germany, and
even in the western frontier of Russia. L pen the whole,
they form the most uncivilized portion of the population of
the empire—a circumstance to be partly accounted for
the comparatively small number of their nobility, these hav¬
ing been in the course of time absorbed into the German or
Magyar populations. The Wallachians are almost equaiA
backward; but the Magyars are a spirited race, averse to
sedentary work, accustomed to exercise in the open air, and
A U S T K I A.
Austria
'I
onnection
' nth the
Germanic
'Ody.
prompt in obeying a summons to military duty, and, above
all, ever leady to join their nobles in the defence of the
country.
In Styria, Carinthia, and other mountainous tracts, the
manners of the inhabitants are very primitive. Content
with the produce furnished by their lands and cattle, and
as cheeiful and frank as moderate desires can make them,
they seem to have no wish beyond the limits of their na¬
tive districts. They are, it must be allowed, very ignorant
and superstitious ; being still blindly attached to traditionary
usages, and among others, to that of making pilgrimages
to a distance as the best means of obtaining forgiveness for
trespasses.
The character of the Germans in the Austrian dominions
is m general praiseworthy. Sincerity, industry, and habits
of order, are all conspicuous in them; and the number of
criminal offences committed among them is remarkably
small. In many extensive districts, year after year passes
without a necessity for capital punishment. The French
soldiers, who, in marching through Austria, were very often
lodged in detached cottages, and at the mercy of the inha¬
bitants, bore a favourable testimony to their humanity; and
there scarcely occurred, either there or elsewhere in Ger-
many, any example of those secret assassinations which were
unfortunately so prevalent in Spain.
The habits of the females in Austria, in the large as in
the small towns, are very domestic. Without taking so
active a part as French women in either business or conver¬
sation, they claim regard for a steady fulfilment of the duties
of wives and mothers. The lower orders have similar ha¬
bits; and a traveller may visit village after village without
hearing of a single instance of domestic disquietude. The
care of children, the performance of their daily tasks, and
punctual attendance on divine worship, seem to occupy all
their thoughts.
A striking feature in the national character of the Aus¬
trians is a continued equanimity, a general good humour and
forbearance, as if they had little or no cause for complaint
in regard either to individual circumstances or public affairs
" a circumstance which rendered the more remarkable the
impetuous movement of 1848. This general equanimity and
aversion to change produces as its natural consequence a
blind adherence to old usages, and a disinclination to almost
every kind of innovation. Hence their stationary condition,
their backward agriculture, their slowly improving manu¬
factures, and their extravagant deference to hereditary rank
—a deference often dearly paid for in war, when men of in¬
ferior talents have been intrusted with important commands.
On the whole, it must be admitted, that no country in
Furope stands more in need than Austria of the benefits,
arising from the diffusion of knowledge—a remark which
applies to the upper as well as to the lower classes.
We should, however, err greatly were we to suppose the
apparent slowness of the Austrians indicative of deficiency
o invention. On the contrary, their tranquil and sedate
habits are more favourable to original combinations than the
spnghtliness of the French. But in Austria, as in other
parts of Germany, mechanical ingenuity is often applied
rat er to make a display of skill, or to gratify a fancy, than
o accomplish a useful purpose. In one part of a journey
rough that country a traveller finds a machine so framed
iat, with a slight impulse, it performs the functions of a
c ess-player; in another part he sees a head which may be
jna e to imitate the human voice; and in a third place, an
instiument uniting the most varied sounds of music. In
machinery, as in politics, the speculations of the Germans
0 en ear evidence of considerable ingenuity, but at the
Sai^9tlI^,e ()f the absence of practice and experience.
. e Germanic confederation bore, as is well known, dur¬
ing many centuries, the name and form of an empire, con¬
sisting of a number of separate states, of which Austria was
319
by far the greatest. Her dominions in Germany comprised Austria.
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, in addition to the circle of ^
Austria, which contained Austria Proper, Styria, Carinthia,
and Carmola; hence the successive election, durino- nearly
four centuries, of the head of the house of Austria to the
rank of the Emperor of Germany. This dignity being re¬
nounced by Francis II. in 1806, the connection of Austria
with the rest of Germany on the previous footing was dis¬
solved : nor was it renewed in the final adjustments of 1815,
by which the Germanic body was declared a confederation’
but not an empire; for it has no longer an acknowledged
head, questions affecting the confederation at large belli«•
discussed in the diet or assembly of deputies from the dif¬
ferent states, and determined by a majority of votes. Each
confederate state is pledged to supply, when required by
the diet, a military force proportioned to its population.
Austria having in Germany a population of twelve millions,
her quota in time of war is nearly 100,000 men; that of
Prussia is 80,000. It has been seen how Austria desired
to enter, with all her provinces, into the German confede-
racy, and how this scheme failed, in consequence of the
remonstrances of the other powers of Europe.
H'6 a^roSat’.on .°^ ^le iraperial form in Germany, The Here
the Circle of Austria” is no longer an official designation ; ditary
but the name of “ Hereditary States,” so often used, has States,
reference to the same provinces, viz., Austria Proper, Sty¬
ria, Carinthia, and Carniola, which during five centuries and
upwards have belonged to the house of Hapsburg by here-
itary descent. At present, however, all the provinces are
governed by the same central jurisdiction and the same
oiganic laws. In these the authority of the emperor is al¬
most uncontrolled. He is the head not only of the execu¬
tive power, but of the church, and virtually of the legisla¬
ture. °
The judicial body in Austria is far more numerous than Law.
in this country, the difficulty in travelling requiring that
there should be courts of justice in a great number of pro¬
vincial towns. Iheir scale of remuneration, however, is
much below ours, being so small as to disincline even the
most eminent pleaders from relinquishing their practice. The
administration of justice in Austria long took place, as in this
country, by reference to ancient usage, and to a multitude
of decisions, without much system or consideration of gene¬
ral principles. The perplexity attendant on this vague and
undehned course being doubly felt in a country where indi¬
viduals were in general ignorant, and the press inefficient,
the government became aware, so long ago as the middle
of last century, of the necessity of publishing the laws in a
collective form. Accordingly, in the year 1767, a code was
published in eight folio volumes. This was a first step to¬
wards improvement; but the work, from its bulk and its
deficient arrangement, proving of little use, instructions
were given by the government to an eminent civilian named
,, 011 Horten, to recast it in a condensed and improved
orm. I his was necessarily a work of great time and la-
bour, and it was not till 1794 that the first part of the
civil code came forth in an improved shape. The re¬
mainder followed in a few years, when printed copies were
distributed in all directions, and local commissions appointed
to leport on its applicability to the usages of the differ¬
ent provinces of the empire. At last, m 1812, the civil
code was definitively promulgated, and applied to prac¬
tice. With the criminal code a similar course had been
adopted somewhat earlier ; it had been promulgated in 1803,
and introduced into practice the year after. Most of all
*; ^.esG however, were swept away by edicts issued since
1849.
Of the radical changes the Austrian empire has under¬
gone in consequence of the w^ar of 1848, the following are
the most important:—Formerly, the different provinces of
the empire were more or less governed by laws proper to
320
Austria
II
Automa¬
ton.
A U T
themselves, being, however, with the exception of Hungary,
dependent on the central Board of Vienna in regard to then
general administration; but since the new state ot attairs,
all the provinces, without exception, are ruled by uniform
laws, promulgated by the emperor, and all are alike under
the immediate jurisdiction of the ministry at Vienna. e
governors and district-commissaries of the various parts o
the empire are the direct nominees of the emperor, who
in a manifesto dated December 31. 1851, abrogated the
octroyed constitution of March 4. 1849 declaring also
the nullity of the responsibility of ministers, whom he decreed
to be responsible to himself alone. Thus did the empeio
formally belie his repeated and solemn assurances of trans¬
forming Austria into a constitutional monarchy, and the
value of the equally solemn assurances in regard to the
equalization of the different nationalities of the empire, ap¬
pears to have amounted up to the present time (1853
to nothing more than that all should alike be subjected
to the arbitrary regulations of the emperor and to martial
^To all that has been said we must only add, in conclusion,
that, up to the year 1848, Austria in her foreign policy fol¬
lowed an entirely independent course, acting frequently in
concert with England, and, upon the whole, m amicable
A U T
relations with the Ottoman Porte; while a certain cool- Austria
ness subsisted between her and France from the time °f Autoj|omy
the accession of Louis Philippe. Now, however, the belief
prevalent in the Austrian cabinet that the foreign policy
of Britain encouraged the late popular movements in Italy
and Hungary, has led to an alienation of feeling, undimi-
nished to the present day; and a like feeling has been created
towards Turkey, from the refusal of the latter to give up the
Hungarian refugees who took shelter in her dominions at the
end of 1849. Austria, therefore, is now more than ever in¬
fluenced by the counsels of the cabinet of St Petersburg,
and the more so, in consequence of the armed assistance so
readily afforded by the Czar in the crisis of 1849. It would
be out of place here to speculate on the probable future of
Austria. It may, however, be safely asserted, that the un¬
abated and abiding discontent in the Italian provinces and
Hungary, which, now four years after the restoration of
peace, are only kept down by force of arms; as well as the
disaffected condition of the Sclavonic population, with whom
Austria, after having in part used them as an instrument for
her own purposes, has never fulfilled the promises she had
held out,—cannot inspire much hope of a consolidation of
the empire, or afford a reasonable guarantee of any length¬
ened internal tranquillity. (J-L (E's ^
AUTOCHTHONES (avros, self, and earth), an
appellation assumed by some nations, importing that they
sprung, or were produced, from the same soil which they
inhabited. In this sense Autochthones is nearly synony¬
mous with Aborigines. The Athenians valued themselves
on their being Autochthones, self-born or yrjyevels, earth-
born ; it being the prevailing opinion among the ancients,
that, in the beginning, the earth, by some prolific power,
produced men, as it still does plants. The proper Autoch¬
thones were those primitive men who had no other ParEnt
than the earth ; but the name was also assumed by the de¬
scendants of these men, provided they never changed their
ancient abode, nor suffered other nations to mix with them.
In this sense it was that the Greeks, and especially the Athe¬
nians, pretended to be Autochthones, and, as a badge of this
distinction, wore in their hair a golden grasshopper, an insect
supposed to have the same origin.
AUTOCRAT, a person vested with an absolute inde¬
pendent power, by which he is rendered unaccountable to
any other for his actions. The power of the Athenian gene¬
rals or commanders was usually limited ; so that, at the ex¬
piration of their office, they were liable to render an account
of their administration. But, on some extraordinary occa¬
sions, they were exempted from this restraint, and sent with
a full and uncontrollable authority ; in which sense they
were styled AuroKparope?. The same people also applied the
name to some of their ambassadors, who were vested with a
full power of determining matters according to their own dis¬
cretion. These were denominated Ilpecr^eis AuroKparopes,
and resembled our plenipotentiaries.
AUTO da Fe. See Act of Faith.
AUTOGRAPH denotes a person’s own handwriting, or
the original manuscript of any book, &c.
AUTOLYCUS, a famous robber who lived on Mount
Parnassus, and was said to be the maternal grandfather of
Ulvsses.
Autolycus, of Pitane in fEolis, the author of two astro¬
nomical treatises, which are the most ancient specimens of
Greek mathematics extant. They are edited by Dasy-
podius in his Sphericce Doctrince. Propositiones, Argent.
1572. He probably lived about B.c. 350. See Delambre’s
Hist, de VAstronomie Ancienne.
AUTOMATON (from drros, self and p,aco, I move), a
self-moving machine, or one so constructed, by means of
weights, levers, pulleys, and other mechanism, as to move
for a considerable time as if endowed with animal life. Ac¬
cording to this description, clocks, watches, and all machines
of that kind, are automata.
Under the article Androides, it was observed that the
highest perfection to which automata could be carried was
to imitate exactly the motions and actions of living creatures,
especially of mankind, which are with more difficulty imi¬
tated than those of other animals. Very surprising imita¬
tions, however, have been made of other creatures. So long
ago as 400 years before Christ, Archytas of Tarentum is said
to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly ; nor will this
appear at all incredible, when we consider the flute-player
made by M. Vaucanson, of which an account is given under
Androides. Dr Hooke is also said to have made the model
of a flying chariot, capable of supporting itself in the air.
But Vaucanson distinguished himself still more, by making
a duck, which was capable of eating, drinking, and imitating
exactly the natural voice of that fowl. What was yet more
surprising, the food it swallowed was evacuated in a digested
. state ; that is to say, considerably altered from what it was
when swallowed ; and this digestion was performed on the
principle of solution, not of trituration. The wings, viscera,
and bones, of this artificial duck, were also formed so as to
resemble those of a living animal. Even in the actions ot
eating and drinking this resemblance was preserved; the
artificial duck swallowed with avidity and with quick motions
of the head and throat, and likewise muddled the water with
its bill, exactly like the natural bird. Perhaps not the least
ingenious of real automata was that which was exhibited
within the last few years at Edinburgh and elsewhere, which
enunciated several simple sentences with surprising distinct¬
ness. See also Androides. ,
AUTONOMY (dmis, and vo'/ios, a law), a power ot living
or being governed by our own laws and magistrates. I he
liberty of the cities under the faith and protection ot the
Romans consisted in their autonomia; that is, they were
allowed to make their own laws, and elect their own magis¬
trates, by whom justice was to be administered, and not Dy
Roman prefects or judges, as was done in other places whic i
were not indulged with the autonomia.
Autonomy, a term in the philosophy of Kant, by w ic i
A U X
Autumn he designates the absolute sovereignty of reason in the
Auxerre. ?l,ll,'-'re 'll l"oraI5- On this self-legislative quality of reason
   ls fT^ed’ to Wm, the true nature and the sole
' proof of man’s liberty.
AUTUMN, the third season of the year, when the har¬
vest and fruits are gathered in. Autumn is represented in
painting by a man at perfect age, clothed like the spring, and
likewise girded with a starry girdle, holding in one hand a
Y P01ied’ withaSlobe in each, and in the
other a bunch of divers fruits and grapes. His age denotes
he perfection of this season ; and the balance that sign of
the zodiac which the sun enters when our autumn begins.
u umn egins on the day when the sun’s meridian dis¬
tance from the zenith, being on the decrease, is a mean be¬
tween the greatest and the least, which in our hemisphere
is supposed to happen when the sun enters Libra. Its end
coincides with the beginning of winter. Several nations
computed the years by autumns; the Anglo-Saxons, by
wmters. Tacitus tells us that the ancient Germans were ac¬
quainted with all the other seasons of the year, but had no
notion of autumn. Lidyat observes of the beginning of the
several seasons of the year, that
Dat Clemens hyemem, dat Petrus ver cathedratus,
A^stuat Urbanus, autumnat Bartholomams.
Autumn has been reputed an unhealthy season. Tertullian
calls it tentator valetudinum; and the satirist speaks of it in
VrTrrlfJlV'i Autumnus Libitince questus acerbce.
AU 1 UMNAL Equinox, that time when the sun enters
September^ P°int* ThlS liaPPens about tbe 22d or 23d of
Autumnal Point is that part of the equinox from which
the sun begins to descend towards the south pole.
utumnal Signs, in Astronomy, are the signs Libra,
thTautumrf Saglttanus’ through wbicb the sun passes during
A UT UN, the capital of an arrondissement of the same
name in the department of Saone and Loire, in France, is
SCibreSLqne y SltlUatAd °n the declivity of a hill, at the foot
“fl0- the This is 0ne of the most ancient
towns of France, and when Caesar invaded Gaul it was by
tar the greatest and wealthiest town of the Mdni. Its name
Pml ir l / u™04!’ but beinS afterwards much improved and
embehished by Augustus it took that of Augustodunum.
Many Homan and other remains still attest its former great-
ess; among which are large masses of its ancient walls, and
two gates ln admirable preservation. The cathedral is a
“of the eleventh century, and contains an elegant
u ™taiI?1 ln lts ^luare- Auton is the seat of a bishopric, and
0T(. °,,ege’adlocesan seminary, a museum, library, theatre,
If h J h tnbunals of Pr™ary jurisdiction and commerce.
dLp? marfaCtUreS °/' C0tt0n Soods, hosiery, leather, and
dfrtd 'The^rrondi^sement^s
! 85 Ll00286 Cant°nS and 85 Communes- Population in
novtHT^RiGNE’ an ancient Province of central France,
Feance 6 departments of Puy de Dome and Cantal. See
of a ner7 deep-coloured heady wine, made
If kenf tw S.f° calIed5 which are produced near Orleans.
ATTYtppputhree yearS k bec°mes excellent,
the Ynrma • r? an arr°odissement in the department of
494 go r ’ m j". P® ext:ent is 773 square miles, or
with 121 ^QS’ i1V!ded lnto i2 cantons and 131 communes,
is situated on e Pm capital, of the same name,
five of wine • e baidcs °f the 1 onne, in a district produc-
cient cathedr*fndf ^ ^ antiTie fashion, with an an-
schools a sn ' fanC / Sp endld Paiace* It has several normal
theatre’ &! Tb v agnculture’ botaoic garden, museum,
town P„C- iJ';eJ0n"eitnavi«ab.le from a Me abovethe
vol. iv P* 8^’ besides trade in wine and in
A V A
fire-wood there are manufactures of cloths, druggets semes
cotton and woollen stockings, and some considerable tan¬
neries. Long. 3. 34. 21. E. Lat. 47. 47. 57. N.
AUXESIA, in Mythology, the name under which Perse¬
phone or Proserpina was honoured at Troezenand Epidaurus
as presiding over the nourishment and increase of the crops’.
AU.Ab.Mb (averts), in Rhetoric, a figure whereby any¬
thing is magnified too much. 1
AUXILIARY, whatever is aiding or helping to another.
Auxiliary Verbs, in Grammar, are such as help to form
°r A°TIY,v?^5ilers’ as t0 have’to be- See Grammar.
AUXOJYNE, a city in the arrondissement of Diion and
department of Cote d’Or, in France. It is on the Saone
and is strongly fortified. Pop. 5800. Besides their manu¬
factures of cloth and serges, the inhabitants carry on by
the river considerable traffic with Lyons. Lonu 5 24 F
Lat. 47. 13. N. s ^
A VA, the capital of the Burman empire. It is situated
on the Irawaddy, which is here 3282 feet broad, and which
making a bend out of its ordinary course, flows past the city
on the X. On the E. it has the river Myit-nge, a rapid
stream 450 feet broad, which flows into the Irawaddy close
under its walls. From this river a canal has been dug
through which its waters flow on the S.E. angle of the city
and are again brought into the same river. On the S. flows
the deep and rapid torrent of the Myit-tha, an offset of the
yit-nge, which, falling into the Irawaddy, forms the de-
fence both of the S. and W. faces of the town. This place
is divided into the upper and lower, or the lesser and the
larger town, both of which are fortified. The brick wall
that surrounds the city is 151 feet in height, and 10 feet in
thickness, on the inside of which is thrown up a bank of
earth forming an angle of 45 degrees. There is a ditch
round the outer wall which is inconsiderable, and in the
dry season fordable in every part. The lesser town is chiefly
occupied by the royal palace, the hall of justice, the council
chamber, the arsenal, and the habitations of a few courtiers
of distinction. A strong well-built wall of more solid con¬
struction than the outer wall of the city, and about 20 feet
high, incloses the square in which these buildings are situ¬
ated and on the outside is a teak-wood stockade of the same
height. I he ditch which surrounds the lesser town is more-
fePvfr r a b;°ad^ than that 0f the city> and wben full
not to be forded. 1 here are, however, three causeways
across, which communicate with the adjacent country.
I he circumference of the city, excluding the suburbs is
about % miles, but over this extensive area the houses ’are
but thinly scattered ; some quarters are indeed wholly des¬
titute of habitations, and have the appearance merely of
neglected commons. In general the dwellings of the in-
habitents are of the most miserable sort, being mere huts
hatched with grass. Wretched, however, as Je such habi¬
tations to European eyes, the poorer classes are perhaps bet¬
ter lodged than in other parts of Asia. Their sleeping places
are elevated two or three feet from the ground, which is a
convenience not enjoyed by the masses in Bengal. Some
;ltbe bo.u®f of the chiefs constructed of planks, and
.V ’, tbere a^e not> according to Mr Crawford, more
l-kT ^ 3 d?Zen1b°USes built of brick and mortar. Ava,
like all the other Burmese towns, is adorned with numerous
d^taPntS’-°f gllded Spire? risin£ aloft Present on a
view o the place a, splendid and imposing appear-
ance, which is far from being realized on a neared i^pec-
t on. I he largest of these temples contains two distinct
edihees, one m the ancient, the other in the modern form
the former containing an image of Guatama, not of marble
as Symes supposes, but of sandstone. It is in a sittimr
diameter “Th8 2i ^ helght The ^ « 8 feet in
diameter. Ihere is another very large temple, and a third
SeatV^Th .?eaU.tiPuL” The one caIled Maong-llatna is of
^reat celebrity; it is the one in which the public officers of
2 s
321
Auxesia
Ava.
322
A V A
' 9 the government take, with the most solemn forms, the oath
Va|| of allegiance. The temple called Maha-mrat-mumadan
Avallon. addition made to it some years ago, of which Mr C ™ ^
v ^ mentions that the numerous and richly-gilded pillars and
rPk„“d ceiling exceeded anything that was to be «h-
out the palace. Ava contains eleven ".arketa or
composed of thatched huts and sheds, which, however a e
well supplied with all that is necessary for the wants otthe
neonle Besides native commodities, there are exposea
In these markets the produce of China and of Lao, with
British cottons, woollens, glass and e^thenware. The Bur^
man monasteries are mostly built of wood ; and of those
composed of more solid materials, a few ancient ones a
neX all that are to be seen. The only exception is a
monastery built some years ago by the ^J0^ning
palace, an unshapely fabric ot immense size, but a very
"’X^of the Burman dominions, according to the
political divisions of the empire, comprehends the town ot
PSagdng on the opposite shore of the Irawaddy, and the
town of Ummerapoora or Amarapura, four miles to the E.
The town of Sagaing extends along the Irawaady for more
than a mile and a half, but is of inconsiderable breadth. It
consists of mean houses thinly scattered among gardens and
orchards ; the principal trees in the latter consisting of fine
old tamarinds. Over the site of the town and ite environ
are scattered innumerable temples, some of them oM and
ruinous, others modern. On the river face it has a bnck
wall about 10 feet in height, with
like that of Ava, and extending for above halt a mile along
the river. Ummerapoora is a large place, and was formerly
the capital; but Ava, which was twice before the capit ,
was again made so in 1822. To each of the towns of Ava,
Saeaing, and Ummerapoora, are attached districts, the two
former of which extend 12 miles along the river, and are
of equal breadth. The district of U™™!’0™13. "f Xe
size so that Ava must be considered as not only the name
of the capital, but of a large district around, which mcludes
an area of 288 miles, containing, according to the most ac
curate estimate, 354,200 inhabitants. But the city of Ava is
not supposed to contain more than 50,000 inhabitants; and
according to Mr Crawfurd, half that number would be
nearer the truth. The place, taken altogether affords few
or no indications of industry or commercial enterpnze.
Lat. 21. 52. Long. 96. 1. _ . .
The entire territory subject to the Burmese sovereign
sometimes called Ava, the custom of applying to a country
or province the name of its chief place being common m
the East. It appears, however, preferable, where a distinct
name for a country exists, to class the general information
relating to that country under such name. Ihe reade ,
therefore, is referred in this instance for such information to
the article Burmah. (d- b n-) t,I
AYADOUTAS, a sect of Indian Brahmins, who m aus¬
terity surpass all the rest, covering their nakedness with a
niece of cloth only, some of them even dispensing with that,
and besmearing their bodies with cow-dung. When hungry
some enter into houses, and, without speaking, hold out
their hands, eating on the spot whatever is given them.
Others retire to the sides of holy rivers, and there expect
the peasants to bring them provisions, which they generally
do very liberally. See Hindustan.
AVAL. See Bahrein.
AVALANCHE, the name given to a prodigious mass ot
consolidated snow, which, disengaged from the summits of
more elevated peaks, frequently rolls down the sides ot the
Alps. See Alps. ,
A V 4LLON, an arrondissement in the department ot the
Tonne, in France, comprehending five cantons and seventy
communes. Area, 244,480 acres; pop. 47,524 The capital
of the same name, is a handsome town, finely situated on
A V E
a granite rock, at the foot of which flows the river Voisin. Avatar
It has some manufactures of cloth, hats, hosiery, leather, an ^ven.
paper, and a considerable traffic in fire-wood, which is con bragger.
veved by the Voisin, the Tonne, and the Seine, to Fans,
Pop. in 1851, 5740. Long. 3. 56. E. Lat. 47. 30. N.
AVATAR, a Sanscrit word signifying a descending, ap¬
plied in Indian mythology to incarnations of Vishnu, and
of some of the inferior deities. See Hindustan.
AVATCHA, a bay on the S.E. coast of Kamtschatka,
the best on that coast; Lat. 52. 52. N. Long. 158. 47. E.
On this bay is situated a small town of the same name;
and about 20 miles inland is the volcano of Avatcha, rising
to the height of 9055 feet. cwt-u
AVEBURY, a village of England, in the county of Wilts,
6 miles W. of Marlborough. It occupies the site of a cu¬
rious ancient structure, supposed to be Druld^a1' Thl*
consisted of a large outer circle formed of 100 stones of
from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet m circum¬
ference, inclosing an area of about 1400 feet in diameter.
This circle was surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty ram¬
part Within its area were two smaller circles, each con¬
sisting of a double concentric row of stones ; a stone pillar
20 feet high occupying the centre of the one, and a crom¬
lech that of the other. Two avenues of approach consist¬
ing of double rows of stones, branched off from this struc¬
ture to other circles about a mile distant towards the S. and
W. Few traces of this immense structure now remain, the
stones having been broken down and used in the construc¬
tion of the houses of the village, and for other purposes. In
the vicinity are a number of cromlechs and barrows: among
the latter is Silbury Hill, said to be the largest barrow m
Europe. It is about 2000 feet in circumference at the base,
rising in a conical form to the height of 170 feet-the diame¬
ter of the summit being 120 feet.
AVEIRO, a town of Portugal, province of Beira, the
seat of a bishopric and college. It has a thriving trade m
oil, salt, fish, wine, and oranges. Pop. 4500. Long. 8.34.
W. Lat. 40. 40. N.
AVEIRON. See Aveyron. , ^
AVELLA, a town of Naples, in the province of lena
di Lavoro, in a fine situation, and commanding most exten¬
sive prospects. It is distant about 20 miles from Naples
and contains 6000 inhabitants. Near it are the remains ot
the ancient Abella. See Abella.
AVELLINO, the ancient Abelhnum, a fortified city ot
Naples, in the province of Principato Ultra, at the foot of
Mount Vergine and 28 miles E. of Naples. It is the see
of a bishcp? and has a cathedral, several parish churches,
a royal college, &c.with manufactories of cloth, paper
maccaroni, and sausages, and extensive dye-works. !t has
a considerable trade in corn, chestnuts, and hazel-nuts. 1 his
city has at various times suffered severely from earthquakes.
Pnn 16 000. See Abellinum. . .
AVE-MARIA {Hail Mary), a form of devotion m tie
Romish Church, addressed to the Virgin Mary. It.sde-
rived from the salutation of the angel in Luke i. The chaj
lets and rosaries of Roman Catholics are divided into a cer¬
tain number of ave-marias and pater-nosters
AVENA, a botanical genus of Gramineae, to which t
oat, Arena sativa, belongs. . , • - n
AVENBRUGGER, Leopold, an ingenious physician
of Gratz in Styria. We owe to him the important mode
of investigating diseases of the chest and abdomen by atw-
His method was to apply the ear to the chesb
and to note the sounds it afforded on percussion by the
hand or what is called immediate ausculatwn. His Lat
treatise excited but little attention, until it was translated
SilfuSed by Corvisan, in 1808; when „ soon led he
way to Laennec’s great improvement of aiding tt
by the stethoscope, or mediate auscultation. This latte
practice, which has so greatly aided the diagnosis of inte
A V E
Avenches
II
Avenue.
nal diseases, was employed at Edinburgh several years be¬
fore it was in general use in other parts of Great Britain.
^ Avenbrugger was born at Grate in 1722, and died in 1809.
AVBJNLHBS (in German, WiJfUsburg),a, small town of
Switzerland, in the canton ofVaud, about 1J miles from
Lake Morat or Murten. It is the ancient Aventicum, the
chief city of the Helvetii. Many objects of antiquity have
been found here ; and remains of an amphitheatre, of an
aqueduct, and of the ancient walls, still exist. Avenches
contains 1100 inhabitants.
AVENOil, in Feudal Law, an officer belonging to the
kings stables, who provided oats for the horses.
AVEN riNUS (or Johann Turmayr), author of the
Annals of Bavaria, was born in the year 1466, at Abens-
perg. He studied first at Ingoldstadt, and afterwards in the
university of Paris. In 1503 he privately taught eloquence
and poetry at Vienna, and in 1507 he publicly taught
Greek at Cracow, in Poland. In 1509 he read lectures on
some of Cicero’s works at Ingoldstadt, and in 1512 was
appointed preceptor to Prince Ludwig and Prince Ernst,
sons of Albert the Wise, Duke of Bavaria, and travelled with
the latter of these princes. He afterwards undertook to
write the Annales Boiorum, or Annals of Bavaria, be¬
ing encouraged by the dukes of that name, who settled a
pension upon him, and gave him hopes that they would de¬
fray the charges of the book. This work, which gained its
author great reputation, was first published in 1554 by Hie¬
ronymus Zieglerus, professor of poetry in the university of
Ingoldstadt; and afterwards at Basil, in 1580, by Nicholas
Cisner. Besides his other writings, Gesner attributes to
him a curious work, entitled Numerandi per digitos manus-
que Veterum Consuetudines. Aventinus died in 1534.
Aventinus Mons, one of the seven hills on which an¬
cient Rome stood. The origin of the name Aventinus is
uncertain ; but this hill was also called JMurcius, from Mur¬
cia (Venus), the goddess of sloth, who had a little chapel
there ; and Colhs Diana?, from the temple of Diana; like¬
wise Remonius, from Remus, who was buried there. It
was taken within the compass of the city by Ancus Mar-
cius (Liv. i. 33.) To the E. it had the city walls ; to the
8. the Campus Figulinus; to the W. the Tiber; and to
the N. Mons Palatinus. It was two miles and a quarter in
circuit.
AVENUE {ad and venio), a walk planted on each side
with trees, and leading to a house, garden-gate, wood, &c.
I he trees most proper for avenues with us are the English
elm, the lime, the horse-chestnut, the common chestnut, the
beech, the abele. The English elm will do in all grounds,
except such as are very wet and shallow; and this is pre¬
ferred to all other trees, because it will bear cutting, head-
ing, or lopping in any manner, better than most others.
I be rough or smooth Dutch elm is approved by some be¬
cause of its quick growth. This is a tree which will bear
removing very well; it is also green almost as soon as any
plant whatever in spring, and continues so as long as any;
it makes an incomparable hedge, and is preferable to all
other trees for lofty espaliers. The lime is valued for its
natural growth and fine shade. The horse-chestnut is pro¬
per or all places that are not too much exposed to rough
winds. The common chestnut will do very well in a good
soi, and uses to a considerable height when planted some¬
what close, though, when it stands single, it is rather inclined
to spread than to grow tall. The beech is a beautiful tree,
and naturally grows well with us in its wild state; but it is
ess to be chosen for avenues than the before-mentioned,
ecause it does not bear transplanting well, and is very sub-
aye
ject to miscarry. Lastly, the abele is fit for any soil and
is the quickest grower of any forest tree. It seldom fails in
transplanting, and succeeds very well in wet soils, in which
the others are apt to fail. The oak is but little used for
avenues, because of its slow growth. See Gardening.
AVENZOAR (Abu Merwan Abdalmalec ebn Zohr),
an eminent Arabian physician, who flourished about the
end of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century.
He was of noble descent, and born at Seville, the capital of
Andalucia, where he exercised his profession with great re¬
putation. He was contemporary with Averroes, who, ac¬
cording to Leo Africanus, heard his lectures and learned
physic of him. This seems the more probable, because
Avenoes more than once gives Avenzoar very high and
deserved praise, calling him admirable, glorious, the trea¬
sure of all knowledge, and the most supreme in physic from
the time of Galen to his own. Avenzoar, notwithstanding,
is by the generality of writers reckoned an empiric ; but Dr
Freind observes that this character suits him less than any
of the rest of the Arabians. Avenzoar belonged, in fact,
to the Dogmatists or Rational Sect, the antipodes of the
Empirics. He was a great admirer of Galen ; and in his
writings inveighs against the quackery of old women, and
the superstitious remedies of the astrologers. He shows no
inconsiderable knowledge of anatomy in his remarkable
description of inflammation and abscess of the mediastinum
in his own person, and its diagnosis from common pleuritis
as well as from abscess and dropsy of the pericardium. In
cases of obstruction or of palsy of the gullet, his three modes
of treatment are ingenious. He proposes to support the
strength by placing the patient in a tepid bath of nutritious
Jiquids, that might enter by cutaneous imbibition ; but does
not recommend this. He speaks more favourably of the in¬
troduction of food into the stomach by a silver tube; and he
strongly recommends the use of nutritive enemata. From
his writings it would appear that the offices of physician,
surgeon, and apothecary were already considered as distinct
professions. He wrote a book entitled The Method of Pre¬
paring Medicines and Diet, which was translated into He¬
brew in the year 1280, and thence into Latin byParavicius
whose version has passed through several editions.
A VLRAGE,! a term used in maritime commerce to sig¬
nify damages or expenses resulting from the accidents of
navigation. Average is either general or particular. Ge¬
neral average arises when sacrifices have been advisedly
made, or expenditures incurred, with a view to the preser¬
vation of the ship, cargo, and freight from the effects of
some extraordinary peril; and it implies a subsequent con-
“t” 1- partieS concerned, in Jr to make
good the loss which one or more of them may thus have
tia W^ artlCUkr S^nifieS the dama^ or par!
tial loss happening to the ship, goods, or freight, in conse-
quence of some fortuitous or unavoidable accfde^t; audit
or b°; theKuer“*',,dUal °f the ^
It may be here remarked, that the term Averao-e was
3n;^ed
gmally signified by the word Average! It has, nevertheless
been generally adopted, and is now fully recognised as the
tforidamage °r pa"tiai ioss fa“n
PeZ 1 individuals interested in a sea adventure.
niwf!! rtTT C0onsisted.°f certain small charges for
P » s, ig i -dues, &c., which were apportioned one-third
bepniTT iS1S-ai<^ Cowell to be derived from the Latin word averagium, from the verb averare to earrv Ho v,
tor,: (De ^ * POrtl “ l,C,ng ° ** having good, brLf ,af£Z
324
AVERAGE.
Average, to the ship and two-thirds to the cargo; but this is now su-
perseded by the agreement that the freight payable tor the
cargo shall include all such expenses; and the term has,
consequently, become obsolete. ,
Although nothing can be more simple than the luntia-
mental principle of general average,—which is, that a loss
incurred by one party for the advantage of several shall be
made good in equitable proportions by all who are benehte
bY it,—yet the application of this principle to the varied and
complicated cases which arise in the course of maritime
commerce has occasioned many diversities of usage m ch -
ferent countries, and even in the same country at ditterent
periods. Without entering on so wide a field as the discus¬
sion of these diversities would open up, we shall endeavour
to present a brief summary of the leading principles whic i
have been established in this country, by usage or by legal
decisions, in connection with the subject.
All general average losses may be divided into two prin¬
cipal classes:—1. Sacrifices of part of the cargo and freig ,
or of part of the ship, for the general benefit; 2. Extraor¬
dinary expenditures, incurred with the sa.me object.
Under the first of these classes we shall begin by no¬
ticing the acts which involve sacrifices of part of the cargo
^When^a part of the cargo is thrown overboard (prjetti-
soned, as it is termed) to save the ship from foundering in
a storm, or to float her when stranded, or to facilitate her
escape from an enemy, the loss of the goods and of the
freight attached to them must be made good by average
contribution. In like manner, if goods be damaged m the
ship by opening the hatches in order to effect a jettison, or
by being brought upon deck for that purpose, the damage
forms a general average charge. But if goods jettisoned
have been originally stowed on deck, no contribution can
be demanded for them, unless they are so carried according
to the common usage and course of trade on the voyage tor
which they were shipped.
If, instead of being thrown overboard, the goods are put
into boats or lighters, and lost or damaged before reaching
the shore, such loss is regarded as a virtual jettison, and
gives a claim to average contribution. The same rule ap¬
plies to damage occasioned by the goods being put ashore
on muddy ground, as may sometimes happen, when theie
is no other place where they can be landed.
But when the goods have been conveyed to a place of
ordinary safety, they are no longer at the risk of the general
interest; and should they be damaged by fire or other acci¬
dents, the loss must be borne by the individual proprietors,
or by their insurers.
The loss of corn, salt, guano, or similar goods, arising
from their being pumped up or baled out with the water in
the vessel, cannot be recovered by average contribution.
If, in consequence of there being no other means of rais¬
ing money at a foreign port, a part of the cargo be sold for
the purpose of repairing losses or defraying expenses which
are themselves of the nature of general average, the loss
arising from the sale gives a claim to contribution. But if
the funds are required for the purpose of repairing particular
average losses on the ship, or of defraying the ordinary
expenses of the navigation, the loss must be borne by the
shipowner.
The damage done to the cargo by means of water thrown
down the hatches to extinguish an accidental fire, or by
scuttling the ship for that purpose, is excluded, by usage,
from general average. This point seems to have never yet
been settled by any legal decision ; and the usage referred
to is considered by several writers of high authority to be
at variance with sound principle. It is sometimes defended
on the ground that the damage in question is secondary and
incidental, and not primary and intentional. But this reason
seems somewhat fanciful for the purposes of equity, and is,
besides, inconsistent with the analogy of certain other cases, Average
where an opposite principle is practically recognised; a.s,
for instance, in the case of goods incidentally damaged m
effecting a jettison of other goods.
The amount of compensation to be made for goods sacri¬
ficed bv general average acts is determined by the nett
market price they would have produced on arrival at the
port of destination had they not been sacrificed; but under
deduction of the freight attaching to them (which is made
good to the shipowners), and of the charges for duties and
landing expenses which are saved.
We now proceed to notice the general average acts which
involve sacrifices of part of the ship or her materials.
The same principles which regulate the case of goods
thrown overboard apply also to the jettison of the ship s
chains, anchors, hawsers, spars, boats, or other stores. But
if water-casks are stowed on deck, or if chains and hawsers
are carried on deck when the vessel is not near the land, so
as to render it necessary that they should be so carried, the
loss arising from the jettison of these articles falls on the
shipowner; and if boats are jettisoned in consequence of
their having been broken adrift from their fastenings on
deck by the force of the sea, they are excluded from general
average, and are charged to particular average on the ship.
The damage done to the ship by cutting holes to effect
a jettison of the cargo, or to pour down water to extinguish
a fire, or by scuttling her for that purpose, is allowed as a
general average charge. The damage arising from cutting
or knocking away a portion of the ship s bulwarks in ordei
to prevent the deck from being flooded in a storm, is com¬
pensated in the same manner. , * • „
When sails or masts are cut away in order to Tighten a
ship which has been thrown on her beam-ends, or to pre¬
vent her from driving on a lee shore, the loss is made goo
by average contribution; but if tbe object in cutting away
a sail or spar be merely to save a mast, the loss is not made
good in general average. ,
It frequently happens that masts or yards are sprung and
carried away by the force of the wind, and are left entangled
in the rigging, or hanging oyer the ship’s side in what is
termed “a state of wreck;” in these circumstances it be¬
comes necessary to cut them away, with the sails and rigging
attached, and to throw the whole overboard, otherwise they
would impede the navigation, and endanger the ship an
caro-o. On this ground it is held by some authorities that
the loss caused by the act of cutting them away should be
made good by average contribution. But this act is the
direct consequence of the previous accident, which places
these articles in a situation where it is impossible to save
them without imperilling the ship, cargo, and ^ves. It wou
not be reasonable to imperil these for such a purpose, whence
it follows that the displaced articles are already
recoverably lost by means of the original accident, before
the loss is actually consummated by cutting them a y.
And as the general interest ought not to be endangered!
the purpose of attempting to save these articles, *0
should it be implicated in the loss resulting fto“
remaining alternative of clearing them away. This loss
accordingly excluded, by the usage of this country om
average contribution. On the same principle, no contrib
tion can be demanded for any articles which are sacnhced
as having themselves become, through previous accide ,
the immediate cause of danger to the »'ho,c- .
The loss of sails or spars, in consequence
press of canvas to avoid a lee-shore, or to fSCJP
enemy, is not the subject of general average “ *IS /
neither is the damage suffered by the ship from slrammg,
under any such extraordinary press ot sail.
When anchors and cables are slipped from in o derm
work a vessel off a lee-shore, or to avoid collision w.di “
other ship, the loss is made good by average contribution,
AVERAGE.
Average, but if the cable is slipped in order that the vessel may join
V ^ ^ convoy, or because the anchor has become hooked to some
object at the bottom and cannot be raised, the loss is borne
by the shipowner.
When sails, ropes, or other materials, are cut up and used
at sea for the purpose of stopping leaks or to rig jurymasts,
or when the common benefit requires that they should be
applied to some purpose for which they were not originally
intended, the loss is made good in general average. The
same rule applies to the case of hawsers, cables, anchors,
sails, or boats, lost or damaged in attempting to force off a
stranded vessel from the shore.
The damage sustained in defending a ship against a pirate
or an enemy is not the subject of general average in this
country; it is treated as particular average on the ship.
It has been much debated by writers on maritime law,
whether the voluntary stranding of a ship, in order to pre¬
vent her from foundering, should be treated as a general
or as a particular average loss. In the United States it has
been settled, by judicial decision, that the loss in question
constitutes a general average claim; but the opposite doc¬
trine is acted upon in the usage of our own country, and
the point has never been raised before the courts of law.
It appears to us that the argument greatly preponderates
against the rule adopted in the United States, and in favour
of the usage established in this country. The only reason
fbi regarding this loss as the subject of general average is,
that it originates in the intentional act of running the ship
aground, for the preservation, as far as possible, of the whole
interest concerned. But it can seldom be known before¬
hand how the different interests at stake will be specially
affected by the act in question;—whether, for instance, the
damage to the cargo may not be more serious than the
damage to the ship, or vice versa. Thus no particular part of
the interest can be said to be intentionally sacrificed for the
benefit of the whole; the intention, indeed, is not to sacri¬
fice any one part, but to place the whole interest in a situa¬
tion of less peril than it would otherwise have been in.
What particular damages may thereafter ensue to either
ship or cargo will depend, in each case, on a variety of cir-
cumstances entirely accidental in their character, and there¬
fore in no proper sense the subject of previous intention.
The same rule, therefore, which excludes from general ave¬
rage accidental damages in all other cases, ought to exclude
them in this case also. Moreover, when the alternatives
are, either that the vessel be left to founder, or that she be
run ashore with a chance of preservation, there can really
be no room for choice, or, at all events, the elements of will
and intention are entirely subordinate in the part they must
play under the pressure of the existing circumstances; and
in this view the stranding is as truly inevitable as if it had
been caused by the force of the winds and waves alone.
But, even were these reasons less weighty than we hold
them to be, a serious practical objection might be urged
against the doctrine that voluntary stranding should be a
general average loss, on the ground that it would in most
cases be impossible to distinguish between the damages
received by the ship and cargo prior to the stranding, and
t lose sustained after or in consequence of it. It is needless
to remark, that before a ship can be in such imminent danger
o foundering as to render it necessary to run her ashore,
s e must be presumed to have sustained a very considerable
amount of damage; and the probability is, that the cargo
also will have suffered to a corresponding extent. Up to
t is point these damages are confessedly 'particular average;
an were it held that the damages after the stranding were
the subject of general average, it would, of course, be ne¬
cessary to distinguish the separate damages that belonged
o each. But in every case these different damages would
exist in varying proportions, yet always so incorporated to¬
gether that justice could never have a more perplexing task
325
than that of discriminating between them. No general rule Average,
could be applied that would meet the widely different cir¬
cumstances of each particular case; and the arbitrary me¬
thod of adjustment that would alone be possible would
doubtless give rise to endless dissatisfaction and dispute.
On the ground of expediency, therefore, as well as on that
of principle, the usage now established in this country ought
to be maintained, notwithstanding the high authorities'lly
whom the opposite practice has been countenanced.
The amount of general average losses on the ship is com¬
pensated by allowing to the owners the cost of repairs, or
of new materials in place of those sacrificed, subject to the
deduction of one-third for the difference of value between
old and new; but no deduction is made from the cost of
new anchors, and only one-sixth is deducted from the cost
of new chain cables. If the ship be on her first voyage
(which is held to include the homeward as well as the out¬
ward passage), the repairs and new materials are allowed in
full.
We now proceed to notice the second principal class of
general average losses, consisting of extraordinary expendi¬
tures incurred with a view to the common benefit.
When a ship is obliged to put into a port of refuge, in
consequence of damage received in the course of the voyage,
the usage in this country is to allow as general average "all
the charges connected with the entrance of the vessel into
the port, and with the landing and warehousing of the cargo,
when this is necessary to admit of the ship being repaired.
Thus the expenses of pilotage or other assistance into the
port, the harbour dues and similar charges, the costs of the
protest taken by the master and crew, and of the survey
held to ascertain whether the cargo requires to be discharged,
together with the charges for landing the cargo and convey¬
ing it to a warehouse or other place of safety, are all made
good as general average. The costs of repairing the ship
are charged to general average only in so far as the repairs
may refer to damages which are themselves the proper sub¬
ject of general contribution. If the damages are of the na¬
ture of particular average, as is more usually the case, they
are charged accordingly; or if they proceed from “wear
and tear,” they are stated against the shipowner.
The warehouse rent for the cargo at a port of refuge,
and any expenses connected with its preservation, form spe¬
cial charges against that particular interest, and are borne
by the proprietors of the goods, or by their insurers. When
goods are insured “ free from particular average, unless the
ship be stranded,” it is necessary, if the ship has not been
stranded, to distinguish the charges for warehouse rent and
hie insurance from those incurred in connection with the
preservation of the goods from the effects of damage; the
underwriters being liable for the former, but not for the
latter.
The expenses of reshipping the cargo, and the pilotage
or other charges outwards, are borne by the freight. If the
entire cargo cannot be taken on board again, from the want,
at the port of refuge, of the usual facilities for stowing it,
the loss or expenses resulting from the exclusion of part of
it are not treated, in this country, as the subject of general
contribution. °
The wages and provisions of the master and crew during
t le period of detention at a port of refuge, are not admitted
as a charge against general average; it being held that the
shipowner is bound to keep a competent crew on board the
ship from the commencement to the end of the voyage at
his own expense.
The charges for agency at a port of refuge are brought
against t ie general average, even though they may have
been originally made in the form of separate charges against
t le ship and cargo respectively. Commissions on money
advanced, maritime interest on bottomry and respondentia,
and the loss on exchanges, &c., are apportioned relatively
326
AVERAGE.
Average, to the gross sums expended on behalf of the several interests
Wv—^ concerned.
The expenses incurred in getting a stranded ship otr tne
ground, the hire of extra hands to pump a ship which has
sprung a leak, and the sums awarded for salvage or for other
services rendered to the ship and cargo under any extra¬
ordinary emergencies, are compensated by average contri¬
bution. But this rule applies only to the extraneous assist¬
ance that may have been obtained; the crew being bound
to do their utmost in the service of the ship on all occasions,
without extra remuneration for what they might consider
extraordinary exertions on their part.
The costs of reclaiming the ship and cargo aitei having
been captured, are allowed as general average charges, am
although ransom to an enemy is prohibited in this country
by legal enactment, it seems that this does not apply to the
case of money or goods given up by way of composition to
pirates for the liberation of the ship and cargo, and that this
would also form a subject of average contribution.
When the ship and cargo a'rrive at the port of destina¬
tion, it is unnecessary, in ordinary cases, to distinguish, in
the adjustment of the general average, between the losses
which have arisen from sacrifices, and those which have re¬
sulted from expenditures for' the common benefit. But if
the ship and cargo should be lost before reaching their des¬
tination, no contribution is due for the goods or ship s ma¬
terials which may have been sacrificed at a former stage of
the voyage, the owners of these being in no worse position
than any of their coadventurers. On the other hand, it is
evident that when money has been expended for the common
benefit, the subsequent loss of the ship and cargo should
not affect the right of the party who has made the advance
to recover it in full from all the parties for whose advantage
it was originally made. Hence, while sacrifices are made
good only in the event of the ship and cargo being ulti¬
mately saved, expenditures must be reimbursed whether the
ship and cargo be eventually saved or lost; and the contri¬
bution for these expenditures must be regulated by the
values of the ship, cargo, and freight, as they stood at the
time when the advances were made.
If, however, the money required for average expenditures
has been raised by means of bottomry, and the ship be lost
before completing the voyage, there can be no claim for
reimbursement; the risk being assumed by the bottomry
lender in consideration of the premium he receives on the
sum advanced. It is by no means clear that the average
expenditures which have been advanced without any con¬
tract of bottomry form a specific insurable interest, ac¬
cording to the law of this country, although in practice they
are very frequently insured. When this has been done,
and when the amount has been recovered on the subse¬
quent loss of the ship, no claim can be equitably made
against the individuals who would otherwise have been liable.
But if the expenditures are not insured, either by a bot¬
tomry contract, or by a special policy, and if the ship and
cargo be totally lost in the subsequent course of the voyage,
the parties for whose benefit the expenditures were incurred
must reimburse them on the principles already explained.
These parties, however, have recourse on their original
insurers, not only for the total loss of the interests insured,
but also for the previous expenditures, although the insurers
may thus be called on to pay a larger sum than the amount
of the insurance.
The contribution for general average losses is regulated
by the values of the respective interests for the benefit of
which they were incurred. The practical rule adopted, in
all ordinary cases, is to estimate the ship, cargo, and freight,
at their nett values to their owners, in the state in which they
arrive at the port of destination, but including in these values
the sums made good for sacrifices, and to assess the contri¬
bution accordingly. The necessity for including the amount
of compensation made for sacrifices in the valuations on Average,
which the contribution is charged, arises from the principle ~ ‘
that all the parties interested in the adventure should bear
the ultimate loss in exact proportion to their respective in¬
terests, which would not be the case if the owners of the
articles sacrificed were to recover their full value without
being themselves assessed for the loss thereon in the same
manner as their coadventurers.
The contributory value of the ship is accordingly her
actual value to her owner in the state in which she arrives,
whether damaged or otherwise, including the sum made
good in the general average for any sacrifices which may
have been made of part of the ship or her materials.
The value of the cargo for contribution is its nett market
value on arrival, after deducting the charges incurred for
freight, duty, and landing expenses, but without deducting
the costs of insurance or commission. If goods be damaged,
they contribute only according to their deteriorated value ,
and if special charges have been incurred on the cargo at a
port of refuge (as for warehouse rent, &c.), the amount of
these charges is deducted. I he sum charged to general
average for goods sacrificed is of course added to the valu¬
ation. All goods carried in the ship for the puposes of traf¬
fic must be included in the valuation of the cargo; but the
wearing apparel, or personal effects, of the passengers and
crew are exempted from contribution.
The value of the freight for contribution is the sum re¬
ceived by the shipowner on the completion of the voyage
for the carriage of the cargo, after deducting from that sum
the wages then due, the port charges at the place of destina¬
tion, and the special charges against the freight which may
have been incurred at a port of refuge, consisting of the
costs of reshipping the cargo, and of outward pilotage, &c.
The provisions for the voyage are not deducted, as these are
held to have formed part of the original value of the ship.
If the freight has been paid in advance, it forms part of the
value of the goods, and, consequently, does not contribute as
a separate interest. It has been decided, that when a vessel
has been originally chartered for a double voyage, the whole
freight to be earned under the charter-party must contribute
at its nett value, after deducting the wages and othei charges
which must be incurred in earning it. The effect of this rule
is to render the freight attaching to the return voyage, as
well as that attaching to the voyage outwards, liable to con¬
tribute for average losses arising in the course of the outward
passage ; a result the equity of which is not always veiy
apparent. .
An adjustment of general average made at any foreign
port where the voyage may terminate, if proved to be in
conformity with the law and usage of the country to whic
such foreign port belongs, is binding on all the parties in¬
terested as coadventurers, although they may be subjects of
this country, and although the adjustment may be made
on principles different from those sanctioned by the laws or
usages of Britain. The reason for this rule is, that the
parties engaging in the adventure are held to assent to the
known maritime usage according to which general average
is adjusted on the arrival of the ship and goods at the port
of destination. ..
The subject of general average is only incidentally con¬
nected with that of marine insurance, being itself a dis¬
tinct branch of maritime law. But the subject of particular
average arises directly out of the contract of insurance, an
will therefore be best considered in connection with it. (bee
Insurance, Marine.) ,. f
For further information with respect to the subject ox
average, the reader is referred to the famous work of M.
Valin, Commentaire sur VOrdonnance de 1681, tome 11.
p. 147-198, ed. 1760; to Emerigon, Traite des Assurances,
tome i. p. 598-674 ; Park On Insurance, chap. vn.; Mar¬
shall On Insurance, book i. chap. xii. sect. 7; Stevens s
Averroes.
AYE
Avernus Essay on Average; Benecke On the Principles of Indem¬
nity in Marine Insurance; Lord Tenterden’s excellent
work on the Zaw of Shipping, part iii. chap. viii. &c.; Ar-
nould On Marine Insurance; Baily On General Ave¬
rage. -yy 
AVERNUS, a lake of Campania in Italy, near Baiae, oc¬
cupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and about a mile
and a half in circumference. It is described by Strabo as
situated within the Lucrine Bay, deep and darksome, sur¬
rounded with steep overhanging banks, and only accessible
by the narrow passage through which you sail in. Black
aged groves stretched their boughs over the watery abyss,
and with impenetrable foliage excluded almost every ray of
wholesome light; and mephitic vapours ascending from the
hot bowels of the earth, being denied free passage to the up¬
per atmosphere, floated along the surface in poisonous mists.
Hence these gloomy shades were regarded as sacred to the
internal gods ; while a colony of Cimmerians, as well suited
to the rites as the place itself, cut dwellings in the bosom of
the surrounding hills, and officiated as priests of Tartarus,
superstition, always delighting in dark ideas, early and
eagerly seized upon this noxious spot, and hither she led
her trembling votaries to celebrate her dismal orgies. Here
she evoked the manes of departed heroes; here she offered
sacrifices to the gods of the infernal regions, and attempted
to dive into the secrets of futurity. Poets enlarged upon
the popular theme, and painted its awful scenery with the
strongest colours of their art. Homer brings Ulysses to
Avernus, as to the mouth of the infernal abodes; and, in
imitation of the Grecian bard, Virgil conducts his hero to
the same gloomy regions. Whoever sailed thither, first did
sacrifice, and endeavoured to propitiate the infernal powers,
with the assistance of some priests, who attended upon the
place and directed the mystic performance. Within, a foun¬
tain of pure water broke out just over the sea, which was
fancied to be a vein of the River Styx. Near this fountain
was the oracle; and the hot waters, frequent in those parts,
were supposed to be branches of the burning Phlegethon.
1 he poisonous effluvia from this lake were said to be so
strong that they proved fatal to birds endeavouring to fly
over it. Hence the name is said to be derived from aopvos,
n e. without birds. Virgil ascribes the exhalation, not to
the lake itself, but to the cavern near it, which was called
Avernm, or Cave of the Sybil, and through which the poets
eigned a descent to Orcus. Others say the proper name
of the lake is Lacus Averni, the lake near the cavern, as it
is called by some ancient authors. It is still called Laqo
Averno.
The sanctity of these shades remained unimpeached for
many ages. Hannibal marched his army to offer incense at
this altar; but, according to Livy, he was led to this act of
devotion rather by the hopes of surprising the garrison of
uteoh, than by his piety. After a long reign of undis¬
turbed gloom and celebrity, a sudden glare of light was let
m upon Avernus; the horrors were dispelled, and with them
vanished the sanctity of the lake. The axe of Agrippa level-
led its forest with the ground, disturbed its sleepy waters
with ships, and gave room for all its malignant effluvia to
escape. The virulence of these exhalations, as described
y ancient authors, has appeared so very extraordinary, that
some modern writers, who know the place in a cleared state
'i’ C!!arge ^.ese accounts with exaggeration; but others
tftink them entitled to more respect, since even now the air
is feverish and dangerous, as the jaundiced faces of the vine¬
dressers, who have succeeded the Sybils and Cimmerians in
tne possession of the temple, most ruefully testify. It would
appear that the ancients regarded Avernus as a divinity, to
whom they offered sacrifices. (See Servius, ad Virg. Georg.
AVERROES (a corruption of Ihx-Roshd), the most
i iustnous of Arabian philosophers, was born, according to
AYE
327
El Ansari, in the year of the Hegira 520 (a.d. 1120), at Cor- Averroes.
dova, of one of the best families in Andalucia. His grand¬
father and father successively held the office of cadi in Cor¬
dova, a dignity which Averroes himself also enjoyed for many
vears. After studying theology and jurisprudence, he applied
himself with zeal to mathematics, medicine, and philosophy
His preceptor in the latter was the celebrated Avenpace (Ibn-
Badja). The sudden overthrow of the dynasty of the Al-
moravides in 1130 by the Almohades was favourable to the
interests of science ; and Averroes enjoyed, with his friends
Ibn-lofail and Ibn-Zohar, the patronage successively of
Abdal-Mumen, Yusuf; and Almansur. In 1169 he was ap¬
pointed cadi of Seville, and about this time he began to em¬
ploy his leisure in the composition of the works to which he
owes his celebrity. In 1182 he was called to Marocco, to fill
the office of physician to the Sultan Yusuf; but some time
after returned to Spain as cadi of Cordova. Under Yusuf’s
son, Almansur, he long enjoyed the highest favour; but
towards the close of his life the jealousy of his enemies
procured his banishment to Elisana (Lucena), a town not far
from Cordova. The charge brought against him was that
he corrupted the minds of his pupils by impious and hetero¬
dox doctrines. Another version attributes his disgrace to
a careless expression in his commentary on Aristotle’s
Zoology, which had offended the pride of Almansur. He
had called the sultan simply King of the Berbers, which
was construed into an insult to the sovereign both of Spain
and of Marocco. Averroes, however, was soon restored to
favour, and returned once more to the court of Marocco,
where he died in 1198, at an advanced age.
1 he fame of Averroes is mainly connected with his com¬
mentaries on the works of Aristotle, which procured him
the same tide bestowed in a former age on Alexander the
Aphrodisian, of The Commentator. To this distinction,
ahke by the extent and the quality of his labours, he is well
entitled. Without pretending to found a system distinct from
that of his great master, he modified with the rest of the
Arabian philosophers the Aristotelian doctrines, by the in¬
fusion of new elements derived from Neo-Platonism. It may
be mentioned, that Averroes wrote also a commentary on
the Republic of Plato. Though professedly a Mussulman,
the tendency of his doctrines was such as not unreasonably
to call his orthodoxy in question. Holding that what was
true in religion was not necessarily so in philosophy, he
seems to have regarded the one as but a system of exoteric
doctrine, of which the other was the proper interpreter and
the final consummation.
Arabian philosophy attained its culminating point in Aver-
roes, and after him no eminent name is found in its history.
His doctrines were long of high authority in the Jewish
and even m the Christian schools. They gave rise in the
thirteenth century to great contentions, which continued till
the sixteenth century when Leo X. issued a bull against
them in 1512. The disputes were carried on principally
between the fol owers of Alexander of Aphrodisias, or Alex¬
andrians, and the Averroists, or professed disciples of the
Arabian philosopher. One of the chief points on which
the latter laid themselves open to the charge of heresy, was
t le immortality of the soul. Among others Albert the
Hr eat and Aquinas wrote treatises against the principles of
Many of the treatises of Averroes have never been
printed. lhe first complete Latin edition of his works,
containing also the Latin of the Aristotelian text, is that
fr-o JeW1Sh Physician> in 11 vols. fob, Venice,
It ■ i , hr.S1t ei§ht volumes contain the Commentaries;
the ninth, besides two other treatises, the Destruction of
the Destruction, written in reply to Algazel (see Alghaz-
zali) ; and the tenth is chiefly taken up with his great
medical work the Colliget {Kulliyyat.) The last con¬
tains miscellaneous treatises. There have been numerous
328
AVI
Avianua.
Averrunci editions of separate treatises of Averroes. (Bruckev, Hist.
11 Crit. iv. 62, Leipz.; Tennemann, Geschichte der Philos.;
Did. de Sc. Philos.; Wustenfeld, Geschichte der Arab.
Aertze, Getting. 1840; Renan’s Averroes et I’-Averroisme,
Paris, 1852.) _ 7 7
AVERRUNCI (Dei), in Pagan Mythology, a name
given to certain gods who were specially invoked to avert
misfortunes; as Apollo and Hercules among the Greeks, and
Castor and Pollux among the Romans.
AVERSA, a- town of Naples, province of 1 erra di l^a-
voro, situated in a beautiful plain covered with orange-
groves and vineyards, about midway between Naples and
Capua. It is the seat of a bishopric, said to be the richest
in the kingdom, and its foundling hospital and lunatic
asylum are very celebrated. Pop. 16,000.
AVESBURY, Robert of, an English historian, or whom
little more is known than that he was a keeper of the le¬
gist™ of the court of Canterbury in the reign of Edward
III. He wrote a history in Latin of the reign of that prince,
ending with the battle of Poictiers, in the year 1356. It was
printed at Oxford in 1720 by Hearne.
AVESNES, an arrondissement in the department ot
Nord in France, containing 10 cantons and 152 communes.
Pop. in 1851, 145,046. The capital, of the same name,
is situated in a fertile district on the Greater Helpe. It is
generallv well built, and is fortified on Vauban’s system.
Its principal building is the cathedral, surmounted by a tower
330 feet high, which is raised on four columns, and has a
fine chime. It is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal
of primary jurisdiction, an agricultural society, and a com¬
munal college. Pop. in 1851, 2946. The principal manu¬
factures are hosiery, coarse serge, and soap ; there are also
breweries, tanneries, salt-refineries, and brick and marble
works. A great part of the town was destroyed by the ex¬
plosion of a powder-magazine during the siege by the Prus¬
sians in July 1815.
AVESTA, a mining village of Sweden, on the Dai-ell,
35 miles S.E. of Fahlun. It has extensive copper and iron
founderies, cloth manufactories, and saw-mills. The copper
coin of the country was formerly struck here. Pop. 700.
AVEYRON, a department in the S. of France, in the
ancient province of Guienne. Area 3429 square miles. It
is divided into five arrondissements as follows:—
Arrond. Cantons. Communes.
Rodez  11 75
Espalion  11 43
Milhau  7 46
St Affrique  6 41
Villefranche   7 54
42
259
Pop., 1851.
108,588
67,698
65,625
60,038
92,234
394,183
A portion of this department is mountainous, but about
one-half is under cultivation, nearly one-fourth heath, one-
tenth woods and forests, and rather more than an eighth
part meadow land. Vineyards occupy about one-twelfth
part of the cultivated land. It has mines of copper, lead,
silver, iron, zinc, and antimony ; besides considerable coal¬
fields of great value. The inhabitants are extensively en¬
gaged in the rearing of cattle ; and there are manufactures
of paper, woollen and cotton goods, and leather, to which
water-power is skilfully applied. Aveyron exports corn,
chestnuts, almonds, hemp, wool, wax, cheese, timber, and
cattle. The capital is Rodez.
AVEZZANO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ulteriore
II., containing a castle belonging to the Colonna family.
Pop. about 3000. Long. 13. 32. E. Lat. 41. 58. N.
AVIAN US or Anianus, Flavius, the reputed author
of 42 iEsopean fables in Latin elegiac verse. They are of
little merit, and apparently belong to the third or fourth
century of our era. Editions. ByCannegieter, Amstel. 1731;
AVI
Nodell, Amstel. 1787; Lachmann, Berol. 1845. Theywere Aviary
translated into English by Caxton in 1483. II
AVIARY, a place set apart for feeding and breeding Avicenna
birds. Aviaries are of various kinds, being sometimes arti- 'v
ficially warmed to adapt them for exotic birds. I hey are
occasionally of great extent, inclosing large trees by means
of netting thrown over them.
AVICENNA (a corruption of Ibn-Sika), a celebrated
Arabian physician and philosopher, honoured with the title
of Sheikh-al-rais, or the prince of physicians, was born at
Afshena, near Kharmeithan, a city of Bokhara, where his
father, a native of Balkh in Persia, held the office of gover¬
nor. After some years his father returned to the city of
Bokhara, and here Avicenna was educated with extreme
care. At the age of ten he was already perfectly versed in
the theology of the Koran, in arithmetic, algebra, and
the principles of grammar and law. Abu-Abdallah Nathili,
a native of Naplous in Syria, at that time professed philo¬
sophy at Bokhara with high reputation. Under him -Yvi-.
cenna studied Porphyry’s Introduction to the Categories of
Aristotle, Euclid’s Elements, and the Almagest of Pto¬
lemy ; and having soon surpassed the attainments of his
master, he began to study the higher sciences alone. In
philosophy he devoted himself chiefly to the works of Aris¬
totle, whose Metaphysics he is said to have read, forty times^
before he fully apprehended the meaning. At the age ot
16, he was seized with a passion for natural philosophy
and medicine, which he studied under a Christian physi¬
cian named Ben-Yahya. After some time he resumed
his philosophical studies with so much ardour, that for a
year and a half he never slept for a whole night at a time.
At the age of 18 he had acquired so high a reputation that
the Emir Nouk Ibn-Mansur, who was a sufferer from severe
disease, put himself under his care, and derived so much
benefit from his skill, that Avicenna was loaded with fa¬
vours. Among these not the least was the use ol the rich
library of the prince, in which he found opportunity for per¬
fecting himself in scientific knowledge. This library was
some time after consumed by fire, an accident which was
maliciously attributed to Avicenna, who was accused of
wishing to destroy the works by which he had so amply pro¬
fited. At the age of 21 he composed a complete body of
science, with the exception of mathematics, to which he
<rave the name of the Collection. On the death of his fa¬
ther, whom he had latterly assisted in his public duties, he
quitted Bokhara and lived for some time in Djordjan, and
other towns of Kharasm and Khorassan. At Djoidjan
he formed the acquaintance of Abu-Mohammed Schirazi,
a powerful patron of science, who gave him a house, in
wdiich he delivered public lectures on logic and the Al¬
magest. Here Avicenna wrote several treatises for his
friend, and began his great work the Canon of Medicine.
On leaving Djordjan he changed his residence several times,
and finally settled at Hamadhan, the prince of which,
Schems-ed-Daulah, in reward for his medical services, made
him his vizier. Having given dissatisfaction to the emir s
troops, he was forced to retire into concealment, but was
soon recalled, and restored to all his honours. Every even¬
ing he gave lessons in philosophy and medicine, at the
conclusion of which musicians and dancers were called in,
and the rest of the evening was spent in festivity. Dur¬
ing this time he composed his great philosophical work the
Al-Schefa, and continued to write the Canon. After the
death of Schems-ed-Daulah, Avicenna lost favour at court,
and having been convicted of secretly corresponding with
the prince of Ispahan, he was shut up in a fortress. e
succeeded at length in making his escape, and found his
way to Ispahan, where he enjoyed an honourable repose dur¬
ing the last fourteen years of his life, during which time he
composed the greater part of his numerous works. ® **
companied his new master in numerous warlike expeditions,
Avila.
AVI
Avienus the fatigues of which finally subdued a constitution injured
by sevei e study and excess. Seeing his end approaching,
he distiibuted his goods among the poor, freed his slaves,
and betaking himself to devotion, prepared to die as a good
Mussulman. He died at Hamadhan in the 428th year of
the Hegira (a.d. 1036) in the 57th year of his age. His
excesses and infirmities gave rise to the saying, that the pro¬
found study of philosophy had not taught him good morals,
nor that of medicine the art of preserving his own health.
Avicenna, after his death, enjoyed so great a reputation,
that till the twelfth century he was preferred for the study
of philosophy and medicine to all his predecessors. Even
in the schoolsof Europe his writings were held in high esteem.
Of his works, said to amount to more than a hundred the
principal are his Canon of Medicine, which long enjoyed an
immense reputation as a body of medical science, and has
been often reprinted in a Latin translation ; and the Al-
iSchefa or Healing, an encyclopaedia of philosophy, of which
the greater part exists in MS. in the Bodleian library.
(Abulfarag. Hist. Orient, ed. Pocock, Oxon. 1672; Ibn-
Khallikan, Diet. Biogr. ed. M. de Slane, Paris, 1842; Casiri
AVI
Bibhoth. Arab. Hisp.; Aboulfeda, Annales, Copenh. 1789*
Mines de V Orient, t. iii. p. 167.)
AVIENUS, Rufus Lestus, a Latin poet, who appears
to have flourished in the latter half of the fourth century
He is the author of the following works :—l. Descriptio
Orbis Terra;, sometimes called Metaphrasis Periegeseos
Bionysii, being derived from the Treptr/y^irts of that writer;
2. Ora Mantima ; 3. Aratea Phcenomena, and Aratea
Prognostica, which are paraphrases of two works of Aratus.
These poems, with the exception of the last two, are con¬
tained in Wernsdorfs Poiitce Latini Minores, vol. v. pt. ii.
A VIGLIANO, a town of Naples, province of Basilicata!
11 miles N.N.W. of Potenza. It stands on the declivity
of a hill, and has a fine collegiate church, several convents,
and a royal college. The surrounding country is said to
produce the finest cattle in the kingdom. A part of the
town was destroyed by a land-slip in 1824. Pop. 9000.
AVIGNON, an arrondissement in the department of
Vaucluse, in France, divided into 5 cantons and 20 com¬
munes; area 124,304 acres. Pop. in 1851, 78,382. The
capital, of the same name, is situated in a beautiful val-
ey on the left bank of the Rhone. It is surrounded by
walls planted with trees, which form an agreeable prome-
Ila 7 houses are old but large, the streets narrow and
crooked ; but several of the public edifices are magnificent,
particularly the cathedral and the ancient palace of the
popes. Pop. 31,812. It is the seat of an archbishop, and has
nbunals of primary jurisdiction and commerce, a royal col-
lege, a theological seminary, a society of arts, a normal school,
a public library, theatre, &c. The chief object of in-
dustry is the preparation of silk, and the manufacture of silk
goods ; there are also manufactures of paper, leather, hats,
jewellery, &c. Till the French revolution this city belonged
to the papal see, and was the residence of the several popes
rom 1303 to 1376. It was seized by the republicans in
. 5 and after some barbarous proceedings was at length
muted to France. The name of Petrarch is associated with
Avignon; and here he first beheld the Laura whom he has
immortahzed. Long. 4. 52. 20. E. Lat. 43. 56. 58. N.
nf A; i • ^ a Province of Spain, one of the modern divisions
4 ii6 Oid Clastile. It is situated between Long.
t i an? f • 55\ W7 and Lat- 40- 48« and 41. 18. N.; and
MtivT Gg un m6! i ky Valladolid; E. by Segovia and
Ar d d;wS- by T°]edo and Caceres ; and W. by Salamanca.
rrZ SqUare ,eaSues 5 population in 1849, 132,936. It
It i!Tr0nn Clt/’.P ^ns, 326 villages, and 334 parishes,
tiirsh dlCla! y dl^ded into 6 districts or partidos ; but na-
climiC°nS1itS °-f tW° Section?’ differing completely in soil,
Portion’ Productlons’ and social economy. The northern
vol iy mprehending tbe M0raKa’the district of Arevalo,
part of Avila and Piedrahita, and the plain of Paiares is
generally level; the soil is of indifferent quality, strong mid
marly m a few places, but in all the valleys of the Sie?ra de
Avila, rocky ; and the cold of winter is compensated by ex¬
treme heat in summer. The population of this part is ao-ri-
cultural. The southern division, comprehending the districts
of Arenas de San Pedro, Cebreros, Barco, and partof Pie-
diahita and Avila, is one mass of rugged granitic sierras
interspersed, however, with sheltered and well-watered val¬
leys, abounding with cattle and rich vegetation. The winter
here, especially in the elevated region of the Paramera and
the waste lands of Avila, is long and severe, but the climate
is not unhealthy. The inhabitants live by the rearing of
cattle. The principal mountain chains are the Guadarrama
separating this province from Madrid, and the Sierras de
Avila, a continuation of them westward, the Sierra de Gre-
dos, running from the S. of Piedrahita through Barco, Arenos,
and part of Cebreros, and the Paramera, stretching south¬
wards from the city of Avila into Arenas and Cebreros. The
various ridges which ramify from the latter are covered with
wood, presenting a striking contrast to the bare peaks of the
Sierra de Gredos, and the barren levels in which they rise
on the N. The principal rivers are the Alberche, flowino-
through the districts of Piedrahita and Avila towards Ma¬
drid and Toledo; the Tormes, through Piedrahita and Barco
into Salamanca; the Corneja, from E. to W. through the
valley of the same name and joining the Tormes ; the Adaja,
rising at the foot of the Pass of Villatoro, flowing through the
valley of Ambles, and entering Valladolid ; and the Tietar
through Cebreros and Arenas into Caceres. The moun-
tams contain silver, copper, iron, and lead, but their mineral
wealth has been greatly exaggerated, and has not yet been
subjected to any continued trial. Quarries of fine marble
and jasper exist in the district of Arenas.
This once flourishing province has gradually declined in
wealth and population during the last two centuries, a result
due less to the want of activity on the part of the inhabitants
.n to the oppressive manorial and feudal rights and the
strict laws of entail and mortmain, which have acted as bar-
rif rf t0 ™Provemcnt. The principal production is the wool
of the Merino sheep, which at one time yielded an immense
revenue. Game is plentiful, and the rivers abound in fish
special ly trout. There is little trade, and the manufactures
are few, consisting chiefly of copper utensils, lime, soap, cloth
paper, combs, &c. I he state of elementary education is com-
paraUvelygood, and the ratio of crime is proportionately low.
(Madoz, Biccionario de Espana.)
Avila (ancient Abula), a city of Spain, the capital of the
uf ?™nTe’ isusituatfd on the right bank of the Adaja,
about 3000 feet above the sea-level, at the termination of
the Guadarrama Mountains. It is surrounded by an ancient
wall still in good preservation, about two miles in circum¬
ference, crowned by a breastwork, with towers of meat
strength. Avila is the seat of a bishop suffragan to Santiago,
and has a Gothic cathedral, 8 parish churches, several monas-
enes and schools, an infirmary and a foundling hospital. It
was formerly the seat of a university, and had large woollen
manufactures, but its institutions and industry have greatly
decayed. The inhabitants now maintain about 15,000 head
of sheep. This is the birthplace of Sta Teresa de Jesus, the
patroness of Spain. Pop. 4121.
Avila, Gil Gonzalez d\ a Spanish biographer and an¬
tiquary, born at Avila about the year 1577, died in his na-
tive dty m 1658. He was made historiographer of Castile
ir).,, T’ ^ 4f be was made, in addition, historiographer
of the Indies. Among his numerous works, the most valu-
"his Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid (Madrid,
lb_d, tol.), and his Teatro Eclesiastico, descriptive of the
metropolitan churches and cathedrals of Castile, with lives
of the prelates. (Madrid, 1645-53, 4 vols. 4to.)
AVILES, San Nicolas de, a town of Spain, province of
2 T
330
Avison
II
Avon.
A V O
Oviedo, about a league from the sea-coast, in Lat. 43.34. N.
Lone. 5. 58. W. It has a considerable trade by means ot
its port, which affords good anchorage for all classes °f vcsseis;
and has been chosen as the terminus for the great North ot
Spain Railroad to Madrid. A line of steam packets lietw-een
Falmouth and Aviles will thus bring London and Madrid
within four days of each other, should that line ever be com¬
pleted. There are here some copper works, and in tne
neighbourhood are veins of iron and coal, which, however,
have not been worked. The stone quarnes are extensive
and productive. Aviles has two parish churches, a theatre
and an excellent public school, with an attendance of 400
P AVISON, Charles, an organist at Newcastle-on-Tyne,
was a pupil of Geminiani, that able violinist, but dry and
uninteresting composer. In 1752, Avison published
Essay on Musical Expression, in which he had the a
ing folly to hold up his master as superior to Handel. It
appears that this book was not written by himself, but by his
friends Dr John Brown and William Mason Dr W, ham
Hayes, Professor of Music at Oxford, published in 1753
Remarks on Avison’s Essay, in which he severely criti¬
cised the latter, as well as Avison’s musical compositions.
Avison replied unsatisfactorily in a second edition of his
Essay, in the same year. Avison’s music has little merit; but
he did a service to the art, by pointing out m his essay the
excellence of B. Marcello’s music to the psalms, and by pro¬
posing their republication in England with English words.
Mr John Garth, organist at Durham, undertook to do this,
and, aided by an extensive subscription, completed the
work in eight volumes folio. Avison died at Newcastle in
1700. . k6, F*
A VIZ, a walled town of Portugal, on the river of the same
name in Alentejo, and containing about 1500 inhabitants.
It is still the headquarters of the knights of the order of
Avis, founded by Alphonso I. in 1146. Its defences are in
rU AVLONA or Valona, a town and seaport of Albania,
capital of the pashalic of the same name. It stands on an
eminence near the Gulf of Avlona, an inlet of the Adriatic,
andhasafort in Lat. 48. 27. 5. N. Long. 19. 26. 5. E. The
port, which is protected by the island of Sasseno, is the best
on the Albanian coast. Population, including suburbs, about
9000, comprising Christians, Turks, and Jews. Ihe Chris¬
tian population are principally engaged in commerce, and tie
Turks in the manufacture of woollen stuffs and arms. 1 he
material imported into this country for tanning, under t ic
name of Valonia, is the pericarp of an acorn produced in
that country. . . , ~
AVOIRDUPOIS, the name of a weight, derived from
the French, avoir du poise, to have weight. Its pound con¬
tains 16 ounces, in distinction to the pound troy which has
only 12. This weight is used for groceries and all other
commodities except the precious metals, gems, and medi-
rFhe pound avoirdupois contains 7000 grains troy,
 1 i.„ QZQO-X PovJc n-rmns §66 WEIGHTS and
amTis equal1 to 8532‘5 Paris grains
Measures. ,
AVOLA, a city on the coast of Sicily, in the intendancy
of Syracuse, with 7000 inhabitants. There are sugar plant¬
ations near it; and it has some trade in wine, grain, oil,
honey, &c. . . ,,
AVON, a Celtic word signifying a river, is the name ot
several rivers in Britain, the principal of which are 1. Up¬
per Avon, which rises at Avon-well, near Naseby, in Nor¬
thamptonshire, flows through the counties of Leicester, War¬
wick, and Worcester, passing Stratford and Evesham, and
falls into the Severn at Tewkesbury. Its length is nearly 100
miles, and it is navigable for barges of 40 tons up to Strat¬
ford Its principal affluents are the Alne, the Leame, the
Stoiir, the Sow, and the Swift.—2. Lower Avon rises near
Tetbury, flows westward through the counties of Gloucester,
A X H
Wilts, and Somerset, and passing Bristol enters the Bristol Avranches
Channel 10 miles below that city, after a course of about ^11^
80 miles.—3. Avon, Hampshire, rises near Devizes, flows v ^ ^ ;
o-enerally southward through Wiltshire and Hampshire, and
falls into the English Channel a little below Christchurch,
after a course of 65 miles. . , , . c
AVRANCHES, an arrondissement in the department ot
Manche, in France, containing 9 cantons and 123 com¬
munes. Area 243,292 acres. Pop. in 1851, 117,032. The
chief town, Avranches (Abrincce), was in the time oi the
Romans an important military station, and has in more mo¬
dern times sustained several sieges. It stands on a wood¬
ed hill, commanding a fine view of the bay and rock of bt
Michel, about three miles distant. At the foot of the hill
flows the River Seez, which at high tide is navigable from
the sea. The principal trade is in corn, cider, and salt. Av¬
ranches was formerly a bishop’s see; and its cathedral, e-
stroved in the time of the first French Revolution, was the
finest in Normandy. Its site is now occupied by an open
place, called after the celebrated Huet, Bishop of Avranches.
The agreeable situation and climate of this town make it a
favourite residence of English families. Pop. 8o80.
AWARD, in Law. See Arbitration.
AWE, Loch, a large and picturesque fresh-water lake ot
Scotland, in the county of Argyle, eight miles N.W. of In¬
verary. It is 24 miles in length, with an average breadth ot
1 mile, and is surrounded by lofty mountains of a rugged and
savage aspect, the highest of which (Ben Cruachan) rises to
the height of 3670 feet. It receives several small streams,
one of which connects it with Loch Avich, a small lake about
6 miles long, 3 miles distant. The Awe, a small river 7 miles
in length, connects it with Loch Etive, an arm of the sea, at
Bunawe. Loch Awe contains about 24 small islands, some
of them beautifully crowned with trees. On one of these,
Innis Aill’, or the Beautiful Isle, are the ruins of a small Cis¬
tercian nunnery, and an old churchyard, containing a num¬
ber of ancient tombstones curiously carved. On Inms
Fraoch, or the Heather Isle, are the ruins of an ancient castle,
once the residence of the chief of the Macnaughtans. I he
ruins of the celebrated castle of Kiichurn stand on a slightly
elevated neck of land at the head of the lake. Its square
tower is said to have been erected in 1443 by the lady of
Sir Colin Campbell, the Black Knight of Rhodes, and foun¬
der of the powerful family of Breadalbane. So late as 1, 4o
Kiichurn was garrisoned by the kings troops, and all thee
terior and the greater part of the interior walls are sfillenme.
The lake abounds in fish, and is especially famed for the size
and excellence of its trout.
AX AMENT A or Ass amenta, in Antiquity, verses or
songs of the Salii, which they sung in honour of Mars. cer-
tain other gods, and heroes. The axammta were not com-
nosed as some have asserted, but only sung by the *«'»•
Key were as old as the Roman state, but tuition made
Numa their author. They grew in time so obscure t
Sain themselves did not undemtand them. Va ro, JJe
Tina Lat vii. P- 285 ; Quint., Inst. Or., hb. i. c. 11*
AXBRIDGE, a market-tow n, formerly a boroughGn th
rrmntv of Somerset, 130 miles from London. It is situateu
on the river Axe, below the range of Me"dip talk, «ar
the great chasm known by the name of Chedder Chit. I
church is a large Gothic edifice of great antiquity,near whch
stands the market-house. Market-day, Saturday. 1 op. m
^a'xF39-! carnenter’s instrument for hewing wood. It is
furniSdlvltZlong handle or helve for the pu^
being used with both hands. The small axe for one n
15 AXEL^niJl fortified town of Holland, province of
ZTxHOmgln^dE-inLS; N.W%art of Lincolnsbhe,
England, formed by the rivers irent, Idle, and Don.
A Y A
A Y L
Axilla
about 17 miles in length by 5 in breadth, and comprises the
II Parislies °fA]thorpe, Belton, Crowle, Epworth, Haxey, Lud-
Ayamonte. chngton, and Owston.
v AXILLA, in Anatomy, the armpit, or the cavity under
the upper part of the arm. See Anatomy.
AXIM, a town on the Gold Coast of Africa, belonging to
the Dutch. Lat. 4. 52. N. Long. 2. 14. W.
AXIJNOMANCY, Axinomantia, (from a^Lvrj, an axe,
HavTcia, divination an ancient species of divination, or
a method of foretelling future events by means of an axe or
hatchet. This art was in considerable repute amongst the
ancients, and was performed, according to some, by laying
an agate stone on a red-hot hatchet, and also by fixing a
hatchet on a round stake so as to be exactly poised ; then
the names of those suspected were repeated, and he at whose
name the hatchet moved was pronounced guilty.
.-AXIOM, Axioma (from d^iow, I account worthy'), a self-
evident truth, or a proposition the truth of which every per¬
son pei ceives at first sight; as, the whole is greater than
its part; a thing cannot at the same time he and not he ;
from nothing nothing can arise. Every science has its par¬
ticular axioms or elementary principles, which are assumed
as the necessary basis of all reasoning. Thus, it is an axiom
in physics, that nature does nothing in vain ; that effects are
piopoi tional to their causes, &c. It is an axiom in geometry,
that things equal to the same thing are also equal to one an¬
other ; that if to equal things you add equals, the sums will
be equal, &c. And it is an axiom in optics, that the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, &c.
AXIb, in Geometry, the straight line in a plain figure,
about which it revolves, to produce or generate a solid.
Thus, if a semicircle be moved round its diameter at rest,
it will generate a sphere whose axis is that diameter.
Axis, in Astronomy, is an imaginary right line through
the centre of the earth, or through that of a heavenly body,
about which it performs its diurnal revolutions.
. Axis, in Conic Sections, a right line dividing the section
into two equal parts, and cutting all its ordinates at right
angles.
Axis, in Mechanics. The axis of a balance is that line
about which it moves, or rather turns about. Axis of os¬
cillation is a right line parallel to the horizon, passing through
the centre, about which a pendulum vibrates.
Axis in Peritrochio (jrepi about, and rpoyos, a wheel), one
of the six mechanical powers, consisting of a peritrochium or
wheel concentric with the base of a cylinder, and moveable
together with it about its axis. See Mechanics.
. AX I US, a river of Macedonia, ’nowjthe Vardar, falling
into the Gulf of Salonichi.
AXMINSTER, a market-town in the hundred of the
same name, county of Devon, ] 47 miles from London, and
24 from Exeter. It takes its name from the river Axe, on
which it stands. The ancient abbey7 church or minster
which ornaments the centre of the town, was built by
Xing Athelstane to commemorate a victory over the Danes.
he town is distinguished for its manufactory of the best
and most costly description of carpets; and has also manu-
actures of broad and narrow cloths, cotton, leather, gloves,
an^ druggets. Market-day, Saturday. Pop. in 1851,
^7 by.
AXUM, the old capital of Abyssinia. There is here a
obelisk 60 feet high, covered with hieroglyphics,
U a v erent ^'r0m dlose Egypt. See Abyssinia.
A Y, or Ai, a town of France, 5 leagues S. of Rheims, in the
epartment or Marne. It is celebrated for its wines, which
are esteemed superior to any in Champagne. Pop. 3382.
c . ACUCHO, a plain in Peru, on which the power of
?Pf}lsl1 South America was broken by the republicans in
• I he viceroy, 15 generals, and 3200 men were made
prisoners.
Al: AMONTE, a city of Spain, in the province of Huelva,
on the left bank of the Guadiana, which empties itself into
the ocean about two miles from this place. Ayamonte is
well fortified, and the harbour is good, but, on account of a
bar at its mouth, it is of difficult entrance. The principal
employment of the inhabitants is afforded by the fisheries,
especially for sardines, tunny, cod, and horse-mackerel. But
this branch of industry has suffered by the extension of the
general coasting traffic. Ayamonte is said to have had in
the sixteenth century 16,000 inhabitants. Present Pop.
46 75. Lat. 3 7.9. N. This also is the name of a town in Por¬
tugal, in the province of Alentejo, 3 miles N.W. of Minfort.
AYEEN-AKBERY, a statistical account of the Indian
Mogul empire during the reign of Akbar, by his vizier Abul-
Fazi. It has been translated into English by Gladwin, and
is esteemed for its accuracy.
AYLESBURY, a market and borough town of England,
county of Buckingham, 39 miles N.W. of London. It stands
on a gentle eminence in the centre of a fertile vale, and con¬
sists of several streets and lanes irregularly built, but well
paved and lighted. The county-hall, market-house, and new
county-gaol are handsome buildings, as is also the parish-
church, an ancient structure with a tower rising from the
centre. It has a free grammar-school, several other schools
and charities, three banks, a savings-bank, and places of
public worship for Roman Catholics, Methodists, Baptists,
Independents, &c. It is governed by a mayor, aldermen,
and councillors, and returns two members to parliament.
The assizes, quarter sessions, and the elections of members
for the county are held here. The inhabitants are princi¬
pally employed in the manufacture of bonelace and straw
plaiting, besides the rearing of ducks, which are sent in large
quantities to the London market at Christmas. A branch
canal six miles in length connects it with the Grand Junc¬
tion Canal; and a branch railway at Cheddington connects
it with the London and Birmingham line. Population of
parliamentary borough in 1851, 26,794.
AYLESFORD, a village of England, county of Kent,
3£ miles from Maidstone, and 32 from London. It stands
at the base of a hill on the right bank of the Medway, which
is here crossed by a stone bridge of six arches. The church
stands on an eminence behind the village. At a short dis¬
tance to the W. was a Carmelite friary, founded in 1240,
the remains of which now form a part of the family mansion
of the Earl of Aylesford. The vicinity exhibits several re¬
mains of antiquity, among which is a cromlech called Keit’s
Coty House, about a mile N.E. from the village. It is said
to mark the burial-place of Catigern, who was slain here in
a battle between the Britons and Saxons in a.d. 455. Pod.
of parish in 1851, 1487.
AYLMER, John, bishop of London in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, was born in the year 1521 at Aylmerhall,
in the parish of Tilney, in the county of Norfolk. Whilst
a boy, he was distinguished for his quick parts by the Mar¬
quis of Dorset, afterwaras Duke of Suffolk, who sent him to
Cambridge, and made him his chaplain, and tutor to his
children. One of these children was the accomplished and
unfortunate Lady Jane Grey, whose extraordinary profi¬
ciency in the Greek and Latin languages reflects no small
honour on her preceptor Aylmer. His first preferment was
to the archdeaconry of Stow, in the diocese of Lincoln ;
which gave him a seat in the convocation held in the first
year of Queen Mary, where he resolutely opposed the re¬
turn to popery, to which the generality of the clergy were
inclined. He was soon after obliged to fly his country and
take shelter among the Protestants in Switzerland. While
here he wrote a reply to Knox’s famous Blast against the
monstrous Regiment of Women, under the title of An Har-
h or owe for b ait hfull and Trewe Subjects, &c. On the ac¬
cession of Queen Elizabeth he returned to England. In
1562 he obtained the archdeaconry of Lincoln, and was a
member of the famous synod of that year, which reformed
331
Ayeen-
Akbery
II
Aylmer.
332
AYR
AYR
Aylsham an(i settled the doctrine and discipline of the Church of
1' England. In 1576 he was consecrated bishop ot London.
Ayr. — ®  
Ayr
He died in 1594. _ , . . r K
AYLSHAM, a market-town of England, county ot i\oi-
folk, hundred of South Erpingham, US mdes N.N. . o
London. It stands on the River Bare, which is here navi
gable for boats of 13 tons. It was formerly celebrated for
its linen manufacture, and more recently for its hosiery,
both these have declined, and the inhabitants are now
chiefly engaged in agriculture. Pop. in 18oi,-lb •
AYORA, a well-built town in thepartido of Jarafuel an
province of Valencia, in Spain. It is pleasantly situated in
a hollow at the side of a mountain, which protects it fion
the S and E. wind. Pop. 3785, chiefly agricultural.
AYR, a royal burgh, the capital of Ayrshire, 18 situated
at the mouth of the river Ayr, 30 miles S.S.W . from Glas¬
gow. The spot has been inhabited from a remote antiquity.
It was the site of a Roman station; and it has been ascer¬
tained that a hamlet remained here until the year 7,
when William the Lion engrafted a new town upon it, which
about the year 1202 he constituted a royal burgh. In an¬
cient times Ayr was distinguished both for its trade and
military strength ; and being an important P0^ of concen¬
tration on the W., it was the scene of frequent eonflicts
and repeatedly changed hands during the wars of Scottish
independence in the time of the Edwards and the Bruces.
Here Edward I. fixed a powerful garrison, and here the
patriotic exploits of Sir William Wallace commenced.
When Scotland was overrun by Oliver Cromwell, he fi e
upon it as the site of one of the four forts which he built to
command the country. This fortification, termed the ate-
del, inclosed an area of about ten or twelve acres, includ ng
the old church where the Scottish parliament met and
confirmed the title of Robert Bruce to the throne. The
church was converted into a storehouse ; the Protector partly
indemnifying the inhabitants for this seizure by liberally
contributing towards the erection of a new place of worship,
which was made large enough to accommodate 2000 indi¬
viduals. The town of Ayr forms a tolerably regular pa¬
rallelogram, extending up the S. side of the river Ay ,
which is crossed by two bridges; and it possesses severa
good streets and a number of elegant public and othe
buildings. The Ayr academy is a handsome edifice ; and
the town-house is considered one of the finest structures o
the kind in the W. of Scotland. There are also the county
buildings, which afford extensive accommodation tor tlie
circuit and provincial courts and the various local authori¬
ties. Contiguous to these stands the jail, a well-regulated
establishment. In addition to the church already men¬
tioned, there is another parish church of modern erection,
besides several dissenting places of worship and a Roman
Catholic chapel. The new “Wallace Tower, a Gothic
structure, erected on the site of the old one, which was
taken down in 1835, has, at the top, the clock and bells of
the dungeon steeple. In a niche in front is a rude statue ot
Wallace, executed by Thom, a self-taught sculptor. I he
“ Public Buildings” is a handsome edifice, containing as¬
sembly rooms and a reading room, and surmounted by a
spire 217 feet high. Ayr possesses numerous charitable
establishments, a dispensary, a mechanics’ institution, an ex¬
tensive subscription library, a theatre ; and it also supports
two weekly newspapers. There are two weekly markets
and four yearly fairs. The principal manufactures of Ayr
are woollen and cotton goods, carpets, shoes, &c.; the fish¬
eries and ship-building are also carried on to a small extent.
It has a considerable general trade, and imports timber and
deals from America, hemp and iron from the Baltic, and
provisions from Ireland. Its principal export is coal. 1 he
Uoss amount of customs collected at the port during 1850
was L 1835. The harbour at the mouth of the river is
formed by two piers projecting a considerable way into the
sea, but the bar has only a depth of about 5 feet of water
at ebb tides, and not abovi 15 at h,gh-water spnngs. On
the north pier in Lat. 55. 27. N. Long. 4. 38. W. are three ^
lights, two bright and one red, from 12 to 35 feet above
high water. In 1849,49 vessels (of 6483 tons) belonged to
the port. Ayr is connected by railway with Glasgow, Kil¬
marnock, &c. It unites with Campbeltown, Inverary, r-
vine, and Oban, in returning a member to parhament In
1851 the municipality of Ayr contained 911 o inhabitants,
the parliamentary burgh 17,624, consisting of part of the
parish of Ayr (7894), of Newton-upon-Ayr (44 /0), and of
St Quivox (5260). Alloway Kirk, and Burns Monument,
are within 2^ miles of Ayr. j
Ayr, Newton upon. While the town of Ayr extends
along the S. side of the river Ayr, this small parish is
situated on the N. side of the same river. It is a burgh
of considerable consequence, having a baromal jurisdiction
and is governed by a magistracy elected by fieemen, and
(since 1832) is comprehended within the parliamentary
burgh of Ayr. It is of very ancient erection, owing its pri¬
vileges to Robert Bruce ; who, upon being attacked by le¬
prosy, came to reside in this place, and was induced to esta¬
blish a lazarhouse, and to confer considerable favours on the
town, and on the small village of Pnestwick, about two or
three miles distant. In Newton-upon-Ayr are a number ot
very good houses. From its situation on the banks of the
Ayr and the sea-coast, the soil is mostly flat and sandy. Its
extent is about three miles in length and one-and-a-half in
^ aIk’a rivTr' in Ayrshire,1 which takes its rise in the high
grouS dividing the shire on the E. ftom Lanarkshtre
and pursuing a westerly course for 18 mdes, falls into t
sea at the town to which it gives .J
waters is not large, but it sometimes shifts its bed, and does
considerable damage. It contains those jetstones ^ed
Water-of-Ayr stones, which are exported in considerable
^TyRSHIRE, a county in the W. of Scotland consi¬
derable for its population and industry, is bounded by ig
tonshire and tile Lwartry of Kirkcudbright on the S by
the counties of Dumfries and Lanark on the N.E. and E.
by Renfrewshire on the N., and by the Irish Sea and the
Firth of Clyde for about 70 miles on the W. It con
tains 1015 square miles, or 650,156 statute acres.
middle part of the county, where it is broadest, is a ou
25 miles across. The high ridgy land which stretches
along its eastern boundary shuts it out, in a ^eneral^ seme,
from the adjacenCcounties, and the surfac Avrshire
to the sea or to the rivers which flow towar^ it Ayrshire
possesses only six rivers of note, Ayr, Stmcha , ’
Kon Linejand Garnock; but the streams are very nu¬
merous, and fresh-water lakes abound, of which the most
extensive is Loch Boon, the parent of the nver ot ftat
name None of the mountains are deserving of particuia
notice In former times the shire was divided into three
districts; Garrick lying on the southern side of theDoon,
Kvle lying between the rivers Boon and Irvine , and L
ningham, comprehending the whole of the county • o
river Irvine. 1 These divisions, although abolished by the
statute, still continue to be recognized m statistical desc P
tions of the county. Carrick is a hilly,
only of value in its northern quarter- 11 “nta‘"s "
parishes, and comprises 380 square mde^ Kyle po^esi
much valuable land towards the coqst, but the mtenor
rough and mountainous; it contains 21 Par,s l (-11 f
perficies of 395 square miles. But the
the county is Cunningham, which ‘S^mp
comprising 240 square miles, and p annual
rpnt 1,7191 605, Os. 7d. Scots, and in 184d tne annua
value of houses and land was
turns a member to parliament. The a & P
Agricul¬
ture.
Manufac
tures.
AYR
Ayrshire by Ayrshire, besides its sea-coast and several excellent har-
hours, may be traced to the great abundance of coal and
limestone found in almost every part of it,—the one so ne¬
cessary to its manufactures, and the other to its agriculture ;
and the chief natural disadvantage under which it labours is
the humidity of its climate, aggravated by the quality of a
considerable part of the soil, which is a tenacious clay.
griculture, according to the more approved courses of
management, has nevertheless made considerable progress
of late in this county. Somewhat more than half a century
ago the greater part of it consisted of moss and moorlands,
or of an unproductive clay or sandy soil. Since then great
advances have been made, particularly within the last 10 or
15 vears. One-half of the country is now under cultivation ;
improved rotations have been introduced, and draining has
been carried on to a great extent, by means of which, as
we 1 as by being mixed with lime and other manure, much
of the clay soil has been turned into a rich and productive
mould; and now oats, wheat, barley, pease, beans, potatoes,
and other agricultural produce are extensively raised. The
dairy is, however, the chief object of attention to the Ayrshire
husbandmen, and their valuable breed of cows, and rich yet
mild cheese known by the name of Dunlop cheese, are in
great repute. Their horses, under the general name of
Clydesdale or Lanarkshire horses, are highly valued; al¬
most every small farmer either rearing one or more himself
or purchasing them when young, and selling them to the
eastern counties after a year or two of very moderate labour.
■ Ayrshire, as a manufacturing district, seems to stand next
in importance among the Scottish counties to the contigu¬
ous shires of Lanark and Renfrew. Various branches of the
woollen manufacture are carried on to a considerable ex¬
tent in Kilmarnock, and other places, and extensive cotton
works have been established at Catrine. Muslin, shawls, car¬
pets, cloth, flax, linen, and silk goods, nails, leather, saddlery,
and earthenware, are among its manufactures.
Within these few years Ayrshire has become one of the
most important counties of Scotland by the development of
its mineral traffic. In the hands of persons of great capital
andenterprize immense fields of ironstone are being worked
at Dairy Kilbirnie, New Cumnock, and Dalmellington;
while coal, generally of good quality, is exceedingly abun-
ant in the districts of Kyle and Cunningham. The coal
and iron are extensively shipped at the ports of Troon and
My^‘1. , eJe coal-mines at Dairy, Kilwinning, Galston,
Muirkirk, St Quivox, Coylton, and Riccarton ; at Muir-
irk, (Menbuck, and other places iron founderies have been
erected; tiles are made of the clay for draining and other
purposes ; and millstones are quarried at Kilbride. On the
property of the Honourable Colonel Macadam Cathcart, of
J-raigengillan, at Carsphairn, on the borders of Kirkcud-
ng itshire, lead mines have been for a period of years in
operation but without yielding large returns. The hills
consist chiefly of granite, with whinstone, greenstone, red
sandstone, &c.; and lime and whetstones abound.
yr, rvine, and Saltcoats, were, till verv lately, the only
harbours much frequented; and at these “places there has
ong een a little trade with Ireland, America, and the Bal-
tic, and a considerable coasting trade. Coal is the staple
ic e o export, and corn the most considerable of its im-
poi s . the ports on the Clyde having hitherto been the
grand emporium of the W. of Scotland.
Among the antiquities of Ayrshire are the cairns at Gal-
f,Ann i5nd V°rn camPs> supposed to be Danish, at D un¬
til p t f ?nTt lei ^ °*' Knockgeorgan near Ardrossan;
68 °1 L(f,h Doon’ Turnberry, Dundonald, Portin-
tlip 1/ i C V t ’?1abbeys of Crossraguel, and Kilwinning; and
o’ Sbanter ’ A °Way’ immortalized by Burns in his “ Tam
itsIhiSiCrnity1exhlblts striking examples of public spirit in
a anded proprietors. The harbour and other works at
A
li
333
Minerals
Commerce
Ardrossan begun under the auspices of the late Earl of Ayrshire
Eghnton, the harbour of Troon, and the railway from thence y ll
o ilmarnock, formed almost entirely at the expense of the Ayscue-
Duke of Portland, are monuments, no less of the enero-v
and enterpnzmg spirit than of the wealth of these noblemen.
I he harbour of Ardrossan has been for many years in a Ardrossan
state to receive shipping, and is considered as one of the harbour,
satest, most capacious, and most accessible on the W. coast
of Scotland ; possessing many advantages over the harbours
in the r irth of Clyde, situate in a narrow channel, which
can be navigated only when the wind blows from particular
points, mid which, for upwards of 20 miles below Glasgow, is
both shallow and dangerous. A circular pier of 900 yards
was finished m 1811; and the wet dockand other appendages,
which accorduig to Mr Telford’s plan, were to contain from
<0 to 100 vessels in water 16 feet deep, were begun and
nearly completed, when the death of the late Earl of
Eghnton in 1820 brought them to a stand. They have now
been completed by the present Earl. Excellent baths have
been constructed, which draw to it a number of visitors
during the summer season; and there is one expressly for
the use of the poor, for which no charge is made. The
harbour of Ardrossan was only part of the general plan, and
that hom which viewed by itself, the smallest advantages
perhaps were to be expected. The leading idea was to open
up a direct communication between Glasgow, Paisley, and
other large towns in the vicinity, and the W. coast, instead
ot the present circuitous passage by the Firth of Clyde. A Canal.
Mom theffbre t(? be cut from Glasgow to Ardrossan,
abxmt dl2 mdes, at the estimated expense of L.125,000.
Ut this only a third has been executed, that is, from Glas¬
gow to Johnstone, which cost about L.90,000, the canal
haying been superseded by the Glasgow and Ayr Railway.
, 10 hifbour at Troon, connected as it now is with Kil- Troon
moc by means of a railway, seems to possess the same harbour.
advantages as that of Ardrossan. The wet and dry docks
re excellent, and are well employed. There are also ex¬
tensive warehouses, and a yard for building vessels. The
rai vvay from Troon to Kilmarnock, a distance of 10 miles Railway.
as been in operation for many years, and answers all the
purposes for which it was originally intended. There are un-
wards of 3000 acres of coal Win its course, which nX
in time indemnify the Duke of Portland fo? his outlay both
on this and the harbour. This railway has cost the duke
upwards of L.50,000, and the harbour is estimated at about
in6] So6 ST and Ayr Railway was opened
1840, and is 40 miles in length ; a branch of which goes
from near Dairy to Kilmarnock, and another from near Kil-
Railwav r? Thf Gla*gow, Dumfries, and Carlisle
Railway passes Kdmarnock, and sends off a branch to Muir-
1bne.fi'0m1 Ayr to Dalmellington is in progress.
tin f A° °lv.lnS.abstract will exhibit a view of the popula- p°puE-
tion of Ayrshire m 18511 1 tion.
18ol.
Districts.
Carrick 
Kyle 
Cunningham.
Houses.
Inha- Uninha¬
bited. bited.
4,575
9,455
9,524
County  23,554
128
363
333
824
Build¬
ing.
15
57
57
129
Inhabitants.
Male. Female. Total
15,455
35.394
42,081
92,930
15,847
36,890
44,191
96,928
31,302
72,284
86,272
189,858
A u Ri\’ °r Aert’ a nest or company of eagles or hawks,
S° A^vX '0111 t le <dd French word aire.
, , ^IR George, a gallant English admiral, de¬
scended from a good family in Lincolnshire. He obtained
the honour of knighthood from Charles I., but adhered to
ie par lament in the civil war. He was by them appointed
admiral ot the Irish seas, where he did great service to the
334
A Z E
Ay ton
Protestant interest. In 1651 he reduced to the obedience of
» the parliament Barbadoes and Virginia, which t en e ( ou
Azerbijan. for [he kin . and after the Restoration he behaved with
V much gallantry in the war with the Dutch. In the famous
engagement in the beginningof June 1666, when Sn George
w7as admiral of the white squadron, his ship, t ie °} a ’
ran upon the Galoper-sand, where, being surrounded with
enemies, his men obliged him to strike. He went no more
to sea after this, but spent the rest of his days in retiremen .
See Britain. , .
AYTON, Sir Robert, a Scottish poet, was born at
Kinaldie in Fifeshire, in 1570, and died at London in 163b
His Latin poems are to be found in the Delitice Poet. ^ •
Among these are various panegyrical pieces, addressed to
King James VI. and the members of the royal house, fo
which he was rewarded with substantial favours. An edi¬
tion of the poems in the Scottish dialect generally supposed
to be his, appeared in 1844, edited by Mr Charles Roger.
Ayton, a village and parish of Scotland, county of Be
wick, on the river Eye. Pop. of parish in 18ol, 19o9. It
is miles N.W. of Berwick.
AZAMOR, a small seaport town of the kingdom of Ma-
rocco, in the province of Dukalla. It is situated in a very
fruitful district, near the mouth of the River Morbeya. Long.
8. 15. W. Lat. 33. 17. 37. N. Pop. 3000.
AZANI, an ancient city of Phrygia, on the Rhyndacus,
now in ruins. The principal remains are two bridges, con¬
nected by a quay, a fine Ionic temple of Jupiter, and a
theatre 232 feet in diameter.
AZARA. See Azzara. „ T . , , ,
AZARIAH, or Uzziah, ninth king of Judah, succeeded
his father Amaziah 810 years b.C. He assembled an army of
above 300,000 men, with which he conquered the Philistines,
demolishing the walls of Gath, Jabniel, and Ashdod, and built
up the walls of Jerusalem, furnished the city with conduits,
and planted gardens and vineyards ; but at last, being elated
with his prosperity, and resolving to usurp the office of high-
priest, he was struck with leprosy, which obliged him to
remain shut up in his palace for the rest of his days. He
died about 757 years before the Christian era, and was suc¬
ceeded by Jotham his son. (2 Kings ; 2 Chron.) There
are twelve other persons of this name mentioned in the 8a-
cred ScriptureST .
AZERBIJAN, a province of Persia, part of the ancient
Media. It is separated from Armenia on the N. by the
River Araxes ; and from Irak on the S. by the Kizil-Ozem,
or Golden Stream. It has the Caspian Sea and Glnlan on
the E., and Armenia and Kurdistan on the W. Ihe coun¬
try is superior to the southern provinces of Persia, being
richly diversified with wood and water. It differs entnely
from the provinces of Ears and Irak, as it consists of a re-
o-ular succession of undulating eminences, partially culti¬
vated, and opening into extensive plains suchas Anjan, la-
breez, and Urumea or Van. Near the centre of the pro¬
vince the mountains of Sahend rise in an accumulated mass
to the height of 9000 feet above the sea. Mount Sevellan,
towards its eastern frontier, attains a height of nearly 13,000
feet; and the Talish Mountains, which run from N. to b.,
parallel to and at no great distance from the Caspian, at¬
tain an altitude of 7000 feet. Azerbijan is a fertile coun¬
try, and of a most pleasing aspect. It is reckoned one of
the most productive provinces of Persia, and the villages
have a more pleasing appearance than those of Irak. The
orchards and gardens, in which they are for the most part
embosomed, yield delicious fruits of almost every description.
Provisions are cheap and abundant, and wine is mhde in con¬
siderable quantities. This province is watered by several
considerable rivers, namely, the Araxes, the Kizil-Ozem,
and the Juggaty. The Yezdican and the Harasa are tribu¬
taries of the Araxes ; and the Agi and Shar flow into the
lake of Urumea. This lake is about 300 miles in circum-
A Z O
ference. Its waters are more intensely salt than the sea. Azimuth
It is surrounded by some of the most fertile districts in II
Persia. The country to the N. and W., namely, the dis-
tricts of Urumea and Selmart, is the most picturesque and
prosperous part of Azerbijan; yet even here the traveller
from the more civilized regions of Europe laments at every
step the sloth and want of enterprize among the inhabitants,
who entirely neglect the natural advantages ol their coun¬
try. There are many rivers which fall into the lake, by
which the produce of the rich and well-cultivated valleys
through which they run might be transported_ across its
waters, and dispersed among the different towns in the pro¬
vince. The truth, however, is, that individual exertion is
damped by the tyranny of the government; the inhabitants
fearing that, if boats were constructed tor the navigation ot
the lake, they would be subjected to heavy duties, or arbi¬
trarily impressed into the service of government, ihe
bulk of the people are so held down by their rulers that,
in the hope of bettering their condition, they would hail
with pleasure the approach of a Russian army. Lead, cop¬
per, saltpetre, and sulphur, are found within the confines
of Azerbijan ; also a kind of beautiful transparent maible
or jasper, which takes the highest polish, and is used in the
buildings of Tabreez, Schiraz, and Ispahan, under the name
of Tabreez marble. The chief towns are Tabreez, Uru¬
mea, Ardebil, and Khoee. The climate is healthful—m
summer and autumn hot, but cold in winter, which is se¬
verely felt by the lower orders, owing to the want ot tuel,
for which there is no substitute except dried cow-dung
mixed with straw. The spring is temperate and delightful
in the plains, but on the mountains snow lies eight months
in the year; and hail-storms are so violent as frequently to
destroy cattle in the fields. The best soils yield trom fifty
to sixty fold when abundantly irrigated; and supplies of
water for this purpose are drawn trom the many small rivers
by which the province is intersected Oxen are generafiy
Jed to draw the plough. (Kinneir’s Geographtcal Memoir
of the Persian Empire ; Fraser’s Travels and Adventures
in the Persian Provinces on the Caspian Sea.) (R. b—N.;
AZIMUTH, in Astronomy, an arch ot the horizon in¬
tercepted between the meridian of the place and the vertical
circle passing through the centre ot the object. .
Azimuth, Magnetical, an arch of the horizon, intercepted
between the vertical circle passing through the centre of
any heavenly body and the magnetical meridian.
Azimuth Compass, an instrument for finding either the
magnetical azimuth or amplitude of a heavenly object.
Azimuth Circles, called also azimuths ox vertical circles,
are great circles of the sphere intersecting each other in the
zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right angle .
On these are reckoned the height ot the stars and that o
the sun when not in the meridian.
AZOGA Ships (from the Spanish azogue, mercury), ves
sels which carried quicksilver to the Spanish West Indies, in
order to extract the silver from the mines of Mexico and
Peru. They carried no goods except tor the king.
AZOPH, or Asow, a city on the left bank of one o
arms of the Don, about 20 miles from its mouth. It w
formerly a place of great importance, but has declined since
m4 when it became a fixed part of the Russian empire.
The harbour is nearly choked up, and the fortifications a
neglected. Pop. 1200. The country around, although
healthy, is fruitful in vines. Long. 39. 8. E. Lat. 7.
Azoph, Sm of (the Palm Mceotis of the ancients) an
land sea of Southern Europe, communicating with t
Sea bv means of the Strait of Yemkale, the anaent #
phorus Cimmejius. It lies between Lat. 45. 20-and ^ 18.
N. and Long. 35. and 39. E.; its length from S.WMoN E.
being about 235 miles, and its greatest bread* H0 ^
The rivers Don, Kuban, Kalmius, and Breda, en • ’
rendering its waters much less salt than the ocean; and in
A Z O
Azores, deed they are little more than brackish. Near its coast are
—'y—b-''the towns of laganrog, Mariupol, Yenikale, Azoph, and
Berdiansk, which last has risen since 1835, from a mere vil-
lage, to be the most important commercial town on this coast.
Polybius affirmed that this sea was gradually filling up, so
that at no remote period it would be unfit for navigation ;
and since his time the common opinion has been, that it wTas
decreasing in depth ; but recent observations have proved
this idea to be erroneous. (Jones’ Travels, vol. ii. p. 145.)
Near the mouth of the Don the water is exceedingly shal¬
low, being only from three to ten feet, according to the di¬
rection of the wind ; but otherwise it varies from 42 feet in
the centie, to an average of about 18 feet close to the shore.
The Strait of Yenikale has at all times a depth of at least
14 feet; and vessels of a greater draught mav find secure an¬
chorage where they can discharge their cargoes. The ship¬
ping season extends from about the middle of April to the
end of November, and the sea is generally frozen from De-
cembei to March. The fisheries here are very important.
AZORES, or Western Islands. These form a range
situate in the Atlantic Ocean, extending in an oblique line
from N.W. to S.E., between 37° and 40° N. Eat., and 25°
and 32 W. Long. It has been a subject of some contro¬
versy among geographers, to what division of the globe they
ought to be referred ; but they are nowr generally considered
as pertaining to Europe.
It does not appear that the ancients had any knowledge
of the Azores, or of any group in this sea, except the Ca¬
naries, to which they finally applied the celebrated appel¬
lation of the Fortunate Islands. But the Arabian geogra¬
phers, Edrisi and Ibn al Vardi, describe, after the Canaries,
nine other islands in the Western Ocean. That these were
the Azores is highly probable, since their number is exactly
nine; and because a species of hawk is specially noticed by
these writers as existing there in great abundance,—a cir¬
cumstance that afterwards appeared to the Portuguese so
remarkable, that they gave them the name of Azores, or
Hawk Islands. The climate in which they are placed also
makes them north of the Canaries. Some other coincidences
also might be pointed out; and, upon the whole, there ap¬
pears no reason to doubt that the Azores are really the nine
islands enumerated by the Arabians. The Arabian writers
represent them as having been populous, and as having con¬
tained cities of some magnitude; but they state that the in¬
habitants had been greatly reduced by intestine warfare.
At the time of their discovery, they were uninhabited, and
covered with forests and underwood, which have now en¬
tirely disappeared.
The first European discovery of this group is claimed by
the Flemings. A Flemish merchant named Van der Berg,
is reported, in sailing from Lisbon, to have been driven upon
these shores in the year 1439. The intelligence soon reached
the court of Lisbon, where it excited considerable interest;
and the navigator Cabral was sent to prosecute the discovery.
In 14o9 the islands began to be planted and colonized, and
in so fertile a soil the inhabitants rapidly multiplied. In
1580 they fell, with the other Portuguese territories, under
tie dominion of Spain. At this time the Azores were the
grand rendezvous in the voyage homewards of the fleets,
which came laden with the wealth of both the Indies. Hence
t ey became a theatre of that maritime warfare which was
cairied on writh such spirit by the English under Queen Eliza¬
beth against the peninsular powers. In 1586 Sir Walter
Raleigh equipped two pinnaces of 35 and 40 tons, the com¬
mand of which he gave to Captain Whiddon. Having taken
two or three prizes, they fell in, off St Michael, with the
great fleet of Spanish galleons, consisting of 24 sail, two of
tiem caracks of 1000 or 1200 tons. They attacked them,
owever, without hesitation, hoping to cut off some strag-
g ing member of this great body, but were unable to make
any impression upon it. In 1587 Sir Francis Drake, after
A Z O
Azores.
History.
having swept the harbour of Cadiz, sailed for the Azores
where he took an East India carack, richly laden, and the
first that had ever fallen into the hands of the English. In _ v
1589 the Earl of Cumberland fitted out a squadron, sailed
for the Azores, and made numerous prizes.
Under the active administration of Pombal, considerable
exertions were made for the improvement of the Azores;
but the stupid and bigoted government which followed
rather tended to destroy these benefits, and to make the
islands take a retrograde course.
The Azores within a recent period attracted some attention
as the theatre of contest between the parties contending for
the crown of Portugal. The adherents of the constitution, who
supported against Miguel the rights of Maria da Gloria, ob¬
tained possession of Terceira, where they succeeded in main¬
taining themselves. After various struggles, Queen Maria’s
authority was eventually established over all these islands.
1 he aspect of all the islands is very similar in general cha¬
racteristics, presenting an elevated and undulating outline, Physical
with little or no table-land, and rising into peaks, of which asPect-
the lowest (that of St Mary’s) is 1889 feet, and the highest
(that of Pico) /613 feet above the level of the sea. Their
lines of sea-coast are with few exceptions high and precipi¬
tous, with bases of accumulated masses of fallen rock, in
which open bays, or scarcely more inclosed inlets, form the
harbours of the trading towns. The climate is particularly
temperate and equable, the extremes of sensible heat and
cold being, however, increased by the degree of humidity
pi esent in the atmosphere. The range of the thermometer
is from 45° Fahr., the lowest known extreme,—or 48° the
ordinary lowest extreme of January,—to 82° the ordinary, or
86 the highest known extreme of July, and near the level
of the sea. Between these two points (both taken in the
shade) there is from month to month a pretty regular grada¬
tion of increase or decrease, amounting to somewhat less than
four degrees {Geographical Journal, vol. xv.) They have
an aggregate area of 700 square miles, and in 1841 had a
population of 214,300. St Michael, the largest and most
populous of these islands, has an area of 224 square miles
and (1840) 80,809 inhabitants. Proceeding from E. to W.'
this island presents a considerable variety of surface. The
E. end rises from a bluff sea-cliff of between 1200 and 1400
feet elevation, to a lofty inland peak from which a central
range, varying in height from 2000 to 2500 feet, runs to the
westward, terminating in the Serra da Agoa de Pao, 3060
feet above the sea. 1 he sea-coast gradually declines in ap¬
proaching the last point, where it is not more than about 100
feet high. I he part next seen is lower, and its outline, as
presented by the summits of numerous volcanic monticules
of about 1300 feet elevation, united in a central ridge more
undulating; the western extremity being marked by the con¬
spicuous Serra Gorda, 1574 feet above the sea; and its shores
on both sides are low, broken, and rocky. Of the remaining
pait the aspect is that of a vast truncated cone, irregularly
cut off at an elevation of about 800 feet, and falling on the
N., S., and W. sides to a perpendicular coast of between 300
and 800 feet high. The outline is varied by the interven-
tion of peaks, thrown up on the summit and flanks, and round
the foot of the mountain. In the higher parts, the surface
is generally covered with an undergrowth of heaths, cedar,
laurel, laurestirius, and other evergreen shrubs, which give
the mountains an exceedingly rich and wooded appearance.
Like all volcanic countries, the face of the island is uneven
and irregular, being deeply excavated by numerous ravines
and roughened by streams of semi-vitrified and scoriaceous
lava, that resist all atmospheric influences and repel vegeta¬
tion. Heavy rains falling on the mountains afford a constant
supply of water to four lakes at the bottom of extinct craters
oi subsidences, and a number of minor reservoirs ; and
through them to small streams running rapidly down on all
sides into the sea.—{Geographical Journal, vol. xv.)
335
336
Azores.
V olcanic
pheno¬
mena.
AZORES.
Vegetable
products.
St Mary.
Terceira
In the year 1591 a most tremendous earthquake appears
to have bLn felt all over the Azores, and to have shaken
St Michael for twelve days without intermission, bince teat
period there is no record of any such great convulsion, ex
cept one in 1757, of which we have no particulars
probably much less formidable ; nor are any o
St present in a state of action. Hot springs abound m everj
part of the island, and from almost every crevice vapour ts
seen issuing. But the most remarkable l'1 “j,
Caldeiras or boiling fountains, which rise clue y
called the Furnas, near the western extremity
The water ascends in columns to the heig t« a °u ^
after which it dissolves in vapour, forming clouds of various
.,,,(1 colours. The heat is such as to boil an e^& in
twQ1 minutes, though the sulphurous tapregnation unto ,t
for beimr employed in culinary purposes, t he ground in
the immediate vicinity is entirely covered with n»nve » -
nlmr like hoar frost. At a small distance is a rernarkaDie
phenomenon called the Muddy Crater, the vertex of which,
5 s feet in diameter, is on a level w.th the P1”"; £“0-
tents are in a state of violent and continual ebullition, ac
companied with a sound resembling the waves of a temges-
tuous ocean. Yet they never rise above its level, unless
occasionally to throw to a small distance a spray °[the con¬
sistence of melted lead. The Furnas abounds also in hot
sorino-s some of which it is impossible to touch without
bPein| scalded. There is almost always, however a cold
spring near to the hot one, so that the water can be brought
to any temperature that may be des.red. These springs,
after bein<r long neglected, have, within the last half cen
tury been grearty resorted to, and the cures performed n
cases of palsy, rheumatism, and similar maladies, are said
have been very wonderful. _ ..
The plains Ire fertile in wheat, barley, and Indian corn ;
whilst vines and oranges grow luxuriantly on B-side8 »f
the mountains. They are made to spring even from the in
terstices of the volcanic rocks, which
in order that they may receive the plants. Rmsed m Uus
manner these fruits are said to be of superior quality , but
r^t expense originally required in such a mo e of cul¬
tivation confines it to persons ot some capital. Jhe wester
part of the island yields hemp, which might be nosed to a
'considerable extent. The exports consist of wme, tot, and
provisions. Foreign intercourse used to be n°nfined ngo
ously to Lisbon; but since the emigraUonof *e cour^the
inhabitants have assumed the privilege of trading directly
with England, America, and other countries.
The principal town in the island is Ponta Delgada, which
contains^ about 20,000 inhabitants. It is built with tolerable
regularity, the streets being straight and broad, ihe re-
ligious edifices are numerous and elegant. When visited by
Captain Boid in 1831, it had six churches, eight monasteries,
and four convents ; but these last, which were noted for the
irregular lives of their vestals, have since been suppressed.
The harbour receives only small vessels: those of any mag¬
nitude must anchor in an open road, which, though not dan¬
gerous, cannot be occupied during the prevalence south¬
erly gales. Its other towns are Villa Franca, liibeira,
Grande, Alagoa, Agoa de Pao, &c.
St Mary is a small island immediately adjacent to St
Michael through the medium of which its trade is con¬
ducted, ks it has no good harbours of its own. It has an area
of 36 square miles, producing wheat in abundance of which
a considerable quantity is exported. It is of ^ap formatum,
and contains beds of marine shells. Pop. in 1840, 4666.
Terceira, though smaller than St Michael, yet being placed
‘ in a more central position with respect to the other islands,
has been chosen as the seat of government. The port of
Angra is also superior to any of those in St Michael. This
island does not exhibit nearly the same extensive traces of
volcanic action ; and the summits ot its mountains are gene-
Azores.
rally level. It is represented by Adanson, however, as en¬
tirely composed of volcanic products. The lava, he says,
is of a thicker grain than that of Tenenffe. It abounds in
grain and cattle; but the wines are inferior, and the fruits
are raised merely for internal consumption. 1 he residence
of the government renders the society somewhat superior to
that which is found in the other islands. The number of
inhabitants is estimated at 50,000. „ ^ Faval
Fayal is the most frequented of all the islands after bt y
Michael, as it has one of the best harbours in the Azores,
and lies directly in the track of vessels that are crossing the
Atlantic in any direction. Its principal town is Villa de
Horta. Captain Cook found that all sorts of fresh p
visions might be obtained there: the bullocks and hogs are
good, but the sheep small and poor. The town is defended
bv two castles and a wall, both in decay, and serving rather
for show than strength. The city contains two convents for
monks and three for nuns, with eight churches. These are
the only good buildings in it, no other having glass win¬
dows. " The bay is two miles in length and three-quarters o
a mile in breadth, and the depth of water from 6 to 20
fathoms. Though a good road, it is not altogether free from
danger in S.S.W. and S.E. winds. Pop. 23,000. pic0
A considerable quantity of wine is exported from Fayal
under the appellation of Fayal wine, but really tl e p
duce of Pico, one of the most remarkable of the Azore..
This island is composed of an immense conical mountain,
rising to the height of 7613 feet, and bearing every trace of
volcanic formation. The soil consists entirely of pulverize^
lava and the ground has even been said to sound hollo
wien struck. &AU the lower parts of the mountain are in
the highest state of cultivation, and covered with vine and
orange plantations. The wine, which forms a sort of m-
ferior Madeira, is in considerable demand. Pico produces
also a valuable species of wood, resembling and equal
quality to mahogany. Pop. 26,000. , , equated Graciosa
H Graciosa and St George are two small isknds, situated ^ gt
between Fayal and Terceira. Graciosa is chiefly note f George.
the extreme beauty of its aspect and scenery,
fearfaio st George suffered ftom one of those awful visita-
tions to which the Azores are subject. In 1808 acaMara.sttu-
ate in the centre of the island, was observed to be in a state
of violent fermentation. It continued during several days to
emit subterraneous noises, and to cause vio ent convulsions
tCuXut every part of the island. At length the great
S came , v J Learns of fire issued forth in every direc¬
tion, with clouds of smoke, which, but for the volcanic hg t,
would have involved everything in m.dmght darkness- The
nrincipal stream took its direction towards the beautiful town
of Uriula, which it seemed on the point of swallowing up,
but suddenly changing its direction, it rushed into the sea
byVdifferent chain,el; a happy event, winch superstdmn
ascribed to the prayers of the Ursuhne nuns. Y
dred acres of fertile land, however, were covered with scorue
id Ses; some lives ^ere lost, and general gloom and
consternation diffused throughout the island. 1 he mhabi
tants however, soon applied themselves to repair the m
PJ wS their land had sustained. Population about
The two small and most westerly islands of CorvoTj1"'1
Flores seem but imperfectly to belong to the group. Y
lie also out of the usual track of navigators; blit to thosew ,
racing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good she -
telnfts numerous ’bays- Its poultry is said to be he finest
in the world; and the cattle are numerous, but small. Ihe
surplus prod““ of these islands is not of much importance.
'’Twould bilmpropei1to close this notic<; ^°"t “me-
tioning one of the most striking occurrences in nature so
times exhibited in this quarter the sudden emersum of new^
islands from the bosom of the ocean.
Azote
II. .
izpeitia,
A Z P
such an event is given by Kircher in his Mundus Subter-
raneus. He describes it as announced by violent earth-
quakes, which lasted for eight days; then a fire broke from
the surface of the sea, and rose to the clouds, whilst vast
quantities of stones, earth, sand, and minerals, were at the
same time vomited out. At length a group of rocks burst
forth, which gradually increased till they covered several
miles in circumference, and, after being shattered by a new
earthquake, settled into a solid consistence.
A narrative of a similar phenomenon is given in the 32d
volume of the Philosophical Transactions. John Robison,
master of a small vessel, is stated to have arrived on the 10th
December 1720 at Terceira, “ near which island he saw a
fire break out of the sea.” On his arrival at Angra, the
governor hired his vessel for the purpose of going to view it.
“ On the 19th,” says he, “at two afternoon, we made an
island all fire and smoke. The ashes fell on our deck like
hail and snow. The fire and smoke roared like thunder or
great guns.” He adds, that quantities of pumice stone, pro¬
bably common lava, and of half-broiled fish, were found float¬
ing on the sea in its vicinity.
A similar phenomenon took place in June 1811, about
half a league from the western extremity of the island of St
Michael. On the 13th of that month an island was thrown
up in the sea, to which was given the name of Sabrina, by
the commander of the British man-of-war of that name, who
witnessed the explosion. It was soon worn away by the sea,
and is now only to be traced in a submarine cone 15 fathoms
under the surface.
See Hartmann’s Edrisi ; Voyages des Hollandois, tome
i.; Astley’s Collection, vol. i.; Masson’s Account of St Mi¬
guel, in Phil. Trans. 1778 ; Cook’s Second Voyage ; Adan-
son’s Voyage to Senegal; History of the Azores, London,
1813 ; Boid’s Azores ; London Geographical Journal.
AZOTE (a, priv., and life), one of the gases. See
Chemistry.
AZOTUS, or Ashdod (now Esdud), a city of Palestine,
near the sea-coast, 10 miles N.N.E. of Askelon. It was the
chief town of one of the five states of the Philistines, and
the seat of the worship of Dagon. Although assigned to
the tribe of Judah, it was many centuries before it was sub¬
dued, and it appears never to have permanently been in
their possession. The site is marked by ancient ruins, such
as broken arches and fragments of marble columns. There
is also what appears to be a very ancient khan, the principal
chamber of which had obviously at some former period been
used as a Christian chapel.
AZPEUIA, a Spanish town in the province of Guipuz-
coa, on the left bank of the River Urola, on the N. side of
Mount Itzarritz. The neighbouring country is fertile, and
quarries of marble are wrought in the mountains. Pop.
o300.
. A z z
337
the native name of the nation that last occu- Aztecs
pied the table-land of Mexico before the arrival of the II
Spaniards in America. They came from a country in the -Azzara-
N.W. of that continent, to which they gave the name of
Aztlan, about the year 1160 of our era; and they settled
at first on the banks of the Rio Gila. They gradually in¬
creased their influence among other tribes, until, by union
with the Toltecs, who occupied the table-land before them,
they extended their empire to an area of from 18,000 to
20,000 square leagues. The researches of Humboldt af¬
forded us the first clear insight into those early periods of
their history. See Mexico.
AZUNI, Domenico Alberto, a celebrated jurisconsult,
born at Sassari, in Sardinia, in 1760, and author of an esteemed
work on The Maritime Law of Europe. He died in Sar¬
dinia in 1827.
AZURE. See Heraldry.
AZZARA, Don Felix de, a celebrated Spanish natu¬
ralist, was born 18th May 1746. He studied first at the
university of Huesca, and afterwards at the military academy
of Barcelona. In 1764 he entered the army as a cadet, and
in 1767 obtained an ensigncy in the engineer corps. In
1/81 he was appointed, with the rank of captain in the navy,
on a commission to lay down the line of demarcation be¬
tween the Spanish and the Portuguese territories in South
America. T here he spent many years, observing and col¬
lecting specimens of the various interesting objects of na¬
tural history that abound in those wide and little known
regions. In 1801 he obtained leave to return to Spain, and
was afterwards appointed a member of the Junta deforti-
ficayiones y defensa de Ambos Indias, a public board in
which chiefly was centred the home government of the Span-
ish colonies. He died in 1811. His principal work is his
Travels in South America from 1781 to 1801 ; published
in French from the author’s MS., by C. A. Walckenaer.
with atlas and plates, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1809. It contains
a valuable account of the discovery, conquest, civil and
natural history of Paraguay and Rio de la Plata; and
embodies his former contributions to the zoology of
these countries. The work is enriched with the notes of
Walckenaer and Cuvier, and a notice of the author by the
former.
Azzara, Don Jose Nicolas de, the elder brother of the
naturalist, was an eminent collector of Italian antiquities ;
and withdrewjxi Florence when the French took possession
of Rome in 1798. He was afterwards Spanish ambassador
at Paris, but was displaced by Godoy, and was preparing to
return to his antiquarian studies in Italy in 1808, when he
died. His best claim to notice is the active part he took as
a minister under Val, in the difficult and hazardous task of
the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain. He died at Paris
in 1804.
2 tc
VOL. IV.
338
B.
B
the second letter, and first consonant, in all known
9 alphabets excepting the Ethiopic, where it occupies
the ninth place. It is a labial and mute, representing t ic
compression of the lips, and consequently incapable or being
uttered or pronounced without the aid of a vowel, or a for¬
cible expiration equivalent in effect to vocality. ^;11S . "
ter has a near affinity to the other labials, with which, in¬
deed, it is interchangeable according as the compression of
the lips, which it primarily indicates, is modified by simul¬
taneous expiration ; and hence, although its ordinary power
or effect is intermediate between the smooth and easy sound
of P, and the rough aspirations of PH, F, and V, yet, in the
articulation of many languages, it is habitually confounded
with one or other of the letters of the same class, and in the
same language at different times, is frequently interchanged
with its cognate consonants. Thus, /3o<ma in Greek be¬
comes jrowo in Latin ; yiA/^os, gilvus ; f^pefxw, fretvo, Tryfos,
buxus; aficfiw, ambo ; (f)d\<uva, balczna; OpLapflos, tnum-
phus‘, and so in many other instances. A gain, in Latin, the
B of the olden time, and of the inscriptions, passes into V
in a subsequent age ; while, on the other hand, the P of the
antique orthography is commuted into B in that of a more
recent date. Hence we have abavus for ahalus, are for abe,
vixit for bixit, curvalus for cnrbatus, and hundreds of other
analogous instances; while Popfius for Publius, Pophcus
for PvMicus, Poplicola for Pvblicola, are of frequent cc-
currence in the inscriptions and other elder monuments of
the Latin language. This letter is also sometimes inserted in
the middle of compound words for the sake of euphony, and
to prevent the hicttus which would otherwise result from the
concurrence of vowels, as ambages, ambio, amburo; it is
servile in the dative and ablative plural of the third, fourth,
and fifth declensions of Latin nouns, and in the prseterim-
perfect and future tenses of the first and second conjuga¬
tions ; and it is interchangeable with P, F, and other Icttei s,
both in the composition and conjugation of a number of
verbs. In Hebrew, the namp of the second letter IVIL
bith or belli, indicates the original hieroglyph to have repre-
sented a house or temple ; whilst an abbreviated form of
the figure has been employed to denote the initial sound of
the word in the spoken language; a principle, also, upon
which the ancient Egyptians appear to have constructed
their phonetic alphabet, or used the symbolical characters
of their complex system of writing for representing the con¬
stituent sounds of proper names and of legends. A differ¬
ence, however, will be observed between the two Phoenician
forms of this letter, the first of which is that of a house or
temple, whilst in the second another figure seems to have
been combined with the first; from which it is probable that
this people, the inventors of alphabetical characters or signs,
had originally two hieroglyphs for the letter, and conse¬
quently two words by which it was named. This compound
hieroglyph seems to have been composed of the belli or
house, and of the head and horns of some animal placed
over it, perhaps those of a Iptll, baker, ox or wild goat;
which would explain the assertion of Hesiod, that the se¬
cond or third letter of the Phoenicians was represented by
an ox. At all events the Phoenician, reproduced in the
early Greek, has served as the basis of most modern varie¬
ties in the languages of the West; and, amidst every change
which time, accident, or caprice, has superinduced, it is still
easy to detect and distinguish the elementary or primitive
form. With regard to the different sounds or powers at¬
tached to the letter in modern languages, these have varied
within the limits of its natural affinity ; the Germans giv¬
ing it the effect of P, the Spaniards, Gascons, and others,
that of V ; and the modern Greeks sometimes that of V, but
more frequently sounding it as we do F. The satirical epi¬
grammatist who affirmed that in Gascony bibere is the same ^
as viverc, stated a literal truth, in as far at least as the pro¬
nunciation of the words is concerned. (j- b e.)
BAAL, the same as Bel or Bells, an idol of the Chal¬
deans and Phoenicians or Canaanites. d he word Baal, in
the Punic language as well as in the Hebrew, signifies “ lord”
or “ master,” and doubtless meant the supreme Deity ; yet
there is no evidence that the Israelites ever called Jehovah
by the name of Baal; for the passage in Hosea ii. 16, which
has been cited as such, only contains the word baal as the
sterner, less affectionate, representative of husband. Some
learned men identify the Baal of the Phoenicians with the
Saturn of the Greeks ; others with the Phoenician or Tyrian
Hercules, a god of great antiquity in Phoenicia.
Baal-berith, the god of the Shechemites. Bochart
conjectures that Berith is the same as Beroe, the daughter
of Venus and Adonis, who was given in marriage to Bac¬
chus ; and that she gave her name to the city of Berith in
Phoenicia, of which she became the patron goddess.
Baal-peor, Baal-phegor, or Beel-phegor, an idol of the
Moabites and Midianites. Baal-peor is identified by Je¬
rome with Priapus; by Selden, again, with Pluto which
he grounds upon these words of the Psalmist, “ They joined
themselves unto Baal-peor, and ate theofferings of the dead;
and by others, with Chemosh. . . .
Baal-zebub, Beel-zebub, or Belzebub, the god of the
Ekronites. In Scripture he is called the Prince of Devils.
His name is usually rendered the “ Lord of Flies, which,
some think, was a mock appellation bestowed on him by the
Jews. But Scaliger derives the name from Baalim-zeba-
him, which signifies the “ Lord of Sacrifices.
BAALBEC, an ancient city of Syria, celebrated for the
magnificence of its ruins, which, with the exception of those
at Palmyra, are the most extensive in Syria. Baalbec in
the Svrian language signifies the “ City of Baal,” or of the
Sun, and the Greek name Heliopolis {i.e. city of the sun) is
a translation of this term. It is supposed to be the same
with the Baal-Gad of Scripture said to be “in the vahey o
Lebanon under Mount Hermon.” There is not sufficient
authority for supposing this to be the Baalath built or foi i-
fied by Solomon. It is pleasantly situated on the lowest
declivity of the Anti-Libanus, at the opening of a small val¬
ley into the plain El-Bekaa, 109 geographical miles from
Palmyra, and 38f from Tripoli; Long. 36. 11. L. Lat.
1. 30. N. Through this valley runs a small stream divided
into numberless rills for irrigation.
The origin of this city appears to be lost in the most re¬
mote antiquity, and the historical notices of it are very scanty;
the silence of the classical writers respecting it would alone
seem to imply that it had previously existed under another
name. In the absence of more positive information, we
can only conjecture that its situation on the big r(k'
commerce be'tweenTyre, Palmyra, and the farther East, must
have contributed largely to the wealth and magni .
which it manifestly attained. It is mentioned under tne
name of Heliopolis by Josephus (Antiq. xiv. , )> an
by Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 22). Two Roman inscriptions ot tne
time of Antoninus Pius give sanction to the statemen c
John of Antioch, who alleges that this emperor built a g
temple to Jupiter at Heliopolis, which was one of the won¬
ders of the world (//^. Chron. lib. xi.) From the reverses
of Roman coins we learn that Heliopolis was cons 1
colony by Julius Caesar; that it was the seat of a Roma
garrison in the time of Augustus; and obtained t
Baalbec.
JJ.ialbec. Italicum from Severus. Some of the coins of later date
contain curious representations of the temple.
From the accounts of Oriental writers, Baalbec seems to
have continued a place of importance down to the time of
the Moslem invasion of Syria. They describe it as one
of the most splendid of Syrian cities, enriched with stately
palaces, adorned with monuments of ancient times, and
abounding with trees, fountains, and whatever contributes
to luxurious enjoyment. After the capture of Damascus
it was regularly invested by the Moslems, and after a cou¬
rageous defence, at length capitulated. The ransom exacted
by the conquerors, consisted of 2000 ounces of gold, 4000
ounces of silver, 2000 silk vests, and 1000 swords, together
with the arms of the garrison. It afterwards became the
mart for the rich pillage of Syria; but its prosperity soon
received a fatal blow from the khalif of Damascus, by
whom it was sacked and dismantled, and the principal in¬
habitants put to the sword (a.d. 748). During the Cru¬
sades, being incapable of making any resistance, it seems
to have quietly submitted to the strongest, In the year
1400 it was pillaged by Fimour Beg, in his progress to
Damascus, after he had taken Aleppo. Afterwards it fell
into the hands of the Metaweli—a barbarous predatory
tribe, who were nearly exterminated when Djezzar Pasha
permanently subjected the whole district to Turkish su¬
premacy.
From the S., the city is first discovered at the distance
of about a league and a half, behind a hedge of trees, over
the verdant tops of which appears a white edging of domes
and minarets. After about an hour’s journey the traveller
reaches this hedge, which is composed of very fine walnut
trees, and soon after, crossing some ill-cultivated gardens by
winding paths, arrives at the entrance of the city. Here he per¬
ceives a ruined wall, flanked with square towers, which ascends
the declivity to the right, and traces out the precincts of the
ancient city. 1 his wall, which is only ten or twelve feet in
height, admits a view of those void spaces and heaps of ruins
which are invariable characteristics of every Turkish city;
but what principally attracts attention is a large edifice on
the left, which, by its lofty walls and rich columns, is soon
recognized as one of those temples which antiquity has left
for our admiration. These ruins, which are among the most
beautiful and best preserved of any in Asia, merit a parti¬
cular description.
To form a just idea of them, the reader must imagine
himself descending from the interior of the town. After
crossing the rubbish and huts with which it is filled, the first
thing deserving of notice is a vacant space, which appears
to have been a square: there, in front, towards the west, is
a grand ruin, consisting of two pavilions ornamented with
pilasters, joined at their lower angle by a wall 160 feet in
cngt . I his front commands the open country from a sort
of terrace, on the edge of which are with difficulty distin¬
guished the bases of twelve columns, which formerly extended
from the one pavilion to the other, and formed a portico.
Ihe principal gate is obstructed by heaps of stones; but,
that obstacle surmounted, the traveller enters an empty
s^ace, which is a hexagonal court of 180 feet in diameter,
ims court is strewed with broken columns, mutilated capi-
a, and the remains of pilasters, entablatures, and cornices ;
and around it is a row of ruined edifices, which display orna¬
ments of the richest architecture. At the end of this court,
owar s the west, is an outlet, which formerly was a gate,
trough which is perceived a still more extensive range of
urns, o great magnificence. 1 o have a full view of these,
t is necessary to ascend a slope, at the top of which is the
ntmnce to a quadrangular court much more spacious than
the former, being 350 feet in width and 336 in length. The
is ist attracted to the end of this court, where are six
rmous and majestic columns nearly entire. Another object
mss interesting is a second range of columns to the ‘left,
BAALBEC.
339
which appear to have formed part of the peristyle of a temple. Baalbec,
ifut the edifices which inclose this court on either side claim ^v—
attention in the first instance. These form a sort of gallery
containing various chambers, seven of which may be reckon-
ed in each of the principal wings, namely, two in a semi¬
circle, and five in an oblong. The base of the apartments
still retains pediments of niches and tabernacles, the sup¬
porters of which have been destroyed. On the side of the
court they are open, while four columns on the one side and
six on the other have been totally destroyed. It is not easy
to conceive the use of these apartments; but this does not
lessen the admiration excited by the beauty of their pilasters
and the richness of the frieze of the entablature. Neither
is it possible to avoid remarking the singular effect which re¬
sults from the mixture of the garlands, the large foliage of
the capitals, and the sculpture of wild plants, with which
they are everywhere ornamented. In the middle of the court
is a little square esplanade, where anciently stood a pavilion
of which nothing now remains but the foundation. With
regard to the six columns above mentioned, it is impossible
to survey them without being struck with the boldness of their
elevation and the richness of their workmanship. Their shafts
are 21 feet 8 inches in circumference, and 58 in height; and
the total height, including the entablature, is 75 feet 10 inches.
Ihe sight of this superb ruin, thus solitary and desolate, is
exceedingly imposing; but a more attentive examination
discovers a series of foundations, marking an oblong of 268
feet in length and 146 in width, which probably formed the
peristyle of a grand temple, the primary purpose of this whole
structure. It presented to the great court, that is, to the
a !ron.t of, 1° columns, with 19 on each side; which,
with the six already mentioned, make in all 54. The ground
on which it stood is an oblong, on a level with the court, but
considerably narrower, so that there was only a terrace of
-7 feet wide round the colonnade ; while the esplanade thus
produced fronts the open country towards the W. by a
s oping wall of about 30 feet. In approaching the city this
descent becomes less steep, so that the foundation of the pa¬
vilion is on a level with the termination of the hill; whence
lt ,.s„ey,1t ent t,le who]e ground of the courts has been
artificmUy raised. Such seems to have been the former state
of this edifice; but the southern side of the grand temple
was afterwards blocked up in order to build a smaller one,
the penstyle and walls of which are still remaining. This
tempffi, situated somewhat lower than the other, presents a
sule of 13 columns by 8 in front, or 32 in all. These
are likewise of the Corinthian order: their shafts are 15
feet 8 inches in circumference, and 44 feet in height. The
building they surround is an oblong, the front of which,
turned towards the E., is out of the line of the left wino-
of the great court. To reach it the traveller must cross
trunks of columns, heaps of stone, and a ruinous wall, by
which it is now hid. After surmounting these obstacles,
he ailives at the gate, where he may survey the inclosure
which was once the habitation of a god ; but, instead of the
i° a, pr.0Strat® i,eoPle> and sacrifices offered
by a multitude of priests, the sky is seen through the open
roof, which lets in light enough to show a chaos of ruins
covered with dust and weeds. The walls, formerly enriched
w. h all the ornaments of the Corinthian order, now present
not ung but pediments of niches and tabernacles, of which
almost all the supporters have fallen to the ground. Between
the^e niches is a range of fluted pilasters, the capitals of
which support a broken entablature ; but what remains dis-
p ays a nch frieze of foliage resting on the heads of satyrs,
^ 0t ler,animals* 0ver this entablature was
the ancient roof which was 57 feet in width and 110 in
length. I he walls which supported it are 31 feet high, and
without a window. It is impossible to form any idea of the
ornaments of this root except from the fragments lying on
the ground ; but it could scarcely have been richer in orna-
340
Baba
II
Baboon.
BAB
ment than the gallery of the peristyle. The principal re¬
maining parts contain tablets in the form of lozenges, on
which are represented Jupiter seated on his eagle, eta
caressed bv the swan, Diana with her bow and crescent, anti
several busts of emperors and empresses. It is unnecessary
to enter more minutely into the description of this astonisti-
ino- edifice. The lovers of the arts will find it described
with the greatest truth and accuracy in a work published at
London in 1757, under the title of Rums of Baalbec, by
Messrs Wood and Dawkins, as well as in the more recent
works of Volney, Burckhardt, Richardson, Addison, Lord
Lindsay, and Dr Wilson.
The present Baalbec is a miserable village, to the east of
the ruins, consisting of a few mud-built houses, with a popu¬
lation not exceeding 2000. c \
BABA, Cape, the ancient Lectum, on the coast of
tolia, a promontory between Mytelene and fenedos. It is
bold and rocky, and is in Lat. 39. 30. N. Long. -6. .
BABATAG, or Babadag, a city in the government of
Bulgaria and sanjak of Silistria, in Turkey in Europe. It
stands on the lake or estuary Rasein, which communicates
with the Black Sea, and is surrounded by mountains covered
with woods. Pop. 10,000, amongst whom are many Jews
and Greeks. It used to be the winter headquarters of the
Turkish army during their wars with Russia. Long. 28.
32. E. Lat. 44.55. N. , u
BABEL, a city and tower attempted to be built by the
human race soon after the Flood, and remarkable for the
miraculous frustration of the attempt by the confusion of
languages (Gen. xi. 1-9.) Most authors are of opinion
that the ancient Babel occupied the exact site of the future
Babylon. The expression “reach unto heaven,” as our trans¬
lation of the Hebrew text has rendered it, may be well trans¬
lated represent the heavens; hence some suppose that the
top of this tower was not meant to reach up to heaven, but
to be consecrated to the heavens, that is, to the worship of
the sun, moon, and stars, of the fire, air, &c., and other natural
powers, as deities. Less speculative persons think that the
tower was erected as a fortress for the establishment of
tyrannical power. It is generally supposed to be the same
with the tower of Belus, described in the article Babylon.
BABELMANDEB (i.e. the gate of tears, so called from
the dangers attending its navigation, or, according to an
Arabic legend, from the numbers who were drowned by the
earthquake which separated the coasts of Asia and Africa)
is the strait lying between the coasts of Arabia and Abyssi¬
nia, and connecting the Red Sea with the Indian Ocean. 1 e
distance across, from a projecting cape on the Arabian shore
to the opposite coast of Africa, is about 20 miles. 1 he in-
termediate space contains several small islands, Penm, t o
largest, being in Lat. 12. 35. 30. N. Long. 43.28. E. Penm
divides tbe strait into two channels, of which the eastern,
though the smaller, is the most frequented. It is from 1 ¥ to
4 miles in breadth, with a depth of from 7 to 14 fathoms t
the western channel has a depth of about 180 fathoms.
BABER, Zehir-Ed-din Mohammed, the founder of the
Indian Mogul or Tatar empire, was the fifth in descent
from Timur. After two unsuccessful attempts, he suc¬
ceeded in 1519 in subjugating Hindustan ; and extended
his conquests from the Indus to the Ganges, subduing Af¬
ghanistan, the Punjaub, and Delhi. See Hindustan. (Me¬
moirs of the Emperor Baber, translated by Leyden and
Erskine, 1826.)
BABINGTON, Geryase, bishop of vVorcester, was
born, according to Fuller, in Nottinghamshire ; but in what
year is uncertain. He died in 1610. All the historians who
have mentioned this prelate give him the character of a
learned and pious man. His works, consisting of Notes upon
the Pentateuch, an Exposition of the Creed, &c., were printed
both in folio and quarto in 1615, and again in folio m 1637.
BABOON. See Mammalia, Index.
BAB
BABRIUS, Babrias, or Gabrias, an ancient Greek Babrius.
fabulist, whose metrical tales are quoted by Suidas and II
others. Fragments only of them were known until lately, v abylon';
when M. Mino'ide Mynas discovered a MS. copy in the con-
vent of St Lawrence on Mount Athos, and transcribed 123
of them, which were first published at Paris in 1844, by Bois-
sonade, with a Latin translation. Babrius probably flourished
about the Augustan era. His fables have since been edited
by Lachmann, Berol. 1845 ; by Orelli and Baiter, Turic.
1845 ; and by G. C. Lewis, Lond. 1847-
BABYLON, the metropolis of the Babylonio-Chaldaean
empire, was situated in a wide plain on both sides of the
River Euphrates, which divided it into two nearly equal
parts. Ancient writers are not agreed as to who was the
founder of this city,—some ascribing it to Semiramis, and
others ro Belus. It is generally supposed to have been the
same with, or at least to have occupied the site of, the
Babel of Nimrod’s kingdom. The tower of Belus in like
manner is supposed to have been the same with that of
Babel; and indeed Babel is the only name given in the He¬
brew or Chaldee of the Bible to this city. But by whom¬
soever it was founded, it was only after the fall of the As¬
syrian empire that it became the capital of the Eastern
world; and Nebuchadnezzar was the person to whom it
was chiefly indebted for those immense structures that made
it one of the wonders of antiquity.
Of the accounts given of this city by ancient authors, Ancient
that of Herodotus is undoubtedly the one upon which the ^torm
greatest reliance can be placed. Not only is he the earliest
profane writer upon this subject, but he is the only ancient
historian that we know to have been there in person, and
that, too, while it was yet in a state of tolerable preserva¬
tion ; and although he may be liable to the imputation of
occasionally retailing marvellous stories, yet in no one in¬
stance, where he speaks from his own observation, can he
be accused either of partiality or invention. Diodorus is
by no means so well entitled to credit as Herodotus ; tor,
never having been there in person, his account is taken from
other writers, and chiefly from Ctesias, an author of no
great authority. We have no proof that either Arrian or
Strabo visited Babylon, though the treatise of the former
is valuable from his information being derived from the
notes of Aristobulus, and Ptolemy the son of Lagus, who
were there with Alexander. Quintus Curtms also formed
his account upon the reports of the followers of Alexander,
many of whom kept journals of the expedition. .
According to Herodotus, Babylon was built in the form Descrip:
of a square—each side of which was 120 stadia in length ; tion of city,
its circumference being therefore 480 stadia, or 55 of our
miles. It was surrounded by a wall 87 feet thick, an
350 feet high, outside of which was a vast trench filled with
water, and proportioned in depth and width to the elevation
of the wall. The earth taken out of the trench was made
into bricks for the construction of the wall. These were
baked in furnaces, and afterwards cemented by heated bitu¬
men, and layers of reeds were interposed for thirty courses
of bricks. Upon the extreme margins of the wall a num¬
ber of buildings of one story were erected opposite each
other, with sufficient space between them for a chariot drawn
bv four horses to turn round. Another wall encircled the
city within this one, not much weaker, but more narrow.
The city was divided into two parts by the River Euphrates,
along each bank of which extended an embankment of ur-
nace-dried bricks. There were in all 100 gates m the wa .
that is 25 on each of the four sides, all of brass, the pos ^
and lintels being of the same metal. The city, whic con
tained several houses of three or four stories, was 111
sected by streets running from each of the gates, ant cr
mg each other at right angles. Opposite the ends of th
streets leading to the river were openings in the em ^
ments with brazen gates, and steps leading o
BABYLON.
Tower of
Belus.
Palaces.
Babylon, river; and these gates were open by day but shut by night.
It was by means of these gates, which had been left open,
that Cyrus obtained access into the city.
In each of the two divisions of the city, in a conspicuous
situation, was a walled inclosure, in the one of which was
the palace, and in the other the temple of Belus. The lat¬
ter inclosure was a square of two stadia, in the middle of
which stood a solid tower of a stadium both in length and
bieadth. Upon this tower stood another tower, and an¬
other upon that, to the number of eight. The ascent to
them was made in a circular form, leading round all the
towers on the outside, with resting-places in the middle of
the ascent. This temple, according to Strabo, was also a
stadium in height; but this is not mentioned by Herodotus.
Here was a large golden image of the god, and near it a
golden table, the pedestal and pediment being of the same
metal. These were said by the Chaldseans to have been
made out of 800 talents of gold. There was also in the
temple a golden statue of 12 cubits—“ but this,” says Hero¬
dotus, I did not see, and many other statues and sacred
vessels. This tower stood till the time of Xerxes ; who, on
his ieturn fiom his Grecian expedition, having first plun¬
dered it of its immense wealth, laid it in ruins. Alexander,
on his retuin to Babylon from his Indian expedition, pro¬
posed to rebuild it, and accordingly set 10,000 men to clear
away the rubbish ; but the wmrk proved too herculean for
such means, and his death happening soon after, put a stop
to all further proceedings. 1
The palace of Nebuchadnezzar was eight miles in circum¬
ference, and splendidly decorated with statues of men and
animals. On the opposite side of the river, according to
Diodorus, stood the old palace of the kings of Babylon; but
it was much inferior in size to the new one, being only about
four miles in circumference. The two palaces were con¬
nected by means of a bridge of great beauty thrown across
the river, as well as by a subterraneous passage.
Nothing, however, at Babylon, was more wonderful than
the hanging gardens which Nebuchadnezzar constructed
in compliance with a wish of his queen Amytis, to possess
elevated groves such as she had enjoyed on the hills around
her native Ecbatana. For this purpose an artificial moun¬
tain was reared, in the form of a square, of four plethra or
400 feet on each side, with terraces rising one above an¬
other to a height overtopping the walls of the city; the
ascent from terrace to terrace being by steps ten feet wide.
The terraces were reared to their various stages on ranges
of regular piers, which, forming a kind of vaulting, rose' in
succession, one over the other, to the required height of
each terrace, the whole being bound together by a wall 22
feet thick. I he floor of each terrace or garden was formed
in the following manner: on the tops of the piers was first
laid a pavement of flat stones, 16 feet in length and 4 in
breadth, over wdnch was a layer of reeds, mixed with a great
quantity of bitumen ; and this, again, was covered with two
courses of bricks closely cemented together with plaster;
while over all these were placed thick sheets of lead, on
which was laid the earth or mould of the garden. This
floorage was designed to retain the moisture of the mould ;
and in order to provide a sufficient depth for the largest trees
to take firm root, immense hollow piers were built and filled
with earth. Upon the uppermost of these terraces was a
arge i eservoir, supplied with water from the river by means
n an engine ; and from this reservoir the terraces were
irrigated, as occasion required.
Canals were cut out on the east side of the river, above
the town, to prevent any inconvenience from its swellings,
by conveying the superabundant waters into the Tigris.
1 he pr incipal of these was the Naher Malcha,or R oyal Canal.
A lake was dug to the west of the city to receive the waters
f .t, l*r nver while the embankments on each side of it were
building. This lake is said to have been 160 miles in cir-
341
Hanging
gardens.
anals.
cuit, and 35 feet in depth. After the completion of the Babylon
embankments, the lake and the canal which led to it were v 
preserved, having been found very useful as a reservoir, Lake
from which, by means of sluices, the water was let out on
certain occasions, for the irrigation of the land.
Such is the description given by ancient historians of this Extent,
city, which must have been much larger than we can form
an idea of by comparison with the largest modern cities.
Much doubt has been cast upon the statements of Hero¬
dotus as to the immense size of this city; but even taking
the account of Diodorus, who ascribes to it the least extent
of any of the ancient authors, it had a circuit of 41 of our
miles, while Herodotus makes it 55 miles. IMoreover, if
we confine the city to the limits assigned by Diodorus’ it
will not include all the existing remains; whereas the limits
assigned by Herodotus include all those venerable ruins in
the vicinity of Hillah, that still astonish us by their stupen¬
dous dimensions. The accuracy and truthfulness of Hero¬
dotus whenever he speaks, as in this instance, from his own
observations, entitle him to greater credit than Diodorus,
who had his account only at second-hand. Nor, when we
consider the vast pyramids of Egypt, or the wall of China,
is there any reason to doubt the ability of Nebuchadnezzar
or others to raise these immense walls and structures with
their tens of thousands of captives. Authors have attempted
to i educe the extent of the city as given by Herodotus, by
questioning the length of the stadium used by him. Ukert,
however, has satisfactorily shown that the Greeks had not dif¬
ferent standards of measurement, but always used the Olym¬
pic stadium. The differences between the distances of places
as given by the ancients, compared with their modern mea¬
surements, are accounted for by these distances not being
measured, but computed by the number of stadia that a good
traveller could perform in a day, which would vary con¬
siderably according to circumstances. It seems most pro-
bable, however, that in this instance Herodotus converted
the Babylonian measurements into Grecian stadia. (See
Smith s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities—Art.
Mensural)
We cannot, however, suppose that the population of Baby- pon„lfl
Ion bore any proportion to its size, or that in this respect ittion.
resembled our densely peopled modern towns. It is gene¬
rally supposed that it at no period contained more than two
millions of inhabitants. It indeed rather resembled an in¬
closed district, where every house was a villa, than a closely
built town. The statement of Herodotus that some of the
houses were three or four stories high, clearly indicates that
they were not generally of that height; and probably most of
t lem had only one story. “ Quintus Curtius says positively
that there was pasture and arable land in the inclosure, suffi¬
cient to support the whole of the population during a lono-
siege; and Xenophon reports, that when Cyrus took Babylon
(which event happened at night), the inhabitants of the op¬
posite quarter of the town were not aware of it till the third
pai t of the day, i. e. three hours after sunrise; which was
very possibly owing to the great distance of one cluster of
houses from another, since, had they been connected with
each other in regular streets, the noise and confusion would,
I think, have spread the information of the event with much
greater rapidity.”—(Rich.)
I he destruction of Babylon has generally been referred
to the migration of its inhabitants to Seleucia, about 300
years before Christ. How long it survived the establishment
of that colony does not appear; all we know is, that, in the
time of Diodorus, the greater part of its area was ploughed
up ; and bt Jerome in the fourth century describes it as a
hunting park of the Parthian kings.
1 here can be little doubt that the ruins in the vicinity ofgite.
Hillah, a small town on the banks of the Euphrates, about
forty-eight miles S. of Baghdad, are those of the ancient
Babylon. 1^, The whole district has been known from the
BABYLON.
Modern
travellers.
Rich’s ac¬
count of
the ruins.
Amran.
Kasr.
most ancient times by the name of El-aredh Babel, i. e. the
Land of Babel. 2d, Its position on the Euphrates, and its
distance from the bituminous fountains of Is or Hit, as given
by Herodotus and from Seleucia, as given by Strabo. 3d,
The character and extent of these ruins. It these be not
the ruins of the ancient Babylon, there are no remains else¬
where in Mesopotamia to correspond with the vast edifices
of that great city.
The traveller who has devoted most time and patience to
the illustration of Babylon and its ruins is Mr Rich, who,
during the many years that he resided at Baghdad as Bi itish
resident, had great facilities and opportunities for the task
he undertook. Among the travellers who visited these ruins
before his time was Pietro della Valle, who was there in
1616, and has left a fuller account of them than any pre¬
vious traveller. In 1657 a Carmelite monk, named Vin¬
cenzo Maria di S. Caterina di Sienna, sailed up the Eu¬
phrates from Bassorah ; but his account of the various places
which he passed is so mixed up with geographical errors as
to be almost unintelligible. A few years later, another
Roman Catholic missionary, Pere Emanuel de S. Albert,
visited and described the ruins, with much greater minute-
ness and accuracy than his predecessor. Niebuhr visited
them in 1765, and mentions that the place was still called
Ard-Babel, and that on both sides of the Euphrates were
mounds or little hills full of bricks. M. Beauchamp, who
resided for some years at Baghdad as the popes vicai-
general, had frequent opportunities of visiting and examining
the ruins. He drew up, on the spot, a memoir, which was
read before the Academic des Belles Lettres, and printed
in their journal for December 1790.
According to Rich, the ruins of Babylon, on the eastern
side of the Euphrates, may be said to commence at Mo-
hawil; the whole country between that and Jumjuma, two
miles from Hillah, exhibiting at intervals traces of building,
in which are discoverable burnt and unburnt bricks, and
bitumen. Three mounds, in particular, attract attention
from their magnitude, Amran, Kasr, and Mujelibe.
In proceeding northwards from Hillah, and after passing
some smaller mounds, he came to a vast mass 1100 yards
in length, and 800 in its greatest breadth, whilst its most
elevated part rose 50 or 60 feet above the level of the plain.
Just below the highest part of it is a small dome, in an
oblong inclosure, said to contain the body of a son of Ali,
named Amran, together with seven of his companions, all
slain at the battle of Hillah. This, however, is one of
those frauds not uncommon with the natives, Ali having had
no such son. Mr Rich distinguishes this mound by the
name of Amran.
North of Amran is a valley of 550 yards in length, crossed
by lines of ruins of little elevation, and to this succeeds the
second grand mass of ruins, which is nearly a square of 700
yards in length and breadth. This is the most interesting
part of the ruins of Babylon ; every vestige discoverable in
it showing it to have been composed of buildings far supe¬
rior to any other edifice, in the eastern quarter, of which
we have any ti*aces. It has, however, been excavated and
hollowed out in every direction by workmen, in extracting
the bricks, which are of the finest description. In these ex¬
cavations, walls of burnt brick, laid in lime mortar of a very
good quality, are seen ; and in addition to the substances
generally strewed on the surfaces of these mounds, are found
fragments of alabaster vessels, fine earthenware, marble,
and great quantities of varnished tiles, the glazing and
colouring of which are remarkably fresh. Here Mr Rich
found a lion of colossal dimensions standing on a pedestal of
a coarse gray granite, and of rude workmanship;—in the
mouth was a circular aperture into which a man might in¬
troduce his fist. A part of this ruin, called by the natives
the Kasr or palace, but which term Rich applies to the
whole mass, is so remarkably fresh in appearance, that it
was only after a minute inspection that he was satisfied as to Babylon,
its being a Babylonian remain. It consists of several walls
and piers (which face the cardinal points) eight feet in thick¬
ness, in some places ornamented with niches, and in others
strengthened by pilasters and buttresses, built of fine burnt
brick (still perfectly clean and sharp), laid in lime cement
of such tenacity that it is extremely difficult to extract them
whole. The tops of these walls are broken, and may have
been much higher; and some detached walls of the same
kind standing at different distances show what remains to
have been only a small part of the original fabric. A little
to the N.N.E. of this ruin is the famous tree called by the
Arabs Atheleh, and which they affirm to have flourished in
the ancient Babylon, having been preserved by God from
the destruction which overwhelmed that city, that it might
afford shelter to the Khalif AH after the battle of Hillah.
They assert that there is no other tree of the kind in the
world ; it is, however, believed to be a species of tamarisk.
Its trunk, which was once enormous, is now so worn away,
that nothing more than one side of it remains ; yet :.t bears
spreading and ever-green branches, which are peculiarly
beautiful, being adorned with long tress-like tendrils re¬
sembling heron-feathers growing from a central stem.
These slender and delicate sprays bending towards the
ground give the whole the appearance of a weeping willow,
while their gentle waving in the wind produces a low and
melancholy sound.
A mile to the N, of the Kasr, or fully five miles from Mujelibfi,
Hillah, and 950 yards from the river bank, is the mound
called by the Arabs Mujelibe, or overturned. Its shape is
oblong; its height irregular; and its sides face the cardinal
points. The northern side is 200 yards in length, the
southern 219, the eastern 182, and the western 136; and
the elevation of the S.E. or highest angle is 141 feet. The
western side, which is the least elevated, is the most inte¬
resting, on account of the appearance of building it presents.
Near its summit appears a low wall composed of unburnt
bricks, mixed up with chopped straw or reeds, and cemented
with clay-mortar of great thickness, having between each
layer of bricks a layer of reeds. On the N. side are also
some vestiges of a similar construction. The S.W. angle
is crowned by something like a turret or lantern; the
other angles are in a less perfect state, but may originally
have been ornamented in a similar manner. All the sides
are worn into furrows, which in some instances are of great
depth. The summit is covered with heaps of rubbish, in
which layers of broken burnt bricks cemented with mortar
have been found, and also entire bricks with inscriptions.
Scattered over the whole are fragments of pottery, brick,
bitumen, pebbles, vitrified brick or scoria, and even shells,
bits of glass, and mother-of-pearl. In the northern face,
near the summit, is a niche or recess high enough for a man
to stand upright in, at the back of which is a low aperture
leading to a small cavity, whence a passage branches off to
the right, sloping upwards in a westerly direction till it loses
itself in the rubbish. Being informed that in this place, about
four years previously, a human body had been found, swathed
in a wrapper partially covered with bitumen, and inclosed
in a coffin of mulberry wood, Rich was induced to excavate
here. He dug into a shaft or hollow pier 60 feet square, lined
with fine brick, laid in bitumen and filled with earth; in
this was found a brass spike, some earthen vessels, and a
beam of date-tree wood. After digging some way farther,
they came to a narrow passage nearly ten feet high, flat on
the top, and exhibiting both burnt and unburnt bricks; the
former with inscriptions on them, and the latter, as usual,
laid with a layer of reeds between each row, except in one
or two courses near the bottom, w here they were cemented
with bitumen. In a continuation of this passage to the
eastward, he discovered a wooden coffin containing a ske e-
ton in good preservation. Under the head of the coffin was
BABYLON.
Western
side.
Birs Nim-
roud.
Babylon, a round pebble ; attached to the coffin on the outside was
a brass bird, and inside an ornament of the same material,
which had apparently been suspended to some part of the
skeleton^ A little farther, the skeleton of a child was found.
About i0 yards from the foot of the Mujelibe, on the
northern and western sides, are traces of a low mound of
earth which may have formed an inclosure round the whole.
Mr Rich, after examining the eastern side of the Euphrates,
proceeded to take a survey of the remains on the western
side of that river. He found the whole bank to be a flat,
intersected by canals, the principal of which were the Tajia
01 Ali Pachas trench and the canal of Tahmasia. The only
vestiges were two small mounds of earth opposite the mass
of Amran, overgrown with grass, forming a right angle with
each other, and a little further on two similar ones. These
did not exceed 100 yards in extent, and the place was called
by the peasants Anana.
But although there are no ruins in the immediate vicinity
of tlie river, by far the most stupendous and surprising mass
of all the remains of Babylon is situated in this desert about
six miles to the S.W. of Hillah. It is called by the Arabs
Birs Nimroud, and by the Jews Nebuchadnezzar’s Prison.
It is a mound, of an oblong figure, the total circumference
of which is 762 yards. At the eastern side it is not more
than 50 or 60 feet high, and is cloven by a deep furrow ; but
at the western it rises in a conical form to the height of 198
feet: and has on its summit a solid pile of brick 37 feet
high by 28 in breadth, and diminishing in thickness to the
top. It is perforated by small square holes disposed in rhom¬
boids. I he bricks are of the finest description, with in¬
scriptions on them, and so well cemented, apparently with
lime mortar, that it is nearly impossible to extract one of them
entire, though the layers are so close together that it is diffi¬
cult to discern what substance is between them. The other
parts of the summit of this hill are occupied by immense
fragments of brick-work of no determinate figure, tumbled
together and converted into solid vitrified masses, as if they
had undergone the action of the fiercest fire or been blown
up with gunpowder. I he whole of this mound is channelled
by the weather, and strewed with the usual fragments, and
with pieces of black stone, sandstone, and marble. No reeds
were discernible in any part, a circumstance which Mr Rich
thinks may be an argument for the superior antiquity of
this ruin. At the foot of the mound, a step may be traced
scarcely elevated above the plain, exceeding in extent, by
several feet each way, the true or measured base ; and there
is a quadrangular inclosure surrounding the whole as at the
Mujelibe, but much more perfect and of greater dimensions.
At a short distance, and parallel with its eastern face, is a
mound not inferior to the Kasr in elevation, but much longer
than broad. There are numerous other mounds besides
those described, but the principal of them are beyond any
possible limits that can be ascribed to Babylon ; as the ruins
called by the natives Boursa, four leagues below Hillah, and
which Mr Rich conjectures to be the Borsippa of Strabo, and
the Barsita of Ptolemy. Such was the state of the ruins of this
ancient city when visited by Mr Rich : we shall now give a
s lort account of Mr Layard’s recent visit, and conclude with
an attempt to identify some of these remains with parts of
the ancient city.
The successes that attended the labours of Mr Eayard
among the ruins of Nineveh induced him to turn his atten¬
tion also to those of Babylon. He accordingly proceeded
t ere with a party of workmen; but after various excavations,
the discoveries were far less numerous and important than
e lad anticipated, “ nor did they tend to prove that there
were remains beneath the heaps of earth and rubbish which
would reward more extensive excavations.” This is to be
accounted for by the city having been built in the midst
o an alluvial country far removed from the hills, and with
no quairies of alabaster or limestone such as existed near
343
hayard’s
iccount.
Nineveh. The people were therefore content to use such Babylon,
building materials as were to be found on the spot, and made
bricks with the mud of their alluvial soil, while bitumen and
other substances from the vicinity furnished them with an
excellent cement; and the walls of their temples and palaces
were coated with mortar and plaster. The ornaments and
paintings on these would consequently not be so durable as
the sculptures on the slabs and stones of Nineveh.
During Mr Layard’s stay at Babylon, the troubled state MuielibS
of the country prevented him from making more than a
hurried visit to Birs Nimroud. In the mound of Mujelibe he
sought the subterranean passage which had been previously
opened and described by Mr Rich ; and on removing the
rubbish, he soon came to that part of the passage where Mr
Rich found the coffin of wood, containing a skeleton still well
preserved. “ The entrances to other galleries which had not
been explored, were still closed with large burnt bricks,
amongst which were a few square stones inscribed on one
edge with two lines of cuneiform characters, containing the
name and titles of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Chaldees, the
inscription usually found on Babylonian bricks. It was evi¬
dent that they had originally belonged to an edifice erected
by that monarch, and had been taken from its ruins to form
this covering to the vaults and tombs. Beneath this masonry
were found several entire coffins precisely similar to that dis¬
covered by Mr Rich. I hey still held skeletons more or less
entire, which fell to pieces as soon as exposed to the air. No
relic or ornaments had been buried with the bodies. The
wood of the coffins was in the last stage of decay, and could
only be taken out piecemeal.” “ The coffins discovered at
Babel (Mujelibe) are of a comparatively recent period, and
are not pure Babylonian. At the very earliest, they maybe
of the time of the Seleucidae, but I am inclined to think that
they are even of a still later date. It is evident that they
were buried after the destruction of the edifice covered by
the mound. Upon that great heap over the fallen palace or
temple, was probably raised one of those citadels which formed
the defences of a city built long after the destruction of the
Babylonian empire and its magnificent capital, and which re¬
sisted the arms of Demetrius Poliorcetes. Of this stronghold
the thick wall of sun-dried brick on the northern side is pro¬
bably the remains.”—(Layard.) The masonry of this wall
is not united by bituminous cement, but apparently by simple
mud, as in modern Arab buildings. Excavations and trenches
wcie made in other parts of this mound, but without any im¬
portant results.
Numerous relics were found similar to those that had al¬
ready been brought to this country by other travellers: among
these were arrow-heads in bronze and iron, small glass bottle^
some coloured or ornamented, and vases of earthenware of
various forms and sizes, sometimes glazed with a rich blue
co our. I hese are considered to belong to a period subse¬
quent to the fall of the empire ; the earliest probably about
the tune of the Greek occupation, and the latest about the
sixth or seventh century of the Christian era. Mr Layard
judging, therefore, that the remains of the ancient edifice, if
any still existed, were to be sought far beneath the surface,
opened tunnels at the foot of the mound, nearly on a level
with the plain. On the eastern, western, and southern sides,
they soon came to remains of solid masonry, evidently of the
ancient building. On the eastern side eight or ten piers and
seveial walls branching in various directions were uncovered,
but no plan could be traced, nor any remains of sculptured
stone or painted plaster discovered.
In the Kasr, the loose nature of the ruins prevented him Kasr
trom making any extensive excavations, and the only object
of interest discovered was a fragment of limestone, on which
were sculptured parts of two figures undoubtedly of gods,
with the name of one of them inscribed in Babylonian charac-
tcis* Excavations were made in several of the smaller
mounds, but without any important results.
344
Babylon.
Amran.
BABYLON.
Identifica¬
tion of the
ruins.
In the mound Amran, or Amzan ben Ali, no traces of
masonry were discovered, but some specimens of glass, and
several terracotta figures,lamps,and jarswere found. Among
these were five cups or bowls of earthenware, and fragments
of some others, covered on the inner surface with letters writ¬
ten in a kind of ink. The characters upon them are in
notunlike the Hebrew, and on some they resemble the Sa-
baean and Syriac. Similar relics have been found in other
ruins near Babylon. Mr Thomas Ellis, of the manuscript
department in the British Museum, was the first to decypher
these inscriptions. The subjects are amulets or charms
against evil spirits, diseases, and every kind of misfortune ,
one of them being a bill of divorce to the devil and other evil
spirits. The writers were evidently Jews, probably descend¬
ants of those who were carried captive by Nebuchadnezzar
into Babylon ; and they must have been written long prior to
any known existing manuscripts of the ancient Hebrew or
Chaldaean languages, as, except in one case, there are no di¬
visions between the words ; nor are there any vowel points.
—(Layard’s Nineveh and Babylon.)
The identification of the present ruins with parts of the
ancient city has been found to be a matter of considerable
difficulty. We are told that the city was built upon both
sides of the river, and that its principal buildings were the
tower or temple of Belus, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, and the
hanging gardens; and the principal existing ruins are the
mounds of Amran, Kasr, Mujelibe, and Birs Nimroud. The
principal question has been, whether the Birs Nimroud or
the Mujelibe represents the tower of Belus. Herodotus
states that the tower and palace stood on opposite sides
of the Euphrates ; and previous to the time of Rich it was
the received opinion that the latter had stood on the W.
and the former on the E. side of that river. This was Mr
Rich’s opinion on visiting the Birs Nimroud; and on examin¬
ing that ruin he could not help exclaiming, that “ had this
been on the other side of the river, and nearer the great mass
of ruins, no one could doubt of its being the remains of the
tower.” As to the side of the river on which the tower
stood, this is not expressly stated by any ancient author,
and it had only been inferred from an ambiguity in the ac¬
count of Diodorus. Notwithstanding the distance of the
Birs Nimroud from the other remains, it would have been
included within the city, if we consider as correct the ac¬
count of Herodotus, who, as has been already said, is the most
trustworthy of our ancient historians on this subject. If the
Birs Nimroud form no part of the ruins of Babylon, it is sur¬
prising that it is not noticed by any ancient author, in giving
an account of that city, which is scarcely credible, seeing that
it is a mass of ruins “ by far the most stupendous and surpris¬
ing” of any that are allowed to belong to that city. It has
been supposed, from Herodotus’ having used the term iv
fx.eato in his description of the tower and palace, that they must
each have been in the centre of their respective divisions.
Though this term may generally be translated “ in the
centre,” there is the highest authority for saying that, when
used as it is in this case, it is very frequently applied to an
object as lying in the way, or occupying a conspicuous posi¬
tion.—See Schneider's Greek Lexicon, by Passow.
Pietro della Valle was the first to assert that Mujelibe
was the ancient tower, and his statement was followed,
among others, by Major Rennell, author of the Geography
of Herodotus. The opinion given out by Mr Rich that the
Birs Nimroud might possibly represent the tower, called
forth an article from Major Rennell in the Archaeologia, in
vindication of his own account of Babylon in the Geo¬
graphy of Herodotus. This was ably answered by Mr
Rich in his Second Memoir of Babylon. Major Rennell
rejects the idea that the Birs Nimroud was the temple of
Belus, mainly on the ground that its distance was too great
from the river and the rest of the ruins, to have been in¬
cluded in the circuit of the ancient city. According to him,
the Mujelibe represents this temple, and considering this as Babylon,
certain, he proceeds to dispose of the other ruins in confer-
mity with that. To make good this hypothesis, he is ob¬
liged to have recourse to the supposition that the river ori¬
ginally ran through the present ruins. This is denied by
Mr Rich. “ I carefully examined,” says he, “ the whole of
the ground between Hillah and Mujelibe, with the view to
ascertain the possibility of a change ; but I was totally un¬
able to discover the smallest vestiges indicative of it. The
same examination was made by others during my stay, and
since that time with the same result.” This is also corro¬
borated by Mr Layard, who says“ After the most care¬
ful examination of the country, I could find no traces what¬
ever of its having at any time flowed much farther than it
now does to the east.”
But the assertion that the river never flowed much far¬
ther to the eastward than it does at present, involves the
question of what has become of the ruins on its western
side, as it is expressly stated that the city stood upon both
sides of the river. Niebuhr, who visited the spot in 1765,
states that there were then mounds or little hills which were
discovered to be full of bricks on both sides of the river j
and Mr Rich says that he found opposite the mass of Amran
two small mounds of earth overgrown with grass, and a little
farther on two similar ones. Sir R. K. Porter seems to
have subjected the plain on the western side of the Eu¬
phrates to a more minute examination, for the purpose of
finding, if possible, some traces of the second palace. About
50 yards N.W. of Anana, a small village on the western
bank of the river, 3 miles N.W. of Hillah, he found a con¬
siderable ridge of mounded earth 14 feet high, lunning
due N. for 300 yards, and then, forming a right angle, con¬
tinued on in that direction till it met the river. On the face
of this ridge terminating at the water-edge, courses of sun-
dried bricks are still distinctly visible ; though the level of
this land is now so equal with that of the river, that no traces
are visible of any corresponding embankment on the other
side. Some trifling mounds were observed a little to the
S. of the village. After riding onward for about a mile to
the S.W. in the direction of the Birs Nimroud, he found
the vegetation gradually disappear, and the ground become
perfectly sterile,' presenting evident signs of its having been
once covered with buildings. 1 hese indications increased
at every step for more than a mile, when he came to another
and more conspicuous range of mounds, the most consider¬
able of which was about 35 feet high. From the top of this
he observed that the face of the country, both to the N. and
S., for more than a mile either way, bore the same hillocky
appearance ; besides being thickly scattered with those frag¬
ments of past habitations which in all Babylonian ruins have
so particularly marked their character. “ Here,” says Sir
R. K. Porter, “ I think it is possible I may have found the
site of the old or lesser palace ; which, probably, was the
temporary abode of Alexander during his inspection of his
workmen, while clearing away the ruins of its fallen super¬
structures from the base of the temple of Belus. In the
midst of the labour, and after having been engaged nearly two
months in that attempt, we are told that he died ; but pre¬
vious to the event, he ordered himself to be removed from his
residence on one side of the river to his palace on the other,
and the eastern having been the more stately of the two,
we can hardly entertain a doubt of its having also been the
conqueror’s more stationary habitation. Hence, there seems
good reason to conclude, that it was on some spot amongst the
ruins of the Kasr that the Macedonian hero breathed his
last.” Beyond this mass of mounds which, for perspicuity,
he designates the Lesser Palace, and in the same direction
(S.W.), he crossed a space of high grass and rank weeds for
nearly a mile. He then found the plain again and and un¬
dulated with multitudes of mounds, but of inferior elevation
to those last described; these, too, were attended by tne
bab
Babylon, usual exterior fragments of ruins, spreading in a circular form
for rather more than half a mile in width; then followed
more than a mile of cultivated land to a canal which he
crossed, and half a mile more brought him to an extensive
wood of date trees, in the bosom of which stands the vil¬
lage of Tahmasia. P or two miles the cultivation continued,
and at the end of this a vast tract opened before him, co¬
vered with every minor vestige of former buildings, which
appearances continued all the way to the eastern verge of
the boundary around Birs Nimroud, a distance of nearly
three-quarters of a mile. The remains seemed to him not
only to establish the fact that the western plain of the Eu¬
phrates sustained its portion of the city of Babylon as well
as the eastern bank, but that Birs Nimroud, otherwise the
temple of Belus, did actually stand in one division of the city.
Mr Layard thinks that the fact of there being few re¬
mains on the western side may be accounted for from the
Euphrates having a tendency to change its course in that
direction, and to lose itself in the marshes to the W. of its
actual bed. The low country on that side was subject to
continual inundations from the earliest period ; and Arrian
states that the western quarter of the city was surrounded
and defended by enormous marshes, which prevented all
access to it. “ Supposing, therefore, the river from different
causes to have advanced and receded during many centuries,
between the Hindiyah marshes and its present channel, it
will easily be understood how the ruins which may once
have stood on the western bank have gradually been washed
away, and how the existing flat alluvial plain has taken
their place.”—{Layard?)
Captain Mignan, who has published the result of a most
careful and meritorious survey of these ruins, adopts the
opinion of Major Rennell, and asserts that the Birs Nim¬
roud formed no part of the ancient Babylon. His descrip¬
tion of the ruins, however, seem to tell rather against than
«)r his opinion. The comparative claims of the two struc¬
tures cannot bear comparison. The Mujelibe is an irregular
oblong mass, little more than half the height of its rival, and
composed almost entirely of the inferior material of sun-
ried bricks. The Birs Nimroud, on the contrary, is much
more elevated than any of the other remains, is built of the
finest materials, and is of a form such as the tower is de¬
scribed to have been, having been evidently built in suc¬
cessive receding stages. Mr Buckingham is of opinion that
the traces of four stages are clearly discernible. The opinion
that this structure formed a part of the ancient city is
strengthened by the observations of Captain Mignan, that
instead of standing solitary, as had generally been supposed,
it is surrounded by extensive ranges of ruins, bearing in
t eir shattered fragments every mark of ancient importance.
If any building,” says Mr Rich, “may be supposed to
liave left considerable traces, it is certainly the Pyramid or
lower of Belus, which, by its form, dimensions, and the
so i itj, oi its construction, was well calculated to resist the
ravages of time; and if human force had not been em-
p oyed, would, in all probability, have remained to the pre¬
sent day in nearly as perfect a state as the Pyramids of
I am of opinion,” he continues, “ that this ruin is
o a nature to fix of itself the locality of Babylon, even to
'f e,exc . ^on °f those on the eastern side of the river ; and
1 t e ancients had actually assigned a position to the tower
iireconcilable with the Birs, it would be more reasonable
to suppose that some error had crept into their accounts
wan to reject this most remarkable of all the ruins.”
t is stated by ancient writers in the most positive and
circumstantial manner, that the palace, with its grand ap-
I n age of hanging gardens, was situate upon or very near
wat nv1er’ }v*lence5 indeed, the gardens were artificially
• 61 e(,; ^owj modern Babylon presents near the river no
mrlM ^magnitude except those of the Amran, Kasr,
ujehbe. It seems, therefore, unquestionable that
VOL. iv.
bab
345
some °f these must be the remains of those immense struc-^y1™
tures. In the Kasr we have remains of a pile, sumptuous
in its material, of the finest furnace-baked brick, and mag¬
nificent for its extent, occupying a central position amonv
the conspicuous ruins on the eastern bank, and inclosed on
three sides by immense embankments answering to the
description left us by Herodotus of the strong interior wall
which surrounded the palace”—(Dr Traill in Edin. Phil
Journal, vol. xix.) The Mujelibe is by Mr Rich supposed
to be the hanging gardens, and this is the generally received
opinion, although some would give the preference to Amran
from its lying nearer the river. The opinion of Mr Rich
seems to be strengthened by the piers discovered here by Mr
Layard, and from no traces of masonry having as yet been
found in the mound of Amran. The Amran and the em¬
bankment may probably have formed part of the defences of
the city towards the river. It has been supposed that Dio¬
dorus is incorrect in stating that there were two palace*
especially as he is not supported by Herodotus or any
other ancient authority; and as he wrote only from hear¬
say, that he might have been deceived by varying accounts
of one palace, and thus led to form the idea that there were
two. I he striking similarity in his two descriptions as to
situation, plan, and ornament, somewhat favours this con¬
jecture. It is possible, however, that Sir R. K. Porter may
be right in his supposition that he had found the site of the
Lesser Palace. It thus seems extremely probable that the
palace and the hanging gardens were situated on the eastern
side of the Euphrates, and the tower of Belus on the western;
that the Birs Nimroud was included within the walls of the
ancient city, and is the remains of the tower of Belus, and that
the Kasr represents the palace; while the Mujelibe not im-
probaWy corresponds to the hanging gardens.-See Rich’s
Lwstand Second Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon, 1815
and ISiS; Major Rennell, On the Topography of Ancient
Babylon, m Archaologia, vcl. xviii.; Sir R. K. Porter’s
Pavels, London, 1822; “Remains of Babylon,” in Edin.
AWw, vol. xlym.Mignan’s Travels in Chaldcea, Lond.
I8-.9 ; Buckingham s Travels in Mesopotamia; Ainsworth’s
Researches in Babylonia, Lond. 1838 ; Keppell’s Personal
Narrative; Dr I rail! On Ruins of Babylon, in Edin. Phil.
Journal, vol. xix.; Nineveh and Persepolis, byVaux, Lond.
8^°a }f^r^t^l.nevehfndBabylon, London, 1853. (d.k.)
jABYLONIA, or ChaleLea, a country and kingdom
o Asia, the capital of which was Babylon. The countrv
was bounded on the N. by the desert part of Mesopotamia!
on the E- by the Tigris, on the S. by the Persian Gulf, and
on the W. by the Arabian desert. The confines of the
kingdom, however, were at times much more extensive.
Passing over the early portion of Babylonian history,
which is obscure and doubtful, we shall limit ourselves to a
shoit acount of the events which terminated in the subver¬
sion of the kingdom.
A war which had begun between the Medes, Persians, and
Babylonians, in the reign of Neriglissar, the father of Na-
bonadius, had been carried on with very bad fortune on the
side of the Babylonians. Cyrus, who commanded the Me-
dian and Persian army, having subdued the several nations
inhabiting the great continent from the /Egean Sea to the
Euphrates, bent his march towards Babylon. Nabonadius,
icaring o ns march, immediately advanced against him
twiner army' !Vhe engagemenf which ensued, the Ba-
y lans weie defeated; and the king, retreating to his
metropolis was blocked up and closely besieged by Cyrus.
le reduction of this city was no easy enterprise. The walls
were of a prodigious height, the number of men employed
to defend them was great, and the place was stored with all
of Pr°vif?ns twenty years. Cyrus, despairing of
being able to take such a city by storm, caused a line of cir-
cumvallation to be drawn quite round it, with a large and
deep ditch; reckoning that if all communication with the
2 x
346
BABYLONIA.
Babylonia, country were cut off, the besieged would be obliged to sur-
render through famine. That his troops might not be too
much fatigued, he divided his army into twelve bodies, ap¬
pointing each body its month to guard the trenches ; while
the besieged, trusting to their high walls and magazines,
insulted him from the ramparts, and ridiculed all his prepa¬
rations as so much unprofitable labour. .
After Cyrus had spent two whole years before Babylon,
without making any progress in the siege, he at last thought
of the following stratagem, which put him in possession o
it. He was informed that a great annual solemnity was to
be held at Babylon, and that the inhabitants on that occa¬
sion were accustomed to spend the whole night in drinking
and debauchery. This he therefore thought a proper time
for surprising them; and accordingly sent a strong de¬
tachment to the head of the canal leading to the large lake,
with orders, at a certain time, to break down the great
bank which was between the lake and canal, and to turn t le
whole current into the lake. At the same time he stationed
one body of troops at the place where the river entered the
city, and another where it came out; ordering them to march
in by the bed of the river as soon as they should find it
fordable. Towards the evening he opened the head ot the
trenches on both sides of the river above the city, that the
water might discharge itself into them; by which means,
and the breaking down of the great dam, the river was soon
drained. The troops then entered the channel, the one body
commanded by Gobryas, the other by Gadates ; and find¬
ing the gates all left open in consequence of the disorders
of that riotous night, they penetrated into the very heart of
the city without opposition, and meeting, according to agi ce¬
ment, at the palace, they surprised the guards and cut them
to pieces. Those who were in the palace opened the gates
to know the cause of this confusion, when the Persians
rushed in, took the palace, and killed the king, who came
out to meet them sword in hand. Thus an end was Puf to
the Babylonian empire; and Cyrus took possession of Ba¬
bylon for one called in Scripture Darius the Mede, most
probably Cyaxares II., uncle to Cyrus. From this time
Babylonia never formed a distinct kingdom, but nas a ways
followed the fortune of those great conquerors who at differ¬
ent times have appeared in Asia. It is now subject to the
Turks, under the name of Irak Arabi. ... ,
Of the country, manners, customs, and institutions of tfie
Babylonians, a good account, chiefly gathered from Herodo¬
tus, has been given by M. Sabbathier in his Manners, Cus¬
toms, and Usages of Ancient Nations (Stockdale’s English
translation, 2 vols. 8vo. 1775).
“ As all the nations under the dominion of Cyrus, besicie
the ordinary tributes, were obliged to maintain him and his
army, the monarch and his troops were supported by all Asia.
The country of Babylon alone was obliged to maintain him
four months of the year ; its fertility, therefore, yielded a third
of the produce of Asia. The government of this country, which
the Persians termed satrapy, was richer and more extensive
than any of the rest. It maintained for the king, besides the
war-horses, a stud of 800 stallions and 16,000 mares, bo
great a number of Indian dogs were likewise bred in this pro¬
vince for the king, that four of its cities kept those animals ;
and in return, they were exempted from all taxes and tributes.
“ It rained very seldom in this country, according to Hero¬
dotus. The earth was watered by the river, which was here
diffused by human industry, as the Nile is over Egypt by na¬
ture : for all the country of Babylon was divided by canals,
the greatest of which was navigable, and flowed from S. to N.,
from the Euphrates to the Tigris. In short, it was one of the
finest countries for corn in the world; but for producing trees,
the fig-tree, the vine, and the olive, it was not famous. It was
so luxuriant in grain, that it commonly yielded a hundred times
more than what was sown ; and in good years it yielded three
hundred times more than it received. The leaves of its wheat
and barley were four inches broad. ‘ Though I know,’ says
Herodotus, ‘ that the millet and the sesame of that country
grow to the size of trees, I will not describe them particularly, Babylonia,
lest those who have not been in Babylonia should think my ac- v ^ J
count fabulous.’
“ They had no oil but what they made from Indian com.
The country abounded with palm-trees, which grew spontane¬
ously ; and most of them bore fruit, of which the inhabitants
made ’bread, wine, and honey. They cultivated these trees
and their fig-trees in the same manner. Some of them, as of
other trees, the Greeks called male ones. They tied the fruit
of the male to the trees which bore dates; that the musquitto,
leaving the male, might cause the date to ripen, by penetrat¬
ing it; for without that assistance it did not come to maturity.
Musquittos bred in the male palms as in the wild fig-trees.
“ But we must not here omit to give an account of the pecu¬
liar and surprising construction of their boats of skins, in w hich
they sailed along the river to Babylon. These boats were in¬
vented by the Armenians, whose country lay north from Ba¬
bylonia. They made them with poles of willow, which they
bent, and covered with skins; the bare side of the skins they
put outwards ; and they made them so tight that they resembled
boards. The boats had neither prow nor stern, but were of a
round form like a buckler. They put straw on the bottom.
Two men, each with an oar, rowed them down the river, laden
with different wares, but chiefly with palm wine. Of these
boats some were very large and some very small: the largest
carried the weight of 500 talents. There was room for an ass
in one of their small boats ; they put many into a large one.
When they had unloaded, after their arrival at Babylon, they
sold the poles of their boats and the straw, and loading their
asses with the skins, returned to Armenia,; for they could not
sail up the river, its current was so rapid. For this reason
they made their boats of skins instead of wood ; and on their
return to Armenia with their asses, they applied the skins to
their former use.
“ As to their dress, they wore a linen shirt, which came down
to their feet. Over it they wore a woollen robe ; their outer
garment was a white vest. Their shoes resembled those of
the Thebans. They let their hair grow. ■ On their heads they
wore a turban. They rubbed their bodies all over with fra¬
grant liquors. Each man had a ring on his finger, and an ele¬
gant cane in his hand, with an apple at the top, or a rose, a
lily, or an eagle, or some other figure ; for they were not suf¬
fered to use canes without devices. , .
“ With regard to their policy, Herodotus thinks that tnerr
best law was one which the Heneti, an Illyrian people, like¬
wise observed in every town and village. When the girls
were marriageable, they were ordered to meet m a certain
place, where the young men likewise assembled. 1 hey were
then sold by the public crier: but he first sold the most beau¬
tiful one. When he had sold her at an immense price, he put
up others to sale, according to their degrees of beauty. Ihe
rich Babylonians were emulous to carry off the finest women,
who were sold to the highest bidders. But as the young men
who were poor could not aspire to have fine women, they were
content to take the ugliest with the money which was given
them ; for when the crier had sold the handsomest he ordered
the ugliest of all the women to be brought, and asked “ any
one was willing to take her with a small sum of money, inus
she became the wife of him who was most easily satisfied; an
thus the finest women were sold, and from the money wdicn
they brought, small fortunes were given to the ugliest, and to
those who had any bodily infirmity. A father could not marry
his daughter as he pleased; nor was he who bought her al¬
lowed to take her home, without giving security that he would
marry her. But, after the sale, if the parties were not agree¬
able to each other, the law enjoined that the purchase-money
should be restored. The inhabitants of any of their ^
were permitted to marry wives at these auctions, bucn w
the early customs of the Babylonians.
“ But they afterwards made a law, which prohibited tne in
habitants of different towns from intermarrying, and by wfucn
husbands were punished for treating their wives ill.
they had become poor by the ruin of their metropolis, fathers
used to prostitute their daughters for gam. There was a se -
sible custom among the Babylonians, worthy to1+b+e,
They brought their"sick into the forum, to consu t those who
passed on their diseases ; for they had no physici •
asked those who approached the sick, if they had e\
Baby¬
lonian
Baccha¬
nalia.
BAG
same distemper; if they knew any one who had had it, and
how he was cured. Hence, in this country, every one who saw
) a sick person was obliged to go to him and inquire into his
distemper.
“ They embalmed their dead with honey, and their mourning
was like that of the Egyptians.
“ There were three Babylonian tribes who lived only upon
fish, and who prepared them in the following manner: they
dried them in the sun, and then beat them in a mortar to a
kind of flour, which, after they had sifted it through linen, they
baked into rolls.
“ The Babylonians at first worshipped only the sun and the
moon ; but they soon multiplied their divinities. They deified
Baal, Bel, or Belus, one of their kings, and Merodach-Baladan,
They also worshipped Venus under the name oi Mylitta. She
and Belus were the principal deities of the Babylonians. They
counted their day from sunrise to sunrise. They solemnized
five days of the year with great magnificence, and almost the
same ceremonies with which the Romans celebrated their
Saturnalia.
“ The Babylonians were very much addicted to judicial as¬
trology. Their priests, who openly professed that art, were
obliged to commit to writing all the events of the lives of their
illustrious men; and on a fancied connection between those
events and the motions of the heavenly bodies the principles
of their art were founded. They pretended that some of their
books, in which their historical transactions and revolutions
were accurately compared with the courses of the stars, were
thousands of years old. This assertion of their judicial astro¬
logers we may reasonably dispute ; but that their astronomers
had made a long series of observations is incontestably true.
It is certain that some of these were extant in the days of
Aristotle, and that they were older than the empire of the
Babylonians.” See Astronomy, History.
BAG
BABYLONIAN, Babylonius, is used by some ancient
writers to signify astrologer, or anything relating to astro¬
logy. Hence Babylonia cura means the art of casting na¬
tivities ; and numeri Babylonii, the computation of astrolo¬
gers. See above.
BAB YLONICA Texta, a rich sort of weavings or hang¬
ings, so called from the city of Babylon, where the art of
interweaving divers colours in hangings or tapestry was first
practised. Hence also Babylonic garments, Babylonic skins,
Babylonic carpets, housings, &c.
BACCALAUREATE, the degree of bachelor of arts.
See Universities.
BACCARAT, a town of France, capital of a canton in
the department of Meurthe, 15 miles S.E. of Luneville. It
is celebrated for its glass works, the most extensive in France,
and which employ upwards of 1000 workmen. Pop. 2794.
BACCHiE, BttKyai, in Antiquity, the female companions
of Bacchus, who are said to have followed him in his Eastern
expedition. It was likewise the name given to the priest¬
esses of Bacchus, who celebrated the orgia or mysteries of
that god, and are sometimes designated by the names, Mae-
nades, Thyiades, &c.
BACCHANALIA, festivals or orgies in honour of Bac¬
chus, which were introduced by the Greeks of Southern
Italy into Etruria and Rome. These festivals, which had
been celebrated among the Greeks with great merriment,
degenerated among the Romans into practices of hideous
licentiousness and immorality, which were generally carried
on at night and in secret. In the year b.c. 186 their ex¬
istence was discovered by the Roman magistrates, and strict
inquiries were instituted. The numerous crimes committed
at these nocturnal orgies induced the senate to issue an order
orbidding the celebration of the Bacchanalia both at Rome
and in Italy. This order (Senatus consultum de Baccha-
nalibus), which is mentioned by Livy and Cicero, was dis¬
covered, in 1640, at Bari in Southern Italy, engraved upon
a brazen table, from which it has frequently been copied, as
in Drakenborch’s edition of Livy, in Donaldson’s Varroni-
anus, and elsewhere.
The Greeks called the festivals of Bacchus Dionysia
Lencea, Anthesteria, which were celebrated at different sea¬
sons of the year, and at which the dramatic poets produced
their new tragedies and comedies in the Dionysiac theatre
in Athens. See Dr Schmitz’s article Dionysia in Smith’s
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. (l. s.)
BACCHIGLIONE, a river in the Venetian territory,
which, rising in the mountains eastward of Trent, passes by
Vicenza and Padua, and falls into the lagune of Venice
below Este, after a course of 90 miles. It is navigable for
large boats as far as Vicenza. It gave name to a province
of Napoleon’s Italian kingdom.
BACCHIUS (Ba/cxctos), surnamed the Old; a Greek
author whose place and time of birth are unknown. He
wrote an Introduction to the Art of Music, in the form
of questions and answers, apparently intended for the use of
schools. Its title, Ekraycoy^ p.oucrt/djs, might lead one
to suppose that it contains some explanations of the art of
composing or performing music; but it treats merely of
sounds, intervals, systems, &c. Meibomius published the
first part of Bacchius’ work, with a Latin translation and
notes, in his Antiques Musicce Auctores, Amstel. 1652 ; but
unaccountably omitted the second part, although he had
a copy of it. In the royal library of Paris there exists a
MS. copy of that second part, but it has not yet been pub¬
lished, except through a bad French translation of the whole
work, given by Mersenne in his Harnionie Universelle,
1627. ^ (g.f. G.)
BACCHUS (Bd/cxos), the god of wine and revelry, more
generally called Dionysus by the Greeks, was, according to
the common tradition, the son of Jupiter and Semele the
daughter of Cadmus and Hermione. When Semele was
pregnant, Juno, in the disguise of a friend, persuaded her
to urge the fatal request that her lover, in order to assure her
of his divinity, would come to her embraces invested with the
attributes of majesty. Jupiter, who had sworn by Styx to
grant whatever she might ask, was obliged to comply ; when
the mortal Semele, unable to endure the fiery splendours of
the god, was reduced to ashes. The infant Bacchus was
snatched from the flames by Mercury, or by the nymph
Dirce, and sealed up in his father’s thigh until the full period
of birth; whence he has received the epithet of Bimatris. Se¬
mele, under the name of Thyone, was immediately translated
to heaven; or, as some report, she remained in Hades till
brought thence by Bacchus. According to Ovid, the young
Bacchus was brought up by his aunt Ino, and afterwards
intrusted to the care of the nymphs of Mount Nysa. Others
say that he was educated at Naxos by the nymphs Philia,
Coronis, and Cleis. Pausanias relates a tradition of a more
dramatic cast:—that when Cadmus discovered the amour
of his daughter, he exposed her with her infant to the perils
of the deep in a coffer or chest, which was carried by the
waves to the coast of Brasiae in Peloponnesus, where Semele
was found dead, but the child still living. These various
traditions appear to refer to different personages. Cicero
enumerates five Dionysi : 1. The son of Jupiter and Se¬
mele ; 2. the son of Nilus; 3. The son of Caprius or Ca-
birus ; 4. I he son of Jupiter and the Moon ; 5. The son of
Nisus and Thyone (De Nat. Dear. iii. 23). Bacchus is
often confounded with the Egyptian Osiris, or the sun,
whose worship appears to have been introduced into Greece
by the Orphici; and when Bacchus is represented seated on
a globe bespangled with stars, he must be regarded as iden¬
tified with that deity. Tradition represents Bacchus as
having assisted the gods in their war against the giants,
in which he was cut to pieces ; but this story evidently
relates to Osiris, who was killed by his brother Typhon.
When Bacchus was grown up he was afflicted by Juno
with madness, in which condition he wandered over many
parts of the earth. There is also a tradition that while he
lay asleep in the isle of Naxos he was carried off by some
Tyrrhenian mariners, whom he transformed into dol-
347
Bacchi-
glione
It
Bacchus.
348
BAG
Bacchus, phins, but spared the pilot because he had opposed their
' design. (See Accetes.) In his celebrated expedition to
India, he is represented sitting in a chariot drawn by a
lion and tiger, with a panther’s skin flung about his shoulders.
His attendants were Pan, Silenus, and the Satyrs, besides
a motley multitude including numerous Bacchantic u omen,
who are variously styled Lense, Maenades, 1 hyades, Mimal-
lones, Clodones, and Bassarae or Bassarides. Armed with
the thyrsus, and crowned with vine and ivy leaves, they
danced around him with cups in their hands, shouting “ Evohe.
Bacche!” “Evohe! Eleleu!” to the sound of Phrygian flutes,
drums, and cymbals. His progress was triumphant, and
generally without bloodshed; for men gratefully acknow¬
ledged the divinity of the hero who taught them the culti¬
vation of the vine and instructed them in the useful arts.
He was relentless, however, towards those who opposed his
authority ; and on that account he inflicted dreadful punish-
ments on Damascus, on Lycurgus the son of Dryas king
of Thrace, and others.
Bacchus is generally represented as young, handsome,
and beardless, with an air of luxurious languor and effemi¬
nacy, and long flowing hair, holding in his hand a thyrsus,
and crowned with vine or ivy leaves. Sometimes he has
the appearance of age and decrepitude, as indicating the
effects of intemperance: at other times he is seen as an
infant in the arms of his foster-father Silenus, or riding on
the shoulders of Pan, or on a goat, and accompanied by
goats and satyrs. The horns with which he is sometimes
represented are probably the symbol of victory or dominion,
according to the Egyptian idea; but these are genei ally
short, and concealed almost entirely by the hair. The
phallus, which had a conspicuous place in the processions of
Bacchus, was introduced from Egypt by Melampus. (See
Herodot. ii. 49.) His several appellations of Liber, Bromius,
Evan, Thyonaeus, Bassareus, Psilas, &c., were derived either
from circumstances connected with his personal history, from
the places where he was worshipped, or from the ceremonies
observed at his festivals. These festivals, which were very
numerous, were called Orgia, Dionysia, Bacchanalia, &c.
The orgies were celebrated by night, and those held on Mount
Cithaeron were especially noted for extravagance and licen¬
tiousness. The Dionysia at Athens were celebrated with ex¬
traordinary splendour. The rites of Bacchus were often at¬
tended with the grossest debauchery ; and to such a pitch
was this depravity carried at Rome, that it was found neces¬
sary to suppress the orgies by a decree of the senate. The
vine, ivy, laurel, yew, fig-tree, and fir, were sacred to Bac¬
chus ; as were also the tiger, panther, ass, dolphin, magpie,
and serpent; the last, as emblematic of immortality, being
common to several of the gods. The ram was sacrificed to
him, as was also the goat, on account of its destructiveness
to vines. (See Ascolia.) It is said that in very early
times this deity was propitiated with the blood of human
victims ; and even Themistocles had the barbarity to sacri¬
fice three noble Persian youths on an altar which he erected
to Bacchus Omestes on board his galley. (Plutarch, Themist.)
Bacchus had numerous children by Ariadne, whom he
espoused in the island of Naxos, after her desertion by The¬
seus. (See Ariadne.) The most interesting circumstance
in connection with the worship of this deity is that of the
dithyrambics and mummeries performed at the celebration
of his mysteries, which were undoubtedly the first rude pro¬
totypes of scenic or theatrical representations, as eventually
developed in the comedies of Cratinus, Eupolis, and Aris¬
tophanes. Tragedy also arose out of the worship of Bac¬
chus. The worshippers, clad in the skins of goats and fawns,
imitated the poetical fictions concerning the god; personat¬
ing Silenus, Pan, the nymphs and satyrs, and arrayed in gro¬
tesque dresses, they smeared their faces with the lees of wine,
and diverted themselves and others with their antic gestures
and comic sallies.
BAG
The Greek word rpaywSia, tragedy, is generally admitted
to have been derived from the name of the victim, rpdyos, a
goat, which was sacrificed on these occasions, accompanied
with the singing of an ode or hymn, w&p > . «
The origin of Bacchus and of his name have given rise
to a diversity of opinions. The name has been deduced
from and from jSoaco, because of the noise which pre¬
vailed at the celebration of his rites. Diodorus mentions
three deities of this name : 1. The conqueror of India, who
is known as the bearded Bacchus ; 2. The horned Bacchus,
son of Jupiter and Proserpine; 3. Ihe son of Semele,
called the Bacchus of Thebes. The ingenious Rudbeck
conjectures that Bacchus was a Scythian or Thiacian hero
named Bagge, whom tradition represents as the conqueror
of the Eastern world; and this name he derives from bagge,
bock, i.e. a goat or ram, metaphorically taken for dux.
{Atlantic, ii. p. 146.) Ovid, indeed, makes Bacchus set out
from the Hebrus, a river of Thrace:—
Bacehy.
lides
II
Baccio.
Ibat arenoso satyris eomitatus ab Hebro.—Fast. iii. 737.
The worship of this deity appears to have been of Eastern
origin. The name Dionysus (Aidwcros) is apparently a com¬
pound of Ats and Nixra, i.e. the deity from Nysa, which was
the name of a mountain and city between the rivers Choaspes
and Cophes; yet it should be observed that this name
was borne by several other places in different parts of the
world. s: T~L*)
B ACCH YLIDES, BcikxiAiStjs, a famous Greek lyric poet,
born at lulis in Ceos, was the nephew of Simonides, and
flourished about 470 years before Christ. He resided long
at the court of Hiero of Syracuse with Simonides and Pindar,
and wrote odes, hymns, and epigrams, of which some frag¬
ments are published in the first volume of Brunck § Ana¬
lecta ; by Neue, Bacchylidis Cei Fragm.; and by Bergk,
Poetce Lyrici Greed.
BACCIO, or Baggies, Andrea, a celebrated physician
of the sixteenth century, born at St Elpideo. He practised
physic at Rome with great reputation, and was first physi¬
cian to Pope Sixtus V. The most scarce aud valuable of
his works are the following:—1. Be Thermis ; 2. Be JSa-
turali Vinorum Histona, de Vinis Italia, et de Convivns
Antiquorum ; 3. Be Venems et Antidotis ; 4. Be Gemmis
ac Lapidibus Pretiosis.
Baccio della Porta, called Bartolomeo di S. Marco, a
celebrated historical and portrait painter, was born at Sa-
vignano, near Florence, in 1469, and died in 1517. He was
a disciple of Cosimo Roselli; but his principal knowledge
of the art was derived from Lionardo da Vinci. He under¬
stood the true principles of design better than most masters
of his time ; and as he was a considerable master o( per¬
spective, Raphael had recourse to him after quitting the
school of Perugino, and under his direction studied the art
of managing and uniting colours, as well as the rules of pei-
spective. Some years after the departure of Raphael from
Florence, Baccio visited Rome, where he derived much bene¬
fit from the study of the antique, and of the works of Raphae ,
which were then the admiration of the whole world, hi is
improvement was manifested in a picture of St Sebastian,
which he finished on his return to Florence. This was so
well designed, so naturally and beautifully coloured, and so
strongly expressive of suffering and agony, that it was foun
necessary to remove it from the place where it had been ex¬
hibited in the chapel of a convent, in consequence ot tne
too powerful impression it had made on the imaginations o
many women who beheld it. Baccio was very laborious, an
made nature his perpetual study ; his designs were i»on-
guished for correctness and purity, his figures had a gr
deal of grace, and his colouring was admirable. He 18 us^ ^
accounted the inventor of the useful contrivance ca e
lay figure. There is a capital picture of the Ascension, y
Baccio, in the Florentine collection.
Bach
BAG
BACH, Johajstn Sebastian, a most original and learned
II, composer of music, was born at Eisenach, March 21, 1685,
Bachian^ and died at Leipzig, July 30, 1750. His works were very
" — numerous, but many of them have been lost, and many others
still remain in manuscript; although, fortunately, a number
of his best works have been printed. His published works
alone prove his powers of invention and construction to have
been prodigious. His compositions consist chiefly of sacred
music, and pieces for the organ and harpsichord. He com¬
posed no dramatic music. Many persons believe that Gluck
was the first great German composer of recitatives ; but this
error is made evident by Bach’s Grosse Passionsmusik,
published in score, at Berlin, in 1830. In knowledge of in¬
strumentation and instrumental effects, he was far in advance
of his contemporaries. As a fugue writer and an extem¬
pore composer, he was unequalled; while as an organ and
harpsichord player he had no rival but Handel. What he
wrote was to please himself and not the public, whose favour
he never courted. He was twice married, and had eleven
sons and nine daughters. All his sons became professional
musicians, but only three or four of them distinguished them¬
selves as composers. (g. f. g.)
Bach, Carl Philip Emanuel, the second son of Johann
Sebastian Bach, was by far the most remarkable of the eleven
brothers, not only for his peculiar genius and originality, but
also for the great influence which his compositions exercised
on the forms and style of later instrumental music. His
style, full of novelty and elegance, was that which Haydn
and Mozart studied attentively, and carried to perfection by
giving it greater breadth of development. He* was born at
Weimar on the 14th of March 1714, and died at Hamburg
on the 14th of December 1788. His compositions, vocal
and instrumental, are numerous. Many of them are still
unpublished. (g. f. g.)
BACHELOR, a common term for a man not married, or
who is yet in a state of celibacy. The Roman censors fre¬
quently imposed fines on bachelors. Dionysius of Halicar¬
nassus mentions an old constitution, by which all persons of
full age were obliged to marry. But the most celebrated
law of this kind was that made under Augustus, called the
Lex Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus, by which bachelors
were made incapable of taking legacies or inheritances by
will, unless from their near relations. By the laws of Ly-
curgus bachelors were branded with infamy, and excluded
from all offices civil and military, and even from the public en¬
tertainments. At certain feasts they were exposed to public
derision, and led round the market-place. In the canon law
we find injunctions on bachelors, either to marry, or to turn
monks and profess chastity in earnest.
Bachelor was anciently applied to those who had at¬
tained to knighthood, but wanted the number of vassals suffi¬
cient to entitle them to have their banner carried before them
in the field of battle ; or who, being of the order of bannerets,
were not yet of age to display their own banner, and conse¬
quently obliged to march to battle under the banner of an¬
other. Bachelor was also a title given to young cavaliers,
who having made their first campaign, received the military
girdle accordingly; and it further served to distinguish him
who had overcome an adversary in a tournament the first time
he had ever engaged.
Knights-BjcHELORs, the most ancient, but the lowest, or¬
der of knights in England, known by the name of knights
only. They are styled knights-bachelors, either, according
to some, as denoting their degree, quasi “ bas chevaliers
or, according to others, because this title does not descend
to their posterity. Knights are called in Latin equites aurati,
from their wearing gilt spurs.
Bachelors of Arts, of Divinity, of I^aws, and of Medicine,
are persons who have taken the first degree in these respec¬
tive faculties. See Universities.
BACHIAN, one of the Molucca islands, about fifty-four
BAG 349
miles in length by twenty in breadth, and separated by a Bacillaria
narrow strait from the island of Gilolo. It yields gold dust, II
sago, fruits, and cloves. The inhabitants are Malay Maho- Back'
metans. Long. 127. 33. E. Lat. 1. 0. S. gammon.
BACILLARIA, one of Ehrenberg’s families of infix-
soria, containing 30 genera or more. The siliceous bucklers
of those minute animals form whole beds of the polishing-
slate of Bohemia; and are contained in astonishing numbers
in the cretaceous formations of England, Germany, Italy,
Greece, and North America. See Animalcule.
BACKER, or Barker, Jacob, portrait and historical
painter, was born at Harlingen in 1609, but spent the
greater part of his life at Amsterdam. His portraits are
executed with boldness, spirit, and grace. His incredible
expedition in painting was testified by a half-length portrait
of a lady, adorned with rich drapery and jewels, which he
began and finished in one day. Of his historical subjects
the picture of Cimon and Iphigenia is worthy of mention.
He died in 1651.
BACKERGUNGE, one of the lower provinces of the
presidency of Bengal, situate in the delta of the Ganges, and
containing an area of 3794 square miles, with a population
of 733,800. The tract throughout is low, level, and inter¬
sected by numerous rivers, the principal of which are the
Ganges and the Meghna. For the most part the soil is al¬
luvial, but notwithstanding the inundations to which the dis¬
trict is subject, the climate is more healthy than in most
parts of Bengal, the several channels serving as drains to
carry off the stagnant water immediately after the cessation
of the rains. Generally speaking the country is well culti¬
vated, and the crops of idee are rich in the extreme. The
town of Backergunge was formerly the principal place of the
province, but the seat of the civil establishment was some
time since transferred to Burrisol, a town 128 miles east of
Calcutta, in Lat. 22. 43. Long. 90. 23. (e. t.)
BACKGAMMON, an ingenious game played with dice
upon a table by two persons. The table is divided into two
parts, upon which there are twenty-four black and white
spaces, called points. Each player has fifteen men, black
and white, to distinguish them, and they are disposed of in
the following manner : Supposing the game to be played in
the right-hand table, two are placed upon the ace point in
the adversary’s table, five upon the six point in the opposite
table, three upon the cinque point in the hithermost table,
and five on the six point in the right-hand table. The grand
object in this game is for each player to bring the men round
into his right-hand table, by throwing with a pair of dice
those throws that contribute towards it, and at'the same time
to pi event his adversary doing the like. The first best throw
upon the dice is esteemed aces, because it stops the six point
in the outer table,, and secures the cinque in the thrower’s
table ; so that the adversary’s two men upon the thrower’s
ace point cannot get out with either quatre, cinque, or six.
I his throw is an advantage often given to the antagonist by
the superior player. When he carries his men home in order
to lose im point, he is to carry the most distant man to his
adversary’s bar point, that being the first stage he is to place
it on ; the next is six points faither, viz. in the place where
the adversai’y’s five men are fii’st placed out of his tables ;
and he must go on in this method till all his men are brought
home except two, when by losing a point he may often save
the gammon, by throwing two fours or two fives. When a
hit is only played for, he should endeavour to gain either his
own or adversary’s cinque point; and if that fail by his be¬
ing hit by the adversary, and he find him farther advanced
than himself, in that case he must throw more men into the
adversary’s tables, which is done in this manner : He must
put a man upon his cinque or bar point; and if the adversary
neglect to hit it, he may then gain a forward game instead
of a back game. But if the adversary hit him, he should
play for a back game ; and then the greater number of men
350
BACKGAMMON.
Back- which are taken up makes his game the better, because by
gammon, these means he will preserve his game at home. He should
then endeavour to gain both his adversary’s ace and trois
points, or his ace and deuce points, and take care to keep
three men upon the adversary’s ace point, that in case the
latter hit him from thence, that point may remain still se¬
cure to himself. A back game should not be played for at
the beginning of a set, because it would be a great disadvan¬
tage, the player running the risk of a gammon to win a single
hit. The subsequent calculations will show the odds of en¬
tering a single man upon any certain number ot points.
Upon two dice there are thirty-six chances, and upon these
chances the following points, viz.
Points.
2 Aces  4
2 Deuces  8
2 Trois  12
2 Fours  16
2 Fives  ’. 20
2 Sixes  -24
6 and 5 twice 22
6 and 4 twice .....20
6 and 3 twice 18
6 and 2 twice 16
6 and 1 twice ...14
5 and 4 twice  18
5 and 3 twice  16
5 and 2 twice  14
5 and 1 twice  12
4 and 3 twice 14
4 and 2 twice.  1
4 and 1 twice 10
3 and 2 twice.  10
3 and 1 twice  8
2 and 1 twice  6
Divide by 36)294(8
This proves, that upon 288
an average the player
has a right to 8 points
each throw  6
The chances upon two dice cal¬
culated for backgammon are as fol¬
low :—
2 Sixes  1
2 Fives.  1
2 Fours   1
2 Trois  1
2 Deuces   1
t2 Aces  1
6 and 5 twice  2
6 and 4 twice   2
6 and 3 twice    2
6 and 2 twice   2
•f6 and 1 twice   2
5 and 4 twice   2
5 and 3 twice   2
5 and 2 twice   2
f5 and 1 twice   2
4 and 3 twice   2
4 and 2 twice    2
f4 and 1 twice   2
3 and 2 twice    2
|3 and 1 twice  2
f2 and 1 twice  2
36
As it may seem difficult to find out by this table of thirty-
six chances what are the odds of being hit upon a certain
or flat die, let the following method be pursued. The player
may observe in the table that the chances marked thus f
are,
f 2 aces       1
f 6 and 1 twice   2
t 5 and 1 twice      2
t 4 and 1 twice     2
t 3 and 1 twice   2
t 2 and 1 twice ..,  2
Total, —11
When deducted from   .36
There remains     25
From which it appears that it is 25 to 11 against hitting
an ace upon a certain or flat die. And this method holds
good with respect to any other flat die. For example, what
are the odds of entering a man upon 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 points?
Answer.
To enter it upon for against for agt.
1 point is 11 to 25 or about 4 to 9
2   20 ... 16   5 ... 4
3   27 ... 9    3 ... 1
4   32 ... 4   8 ... 1
5   35 ... 1  ...35 ... 1
The following table shows the odds of hitting with any
chance in the reach of a single die :—
To hit upon for against for agt.
1 is 11 to 25 or about 4 to 9
2 ... 12 ... 24   1 ... 2
3 ... 14 ... 22   2 ... 3
4 ... 15 ... 21   5 ... 7
5 ... 15 ... 21    5 ... 7
6 ... 17 ... 19   8J... 9|
The odds of hitting with double dice are as follow:—
To hit upon for against for agt.
7 is 6 to 30 or about 1 to 5
8 ... 6 ... 30   1 ... 5
9 ... 5 ... 31   1 ... 6
10 ... 3 ... 33   1 ... H
11 ... 2 ... 34    1 ... 17
12 ... 1 ... 36    1 ... 35
Back¬
gammon.
How to find out the odds of being hit upon a six by the
table of thirty-six chances.
2 Sixes  1
2 Trois   1
2 Deuces   1
6 and 5 twice    2
6 and 4 twice   2
6 and 3 twice   2
6 and 2 twice   2
6 and 1 twice   2
5 and 1 twice   2
4 and 2 twice   -  2
—17
Which deducted from .    36
There remains       19
By which it appears to be 19 to 17 against being'hit
>on a six.
The odds on the hits.
2 love is about  5 to 2
2 to 1 is  2 to L
1 love is   3 to 2
If a player has taken up two of the adversary s men, and
happen to have two, three, or more points made in his
own tables, he should spread his men, that he may either
take a new point in his tables, or be ready to hit the man
which the adversary may happen to enter. If he find,
upon the adversary’s entering, that the game is upon a par,
or that the advantage is on his own side, he should take
the adversary’s man up whenever he can, it being 2o to 11
that he is not hit; except when he is playing for a single
hit only, because then, if playing the throw otherwise gives
him a better chance for it, he ought to do it.
It being five to one against his being hit with double dice,
he should never be deterred from taking up any one man of
the adversary’s.
If he has taken up one of the adversary’s men, and hap¬
pen to have five points in his own tables, yet is forced to
leave a blot out of his tables, he should endeavour to leave
it upon doublets in preference to any other chance, because
in that case the odds are 35 to 1 that he is not hit; whereas
it is only 17 to 1 that he is hit upon any other chance.
When the adversary is very forward, a player should
never move a man from his own quatre, trois, or deuce
points, thinking to bear that man from the point wheie he
put it, as nothing but high doublets can give him any chance
for the hit. Instead of playing an ace or a deuce from any
of those points, he should play them from his own six or
highest points, so that, throwing two fives or two fours, his
six and cinque points being eased, would be a considerable
advantage to him ; whereas if they had been loaded he would
have been obliged to play otherwise. ,
It is the interest of the adversary to take up the player
as soon as he enters. The blot should be left upon the
adversary’s lowest point; that is to say, upon his deuce
point rather than upon his trois point, or upon his trois
point rather than his quatre point, or upon his quatre point
preferably to his cinque point, for a reason before men¬
tioned. All the men the adversary plays upon his trois or
his deuce point are deemed lost, being greatly out of play ; so
that those men not having it in their power to make his cinque
point, and his game being crowded in one place and open m
another, the adversary must be greatly annoyed by the player.
BAG
If the player have two of the adversary’s men in his
tables, he has a better chance for a hit than if he had
more, provided his game is more forward than that of his
antagonist; for it he had three or more of the adversary’s
men in his tables, he would stand a worse chance to be hit.
When a player is running to save the gammon, if he
should have two men upon his ace point and several men
abioad, although he should lose a point or two in putting
his men into his tables, it is his interest to leave a man upon
the adversary’s ace point, because it will prevent his adver¬
sary from bearing his men to the greatest advantage, and at
the same time the player will have a chance of the adver¬
sary’s making a blot, which he may chance to hit. However,
if a player find upon a throw that he has a probability ot
saving his gammon, he should never wait for a blot, as the
odds are greatly against his hitting it, but at once embrace
that opportunity to escape.
Suppose the adversary has so many men abroad as to re¬
quire three throws to put them into his tables, and at the same
time that the player’s tables are made up, and that he has
taken up one of the adversary’s men ; in this case it is about
an equal wrager that the adversary is gammoned ; for in all
probability the player has borne two men before he opens
his tables, and when he bears the third man he will be ob¬
liged to open his six or cinque point. It is then probable
that the adversary is obliged to throw twice before he enters
his men in the player’s tables, twice more before he puts
that man into his own tables, and three throws more to put
the men which are abroad into his own tables; in all seven
throws. Now the player having twelve men to bear, he may
be forced to make an ace or a deuce twice before he can
bear all his men, and consequently will require seven throws
in bearing them; so that, upon the whole, it is about equal
whether the adversary is gammoned or not.
Suppose a player has three men upon his adversary’s ace
BAG
351
Bacon.
This method may be taken to find out the odds of hitting Backhuy-
three, four, or five blots upon double dice, or blots made sen
upon double and single dice at the same time. After know¬
ing how many chances there are to hit any of these blots,
they must be added all together, and then subtracted from
the number 36, which are the chances of the two dice.
The laws of backgammon are as follow: 1. When a man is
taken from any point, it must be played; when two men are
taken from it, they also must be played. 2. A man is not
supposed to be played till it is placed upon a point and
quitted. 3. If a player have only fourteen men in play, there
is no penalty inflicted, because by his playing with a lesser
number than he is entitled to, he plays to a disadvantage
for want of the deficient man to make up his tables. 4. If
he bear any number of men before he has entered a man
taken up, and which of course he was obliged to enter, such
men so borne must be entered again in the adversary’s
tables as well as the man taken up. 5. If he have mistaken
his throw and played it, and his adversary have thrown, it is
not in the choice of either of the players to alter it, unless
they both agree so to do.
BACKHUYSEN, Ludolf, an eminent painter of the
Dutch school, born at Embden in Hanover in 1631 ; died
in 1709. He was brought up as a merchant at Amsterdam,
but early discovered a genius for painting. Such was his
zeal for the art, that he frequently exposed himself on the
sea in an open boat, in order to study the effects of tem¬
pests on that element. His sea-pieces are greatly esteemed.
BACK-RENT, in Scotland, is rent paid by a tenant
after reaping the crop, in contradistinction to fore-rent, or
rent payable previous to the reaping of the first crop ;
which is settled in either case by the terms of the lease.
BACK-SI Ah F, or Dayis’s Quadrant, an instrument
invented by Captain John Davis, about the year 1590, for
From his 5th point  15
From his 4th point    12
From his 3d point  9
From his 2d point   6
In all, —-60
Bringing his three men from the adversary’s ace
point to his six point in his own tables, being 18
points each, and making together   54
• , ,i* i, , taking the sun s altitude at sea; but now superseded bv
point and five points m his own tables, and that the adver- Hadley’s quadrant. It consisted of two concentric arcs
sary has an his men in his tables, three upon each of his and three vanes, the arc of the longer radius being 30 de-
fno hkod P ’ haS, Pla>'eraProbabll*ty of gammon- grees, and that of the shorter 60 dfgrees, thus mSking al-
mg his adversary or not? together 90 degrees, or a quadrant.0 It derived £ Tame
For bearing three men from Ms 6th point is  Ts T« r With If ^ t0 the sun’
■p— t— e-ii • , — BACON, 1 rancis, Viscount St Albans, and Baron
Verulam. This illustrious man was born in London, on
the 22d day of January 1561. His father, Sir Nicholas
Bacon, a courtier, a lawyer, and a man of erudition, stood
high in the favour of Queen Elizabeth, and was lord-
keeper during twenty years of her reign. Anne, the second
wife of Sir ^Nicholas, and the philosopher’s mother, was the
daughter ot Sir Anthony Cooke, Edward the Sixth’s tutor,
and was herself distinguished among the learned females of
the time. One of her sisters became the wife of Elizabeth’s
celebrated treasurer, Lord Burleigh. Delicate in health, and
devoted to sedentary employment, Francis Bacon exhibited
in early boyhood the dawning of those powers whose versati¬
lity afterwards became not less remarkable than their strength.
As a child he delighted the queen with his precocious gravity
and readiness of speech ; and before he had completed his
twelfth year we see him investigating the cause of a singular
echo in a conduit, and endeavouring to penetrate the mystery
of,a ju8'^er who performed in his father’s house. At the age
of thirteen he was matriculated at Trinity College, Cam-
biidge, of which Whitgift was then master; but his residence
at the university lasted scarcely three years, and his writings
contain many expressions of dissatisfaction with the current
system of academical education. In his sixteenth year he
was sent abroad, and lived for some time at Paris, under the
charge of the English ambassador, Sir Amias Paulett; after
which he visited the French provinces, and added to his lite¬
rary and philosophical studies an acquaintance with foreign
policy and statistics, the fruit of which soon appeared in his
tract upon the State of Europe. In February 1580, his father
died, and he immediately returned to England.
There must remain  6
From which it is plain that the player has much the best
of the probability of the gammon ; exclusive of one or more
blots which the adversary is liable to make in bearing his
men, and supposing at the same time the throws to be upon
an equality. But suppose two blots are left, either of which
cannot be hit but by double dice; one must be hit by throw-
ing eight, and the other by throwing nine; so that the ad¬
versary has only one die to hit either of them. What, then,
are the odds of hitting either of them ?
The chances of two dice being in all   36
The chances to hit 8 or 6 and 2 twice  2
5 and 3 twice    2
2 deuces   .i    j
2 fours     1
The chances to hit 9 or 6 and 3 twice  2
5 and 4 twice  2
2 trois    2
For hitting in all  H
Chances for not hitting remain  25
So that the odds are 25 to 11 against hitting' either of
these blots. s
A
Sir Nicholas left but a scanty fortune ; and his son Fran- for the real business of the state: the young and gay, those Bacon,
cis, the youngest of a large family, found himself obliged, who aspired to be ranked as the personal friends or adorers
in his twentieth year, to" devise the means of earning a of the withered sovereign of hearts, were led by the high-
livelihood. It might have been thought that friends could spirited and imprudent Earl of Essex. To the party of this
not have been wanting to one who, besides his own ac- nobleman Bacon decidedly attached himself, and soon in-
knowledged merit, had it in his power to urge the long and deed shared with his own elder brother Anthony, the
honourable services of his father, while his uncle was the earl’s most private confidence. Valuable advisers were
prime minister of the kingdom. Of the patronage which they to their rash patron ; and a valuable servant of the
thus seemed to be at his command, Bacon attempted to nation did Francis Bacon bid fair to become, when, in No¬
avail himself, desiring to obtain such a public employment vember 1592, he entered parliament as one of the knights
as might enable him to unite political activity in some de- of the shire for Middlesex. His first speech, in February
gree with literary study. But his suit was received neglect- following, contained an urgent pleading for improvements
fully by the queen, and harshly repulsed by his kinsman, in the law; in another address, delivered in March, he re-
Although all the causes of this conduct may not be dis- sisted, with exceeding boldness as well as force of reason,
coverable, a few lie at the surface. The lord-keeper had, the immediate levying of an unpopular subsidy to which
in the later years of his life, lost the royal favour. Burleigh, the House had already consented. The young lawyer’s
besides his notorious contempt for men of letters, had to pro- exposition of unpleasant truths gave deep offence to the
vide for sons of his own, to whom their accomplished cou- queen. His uncle and the lord-keeper were both commis-
sin mio-ht have proved a dangerous rival. From the Cecils, sioned to convey to him the assurance of the royal displea-
indeed, Bacon never derived any efficient aid, till he had sure; and the two humble, nay, crouching letters of apo-
forced his way upwards in spite of them ; and there are evi- logy, still extant, in which he entreated those ministers to
dent traces of jealousy and dislike in the mode in which he procure his pardon, did not forebode much independence
was treated both by the old treasurer, and by his second in his subsequent conduct. We do not, indeed, again hear
son Robert. Bacon named as a champion of popular rights.
Obliged therefore to betake himself to the law, Bacon In the year 1594, Sir Edward Coke being made attorney-
was admitted at Gray’s Inn, where he spent several years ob- general, the solicitorship became vacant; and Bacon’s ap-
scurely in the study of his profession, but with increasing plication for the office was strenuously supported by Essex,
practice at the bar. The friendship of his fellow lawyers, But all efforts were in vain. The powerful kinsmen were
earned by his amiable disposition and his activity in the colder than ever towards one who had chosen another pa-
affairs of the society, bestowed on him offices in his inn of tron. The lord-keeper, Puckering, acted in a manner
court; but his kinsmen were still cold and haughty. Lord which drew on him a spirited rebuke from the candidate.
Burleigh continued to write him letters of reproof; and The queen hesitated, coquetted, told Essex that his friend,
Robert Cecil, already a rising statesman, sneered at spe- though witty, eloquent, and in some branches learned, was
culative intellects, and insinuated their unfitness for the a showy lawyer rather than a profound one. After a de¬
business of life. In 1590, when Bacon was in his thirtieth lay of many months, the place was given to a plodding
year, he was visited for the first time with court-favour, re- serjeant; and Bacon’s generous patron, vexed at the disap-
ceiving then an honorary appointment as queen’s counsel pointment of his hopes, sought to console both him and
extraordinary; and to this was added a grant of the re- himself by a gift equally munificent and delicate. Bacon
version of a clerkship in the star-chamber, which did not received from him an estate at Twickenham, worth about
become vacant for eighteen years. But the lawyer’s heart eighteen hundred pounds. The present, in all likelihood,
was not in his task. His brilliant professional success, and came very seasonably; for he appears to have been already
the awakening friendship of his relations, merely suggested involved in those pecuniary embarrassments from which
to him renewed attempts to escape from the drudgery of he was never afterwards completely able to extricate him-
the bar. His views are nobly expressed in a letter which self. He was obliged to sell the land which Essex had given
he addressed to the lord-treasurer the year after his ap- him; two years later he was arrested in the street tor a
pointment.1 We linger with melancholy pleasure over debt of three hundred pounds ; and among the Lord C.ian-
these abortive efforts made by one of the finest and most cellor Ellesmere’s papers, recently published, there is a cu-
capacious of intellects to extricate itself from that labyrinth rious acknowledgment, granted in 1604, for a pledge in se-
of worldly turmoil, in which its owner was destined to pur- curity of an advance of fifty pounds to him. These rea-
chase rank and splendour at the expense of moral degrada- sons offer the only apology for the addresses which, about
tion and final ruin. the time of his arrest, he paid to a wealthy and shrewish
We are henceforth to behold Bacon actively engaged in widow, who, fortunately for him, preferred his professional
political life, as well as in the duties of his profession. Two brother and personal enemy, Sir Edward Coke. In the
parties then divided the court, equally remarkable in dif- meantime, his legal reputation continued to increase, and
ferent wavs on account of those who headed them. Bur- his parliamentary exertions were unremitted, though alto-
leigh was the chief of the queen’s did counsellors, on whom, gether free from that independence which had once cha-
amidst all her caprices, she always had the prudence to rely racterized them. We thus trace Bacon down to his thirty-
1 “ I wax now somewhat ancient: one-and-thirty years is a great deal of sand in the hour-glass. My health, I thank God, I find
confirmed, and I do not fear that action shall impair it; because I account my ordinary course of study and meditation to be more pain¬
ful than most parts of action are. I ever bear a mind, in some middle place that I could discharge, to serve her majesty; not as a man
born under Sol that loveth honour, nor under Jupiter that loveth business, for the contemplative planet carrieth me away wholly; but as
a man born under an excellent sovereign, that deserveth the dedication of all men’s abilities. . . . Again, the meanness of my estate
doth somewhat move me ; for, though I cannot accuse myself that I am either prodigal or slothful, yet my health is not to spend, nor my
course to get. Lastly, I confess that I have as vast contemplative ends, as I have moderate civil ends ; for I have taken all knowledge to be
my province; and, if I could purge it of two sorts of rovers,—whereof the one with frivolous disputations, confutations, and verbosities, the
other with blind experiments, and auricular traditions and impostures, have committed so many spoils,—I hope I should bring in industrious
observations, grounded conclusions, and profitable inventions and discoveries; the best state of that province. This, whether it be curiosity,
or vain-glory, or nature, or (if one take it more favourably) philanthropia, is so fixed in my mind, as it cannot be removed. . . . slnd
if your lordship will not carry me on, I will not do as Anaxagoras did, who reduced himself with contemplation into voluntary poverty: but
this I will do,—I will sell the inheritance that 1 have, and purchase some lease of quick revenue, or some office of gain, that shall be executed by de¬
puty ; and so give over all care of service, and become some sorry bookmaker, or a true pioneer in that mine of truth, which, he said, lay so deep. —
(Cabala, p. 18. Bacon’s Works, vol. xii. p. 6, 7. Montagu’s edit.)
Baron, ninth year, pausing only to remark tW ,•
that in i<Q7 u- , 7 , „ rK’tflat two years earlier,
A,.hough merely ^UeZnof^ They
Sthor'noron°rS5h“°nSKaine,dhigh rePu“i>>'' fof their
After thin fi .me’ but aIs° on ,he eontinent.
approach wL^th S‘ep Bacon’s literary career, we
approacn wnat is the most painful task nf trie k- u
a dark page of his historv ovor ni v. h s biographer,
r 0 wt .us uujtorj, over which no inpennitv Has
“ “ wi ss
gumentb of n Inch we are ourselves unable to discover the
force. Bacon, unfortunately for himself, had lately risen
Accordindy^inTrfiantd ^ ^]ytmsted and employed.
Accordin ly, m the first stages of Essex’s decline, he had to
Zl buf dCTor °dffering t0 Vs patr0n ^ -hich
«ere out seldom followed, now seeking excuses to naoifv
the queen s rising displeasure. His natural inclination for
temporizing, the success which had hitherto attended his
cautious policy, the honest wish to serve his generous friend
may haVe COncurred m tempting hTrn ^
embark in the dangerous channel. But the sunken rock,
soon encompassed him, and shipwreck was unavoidable
Speared ntoeihpe.h^0m E'iZabeth ” frora Ess« «
appeared to be the necessary result of the position into
Part*f 'rere coming. Bacon had notthe courage
Ss nr he,nob'1er Pafb and Piace himself by the side of
prospects' fnsend) at the Pr°bable expense of all his worldly
prospect. Suspicion and estrangement soon took the place
of affectionate confidence; and the trust reposed in him by
sex re^arde?l?UrChaSed blthe bltt6r consciousness that Es-
^ . ^ him ** treacherous and hostile. A more de-
Fading task was yet to come The first trial of the earl in
IndBaeo *° HlS C°ndUCt in Ireland’ was determined upon ;
i one of theernoemieSnSertvfd ^ he °ffered himself to act
b defence^d* counsel for the prosecution. In that memoir
Ind lt k f h COndact which he wrote in the next reign,
and which proves satisfactorily nothing but his own humi-
hatmg consciousness of guilt,' he states as to this matTer
what was doubtless the truth. It had been resolved that
the proceedings against the rash earl should not be carried
^eb?m eStrSCtl0nK bUtuSh0Uld -M-™ and d,s-
the nuppn bid f hint- beJDg conveyed to Bacon that
queen had not determmed whether he should be em-
to addrpr0fSSf!°nalIy in thC affair °r not’ he thought proper
to address to her “ two or three words of compliment ” in-
ClZS if>She WOUli disPense "ith his services he
oZ™"e LTnL ofheT*“>* favour*, but that
vate ohlicr duJ^’ ^d wou^d n°t allow any pri-
mafesty ^ he owed to her
had his wits ™ he a<?ds’ “ a resPect no man that
Sied to f haVe 0m,tted ” Bacon’ in short’ ^ill
self at the mpr ’ but he had now placed him-
t * m^Cy °f those from wbom he had no forbearance
ofhfs atichro^?6?’ SUSP1CiJOUS and moody, Was jealous
do her .ervirp t0 B55f,x’ and bent on compelling him to
were 'dad tn h : her advisers, or some of them,
With them Lhnne the ,odlura ofLthe earI’s destruction shared
the victim’s liPnd S° dlStingulshed. who had, likewise, been
could not Hp d- * i w^intlmated that Bacon’s services
bably repeats 5 bUt he tellS US’ (and he P-
believe)Pthi H bis masters tried to make him
tion should be 'ed ds sbare in the prosecu-
unfortunate patZ t0 mattlers whicb could not do his
sure by the privv r 30nUS ba,rm. Essex’s private cen-
voZ iy Pnvy-councd followed; and, while he was com-
bacon.
itted to custody-at-large, Bacon incurred, by his appear
ance against him, an obloquy of which his letters showPhim
to have been painfully sensible. In a few months the
earls open rebellion took place; he was seized and nnf
upon his trial in February 1601, along with Lord South¬
ampton ; and on this occasion, when his life was at stake
Bacon again appeared as one of the counsel for the prose¬
cution, and delivered a speech of which there is extent an
addrp^01 af^Un,t- The language is harsh, but less so than
addresses of the kind used to be in those days. The topics
rlTZ1?1 and’ aS * haS b6en jUStly remarked, are less
^.n, a ed ?r efUring conviction (which indeed was cer-
tain) than for placing the conduct of the prisoner in an
odious hght and hardening the queen’s heart against him •
and, although it would be rash to judge of the real temper
harangue without knowing more of its contents, ?et
what we possess contains much that cannot possibly ^e
explained so as to do credit to the speaker. Weknow like
wise, how the object of the attack received it. It one
place Essex interrupted his treacherous friend, and called
cnnfid T- r Say’ aS a witness> whether he had not, in their
confidents! intercourse, admitted the truth of those excuses
which he now affected to treat as frivolous and blse
rnrin* Con3,lct.edj and between his sentence and exe-
no IttemptTn^v m hlS ex.cu,Patory memoir that he made
says andP tC\SaVe blm.; seeinS tbe queen but once, as he
says, and on that occasion venturing to do nothing further
of mereTZrL';. °" the bleLd uses
mercy. But not even here was the disgrace to end in
Th? Tn °f the WorId had beeped himself.
The act which had cost Elizabeth’s own heart so much had
also made her unpopular ; a defence of the royal policy in
egard to Essex was thought necessary, and the pen that
which, in the succeeding8rdgn^Baeon'bak nm atoTd" to
say, a performance abounding in expressions which no
^nerous enemy would have employed respectino- a man
who had so dearly expiated his offences.” With^this hu
undeV^ibZrZeT “ay BaC°n'S Public life
With whom James, amidst all his imbecility and Ld heart
edness, was not by any means ill fitted to sympathise Ba
con s learning was no longer open to sneers and contempt • his'
uncle was dead; his hunchback cousin, Robert Cedf who
soon became Earl of Salisbury, was kept in check by his
hereditary prudence; and Coke, who had insdldourphl-
fenceless a^d withte 1/’ ^ ^ insuIted every one who was^e-
enceiess and within his reach, was in a few years removed to
lCT“n P'eaS- F™m the first ho”
wStoS h,Z^DOopp?rtuni‘)'orrecomn'«”<i“g
mmseit to tavour, but the first mark of it which he received
af ^ whlch be neither was nor could have been proud’
the W calieluoZl8]]h6 th°Ught ProPer to solicit. When
year inland to b^knighted^or^o compmmd fola dispensa3^
Grays Inn appeared among the new knio-hts That 1
of external distinctions which was the fiu*?ht i That]®v.e
nature, was called into play and ti e 11 weakne^ofhis
concerted bv the titW c A d 1 le Pkdosopher was dis-
Lt untkled 7 AtZ * hlS co“panions> besWe 'h™ he
wX “fLd oSt Te re’ be had>in hi* own
., 5 out an alderman s daughter a handc/tmo
nw.den, to his liking;” and the alderman’s’daughter was
hkel, to be more easily won if her admirer couMofer h“
2 Y
354
BACON.
Bacon, a showy accession of rank. Accordingly, Bacon wrote to
his cousin Cecil, stating his desire to obtain, for these rea¬
sons, “ this divulged and almost prostituted title of knight¬
hood.” The request was granted, but was immediately
followed by another. Bacon, heartily ashamed of the
company in which he was to appear, entreated that he
might be knighted alone ; “ that,” as he says, “ the man¬
ner might be such as might grace one, since the matter
will not.” This petition was refused; and, on the day ot
the coronation, Francis Bacon was one of three bundle
who received the empty honour. Soon afterwards, being
forty-two years old, he was married to the alderman s daugh¬
ter, Alice Barnham, who brought him a considerable fortune,
but seems, in the latter part of his life at all events, to have
contributed little to his domestic happiness.
These details are in themselves trifles; butthey are strange
illustrations of the mixed character of one who, while thus
soliciting honours of which he was half-ashamed, and eager
for public distinctions, which, though more solid, were like¬
wise more dangerous, was not only respected and distinguish¬
ed as a lawyer and a statesman, as an orator, a scholar, and
an author, but was occupied, during his few hours of leisure*
in completing the most valuable system of philosophy that
had ever been expounded in modern Europe. Smaller com-
positions, submitted to his friends, showed from time to time
the progress of the great work which he had marked out as
the business of his life; and among these was the treatise on
the Advancement of Learning, published in 1605, in its au¬
thor's forty-fifth year. Political tracts alternated with these
philosophical speculations.
In the mean time his public reputation, and his favour
with the king, increased and kept pace with each other. In
parliament he was actively useful in forwarding favourite
and really good measures of the court, such as the union of
England and Scotland, and the proposed consolidation of
the laws of the countries. Nor was he less usefully em¬
ployed in taking a prominent part in the select committee of
the house upon grievances : and in his skilful hands, the re¬
port became all that the rulers could have wished, without ex¬
citing any general feeling against the framers. In 1604, he
was made king’s counsel in ordinary, with a salary of forty
pounds, to which was added a pension of sixty pounds. In
1607, upon Coke’s promotion to the bench, Bacon was ap¬
pointed solicitor-general; and he became attorney-general
in 1612. His treatises concerning improvements in the law,
and the principles of legislation, are more creditable testi¬
monies to the value of his official services than some others of
his acts; such as the scheme, first tried in the session of 1614,
for securing majorities in the House of Commons by or¬
ganised corruption, the invention of which has been recently
traced to him, although in his place in parliament he ridiculed
those who asserted that such a project had ever been form¬
ed. Bacon was likewise officially the prosecutor of Oliver
St. John, of Owen and Talbot, and of the old clergyman
Peacham, who was examined in the Tower under torture,
the founder of modern philosophy being present, and put¬
ting the questions. In Peacham’s case there was even an
attempt, actively promoted by Bacon, for securing a convic¬
tion by previous conference with the judges; a plot which,
though at length successful, was defeated for a time by the
sturdy resistance of Coke, a tyrant to his inferiors, but a
staunch opponent of encroachments upon judicial indepen¬
dence. Bacon’s last remarkable appearance as attorney-
general, was in the noted trial of the earl and countess of
Somerset and their accomplices, for the murder of Sir Tho¬
mas Overbury; and, whatever the foul secret may have
been, which was involved in that fiendish intrigue, Bacon’s
letters to the king leave little reason for doubting that he
at least wras in possession of it. His conduct in this matter
however gained him great and deserved credit.
The fall of Somerset was followed by the rise of the new
favourite Villiers, who had already profited by his intimacy
with the attorney-general, and by the sound advices with x
which the cautious statesman endeavoured to fortify his
youth and inexperience. The worthless Buckingham, des¬
tined in a few years to be the instrument of retribution for
Bacon’s past desertion of Essex, did not for some time for¬
get obligations, of which he was probably wise enough to
desire a continuance. In 1616,Bacon having been sworn of
the privy council, relinquished the bar, but retained his cham¬
ber practice.. In the spring of 1617, the Lord Chancellor El¬
lesmere resigned the seals, which were immediately delivered
to Bacon, with the title of lord-keeper. In January of the
succeeding year he was made lord high chancellor of Eng¬
land, and in July was raised to the peerage as Baron of
Verulam. His higher title of Viscount St. Albans was not
conferred on him till 1621. V^ithout neglecting his politi¬
cal duties, he proceeded zealously to the judicial functions
of his office, in which arrears of business had accumulated
through the infirmities of his aged predecessor. “ This day,”
wrote he to Buckingham in June 1617, “ I have made
even with the business of the kingdom for common justice;
not one cause unheard; the lawyers drawn dry of all the
motions they were to make; not one petition unanswered.
And this, I think, could not be said in our age before. Thus
I speak, not out of ostentation, but out of gladness, when I
have done my duty. I know men think I cannot continue,
if I should thus oppress myself with business ; but that ac¬
count is made. The duties of life are more than life : and
if I die now, I shall die before the world be weary of me.”
And the man who wrote in this solemn moral strain, the
man whose writings throughout are an echo of the same lofty
expression of the sense of duty, was also the man who, in less
than four years after his elevation to the seat of justice, was
to be hurled from it in disgrace, branded as a bribed and
dishonest man. “ At York House,” says Mr. Montagu, “ on
the 22d of January 1621, he celebrated his sixtieth birth¬
day, surrounded by his admirers and friends, among whom
was Ben Jonson, who composed a poem in honour of the day.
Hail, happy genius of this ancient pile !
How' comes it all things so about thee smile—
The fire, the wine, the men—and in the midst
Thou stand’st, as if some mystery thou didst ?
Bacon.
« Had the poet been a prophet, he would have described
the good genius of the mansion not exulting, but dejected,
humble, and about to depart for ever. _
He had now arrived at the conviction that his worship ol
the powers of this world had made it impossible for him to
consummate the great sacrifice, which, during his lifetime, he
had hoped to lay upon the altar of philosophy. Aged sixty
years, and immersed in difficult and anxious business, he
felt that his great Restoration of Science, his Instauratio
Magna, could not be completed; and he therefore hastened
to give to the wrorld an outline of its plan, coupled with a h -
ing up of one section of the outline. “ I number my days,
wrote he, “ and wmuld have it saved.” The Novum Orga-
num, the result of this determination, was published in
October 1620; and the fame which it earned for its author
throughout Europe, wTas in its rising splendour when his tall
took place.
The tempest which was soon to overturn the throne was
already lowering on the horizon ; and its earliest mutterings
were heard in the important parliament which met on the
30th of January 1621. With most of the complaints,
whose investigation the king and Buckingham feared so
much, we have here little to do : but two gross abuses there
were, in which the lord chancellor was personally implicated.
He had passed the infamous patents of monopoly, of which
the worst were those held by Sir Giles Mompesson, (Massin¬
ger’s Overreach,) and by Sir Francis Michell, and shared by
Buckingham’s brothers and dependents: and he had allow¬
ed himself to be influenced in his judicial sentences by re-
Bacor, commendations of the favourite. The first of these faults
—£d™tted of palliation, the second was susceptible of none:
but both were real and heavy offences. Yet neither of them
rtT'6 “ a,rtiC e of charSe against Bacon. He was at¬
tacked upon a different ground. Buckingham, by the advice
of Ins new counsellor Williams, then dean of Westminster,
abandoned the monopolists to their fate, contenting himself
with sending his own brothers out of the country, and with
afterwards publicly denying that he had any hand in assist¬
ing their escape. But the storm was not allayed. In March,
the parliamentary committee appointed to inquire into the
existence of abuses in the courts of justice, reported that
abuses did exist, and that the person against whom they were
alleged, was the lord chancellor himself. Two cases were
specified, of suitors named Aubrey and Egerton, of whom
the one had given the chancellor L.100, the other L.400
and against whom he had decided, notwithstanding these
presents. Two days after this report was presented, Lord
St. Albans presided in the House of Lords for the last time.
New accusations accumulated against him; and, alarmed in
mind, and sick in body, he retired from the house, and ad-
BACON.
ing my memory to account, so far as I am able, I do plainly
and ingenuous y confess that I am guilty of corruption, and v
do renounce al defence, and put myself upon the grace and
mercy of your lordships. . . . . This declaration I have
made to your lordships with a sincere mind; humbly crav¬
ing that, if there should be any mistakes, your lordships
would impute it to want of memory, and not to any desire
of mine to obscure truth, or palliate anything. For I do
again confess, that in the points charged upon me, although
they should be taken as myself have declared them, there
is a great deal of corruption and neglect, for which I am
heartily and penitently sorrow, and submit myself to the
judgment, grace, and mercy of the court.—For extenuation,
1 will use none, concerning the matters themselves: only it
may please your lordships, out of your nobleness, to cast
your eyes of compassion upon my person and estate. I
was never noted for an avaricious man, and the apostle saith,
that covetousness is the root of all evil. I hope also that
your lordships do the rather find me in the state of grace •
lor that, in all these particulars, there are few or none that
are not almost two years old, whereas those that have an
355
dressed to the peers a letter, praying for YsusnensiorTnf Y° ,parS 0lCJ’ whereas those that have an
their opinion,until he should have undfro-one a fair trial In tW d° c°mmonly wax worse and worse ; so
no long time the charges against him amounted „ ™tnt, Se s alP f . G.0d '0 Fepare me’ ^ precede"t de-
three; and Williams, again called to the councils of Buckin- mTestnL r ‘ ^ Y preSent Penitency- And for
ham and his master advised that no risks should be incurrld' Jsadrfy my debts”6™ P°0r’ ^ my Care “ n<W
»2sasi».-s£ftiSK
servant in the resolution he had eZessed of doflTn l " ^ rT* and alone’ and to d™
himself, recommended “that he should submit himself "to w^ShakT0 ha,nd thatwas subscribed to it. Among them
the House of Peers, and that upon his pnA dv wofd who Jd been
tiara U   ■ V »UUUlit IlimSeil tO
the House of Peers, and that upon his princely word he
would then restore him again, if they in their honours should
not be sensible of his merits.” On the 24th of April there
was presented to the Lords, by the Prince of Wales, a sup¬
plication and submission of the lord chancellor, in which
the most important passage is the following : “It resteth,
therefore, that, without fig-leaves, I do ingenuously confess
ana acKnowIprlp’f1* Ba'irirw* ^^~a i ^
and acknowledge that, having uude^ STdebbr T™66 which’ stamPin« «"> « all events
house, bmeCght^
the charge, not formally from the house, but enough to in-
and rnernory’ 1 matter sufficient
and full both to move me to desert my defence, and to move
your lordships to condemn and censure me. Neither will
trouble your lordships by singling those particulars, which
-l think may fall off.
l     KJ\J H Li lei HI I
Pn^eTjd t0 death alonf with Essex. Bacon replied to
them. It is my act, my hand, my heart. I beseech your
lordships, be merciful unto a broken reed.” Again the fa1-
en judge prayed the king to intercede for himf and agl
the king, his haughty son, and their thankless favourite,
refused to interfere. On the 3d of May 1621, the lords
pronounced a sentence which, stamping him at all events
with indelible disgrace, was . • ,
Quid te exempta juvat spinis de pluribus una ?
Neither will I prompt your lordships to observe upon the
proofs, where they come not home, or the scruples touching
the credits of the witnesses: neither will I represent unto
ment which it actually inflicted. Bacon, found guilty upon
his own confession, was sentenced to a fine of forty7thou¬
sand pounds, and to confinement in the Tower during the
mgs pleasure; he was pronounced incapable of public
employments, and of sitting in parliament; and prohibited
from coming within the verge of the court. His judges in¬
deed knew that the harsher part of the sentence would not
?£pCTned’ ^ccordmg1yJ though committed immediately
to the Tower, he was released after two davs’ imprison
ment; and the fine was remitted in the course of the au
umn, although it is a fact dishonourable (in the circum¬
stances) to his enemy and successor Bishop Williams, that
the pardon was siav^rl a* .•n ’ uiai
tchete"r„r‘icoa;6re’in respect °f ,L ’i™ ^
tlfinfs t lke f rcumstances ; but only leave these ordered it to be passed ’ the k‘ng ln person
vations of Zi0idL1eTn7rxnar“t:orfheL™ Wh°l6 t6nOT °f tlliS affliCt!”g history’ 14 is Plain
o.ySelf wholly to your piePy an/grace. 1“ The” LtlSof f°„ ‘ " m”05!’ an
fore, my humble suit to your lordships is, thai mv nenitent as he „ u able Sol“,,on- Convicted of corruption,
submission may be my sentence, and the loss of theP eal mv the confess!,?. ^ 0Wn confession, we must either believe
punishment; and that your lordships will snare Tnv ftrthTr mLdTS ’ ■.”d Pron0Unce hlm a oorrnpt judge, or we
sentence butrecommeLme to hismale tXTaceUdpt TrXs ado6nT;Kd^"7"“l!imaliar- M;>stori'isbio-
don for all that is past.” But not even flJwiS “he huS- borate defence iTre^? al4e7atiVe- M/' “‘"’“‘g'1’8 o'a-
ion complete. The house resolved that the submission was verv far diman(■ fV I/ ^unded on something which is not
ClfiC) n°r une(luivocal enough to be sat'SZ rnd JuppoStion s wlT c And’ humiliating a« either
thf ke Sh?uldb,e recluired t0 furnish categorical answe’rs to lieving that the truXliS* °Ur n° hesitation in be-
he everaj articles of charge, which, accordingly, were sent puteslo the unhfnnv I'8 "Z t0 that.tbeory which im-
im, being numbered under twenty-three heads. The rather than wilf.d ^ . an?e or ^sincerity and cowardice
pecific answers which he returned were prefaced and fol far as his enthi.«- .COI7VPtlon; We cannot indeed go so
Wed by these declarations : “ Upon advised consideration charged and ^r C,bl0gra{?her,! Wh° insists that ^Yets
6 ge' des“ndi”«i"to “y own conscience, and call- from moral blame,TotVlllLteVliro^genSS^
Bacon.
356
BACON.
Bacon.
but by intentions strictly honest;—that he was sacrificed by
’ the king and the king’s minion, although, if he had stood a
trial, he could have obtained a full acquittal. This, we must
venture to think, is a position which, if maintained to its
whole extent, cannot be even plausibly defended. Neither,
as we must also believe, is justice done by that other view,
which has been stated more recently with such force and
eloquence, that the case was one of gross bribery, gross and
glaring even when compared with the ordinary course of
corruption in these times; a case so bad, that the court,
anxious, for their own sakes, to save the culprit, dared not
to utter a word in extenuation.1
The fact which possesses the greatest importance tor the
elucidation of this unfortunate story, is that which has been
founded on so elaborately by Mr. Montagu, and lately il¬
lustrated further by another writer for a different purpose.
The custom of giving presents was then general, not to say
universal, in England. It extended much farther than the
epices of the French parliaments ; for the gifts were not fix¬
ed in amount, nor, though always expected, weie t ey re¬
cognised as lawful perquisites. The advisers of the crown
received presents from those who asked for favours: the
sovereign received presents from those who approached the
throne on occasions of pomp and festivity. Both these im¬
proprieties were not only universal but unchallenged, h'l1-
ther, judges received presents; and under certain condi¬
tions,—-when, for instance, the giver had not been, and was
not likely to be, a suitor in the judge’s court, or even when,
though he had been a suitor, the cause was ended,—this
dangerous abuse was scarcely less common than the other,
and scarcely regarded in a more unfavourable light. 1 hat
it was wrong, all men felt; but we tear there were few in¬
deed, who, like Sir Thomas More, refused absolutely to
profit by it. High as Coke himself stood for honesty, and
well as he deserved praise for this (almost his only redeem¬
ing virtue), we doubt whether his judicial character could
have emerged quite untainted from a scrutiny led by com¬
mon informers, discarded servants, and disappointed liti¬
gants, like that to which his unfortunate rival was subject¬
ed. Pure Bacon was not; purer than he, several of his con¬
temporaries probably were; but we believe him to have
been merely one of the offenders, and very far indeed irom
being the worst, in an age when corruption and profligacy,
senatorial, judicial, and administrative, were almost at the
acme of that excess which an indignant nation speedily rose
to exterminate and to avenge.
A comparison of the charges in detail, and of the evidence
adduced, with Bacon’s articulate answers, as to the candoui
of which there is no reason to doubt, would really exhibit
little or nothing which, after fair allowances are made for
imperfect information and other causes of obscurity, would
afford a distinct contradiction to the chancellor’s own so¬
lemn averment, made in a letter to the king at an early
stage of the investigation. “ For the briberies and gifts
wherewith I am charged, when the book of hearts shall be
opened, I hope I shall not be found to have the troubled
fountain of a corrupt heart, in a depraved habit of taking
rewards to pervert justice; howsoever I may be frail, and
partake of the abuses of the times.” While he lay in the
Tower, he addressed to Buckingham a letter containing
these expressions : “ However I have acknowledged that
the sentence is just, and for reformation sake fit, I have
been a trusty, and honest, and Christ-loving friend to your
lordship, and the justest chancellor that hath been in the
five changes since my father’s time.” This last sentence,
indeed, when carefully weighed, will be found to contain
more of truth than the writer himself perhaps intended.
A judge not altogether unjust he may have been, if we
compare him with his contemporaries; but he was also a
trusty, and trusting, and servile friend of the royal favourite, v-
and of other men in power. He was a lover of the pomp
of the world, to an extent highly dangerous for one who
had but little private fortune, insufficient official remunera¬
tion, and habits which disqualified him for exercising a
strict superintendence over the expenses of his household,
or the conduct of his dependents generally. His emolu-
ments as chancellor did not amount to three thousand
pounds a-year; and, immediately on his appointment, he
had used vain endeavours to have the office put on a more
independent footing. His servants habitually betrayed both
him and the suitors; but there can be no doubt that, con¬
tinually embarrassed in circumstances, he himself was only
too glad to receive the customary gifts when they could be
taken with any semblance of propriety. As to his confession,
while we believe it to be true in every particular instance,
we believe it also in its general admission of corruption ;
but we likewise believe that the general admission ought
to have been qualified by certain references, which would
have established the truth of a remark made by Bacon in
his hour of deepest suffering, that “ they upon whom the
wall fell were not the greatest offenders in Israel. And
this, as we conceive it, was the danger which the court were
so eager to avert, the danger which filled the king and
Buckingham with such dismay. This was their reason for
insisting that Bacon should sacrifice his own character, and
abandon that line of defence which might not improbably
have precipitated the revolution. Upon this assumption,
their conduct throughout is intelligible and consistent; and,
although one is reluctant to believe it, the assumption is
not contradicted by any thing in the chancellor’s character.
Lofty as may still have been his abstract notions of morality,
his practical views were darkened and debased by his long
servitude to public office in a corrupt age. The stain
which, as he well knew, the sentence of the parliament
would affix upon his name, may have seemed a light thing
to one who was aware how the same brand might have been
justly imprinted on almost every eminent name in the king
dom. And again, neither Bacon nor his master, nor those
others who were the royal advisers, were able to compre¬
hend, in this instance, any more than elsewhere, the spirit
which had already gone abroad. They did not anticipate
the severity of the sentence pronounced by the House ot
Lords; still less did they anticipate (Bacon at least did not,
nor perhaps did Williams) the universal indignation which
was aroused by the fact that the highest judge in the realm
had been displaced for bribery. The court gained its im¬
mediate purpose, in removing to a subsequent time the
fatal struggle; but there soon arrived the fulfilment ot
Bacon’s prophecy, that the successful attack on him would
be but an encouragement and strengthening to those who
aimed at the throne itself.
After his release from the Tower, Bacon, although strange¬
ly anxious to continue in London, was obliged to retire to
his paternal seat of Gorhambury, near St. Albans, f here “e
immediately commenced his History of Henry the Seventn,
a work displaying but too unequivocal proofs of the deject¬
ed lassitude which had crept upon his mind. Early m next
year he offered himself unsuccessfully for the provostship ot
Eton College, and proceeded with other literary undertakings.
These included the completion of the celebrated treatise,
“ De Augmentis,” an improvement of the older workon tne
Advancement of Learning. This was the last philosophica
treatise which he published; although the few remaming
years of his life were incessantly devoted to study and co
position, and gave birth to the New Atlantis, the y va
Sylvarum, and other works of less consequence.
Bacon.
1 Montagu’s Life of Bacon, Works, vol. xvi. part 1. pp. 313-377, note. Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixv. p. 50-63 (Mr Macaulay).
2 Edinburgh Review, No. 143, p. 38, 39. Life of Raleigh (Professor Napier).
BAG
BAG
Bacon. Shortly before the king’s death, he remitted the whole of
" the sentence on Bacon, who, however, did not again sit in
parliament. His health was already broken ; and in De¬
cember of that year, 1625, he made his will, in which, al¬
though his affairs were really in extreme confusion, he writes
as if he considered himself a wealthy man. In the spring
of 1626, on his way from Gray’s Inn to Gorhambury, he ex¬
posed himself to a sudden chill, by performing in a cottage
an experiment which had suggested itself to him, regarding
the fitness of snow' or ice as a substitute for salt in preserv¬
es dead flesh. Unable to travel home, he was carried to the
earl of Arundel’s house at Highgate, where, after seven
days’ illness, he died early in the morning of Easter Sunday,
the 9th of April, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. In obe¬
dience to his will, he was buried in the same grave with his
mother, in St. Michael’s church, near St. Albans.
It is sad beyond expression to turn to those reflections
which are suggested by the life of this great man, however
leniently one may be disposed to regard his weaknesses.
He who founded the philosophy of modern Europe, he who
brought down philosophy from'heaven to earth, disentang¬
ling it from airy abstractions, and anchoring it on practical
truths,—he who aided science alike by his improvements
on its procedure, and his enlarged view's of its end and aim,
indicating observation of individual truths as the only sure
guide to universal conclusions, and practical utility as the
only quality which makes such conclusions w'orth" the la¬
bour they cost,—he who did all this, was destined to furnish,
by his own pitiable example, a pregnant illustration of the
great principles which his writings taught. A slave to the
world and its vanities, he was betrayed by the evil genius
whom he served. Unable to subject reason, and passion,
and imagination, to the stern control of the moral sense,
he expiated, by a life of discomfort and dependence, ending
in an old age of sorrow and disgrace, the sin of having mis°
apprehended the mighty rule, which alone can save the em¬
pire of the mind from becoming a scene like ancient chaos.
Bacon s philosophy has been analysed in other parts of
this work, and on his literary character we have left our¬
selves no space to enlarge. We can only remark the power¬
ful effect which his singular versatility of talents exercised
over the dissemination of his scientific view's. “ The re¬
putation which Bacon had acquired from his Essays,” says
a late writer, “ a work early translated into various foreign
languages,—his splendid talents as an orator,—and his pro¬
minent place in public life,—were circumstances strongly
calculated to attract the curiosity of the learned world to
his philosophical w ritings.” And these writings in themselves
partake admirably of the character belonging to their au¬
thor’s works of a different class. Philosophy has seldom made
herself more attractive; never has she made herself equally
so in communicating lessons of such sterling value. If the
works of this wonderful man were worthless as repositories
of scientific thought and knowledge, they would still demand
reverential study. A masterly eloquence, a union of diver¬
sified qualities of style in the highest sense of the w ord, dis¬
tinguished even the earlier among them, and entitled those
w'hich were produced in the writer’s maturer years, to rank,
notwithstanding the faults they share wfith all prose com¬
positions of their time, as monuments nowhere excelled in
the compass of English literature.1 (w. s.)
Bacon, John, who may be considered as the founder of
the British school of sculpture, was born Nov. 24. 1740.
He was the son of Thomas Bacon, cloth-worker in South¬
wark, whose forefathers possessed a considerable estate in
Somersetshire.
At the age of fourteen he was bound apprentice in Mr
Crispe’s manufactory of jxwcelain at Lambeth, where he
was at first employed in painting the small ornamental pieces
ot china, but soon attained the distinction of being mo¬
deller to the w ork. The produce of his labour was devoted
by him, from his earliest years, towards the support of his
parents. While thus engaged, he had an opportunity of
seeing the models executed by different sculptors of emi¬
nence, which were sent to be burned at an adjoining pot¬
tery. An observation of these productions d'ppears to have
immediately determined the direction of his genius; and
his progress in the imitation of them was no less rapid than
his propensity to the pursuit was strong. His ardour and
unremitting diligence are best proved by the fact, that the
highest premiums given by the Society for the Encourage¬
ment ot .Arts in those particular classes in which he was a
competitor, were adjudged to him nine times between the
years 1763 and 1776. During his apprenticeship he im¬
proved the method of w orking statues in artificial stone, an
art which he afterwards carried to perfection.
Bacon first attempted working in marble about the year
1163, and, during the course of his early efforts in this art,
w as led, by the resources of his genius, to improve the me¬
thod of transferring the form of the model to the marble
(technically called getting out the points), by the invention
of a more perfect instrument for this purpose, and which
has since been adopted by many sculptors both in this and
other countries.2 The advantages which this instrument
possesses above those formerly employed are, its greater
certainty and exactness, that it takes a correct measure¬
ment in every direction, is contained in so small a compass
as not to encumber the workman, and is transferable either
to the model or the marble, as may be required, without the
necessity of a separate instrument for each.
In the year 1769 the first gold medal given by the Royal
Academy was adjudged to Bacon, and in 1770 he was as¬
sociated by that body. His first work in sculpture was a
bust ot His Majesty George III-, intended for Christ Church
College. It is said, that of sixteen different competitions
in which he engaged with other artists, he w as unsuccess¬
ful in one case only. His knowledge of the classic style
was for a time called in question ; and on occasion of the
doubts which were raised on this point, he is reported to
have modelled his head of Jupiter Tonans, as the most
satisfactory method of repelling the charge. The objection
probably originated from the circumstance, that in some of
his principal works the figures were represented in the
costume ot modem times, of which his statue of Justice
Blackstone at All Souls College, Oxford, and that of
Howard in St Paul's Cathedral, are remarkable examples.
But his genius was not subjected to the trammels of this or
ot any one style exclusively. Many of his emblematical
figures are designed after the purest models, and in a taste
altogether classical. Among several of this character, the
monument to Mrs Draper, in the cathedral of Bristol, is ex¬
quisitely simple. In his later productions, likewise, particu¬
larly those ot a monumental kind, he introduced frequent
examples of the ancient style; as in the well-known monu¬
ment to the Earl of Chatham in Westminster Abbey, that
to Lord Robert Manners, and others w hich might be men¬
tioned. “ Another marble, scarcely finished at the time of
his death,” says Dallaway, in his Anecdotes of the Arts in
England, “ will secure him a lasting fame for originality
and classical taste. It is the cenotaph lately erected in
\\ estmmster Abbey to the poet Mason. A muse, bolding
his profile on a medallion, reclines on an antique altar, on
35V
Bacon.
Montagu’s Life of Bacon, Works, vol. xvi. parts 1 and 2, 1834. Edinburgh Review, vol. lav. BTou 132, article I. Stewart and
l layfair, in the Preliminary Dissertations to this Encyclopaedia. Napier on the Scope and Influence -leal Writings of
Lord Bacon; in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii. part 2. 1818.
The invention of this pointing machine has sometimes been erroneously ascribed to the French sculptor Kudc/n.
358
BAG
BAG
Bacon.
which are sculptured, in relief, a lyre, the tragic masque, and
laurel wreath; all of the most correct form, as seen
ancient sarcophagi of the pure ages.
On the 4th of August 1799, Bacon was suddenly at¬
tacked with inflammation, which occasioned his death
little more than two days, in the 59th year of his age.
left a widow, his second wife, and a family of six sons a
thOf hU & a statuary, the universal and established
reputation of Ins works has afforded decisive proof. I
various productions of this artist which adorn St Bauls
Cathedral, Christ Church and Pembroke Colleges, Oxfoid,
the Abbey Church at Bath, and Bristol Cathedral, give
ample testimony to his powers ; above a , t ^
prominent works among the monuments in Westminste
ABufit was not as an artist only that Bacon wt* esteemed;
he was no less distinguished by the firmness of Ins mind, and
the uprightness of his private character. His principles were
deeply founded, and {he virtues which be strove o ^ n
were measured by a standard more unbending than the meie
TtaSlelinJor of a cultivated taste. He was an avowed
believer in the truths of the Christian religion ; and in him
this belief exhibited its corresponding effects, by producing
a consistent influence upon his whole character and conduct.
With great simplicity of manners, he was in al things de
void of ostentation. Of the general powers of Ins nnnd and
particularly of his acute and just perception in matters o
taste connected with his art, a very favourable opinion wiU
be formed by those who peruse the article Sculpture
which he contributed to Dr Rees’ edition of Chambers s Dtc-
11°See*Memoir of the late John Bacon, R.A., by the Rev.
Richard Cecil. London, 1811. (J. G P-j
Bacon, Sir Nicholas, lord keeper of the great seal in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Chislehurst m Kent
in 1510, and educated at the university of Cambridge , after
which he travelled in France, and made some stay at Pari .
On his return he settled in Grays Inn and applied him¬
self with such assiduity to the study of the ^w, that he
quickly distinguished himself; and, on the dissofution of the
monastery of St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk, he bad a grant
from King Henry VIIL, in the thirty-sixth year of his reign
of several manors. In the thirty-eighth of the same king he
was promoted to the office of attorney in the court of war ,
which was a place both of honour and profit. In this office
he was continued by King Edward VI.; and in loo- he
was elected treasurer of Gray’s Inn. His great modera¬
tion and consummate prudence preserved him through the
dangerous reign of Queen Mary. Very early m tfie reign
of Elizabeth he was knighted; and on the 22d of December
1558, he succeeded Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York,
as keeper of the great seal of England, with the title of Lord
Keeper; and he was also made one of the queens privy
council. He had a considerable share in the settling ot
religion ; and, as a statesman, he was remarkable for a
clear head and wise counsels. But his great parts and
high preferment were far from raising him in his own esti¬
mation, as appears from the modest answer he gave Queen
Elizabeth when she told him his house at Redgrave was
too little for him: “Not so, madam,” returned he; but
vour maiesty has made me too great for my house. After
having held the great seal more than twenty years, this able
statesman and faithful counsellor was suddenly removed
from the scene of his labours. He had been under the hands
of his barber, and, thinking the weather warm had ordered
a window before him to be thrown open ; but he fell asleep
as the current of fresh air was blowing in upon him, and
awakened some time after extremely distempered. He was
immediately removed into his bed-chamber and died a
few days after, on the 26th of February 1579, equally la¬
mented by the queen and her subjects. He was buried in
St Paul’s, where a monument was erected to his
This was destroyed by the great fire of London in 1666.
Granger observes that he was the first lord keeper who ranked _
as lord chancellor; and that he had much of that penetrat¬
ing genius, solidity, judgment, persuasive eloquence and
comprehensive knowledge of law and equity, which after¬
wards shone forth with so great splendour in his illustrious
SOBacon, Roger, a Franciscan friar of great genius and
learning, was born near Ilchester in Somersetshire in
the vear 1214. He began his studies at Oxford, but in
what school or college is uncertain. Thence he removed
to the university of Paris, which in those times was esteemed
the centre of literature. Here, we are told, he made such
rapid progress in the sciences, that he was esteemed t e
glory of that university, and was much honoured by several
of his countrymen, particularly by his friend and patron,
Robert Greathead, afterwards bishop of Lincoln. About
the year 1240 he returned to Oxford, and, assuming t e
Franciscan habit, prosecuted his favourite study of ex¬
perimental philosophy with unremitting ardour and assi¬
duity. In this pursuit, in experiments, instruments, and
scarce books, he tells us he spent, in the space of twenty
years, no less than L.2000, which, it seems, was given him
by some of the heads of the university to enable him to
continue his interesting inquiries. But such e*t™ordmary
talents, and astonishing progress in sciences which, in that
ignorant age, were totally unknown to the rest of mankind,
whilst they raised the admiration of the more intelligent
few, failed not to excite the envy and malice of his illiterate
fraternity, who found no difficulty in possessing the vulgar
with the" notion that Bacon dealt in the magic art Under
this pretence he was restrained from reading his lectures,
his writings were confined to his convent; and^ find1^
1278 he was himself imprisoned in his cell. At this ti
he was sixty-four years of age. Nevertheless, being per¬
mitted the use of his books, he persevered m the rational
pursuit of knowledge, corrected his former labours, and
‘wrote several curious essays. When he had been ten ye^
in confinement, Jerome de Ascoh being elected pope, Bacon
solicited his holiness for release, but did not .mmed^tely
succeed in his object. However, towards the latter end o
that pope’s reign he obtained his liberty, and spent the re¬
mainder of hisMe in the college of his order where he died
according to Anthony a Wood, in 1292 and was buried in
the Franciscan church. Bale and others have enumerated a
large list 0f works as written by Bacon, and existing in
manuscript in various collections. Several of his tracts were
published^ in the work entitled Epistola Fratns Rogeri
XBaconis de Secretis Operibus Artis et Natural, et de u i-
tate Maqice. Paris, 1542, 4to; Basil, 1593, 8vo. His
Opus Majus, which forms a sort of digest of his Pr®ce<jHg
writings, was first published in 1733, m a handsome folio
volume by Dr Jebb. Some of his chemtea! fracte maybe
found in the Thesaurus Chemims, published at Frankfort
in 1603 and 1620. By an attentive perusal of h'S wor
the reader will find that Roger Bacon was a great linguist
and a skilful grammarian; that he was well versed in he
theory and practice of perspective ; that he understood the
use of convex and concave glasses, the camera obscura,
ing-glasses, &c.; that he was conversant m geography^
astrmiomy ; that he knew the great error jn ^ f end^
assigned the cause, and proposed the remedy , th^ ^ un
derstood chronology well; that he was in alJ Pr^^abie
inventor of gunpowder ; that he possessed c
knowledge in the medical art; and that he was an able m
thTrctNT°fe,8Jo^ti&fe Resolute Doctor, a
learned monl born towards’the end of the 13,h century a,
Baconthorp, a village in Norfolk. After spending the early
Bacon
Bacon¬
thorp.
Bactria
BAB
part of his life in the convent of Blakeney, near Walsingham,
he removed to Oxford, and from thence to Paris, where he
He re,raCted' He <lied in
e wrote, 1. Commentama, seu Quastiones super quatuor
^hTV and’ 2- Compendium Legis ChrZ
tols0^ S bothof which passed through several edi-
BACTRIA or Bactriana (now Bokhara), an ancient
kingdom of Asia, bounded on the W. by Margiana N bv
the river Oxus, E by Asiatic Scythia, and S by S P^ro-
pamisan, range. This country was very fertile, and inhabited
by a numerous and warlike race. It became a Persian pro¬
vince about the time of Cyrus, and afterwards figured inthe
wars of Alexander being celebrated for its cavalry It
firmed part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae; but about
• • , I hcodotus, who was the governor, threw off the
Grecian yoke, and Bactria remained independent till about
B.C 126, when it was conquered by the Parthians. Its ca-
townTf Bdhtia Tl Za/.iaspa’ ^responding to the modern
traced bv Cnt; I T v'T7 BaCtria beSan to be iHus-
trated by Coionel lods discovery of Bactrian coins (Bo?/a/
As atic Soc. Trans. 1824); since which time various tm-
vellers have completed the series, such as now found in the
PaB A^TRdTGL°nd0i1 Museums- See Bokhara, Balk.
a.} , .an American genus of low palms, found in
equinoctial regions, in the neighbourhood of rivers or in
marshy grounds. Martins describes 17 species. The leaves
spring from all parts of the stem.
BACULARIUS, in writers of the middle age, an eccle-
siastical apparitor or verger, who carries a staff, baculus, in
ms hand, as an ensign of his office.
BACULE (French, Bascule), in Fortification, a kind
of portcullis or gate, made like a pit-fall with a counter¬
poise, and supported by two large stakes. It is usually erect-
place6 01^6 the C°rpade guard’ not far from the of a
B£PiJ0S> a Province of Spain, forming, by the division
of 1833, the southern half of the old province of Estrema-
ura, or what is generally called Lower Estremadura. It is
bounded on the N. by Caceres, E. by Ciudad Real, S. and
b.E. by Cordova, Sevilla, and Huelva, and W. by Portu¬
gal, embracing an area of 596 square leagues. It contains
Vbpartidos, 162 ayuntamientos, deities, 123 towns, and 45
villages ; pop. m 1849, 336,136. See Estremadura.
Badajos, a fortified city of Spain, the capital of the
above province, and the see of a bishop. It is situated
about 5 miles from the Portuguese frontier, on a slight ele-
rrnT Tu ^ ^ bank of the Gua<Jiana. The height is
wnedby the ruins of a Moorish castle. A strong wall
and bastions, with a broad moat and outworks, and forts on
s!rPn?tb°U"nI!lg heightS’ make the city a Place of great
i • i g '. . llver 18 crossed by a magnificent granite
in % b111.11 in 11469’ repaired in 1597, and rebuilt
"bhe city is well built, and contains an arsenal, a
cathedral, 6 churches, and several hospitals and schools. Its
han-011^8161168!^ ad Secidar^zed > one is occupied as infantry
iK imkS 1 and °f ltS ? nunneries 4 are closed. Badajos from
rmmfi portai?ce as a frontier garrison has been the scene of
whpn''?118 sieges’ jf16 ^ast an4 most severe was in 1812,
and Wa? St0ymfd b^the f^ritish troops under Wellington,
the nrp ne Wlt 1 drea4fu^ p)ss> ft had been surrendered in
mandpr fUilyear t0 S01llt by the treachery of Imaz the com-
Sres of H ^•SarnS°n- The legitimate trade and manufac-
traffie is r a are .laC01)lsiderable ; but much contraband
tratiic is carried on with Portugal. Pop. 11,480.
B A D 359
theuZ AT“‘£ 0f the Eon,ans’ corrupted by B.d.k.h.»
; , ‘ or B™csCHAif, a mountainous district B,d™-
sduated to the N. of the great Himalaya ridge, S
ioumev E S E „Df R ^ " abo'U tw^ ^
journey E.b.E. of Bokhara, and nearly S. of Kokaun
It comprehends the higher valley of the Amoo, which is*
mie called the Jihon or the Jaxartes, together with all the
other valleys of its tributary streams, and all the moun¬
tains connected with them as far nearly as the sources of
that river. The district of Badakshan rises gradually to its
lev el from the lower and northern part of the province of
Balk, which occupies the left bank further down the river.
his country is described as mountainous and well wooded
and the people as uncivilized, and even savage in their man-
Tii i T in villages surrounded with gardens, and
situated in the little glens and recesses of the hills. The
mountamous districts of this province are famed for some of
the richest mines of lapis lazuli and of rubies that are known.
Ihe former is found in veins, sometimes of considerable
thickness, in a gray matrix ; and masses of this stone are oc¬
casionally procured capable of being wrought into large slabs.
iey are carried to Bokhara for sale, and thence to Russia,
e rubies are found imbedded in a white earth, in large
found8S°T, krge and C°arSe crystals are aLo
IWr TE as.emerald8> according to the information of
1 raser. The chief town is Fyzabad, which is said to be not
more than 150 miles from Balk. There is another town
o the same name as the province, and of considerable im-
^ l raSer COald gain little authentic information
einmg tie people of this remote country, their habits
aasrSEx <“ •'—»
ADALOCCIO, Sisxo, a painter and engraver, born at
sPeZr„frrthe 6 ■ dt,0f ‘i;6 16,th century- He was of the
deshrn H,:. a^C“’ fy Whom lle was “gMy “teemed for
TlfriilJe |[foC1|,f engravlngs are the series known as
fA ?T°^£fa^0—(Lanzi’ Storia Pittor.)
• fi (Batulo of the Romans), a town of Spain
• coas? lOmdes N pleasantly situated on tpcsea-
coast, 10 miles N.E. of Barcelona. It is remarkable as the
KUST the, A.rchduke Charles of Austria and the
Pn ! terbTUgh’m the War of the accession in 1704.
1seamen and fishermen.
r DLN’ Crand Duchy op, is situated in the S.W. Boundaries
of Germany, between Lat. 47. 32. and 49. 52. N.; and
Long. 7. 27. and 9. 50. E. It is bounded on the N. by Ba-
See S bTs ZZV W', ^ Bavaria and
“dAEt-thbey Wirtemberg Z-
the present century,
"moS Teeding 13°? ^ a"LPo“„”
diHnn?! ip. ;nCe thev 11 has fr01n time t0 time acquired ad-
rqnn , 01 n ory’ 80 that its area now amounts to upwards of
a hah: mi eS’ and ltS population t0 nearly a million and
family6 the"fbumL belonged to the Zahringen History.
;OUnder f wh,ch was Berthold, landgrave of
Br^isgau, who flourished about the middle of the 11th cen¬
tury. Berthold s third son, Hermann, acquired Baden by
rSn'ami o\gi?nd-T’ ?ermann IL>fi^d his residence
t aden, and took the title of margrave. Margrave Christo-
P er7as succeeded on his death in 1527 by his three sons
one of whom however died soon after, and the margraviate was
ite of BTgH e,tW° SUarviv°rS’ "bo thus formed the two
of b1l t -Baden and Baden-Durlach. The line of Ba-
in mi yb0031116 ext,nct by the death of Augustus George
nillrr i ltSp0S8e881uus were united with Baden-Durlach
ar es Frederick. By the treaty of Luneville con-
B60
BADEN.
Baden.
eluded in 1801, Baden acquired a considerable addition of
—%  territory, which was farther increased in 1803 when the mar¬
grave received the title of elector. The treaty of Piesburg,
in 1805, still farther increased his domains, by the addition
of Breiso-au, so that Baden had then an area of 3455 square
miles, with 670,000 inhabitants. On the dissolution of the
German empire, and his joining the confederation of the
Rhine, in 1806, the elector received the title of Grand Duke,
and 1950 square miles of additional territory. Some smaller
additions at subsequent periods have increased Baden to its
Preinenit832eitt'was divided into 4 circles, 74 bailiwicks,
Population and 1595 communes. By the census of 1849, the popu a-
tion was 1,362,774 ; of whom 905,143 were Roman Catho¬
lics, 432,184 Protestants, and 23,547 Jews. The following
table gives the extent and population of each of the tour
circles according to the census of 1852 :
Circles. Square Miles. Bailiwicks. Communes. Poplin 1852.
Upper Rhine, S H g
mt g IS g
5904 74 1595 1,356,943
Baden contains 115 cities, 45 market towns, 1634 villages,
and 533 hamlets. The capital of the duchy is Carlsruhe :
Pop. 23,217. . .... , .
Physical Baden is principally of a mountainous or hilly character,
features, interspersed with fertile and pleasant valleys. On the west¬
ern side of this country, and extending along the Rhine, is
a very fertile stripe of land, from which the rest of the coun¬
try rises towards the east. In the southern and eastern parts
is the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), extending northwards as
far as the Neckar, north of which is the Odenwald range,
sometimes considered as a part of the Schwarzwald, but con¬
siderably less elevated. The highest peaks of the Black
Forest are the Feldberg and the Belchen, which attain re¬
spectively the height of 4650 and 4397 feet: the Katzen-
biickel, the highest point of the Odenwald, is only 2180 feet
high. Lying between the Rhine and the 1 reisam is the
Kaiserstuhl, an independent volcanic group, nearly 10 miles
in length and five in breadth, the highest point of which is
1760 feet.
This country is watered by numerous rivers and streams :
of these, the principal is the Rhine, which is the recipient
of almost all the rest, and forms the boundary of the duchy
on the S. and W. Among its other rivers are the Mayn,
Tauber, Neckar, Murg, Kinzig, Wutach, Pfinz, and Elz.
The Danube too takes its rise here. Baden has also a num¬
ber of lakes, as the Mummel Wilder, Nonnenmattweiher,
Titti, Eichener, Schluch, &c. A part of Lake Constance be¬
longs to Baden.
Climate The climate of Baden varies considerably with the eleva¬
tion, but is everywhere very salubrious. In the plains
and5valleys it is mild and agreeable, but in the higher parts
it is cold and moist, with snow during a great part of the
year ; and the transition from winter to summer is often very
sudden.
Agricul- The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agricultural and
ture. pastoral pursuits, for which their country affords many ad¬
vantages. In the valleys and plains the soil is particularly
fertile and productive, yielding most luxuriant crops of wheat,
maize, barley, beans, potatoes, flax, hemp, and tobacco ; and
even in the mountainous parts, rye, wheat, and oats are ex¬
tensively cultivated. There is also a considerable extent of
pasture land, and a great part is covered with woods. The
vineyards are extensive, producing various kinds of excellent
wine, and the gardens and orchards supply abundance of
fruits of the finest description, especially almonds, chestnuts,
and walnuts. The distribution of the surface of the duchy
is as follows:—
Morgens.
Arable   
Meadow  ^6,613
Gardens ....^  67,507
Woods and Forests    1,296,861
Quarries, Gravel and Clay Pits ... 102
Waste land  
Buildings, Roads, and Waters ... 711,594
Per cent.
>r 34,8
9-6
5-3
1-6
0-9
30-5
0-0
0-5
16-8
Baden.
4,244,340 100-0
The manufactures of Baden were formerly very insigni- Manufac-
ficant, but latterly they have been much improved. 1 hey tures.
are, however, chiefly confined to iron and hardware goods,
and the spinning and weaving of cotton. 1 he inhabitants
of the Black Forest have long been celebrated for their dex¬
terity in the manufacture of wooden ornaments and toys,
watches, clocks, musical boxes, organs, &c. There are exten¬
sive government salt-works at Durrheim and Rappenau, and
iron-works at Albbrugg and other places. The minesof Ober- Minerals,
wert and Kandern produce excellent iron. Silver, gold, and
copper are also among its mineral productions, as well as
alum, vitriol, sulphur, and coal. Gold washing, formerly ex¬
tensively carried on along the Rhine, is now little practised.
The mineral springs of Baden are very numerous, and have
“Tteeir^olBad™ are very considerable, and exceed Cohere
a million sterling per annum, consisting chiefly of its agricul¬
tural and industrial products. It has about 75 leagues of
railways, the principal of which is that traversing almost the
entire length of the country, from Mannheim to Basle in
Switzerland, and of which 62 leagues are in Baden.
The educational institutions of Baden are numerous and Education,
flourishino-. There are two universities, the Protestant one
at Heidelberg, founded in 1386, and the Catholic one at
Freiburg, founded in 1457. The attendance at the former in
1849 was 543, at the latter 368. There are also 6 lyceums,
5 gymnasiums, 4 normal schools, 19 higher and ' Li*tin
schools, besides about 2000 common schools established
throughout the country. There is an institution in Pforz¬
heim for the deaf and dumb, and one in Freiburg for the blind.
A polytechnic school was established about 18 years ago at
Carlsruhe, and is now perhaps the most efficient institution
of the kind in Germany. It has a staff of 41 teachers, and
about 330 students. The preparatory course extends over
three years, and includes French, German, English, general
history, mathematics, drawing, modelling, chemistry, miner¬
alogy and geology, mechanics, &c. The special courses are
engineering, architecture, forestry, chemistry, mechanics,
commerce, and post-office service ; and extend over from
one to four ye&rs« * i • i.Vv (rovcm*
The government is a hereditary monarchy, vested in the ment
grand duke, who enjoys the executive and judicial powers,
but is assisted in the legislative by two chambers, the one o
peers, and the other of deputies. The chamber of peers
consists of 36 members, 8 of whom are chosen by the grand
duke, and one by each of the two universities; the remain¬
ing members are, the Roman Catholic archbishop of k rei-
burg, a Protestant prelate, and the principal nobility. I he
chamber of deputies has 64 members, elected by all the males
who have attained their twenty-fifth year. Each member
must be at least 30 years of age, and is elected for 8 years ,
one-fourth of the members going out every two years.
Baden occupies the seventh rank in the Germanic co
federation, airnishes a contingent of 10 000 nten to the
federal army. It has three votes in the full diet, and one in
the minor assembly. By the approved budge o
1853, the clear united revenue for these yeaio wa
at 19,536,497 florins (L.1,628,041), and the exP^dl^be
at 19,545,723 florins (L.1,628,810). The public debt
in 1852 was 60,894,107 florins (L.5,0/4,509), of
BAD
Baden 32,609,791 florins (L.2,717,482) was a loan contracted for
lj the construction of railways in the country.
Leblich Baden, or Baden-Baden, a town and celebrated water-
ing-place of Germany, in the circle of Middle Rhine and
Grand Duchy ot Baden. It stands on the Oos, in a valley of
the Black h orest, 18 miles S. W. of Carlsruhe ; and it is con¬
nected by a branch with the Mannheim and Basle railway.
Baden during the months of July and August is frequented
by great numbers of visitors from all parts of Europe, so
that its resident population, which is only about 6000, is fre¬
quently augmented to three times that number. There are
thirteen hot springs, varying in temperature from 37° to 54°
R., = 115 to 156 F.; and the water is conveyed through
the town in pipes to supply the different baths. The supe¬
riority of its situation, its extensive pleasure-grounds, gar¬
dens, and promenades, render Baden one of the first water¬
ing-places in Germany. It was for six centuries the resi¬
dence of the margraves of Baden. The “ old castle” occu¬
pying the summit of a hill above the town, was the earliest
residence of the reigning house ; and the “ new castle” (so
called by comparison), situated close to the town, is remark¬
able for its subterranean dungeons. Baden has a library and
reading-room, theatre, assembly rooms, and the other ac¬
cessaries of a fashionable watering-place. The parish church
contains monuments of several of the margraves. The springs
of Baden were known to the Romans under the name of
Aurelia Aquemis, and fragments of ancient sculpture are still
to be seen there. In 1847 remains of Roman vapour baths,
well preserved, were discovered just beneath the new castle.
Baden, a small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Aar-
gau, on the Limmat, 14 miles N.W. of Zurich. It is much
resorted to, principally by the Swiss, on account of its hot
medicinal springs. The treaty of 1714 between France and
Germany was concluded here. Pop. 2500.
Baden, a small city in the Austrian province of the Lower
Ens, in the circle of Wiener Wald. It is about twelve miles
from Vienna, and is the most fashionable summer resort of
the inhabitants of that capital. The situation is highly ro¬
mantic, and the prospects in its vicinity are picturesque and
beautiful. It has many warm baths, which are much re¬
sorted to by invalids. Accommodations and amusements
are here as amply furnished to the visitors as at the other
German spas. Baden suffered much by a fire in 1812, but
has since been very elegantly rebuilt. The Archduke
Charles has a residence at this place, which is a favourite
retirement of the imperial family. The stationary popula¬
tion amounts to 4000. Baden stands on the rapid river
Schwachat, whose water-falls greatly enhance its natural
beauties.
BADENOCH, a district of Inverness-shire in Scotland.
(See Inverness-shire.)
BADENS, Francis, an historical and portrait painter,
born at Antwerp in 1571 ; died in 1603. He was distin¬
guished by the warmth of his colouring, for which he has
been surnamed the Italian.
BADEN-WEILER, a village in the Grand Duchy of
Baden, and circle of Upper Rhine, celebrated for its alka¬
line thermal springs and baths. Remains of Roman baths
still exist here.
BADGER. See Mammalia, Index.
LADIA Y LEBLICH, Domingo, a celebrated Spanish
traveller, better known under his assumed name of Ali Bey,
was born in Biscay in the year 1776. After receiving a
very liberal education, he made himself master of the Ara¬
bic language, and the usages of the Mussulmans, with a
view to facilitate his Oriental travels. He was employed
by the I rench government as a political agent in the East;
and after submitting to the rite of circumcision, he assumed
Hie Mussulman costume, in which disguise he visited Egypt,
labia, and Syria, and was received as a person of high
rank wherever he appeared. He returned to Europe ; but
VOL. IV.
B A E 361
again visiting the East, he died at Aleppo in 1819, it is Badile
said by poison. His travels appeared in 1814, under the II
title of Voyage d’Ali Bey en Asie et en Afrique. &c., in Baeza-
3 vols. 8vo, and they have been translated into English!
BADILE, Antonio, an historical and portrait painter
born at Verona in 1480. He was confessedly an eminent
arti.st; but he derived greater honour from having had two
such disciples as Paolo Veronese and Baptista Zelotti, than
from the excellence of his own compositions. He died in
1560.
BADIUS, Jodocus or Josse, sometimes called Radius
Ascensius, from the village of Asche near Brussels, where
he was born in 1462, was an eminent printer at Paris, whose
establishment was celebrated under the name of Prelum
Ascensianum. He illustrated with notes several of the
classics which he printed, and was himself the author of
numerous pieces, amongst which are a life of Thomas a
Kempis, and a satire on the follies of women, entitled
Navicula Stultarum Mulierum. He died in 1535.
BAENA, a town and partido in the province of Cordova
in Spain. 1 he town, 8 leagues S.E. of Cordova, is pic¬
turesquely situated on the slope of a hill crowned with a
castle, near the river Marbello. It has four parish churches
and three schools, one of which, a female college, with an
attendance of 167 pupils (1847), has a high reputation in
the province. The education, which is conducted by Sisters
of Charity, does not go beyond reading, writing, arithmetic,
and religious instruction. Grain and oil are the principal
articles of commerce. Pop. 12,944. The site of the Ro¬
man town (Baniana or Biniana) can still be traced, and
various antiquities are to be met with. A subterranean
vault was discovered in 1833, containing twelve cinerary urns
with inscriptions commemorating various members of the
Pompeian family.
BiETICA, a province of ancient Spain, so called from
the famed river Baetis, now Guadalquivir. It was bounded
on the W. and N.W. by Lusitania, on the S. by the Medi¬
terranean and Sinus Gaditanus, and on the E. and N.E. by
Tarraconensis.
B/L 1 \LIA (fSaLTvXia, fiaiTvXoi), anointed stones, wor¬
shipped by the Phoenicians and other barbarous nations.
They were commonly of a black colour, and consecrated to
some god, as Saturn, Jupiter, the sun. Some are of opinion
that the true original of these idols is to be derived from
the pillar of stone which Jacob erected at Bethel, and which
was afterwards worshipped by the Jews. These bcetylia
were the objects of much veneration among the ancient
heathens. Many of their idols were in fact no other ; and
no sort was more common in Eastern countries than that of
erect oblong stones, hence termed by the Greeks kiovcs,
pillars. Daedalus separated the mass into two feet, whence
he is said to have made walking statues. In some parts of
Egypt they were planted on both sides of the highways. In
the temple of Elagabalus in Syria, there was one said to
have fallen from heaven ; and in Phrygia there was a black
stone, also considered an aerolite ; which the Romans sent
for, and received with much ceremony, Scipio Nasica being
at the head of the embassy.
BAEZA (ancient Beatia), a city and partido in the pro¬
vince of Jaen in Spain. The city, which is well built, stands
on a considerable elevation, about 3 miles from the right bank
of the Guadalquivir. Lat. 37. 59. N. Long. 3. 28. W.
It has a cathedral and several fine public buildings, among
which the most worthy of notice are the university, the
oratorio of St Philip Neri, the marble fountain with Cary¬
atides in the Plaza de la Constitucion, the gates “ de Cor¬
doba y Ubeda, and the arch of Baeza. The latter are
among the remains of its old fortifications, which were of
great strength. There is little trade or manufacture here.
The principal productions of the neighbourhood are grain
and oil. I he red dye made from the native cochineal was
2 z
362
BAG
Baffa once celebrated; but this, as well as other branches of
II dustry, has fallen greatly in importance. Inthe time ot the
Baghdad. ]y[oorS) Baeza was a flourishing city of 50,000 mhab t
v Present pop. about 11,000. u.uh
BAFFA, a town in the island of Cyprus, with a fort bu
near the site of the ancient Paphos, of which some rums yet
remain, particularly fragments of columns, which probaWy
belonged to a temple of Venus. Long. 32. 20. L. .
34 50. N. See Paphos. . . „ r ,
BAFFIN, William, an able and enterprising Eng i
seaman, born in 1584. His descriptions of part of the bay
which bears his name have been found remarkably accurate
bv later navigators. His voyages to those regions were per-
formed in 1612, 1613, 1615, and 1616, while he was only a
subordinate; bit he gave the accounts of discovene.
In 1618 he was mate in a voyage to Surat and Mocha,
but in 1621 he was killed, while attempting, in conjunction
with a Persian force, to expel the Portuguese from Ormuz.
BAFFlbJ’^BAY*,^large inland sea separating Green-
land from the N.E. coast of America, and extending from
68° to 78° N. Lat., and from 52° to 80 VV. Long. t was
first explored in 1616 by the English navigator Baffin It
is connected by Davis’s Strait with the Atlantic, and by Lan¬
caster Sound and Barrow’s Strait with the Arctic Ocean.
The coasts are generally high and precipitous, an^ ar
deeplv indented with gulfs. During the greater pait of
the year this sea is frozen, and is only navigable from
the beginning of June to the end of September. It i
annually visited by vessels engaged in the whale and sea
fiSlBAFRA, a town of Asia Minor, pashalic of Sivas, on
the right bank of the Kizil Ermak, 13 miles from its mouth
in the Black Sea. It has a fine bridge ant[tw0 ™^ues’
and some trade in rice and tobacco. Pop. about 3000.
BAGHDAD, a city of Asia, formerly the capital of the
empire of the khalif, and long renowned for its commerce
and its wealth. It is situated on an extensive and desert
plain, with scarcely a tree or village throughout its whole
extent; and, though it is intersected by the 1 igns it stands
mostly on its eastern bank, close to the water s edge. Old
Baghdad on the W. is now considered only as a suburb to
the larger and more modern city on the eastern shore. It
has, however, numerous and extensive streets, well furnished
with shops, and is protected by strong walls, with three gates
opening towards Hillah on the Euphrates and Kazameen.
Beyond these recent bulwarks, vestiges of ancient buildings,
spreading in various directions, are visible in the plam,
which is strewed with fragments of brick, tiles, and rubbish.
A burying-ground has extended itself over a large tract ot
land formerly occupied by the streets of the city ; and here
is the tomb of Zobeida, the favourite wife of Haroun el
llaschid, built of brick, of a high octagonal shape, and sur¬
mounted by a lofty superstructure in the form of a cone.
The two towns of Old and New Baghdad are connected by
a bridge of thirty pontoons. The form of the new city is
that of an irregular oblong, about 1500 paces in length by
800 in breadth ; and a brick wall, 1500 paces in length and
about five miles in circuit, incloses the town on both sides
of the river. This wall, which is built of brick, has been
constructed and repaired at different periods ; and, as in
most other works of the same nature in Mahometan
countries, the oldest portion is the best, and the more mo¬
dern the worst part of the fabric. At the principal angles
are large round towers, with smaller towers intervening at
short distances; and on these large towers batteries are
planted, with about fifty brass cannon of different calibre,
badly mounted. In two of these angular towers, Mr Buck¬
ingham remarked that the workmanship is equal to any
ancient masonry that he had ever seen. The wall has three
gates, one on the S.E., one on the N.E., and a third on
BAG
the N.W. of the city ; and it is surrounded by a dry ditch Baghdad,
of considerable depth. The town has been built with-
out the slightest regard to regularity. The streets are even
more intricate and winding than those in most other East¬
ern towns; and, with the exception of the bazaars and
some open squares, the interior is little else than a a y-
rinth of alleys and passages. The streets are unpaved, and
in many places so narrow that two horsemen can scarcely
pass each other; and as it is seldom that the houses have
windows facing the great public thoroughfares, and the
doors are small and mean, they present on both sides the
gloomy appearance of dead walls. All the buildings, both
public and private, are constructed of furnace-burnt bricks,
of a yellowish-red colour, taken chiefly from the rums o
other edifices, as their rounded angles evidently show. _ A
house is generally laid out in ranges of apartments opening
into a square interior court, and furnished with subterranean
rooms called serdaubs, into which the inhabitants retrea
during the day for shelter from the intense heats of sum¬
mer ; and with terraced roofs, on which they take their
evening meal, and sleep in the open air. In the months of
June, July, and August, the thermometer at break of day
generally stands at 112° of Fahrenheit; at noon it rises to
119° and a little before two o’clock to 122 ; at sunset it
is about 117° ; and at midnight 114°. In some seasons it
rises even higher ; and at these times the inhabitants during
the day take refuge in the subterranean apartments, where
they endeavour, by every possible device, to mitigate the
intolerable heat. The interiors of the houses of the rich are
splendidly furnished, and ornamented in the ceilings with a
sort of chequered work, which has a handsome appearance.
A great portion of the ground within the walls of the town
is unoccupied by buildings, especially m the north-eastern
quarter ; and even in the more populous parts of the city,
near the river, a considerable space between the houses is
occupied by gardens, which produce pomegranates, grapes,
figs, olives, and dates, in great abundance; so that the city
when seen from a distance, has the appearance of rising out
°f The public buildings in Baghdad are chiefly the mosques,
the khans or caravanserais, and the serai or palace o t e
nasha. This latter building, which is situated in the north¬
western quarter of the town, not far from the Figns, is distin¬
guished rather for extent than grandeur. It is a compara-
tively modern structure, built at different periods, and form¬
ing a large and confused pile, without proportion, beauty,
or strength. There are no remains of the ancient palace ot
^In alllviahometan cities the mosques lire conspicuous ob¬
jects. The number in Baghdad is above 100 ; but °f these
not more than thirty are distinguished by their particular
minarets or steeples, the rest being merely chapels and ve-
nerated places of prayer. Themosta.nc.ent of these m„^s
was erected in the year of the Hegira 633, or U6o ot tne
Christian era by the Khalif Mostanser. All that remains
of the original building is the minaret, and a small P0rtl0Il
of the outer walls; the former a short, heavy erection, of
the most ungraceful proportions, built of bricks of various
colours, diagonally crossed. The jamah or mosque of Mer
jameeah, not far distant from the „ 2
of it is modern, has some remains of old and very 11c
arabesque work on its surface. The door .s formed by a
ioftv arch of the pointed form, bordered on both side, by
ritdfbTnds exquisitely
guiLd by 2t2flS“VRomantach, u?«h
and unadorned reces^ 'S “ome ^ h italofflowera
rra7nfS^S^ntf iwn s'tyle. Around
the arch is a sculptured frieze ; and down the centre, at the
back of the niche, is a broad band, richly sculptured with
BAGHDAD.
363
Baghdad, vases, flowers, Sec., in the very best style of workmanship;
the whole executed on a white marble ground. The mos¬
que of the vizier, near the Tigris, has a fine dome and
lofty minaret; and the great mosque in the square of El
Maidan is also a noble building. The others do not merit
any particular notice. The domes of Baghdad are mostly
high, and disproportionately narrow. They are richly or¬
namented with glazed tiles and painting, the colours chiefly
green and white, which, being reflected from a polished
surface, impart more of liveliness than magnificence to the
aspect of these buildings. But, in the opinion of Mr Buck¬
ingham, they are not to be compared to the rich and stately
domes of Egypt, as the minarets, although they have the
same bright assemblage of colours, are far from being equal
“ to the plain and grave dignity of some of the Turkish
towers at Diarbekir, Aleppo, and Damascus, or to the lighter
elegance of many of those in the larger towns on the banks
of the Nile.”1
There are about thirty khans or caravanserais in Baghdad,
all of inferior construction to those in the other large towns
of Turkey. The bazaars, which are numerous, are mostly
formed of long, straight, and tolerably wide avenues. The
one most recently built is the largest and the best; still it
has an air of meanness about it that is not common in the
bazaars of large Turkish cities. It is long, wide, and lofty,
and well filled with dealers and wares of all sorts. Several
of these bazaars are vaulted over with brick-work ; but the
greater number are merely covered with flat beams which
support a roof of straw, dried leaves, or branches of trees
and grass. There are about fifty baths in Baghdad, which
are also very inferior in their accommodations to those in
the other large towns of Mesopotamia.
Baghdad is about 500 miles from the mouth of the Tigris,
following its course, and about 400 from Bassora; and with
this latter place it carries on a constant communication by
means of boats, of from twenty to fifty tons burden, though
the river is navigable for larger vessels. With a northerly
wind these boats will make the passage to Bassora in seven
or eight days; in calms, when they have merely the aid of
the current, the passage occupies from ten to fifteen days.
Sir R. K. Porter mentions that the stream of the Tigris runs
at the rate of seven knots an hour. This, however, is pro¬
bably during floods, since, with such a powerful current, a
boat could not occupy ten or fifteen days on its passage from
Baghdad to Bassora. In coming up the stream, thirty or
forty days are consumed before reaching Baghdad. The
smaller craft, used for bringing supplies of provisions and
fruit to the city, are circular boats of basket-work, covered
with skins, the same that have been employed from the re¬
motest antiquity. The communication with Bassora used
formerly to be carried on by the way of Hillah on the Eu¬
phrates ; but the banks of this river are now in possession
of a tribe of Arabs, who detain and plunder all vessels sail¬
ing down the river, and frequently murder the crews. The
Euphrates and the Tigris are liable to spring floods ; and
the streams of both rivers being joined, inundate the desert
plain on which Baghdad stands, when the city appears like
an island in the midst of the sea. The inhabitants are sup¬
plied with water from the Tigris, which is brought to their
houses in goats’ skins; the convenience of water-works,
cisterns, and pipes, being entirely unknown.
Baghdad has declined from its ancient importance. It
was formerly a great emporium of Eastern commerce ; and
it still receives, by way of Bassora, from Bengal, the manu¬
factures and produce of India, which are distributed over
Arabia, Syria, Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor. At
the same time the inland trade from Persia and the East has
declined. The productions and manufactures of Persia which
were intended for the Syrian, Armenian, and Turkish mar¬
kets, and were sent to Baghdad as a central depot, now reach Baghdad.
Constantinople by the more direct route of Erzerum and vw
Tocat. Wealth appears to be deficient among all classes,
and Baghdad has many symptoms of a decayed city.
The population is a mixture of nations from various quar¬
ters of the East. The chief officers of government, whether
civil or military, are of the families of Constantinopolitan
Turks, though they are mostly natives of the city; the mer¬
chants and traders are almost all of Arabian descent; while
the lower classes consist of Turks, Arabs, Persians, and In¬
dians. There are some Jews and Christians, who still re¬
main distinct from the other classes; while the strangers in
the town are Kurds, Persians, and Desert Arabs in consi¬
derable numbers. The dress of the Baghdad Turks is not
nearly so gay or splendid as that of their northern country¬
men ; and the costume of the Baghdad residents is, upon the
whole, unusually plain in comparison with that of other Asia¬
tics. As every nation retains its own peculiar dress, it may
be easily conceived what an amusing variety of costume must
be seen in the streets of Baghdad. The dress of the females
is as mean as that used in the poorest villages of Mesopo¬
tamia; women of all classes being enveloped in a blue checked
cloth, such as is worn by the lowest orders in Egypt, and hav¬
ing their faces covered by hideous veils of black horse-hair.
Baghdad is governed by a pasha, assisted by a council.
The pasha receives his appointment from the sultan of Con¬
stantinople ; which, however, has to be ratified by the public
voice, not ascertained by votes, but expressed in the tumul¬
tuous acclamations of the populace. The pasha is chosen
from a body of Georgian Mamelukes, maintained by im¬
portations from Georgia, which are said to increase every
year. Among this body are distributed all the lucrative
offices, as well as all the military commands. The pasha
has a force of 2000 horsemen, 10 pieces of artillery, and a
body-guard consisting of 1000 men. On particular emer¬
gencies he can call for the service of some Arab tribes of
the Desert, who are bound to this duty in return for provi¬
sions supplied by the pasha. The pashas of Kurdistan also
aid him with 5000 or 6000 horse in case of need ; so that
on a short notice he can collect a force of 20,000 or 30,000
undisciplined troops for the defence of the city. He is
generally considered as quite independent of the sultan of
Constantinople. His revenue arises from a custom-duty on
all merchandise entering Baghdad ; and he seldom resorts
to forced exactions for the supply of his treasury. The mo¬
deration and justice pursued by the government has the
effect of giving great activity to commerce, and general
satisfaction to all engaged in it. The police, however, is
extremely defective, and murders frequently take place at
the gates of the palace and of the great mosque, without
any attempt being made to bring the criminals to justice.
Mr Buckingham mentions that one murder was committed
in open day, in the street, before a hundred witnesses, not
one of whom thought of interfering ; it being, according to
the maxims of the Arabs, an affair of blood, which it be¬
longed to the relatives of the slain to revenge, or the pasha
to investigate, and which they had no business to meddle
with. Robberies are also frequently committed with im¬
punity. The English and French maintain each a consul
at Baghdad. The late Mr Rich, whose amiable qualities
furnished a theme of praise to every traveller, was appointed
to that situation by the East India Company, with a large
establishment, and was considered the most powerful man
in Baghdad next to the pasha.
Baghdad was founded by A1 Mansour, second khalif of
the race of Abbas, in the 145th year of the Hegira (a.d.
767). It was adorned with many noble and stately edifices
by the magnificence of the renowned Haroun el Raschid,
who also built on the eastern side of the river, connecting
Buckingham’s Travels in Mesopotamia, vol. ii. chap. vii.
B64
BAG
Baghdad, the two quarters of the town by a bridge of boats. Under
the auspices of Zobeida, the wife of that prince, and J after
Barmecide, his favourite, the city may be said to have at¬
tained its greatest splendour. It continued to flourish and
increase, and to be the seat of elegance and learning, unti
the 656th year of the Hegira (a.d. 12(7), when Hula1^
the Tartar, the grandson of Genghis Khan, took it by stor ,
and extinguished the dynasty of the Abbassides. T
Tartars retained possession of Baghdad till about t y
1400 of our era, when it was taken by lamerlane, ho
whom the sultan Ahmed Ben Avis fled, and finding refuge
with the Greek emperor, contrived afterwards to reposes
himself of the city, whence he was finally expelled by Kara
Yusef in 1417. In 1477 his descendants were driven out
by Usum Cassim, who reigned 39 years in Baghdad, when
Shah Ismael the First, the founder of the royal house of
Sefe, made himself master of it. From that time it con¬
tinued for along period an object of contention between
the Turks and Persians. It was taken by Sohman the
Magnificent, and retaken by Shah Abbas the Great; and
it was afterwards besieged by Amurath the Fourth, with an
army of 300,000 men. After an obstinate resistance, it was
forced to surrender, a.d. 1638 ; when, in defiance of the
terms of capitulation, most of the inhabitants were massa¬
cred by torch-light. Since that period it has remained under
a nominal subjection to the Turks. Achmet the greatest of
the pashas of Baghdad, and the first who rendered thepash-
alic independent of the porte, defended the town with such
courage against Nadir Shah, that the invader was com¬
pelled to raise the siege, after suffering great loss. Bag -
dad, according to Colonel Chesney,had 110,000 inhabitants
previously to the great plague of 1830 ; but now, m 18o ,
Mr Layard estimates its population under 50,000. ^ong.
44 24. E. Eat. 33. 21. N. (Buckingham’s Travels in Me¬
sopotamia ; Sir R. K. Porter’s Travels in Georgia, Persia,
Armenia, and Ancient Babylonia ; Kinneir s Geographi¬
cal Memoir of the Persian Empire ; Chesney s Expedi¬
tion) , v (D-B_N- nf
Baghdad is also a Turkish pashahe or government of
Asia, and is computed to have an area of above 100,000
square miles. It stretches in a N.W. direction, from the
mouth of the Shat-el-Arab at Bassora, to Merdin, situated
near the source of the Tigris; and from the confines of
Persia, W. to the banks of the Khabour, which separates
it from the pashalic of Diarbekir. Its general boundaries
are the Euphrates and the Arabian desert of Nedjed to t e
W. and S., Kusistan and Mount Zagros to the E., the pa¬
shalic of Diarbekir to the N.W., and Armenia with the ter¬
ritories of the Kurdish chief of Julamerick to the N.
This great tract comprehends ancient Babylonia, and the
greatest part of Assyria Proper. The first includes the
space inclosed by the Tigris and the Euphrates, which is
also known under the general appellation of Mesopota¬
mia ; and the second, that which is beyond the Tigris, com¬
monly called Lower Kurdistan. This tract of country is
an extensive and very fertile plain, and is watered by the
Tigris and the Euphrates, which at Baghdad approach
within 25 miles of each other, and afford an inexhaustible
supply of the finest water. Only some parts of these fertile
districts, however, are cultivated, as the population consists
in many places of wandering Arabs, who are adverse to agri¬
culture, and who, in their vagrant life of idleness and rapine,
neglect all the natural advantages of a fertile country . The
most productive portion of the pashalic is on the banks of
the Shat-el-Arab, in the neighbourhood of Bassora. This
tract, for upwards of 30 miles below that city, is well culti¬
vated, and yields vast quantities of dates, wheat, barley, and
various kinds of fruits. The banks of the Euphrates produce
abundant crops of dry grain. Higher up the Euphrates, the
country which is possessed by the Arabs is a low marshy
tract, formed by the expansion of the Euphrates, and is
BAG
famed for plentiful crops of rice. Among the mountainous Baghermi
districts of the Upper Euphrates the country is highly pic- jl
turesque and beautiful ; it is watered by the river Myg- ^ re
donius, and is in a tolerable state of cultivation. It produces v ^ j
in abundance the finest fruits, such as grapes, olives, figs,
pomegranates, which are esteemed the most delicious in
the East; apples, pears, apricots of an inferior quality ; and
the finest dates, on which the inhabitants, as in other parts
of Asia, depend in many cases for subsistence. I he do¬
mestic animals are, the horse, for which the coimtry as
long been famed, the ass, camel, dromedary, buffalo, and
mule. Of the wild animals, the lion, the hyena, the jackal,
the wolf, and the wild boar, are also common ; and antelopes
are seen in great numbers. Hares are plentiful, but foxes
are seldom seen. All sorts of poultry are bred excepting
the turkey. On the cultivated lands, and on the borders
of the rivers, the black partridge is met with in great num¬
bers. Snipes and almost every species of wild fowl may be
found in the marshes, and pelicans on the banks of the Eu¬
phrates and Tigris. In addition to these two rivers, the
country is watered by the Khabour or Chaboras, formed by
the junction of several small streams about ten miles to the
S.W. of Merdin ; by the Mygdonius, which joins the Kha¬
bour ; and by the Hermes, a tributary of the Mygdonius.
In ancient times the plain of Mesopotamia was occupied
by the great and wealthy cities of Nineveh, Babylon, Se-
leucia, Ctesiphon, &c., and was in a high state of cultivation.
It was intersected by many well-constructed canals and
other works, which, in dispersing over the country the su¬
perfluous waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, proved ex¬
tremely useful to agriculture. These works are now all
ruined, and not a vestige remains of many of the canals ;
while the course of others can only be faintly traced in their
imperfect remains. One canal, however, still exists : it
connects the Euphrates and the Tigris exactly half-way be¬
tween Bassora and Baghdad, and is navigable in spring
for large boats.
BAGHERMI. See Africa. _
B AGLIVI, Giorgio, an illustrious Italian physician, de¬
scended of a poor persecuted Armenian family, was born at
Ragusa in 1669, and assumed the name of his adoptive
father, Pietro Angelo Baglivi, a wealthy physician of Leixe.
He studied successively at the universities of Salerno, Fa-
dua, and Bologna; and after travelling over Italy, he went
in 1692 to Rome, where, through the influence of the cele¬
brated Malpighi, he was elected professor of anatomy in the
college of Sapienza. He died at Rome in 1707, at the
early&age of thirty-eight. A collection of his pieces which
are all in the Latin language, was published in 4to m 1(0 ,
and has been several times reprinted m the same torm An
edition in 2 vols. 8vo was published in 1788. Baglivis
work, De Fibra Motrice, is the foundation of that theory of
medicine which by Hoffmann and Cullen was substituted
for the Humoral Pathology.
BAGMU TTY, a river of Hindustan, which has its source
in the hills to the N. of Catmandoo, the capital of Nepaul,
whence it flows in a southerly direction and joins the
Ganges, after a course of 285 miles, in Lat. 25. 23. Long.
86. 34.; about eight miles below the town of Monghyr, u
on the opposite side of the river. m i i -o TTBp
BAGNARA, a city of the province of Calabria Ulte
riore II., in the kingdom of Naples on the Gulf ofGioja.
It suffered by the earthquake m 1783, when, out o 4936
persons 3324 perished. It now contains 3000 inhabitants,
who carry on a considerable trade in silk, oil, wine, and •
B AGNERES-DE-BIGORRE, the capita theJron;
dissement of Bagneres, department of Hai^s;P[rene^’ f
situated on the left bank of the Adour, 3 mfles S.E. of
Tarbes. This is the principal watering-place in ,
and is much admired for its picturesque ^uatum^dlfee
beauty of its environs, particularly the valley of Campan,
BAG
Bagneres- which abounds with beautiful gardens and handsome villas.
de-Luchon The town is remarkably neat and clean, and many of the
II. houses are built or ornamented with marble. Its thermal
agpipe. SprjngS an(j baths are numerous and varied, and are very ef-
J""v ^ ficacious in debility of the digestive organs and other maladies.
Their temperature is from 90° to 135° Fahr. The season
commences in May, and terminates about the end of Octo¬
ber, during which time the population is nearly doubled. Per¬
manent pop. (1852) 8335. The arrondissement of Bagneres
contains 10 cantons and 194 communes; pop. 95,413.
BAGNERES-DE-LUCHON, a small well-built town
of France, department of Haute-Garonne, pleasantly situated
in the valley of the Luchon, at the foot of the Pyrenees. It
is celebrated for its sulphurous thermal springs, which vary
in temperature from 88° to 152° Fahr. The principal edi¬
fice is a handsome bath establishment, erected in 1807. The
waters are employed with success in a variety of chronic and
cutaneous affections. Pop. about 2500.
BAGNOLES, a village of France, department of Orne,
in a valley 13 miles S.E. of Domfront. It is much fre¬
quented for its mineral springs and baths, and has been
much improved and embellished by handsome buildings and
fine promenades. Military baths were erected here in 1822,
capable of accommodating 200 invalids.
BAGNOLS, a town of Lower Languedoc, now the de¬
partment of Gard, in France. It has a handsome square,
adorned with a fountain, the waters of which are conveyed
by a canal to the lands in the vicinity. Pop. in 1846, 3803.
BAGPIPE, a musical instrument of unknown antiquity.
It was used among the ancient Mysians and Pannonians, the
latter a Celtic people ; and is still employed by the modern
Sclavonians. The ancient Scandinavians also used it. An
antique gem, of which Dr Burney procured a drawing, re¬
presents Apollo as walking with a lyre in his hands, and a
bagpipe slung at his back. The bagpipe was well known
to the ancient Romans, and we learn from Suetonius that
Nero, among his various musical accomplishments, was a
bagpipe-player. To this day the bagpipe is a common in¬
strument in the southern parts of Italy, especially Calabria;
and its modern use in Spain appears from the Spanish pro¬
verb regarding the bagpiper of Bujalance, in Andalusia, and
from the allusion to the bagpipes of Zamora in chap. 62, part
2, of Don Quixote. Some of the mountain tribes of Hindu¬
stan are said to have a large and powerful bagpipe. Curious
representations of ancient bagpipers are given in plates 33 and
34 of Herbert’s work, De Cantu et Musica Sacra. Court
bagpipers in England are mentioned as early as the fourth
year of Edward II., i.e. 1310. Dr Petrie, the eminent Irish
antiquary, says that the bagpipe is often mentioned in Irish
poems varying in date between the tenth and sixth centu¬
ries. Some Irish writers assert that the great bagpipe—the
same as that of the Scottish Highlands—was used very early
as a war instrument in Ireland; but the oldest representa¬
tion of it which they have been able to point out is that
given in The Image of Irelande, by John Derricke. Im¬
printed at London by Jhon Daie, 1581. Ato. The wood-
cut there shows a bearded and half-naked Irish piper playing
upon an enormous bagpipe, with two drones and chanter.
He holds the bag—as big as his own body—pressed against
his stomach. Sixty years ago, several kinds of bagpipe
were used in Scotland and the north of England; but we
now seldom hear any others than the small Irish bagpipe,
blown with bellows, and the great Highland bagpipe, or its
smaller congener, which is used at dances, chiefly in the
Highlands. The great Highland bagpipe is a very loud
instrument, famous for its martial influence upon Highland
soldiers in battle.1 It consists of a large wind-bag made of
greased leather covered with woollen cloth ; a mouth-tube,
valved, by which the bag is inflated with the player’s breath ;
BAH 365
three reed drones, and a reed chanter with finger-holes, on Bahamas,
which the tunes are played. Of the three drones, one is
long and two are short. The longest is tuned to A, an oc¬
tave below the lowest A of the chanter, and the two shorter
drones are tuned each an octave above the A of the longest
drone; or, in other words, in unison with the lowest A of
the chanter. The scale of the chanter has a compass of nine
notes, all natural, extending from G on the second line of
the treble stave, up to A in alt. In the music performed
upon this instrument, the players introduce among the simple
notes of the tune a great number of rapid notes of peculiar
embellishment, which they term warblers. No exact idea
of these warblers can be formed except by hearing a first-
rate player upon the Highland bagpipe. We may remark
that the profusion of ornament in the music of the High¬
landers reminds us of the observations made by several mu¬
sical travellers upon the airs performed by various Oriental
players and singers—Greek, Arab, Egyptian, Hindu, &c.—
all of whom employed so many peculiar ornaments as to dis¬
guise entirely the real theme or melody, whatsoever that might
be, and to produce an effect more resembling the warbling
of birds than anything else generally known to Europeans.
The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, used single,
double, and triple tubes, the sound of which was produced
by a double reed, like that of an oboe, or of the chanter or
the drone of a bagpipe, &c. The reed (yAw-rus) was move-
able, and was carried about by the the player in a box called
by the Greeks yXwTTOKOfj-eiov, i.e. a tongue-case. Demades,
the Athenian orator, compared his countrymen to these reed-
pipes, “ good for nothing without their tongues.” These
tubes, called avXdi, were blown by the mouth of the player,
as seen in ancient sculptures and paintings ; and required so
strong a breath to sound them, that the performer bandaged
up his lips and cheeks with a cf)op(3ela, or irepuiToiMov, the
Roman capistrum, a leathern muzzle or headstall. It seems
very probable that the bagpipe derives its origin from these
double and triple reed-pipes, by the after addition to them
of a wind-bag made of the skin of a goat or kid, together
with a valved porte-vent, in order to relieve the strain on the
lungs and cheeks of the player. In some parts of Russia,
double flutes (or reed-pipes) are used among the peasantry.
A paper published by George Burdett, Esq., in 1845, gives
an account of a very ancient and curious instrument now
peculiar to the northern parts of the island of Sardinia, and
called the lannedda. It consisted of three reed-pipes of un¬
equal length and thickness, and pierced with several holes,
and was played upon by a vigorous Sardinian peasant eighty
years of age, in a hut among the mountains about ten miles
from the town of Terranova. The pipes were tuned by
shifting small pieces of wax up and down outside of the holes.
The longest and thickest pipe was a drone, and had only one
hole. The player placed the reed-ends of all these three
pipes in his mouth, and sounded them all at the same time.
The sound reminded Mr Burdett of that of a bagpipe. It
is, he says, a very exhausting instrument, and often kills the
performers at an early age. This old peasant was the last
of the race of lannedda players. The exertion required to
play upon it has caused a modification of the lannedda in the
southern parts of the island, by adding to the pipes a com¬
mon mouth-piece, like that of the double-flageolet, which
greatly lessens the fatigue of the performer. (g. f. g.)
BAHAMAS, or Lucayas, a chain of islands stretching
in a north-westerly direction from the N. coast of St Do¬
mingo to that of East Florida, and lying between Eat. 21. and
27. 30. N. and Long. 70. 30. and 79. 5. W. The group
is composed of about twenty inhabited islands, and an im¬
mense number of islets and rocks. The principal islands of
this group are New Providence, containing the capital,
Nassau ; Harbour Island; Abaco; Eleuthera; Heneagua, or
See Wood’s Songs of Scotland, vol. i. pp. 97-137, and vol. iii. p. 51,
366
BAHAMAS.
Bahamas.
Inasua ; Mayaguana; St Salvador ; Andros Island ; Great
Bahama; Ragged Island; Rum Cay; Exuma ; Long Island;
Crooked Island ; Long Cay ; Watling’s Island ; the Caicos,
the Turks, and the Berry Islands. , ui n
Most of these islands are situated on those remarkable tlat*
called the Great and Little Bahama Banks, and some out o
soundings in the ocean. The Great Bahama Bank is about
300 miles in length from N.W. to S.E. and 100 m breadth ,
and the Little Bahama is about 130 miles long. The^s“
have, in general, a very flat appearance, and many of the
consist of mere bleak and barren rocks. 1 he &01}.11? tho ®
that are under cultivation is thin, and generally light and
sandy, but interspersed with occasional patches of rich mou .
The substratum, so far as has been ascertained, consists o
calcareous rocks, composed of coral, shells, madrepores, an
marine deposits hardened into solid masses. Ihe surtace
stratum is a combination of debris of the rock, exuviae, and
decayed vegetable matter. Though Restitute of running
streams, they possess numerous springs; and by digging
wells down to the level of the sea, fresh water is obtained
The productions of the soil comprehend all the varieties o
a tropical climate. Provisions-such as maize, yams, sweet
potatoes, &c.; and fruits, as oranges, lemons, pine-apples,
cocoa nuts, &c.—are produced in abundance. Ihere a e
also several species of valuable trees, as mahogany, fustic,
lignum vitae, cedars, pines, &c. Oxen, sheep, horsesTOultOr>
and a great variety of live stock are reared ; and wild hogs
and agoutis are found in the woods. There are many va¬
rieties of birds, and the shores and creeks abound in turtle
and excellent fish of various kinds. In the most southerly
islands are salt ponds of great value.
St Salvador, one of the islands composing this chain, was
the first land discovered by Columbus on his memorable
voyage in 1492. At that period the Bahamas were in ha¬
bited'’ by a mild and peaceable race of Indians, who, seduced
by the arts of the Spaniards, were afterwards consigned to
perpetual bondage in the mines of St Domingo, or sent to
labour as divers in the pearl fisheries of Cumana. Fron1^
period the islands continued devoid of inhabitants until lb29,
when New Providence was settled by the English, and held
till 1641, at which time the Spaniards expelled them, but
made no attempts to settle there themselves. It was again co¬
lonized by England in 1666, and again ravaged by the l rench
and Spaniards in 1703; after which it became a rendez¬
vous for pirates till 1718, when these were extirpated, a regu¬
lar colonial administration established, and the seat of govern¬
ment fixed in this island. In 1781 the Bahamas were surren¬
dered to the Spaniards ; but at the conclusion of the war they
were once more annexed to the British empire, to which they
have ever since belonged. At the close of the American w ar
many of the British royalists sought refuge in these islands,
and colonized the principal of them, from which period we may
date their gradual though slow cultivation and improvement.
In 1848 the Turks, Caicos, and Mayaguana Islands were
separated from the other Bahamas, and formed into a dis¬
tinct government.
This colony has lately begun to assume a state of greater
prosperity than previously. According to the governor’s
report for the year 1851, the amount of the revenue was
L.26 105, and of the expenditure L.25,068 ; the revenue
of the preceding year being L.25,591, and the expendituie
L.29 451. The unfavourable financial state of the colony
in 1850 was occasioned by the repeal of the export duty on
fruit, the exemption of ships engaged in the salt trade from
tonnage-duty, and the diminished productiveness of a new
tariff. The separation of the Turks Islands—the most pro¬
ductive of the salt islands, and which brought a compara¬
tively lar^e revenue to the Bahama government—consider
ably affected the finances. For some years previous to that
time the income had considerably exceeded the expendi-
ture.* The governor, in his closing speech to the Bahama
legislature in March 1852, said that he did not despair of Bahamas.
seeing the day, before finally quitting the government, when  '
the revenue will be found nearly if not quite as large as it
was before the separation of the Turks from the Bahama
Islands. The value of sponge exported in 1850 was, m
round numbers, L.5700; and in 1851, L.14,000; that o
fruit, which in 1849 was L.8000, had increased in 1851 to
L.12 600 ; and that of salt in 1851 was L.16,500. 1 he salt-
producing islands are rapidly increasing in importance.
There are at present six of these islands, viz., Inagua, Ex¬
uma, Long Cay (Crooked Island), Rum Cay, Long Island,
and Ragged Island. The number of vessels that cleared
out from the several ports of the colony in 1851 was 373
registering 36,914 tons ; and 363 entered inwards of 36£38
tons. There are four lighthouses, viz., a fixed light on Hog
Island, at the entrance of the harbour of Nassau ; a revolv¬
ing light, 160 feet above the level of the sea, on the b.E.
point of the Island of Abaco; a revolving light, 80 feet high,
at Gun Cay; and a fixed light at Cay Sal, 100 feet above
the level of the sea. There are nine colonial custom-houses
and ports of entry in the government, viz., Nassau, Abaco,
Eleuthera, Harbour Island, Little Exuma, Rum Cay, Long
Island, Long Cay (Crooked Island), and Ragged Is and,
principally for the exportation of salt, the chief staple of
these islands, except the first three, from which a consider¬
able quantity of fruit (pine-apples, oranges, &c.) is exported
to England and the United States.
The colony is divided into 13 parishes ; and the religious
bodies are Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Baptist, Anabaptist,
and Methodist. There are 9 Episcopal churches, besides
-1 chapels; a Presbyterian church, endowed by the legis¬
lature ; 4 Methodist chapels and several preaching stations;
and a capacious Baptist chapel at Nassau. In 1851 E.3UU
was voted by the legislature to assist in the erection of three
Methodist chapels. , „ .
The educational system is under a board of management,
composed of the governor and four members of the execu¬
tive council. Besides a number of private schools, there
are 21 schools supported by the legislature, with 37 teachers,
besides assistant-teachers, pupil-teachers, and monitors, in
1851 the number of scholars was 185/, and the sum ex¬
pended for educational purposes L.1650. A museum,
library, and reading-room, have been established at Nassau,
and are partly supported by the legislature. At Nassau
there is a public dispensary for supplying medicine and medi¬
cal advice gratis; and there is also in New Providence an ex¬
tensive building for the reception of poor and infirm persons,
lunatics, and lepers. The number of inmates in 1851 was 62.
The climate is agreeable and salubrious, being tempered
by northern breezes from the continent of America. It is
well adapted for those suffering from pulmonary and bron¬
chial affections; and Nassau is resorted to by many of the
wealthy inhabitants of North America to avoid the seventy
of the winter there. The salubrity of Nassau in particular
has recently been much improved by the draining of the
neighbouring swamps. The average temperature from 1st
November to 1st May is 76°, and from 1st May to 1st No-
VeByethe4census taken in March 1851 the population of the
Bahamas was 27,519 ; of whom 13,747 were males, and
13,772 females. The following are the inhabited islands,
with their populations according to that census
Ragged Island    347
Andros Island 
Great Bahama  
Berry Islands  f
Bimini and Gun Cay  I
Watling’s Island 
Inagua 
Green Cay 
Cay Sal 
New Providence  8159
Harbour Island  1840
Eleuthera (including Spa¬
nish Wells and Cays)  4610
Rum Cay  358
Crooked Island 
St Salvador  1328
Exuma 
Long Island  1477
Ahaco  2011
BAH
Bahar. The number of births during the year 1851 was 1206; of
deaths, 576. What is termed the “wrecking system” is a
source of considerable profit to a large number of the inha¬
bitants. These “ wreckers” are licensed by the government,
for the purpose of affording succour to vessels in distress,
and rescuing lives and property from stranded ships. They
are allowed a salvage on the property they recover; and,
according to a recent enactment of the Bahama government,
it is declared “ that the wrecking vessel engaged in saving
lives shall be awarded salvage on the wrecked property in
equal proportion with vessels of the same size engaged in
saving such property.” {Parliamentary Papers?)
BAHAR, one of the territorial divisions of Hindustan in¬
cluded with the provinces of Bengal and Orissa in the
dewanny or grant conferred upon the East India Com¬
pany by Shah Alum, emperor of Delhi, in 1765. The pro¬
vince comprises the British districts of Patna, Bahar, and
Shahabad, on the right bank of the Ganges, and an equal
extent of territory on the left bank, now distributed between
the two districts of Sarun and Tirhoot. The area is com¬
puted at 22,005 square miles, and its population amounts to
9,672,000. The tract is well watered and highly culti¬
vated. Its principal river is the Ganges, joined on the right
side by the Kurumnassa, Sone, Phalgu, and Poompun; and
on the left by the Gogra, Gunduck, and Bagmutty. Ac¬
cording to Hindu legend, Bahar comprised the dominions
of the kings of Magadha, who are stated to have been lords
paramount of India, and whose court is represented as one
of the most brilliant that ever existed. Their highest point
of grandeur is supposed to have been attained about the
time of Seleucus Nicator, one of the immediate successors
of Alexander the Great. In the sixteenth century, during
the reign of the Emperor Akbar, Bahar constituted one of
the fifteen grand divisions or viceroyalties into which India
was then distributed.
The present British district of the same name is situate
in the southern quarter of the province, of which it com¬
prises about one fourth part, both in its extent and the
amount of its population ; its area being 5694 square miles,
and its population being computed at 2,500,000. Though
in general level and marshy, the district is in some parts
intersected or bounded by ranges of mountains. One of
these ridges extending along its southern frontier, has an
elevation of 1000 or 1200 feet above the level of the sea.
Another range, called by Major Rennell the Caramshaw
Hills, rises on the west side of the river Phalgu; and a more
considerable series termed the Rajahgriha Hills, having an
elevation of 800 or 900 feet, intersects a portion of the
district from N.E. to S.W. Rice, wheat, sugar, indigo,
cotton, the ordinary grains of the country, and opium, con¬
stitute the staple produce. The cultivation of opium is
controlled and regulated by the government, no one being
allowed to grow the poppy, except on account of the state ;
and annual engagements are entered into by the cultivators
to sow a specified breadth of land with that plant, and to
deliver the whole produce, in the form of opium, to the
government agents at a fixed price. Europeans have
introduced the potato, which is now extensively grown.
The manufacturing industry is of importance, and extends
to the production of fabrics of cotton, silk, and muslin,
blankets, carpets, coarse cutlery, and hardware, leather,
ornaments in gold, silver, and glass, saltpetre, soap, and a
variety of other articles. Coal has been discovered at the
south-western angle of the district at Deori, on the right
bank of the River Sone. Hindee, one of the languages de¬
rived from the Sanscrit, is the vernacular; but Hindu-
stanee or Oordoo, a language formed from the fusion of
Persian and Arabic with Hindee, is commonly spoken by
the Mahometan population. Behar, the chief town, is dis¬
tant from Patna 37 miles, and from Calcutta 255. Eat.
25. 10. Long. 85. 35. (e. t.)
bah 367
BAHAWULPOOR,a town in Northern India, the prin- Bahawul-
cipal place of a native state of the same name, is situate on P00r
a branch of the Ghara, forty-five miles above the confluence H
of that river with the Chenaub. The territory of which ..Bahrein'y
this town is the capital, originally formed part of the pro-
vince of Moultan, and was held in feudal tenure from the
Durance monarch of Kabul. But when Runjeet Singh,
the ruler of the Punjaub, brought Moultan under his au¬
thority, the Nawaub of Bahawulpoor, alarmed for his own
safety, tendered his allegiance to the British. No en¬
couragement was given to the proposal; but under the
treaty of 1809 the Sutlej became the boundary of Run-
jeet’s dominions, and Bahawulpoor was thus protected from
invasion. Thirty years later, the British government under¬
took to restore Shah Shujah to the throne of Kabul; and
as it then became desirable to fix positively the future re¬
lations of Bahawulpoor, it was stipulated that the Nawaub
should be released from his allegiance to Kabul, and placed
among the allies of the British. Good-will and cordiality
towards the British invariably characterized the conduct of
the Nawaub, and during the military operations beyond the
Indus in 1839, the friendly feeling of the prince was strongly
marked in facilitating the passage of the British troops, and
in procuring the necessary supplies within his own territories.
Upon the conquest of Sinde, the British government marked
its sense of the Nawaub’s fidelity by gratuitously restoring
to him the districts of Subzulcote and Bhoong Bara, which
had been wrested from him by the Ameers. On the death
of the Nawaub in 1852, a contest for the succession arose
between two sons of the deceased ruler. The elder, Hajee
Khan, having been disinherited and subjected to imprison¬
ment, his brother, Sadik Khan, consequently obtained the
sovereign power in the first instance; but Hajee having made
his escape, appeared in arms to assert his claim. Obtaining
the support of many of the chiefs and people, and ultimately
that of the troops, he succeeded in attaining his object and
securing the person of his brother. The British government
took no part in the contest, but at its close acquiesced in the
recognition of Hajee Khan, interfering only to obtain a com¬
petent provision for the unsuccessful competitor, with per¬
mission for him to reside within the British territories.
The area of Bahawulpoor has been computed at 20,000
square miles, but a small proportion only of this extent of
surface has been hitherto reclaimed from the desert. The
fertile tract extends principally along the river line for a dis¬
tance of about ten miles in breadth from the left or eastern
bank, the transition from cultivation to desert being abrupt
and striking. Wheat, rice, and various other grains, cotton,
sugar, and indigo, form the staple crops. The population
is estimated at 600,000. The Nawaub has an annual re¬
venue of L.l 40,000, and maintains a military force of 13,000
men. The town is in Eat. 29. 24. Long. 71. 47. (e. t.)
BAHIA. See Salvador, St.
BAHIR, a Hebrew term signifying “ famous” or “illus¬
trious,” but particularly applied to a book of the Jews,
treating of the profound mysteries of the Cabala, the most
ancient of the rabbinical writings.
BAHREIN, the principal of a cluster of islands on the
south-west side of the Persian Gulf, near the Arabian shore.
This island, which is about twelve miles from the coast, is
one of the finest in the gulf, and is covered with villages and
date gardens. The town and fort of Manama, which con¬
tains about 800 or 900 houses, carries on a considerable
trade with Bassora and other ports in the gulf. Here is a
harbour admitting vessels of 200 tons, which trade to Bu-
shire, and with a fair wind make the voyage in fourteen hours.
This island has always been famous for its pearl fishery. Its
banks produce the finest pearls in the world. They are
found in a small mussel which is attached to the bottom
by a thin fibre of great length. This is cut by the diver
from a depth of three fathoms. These pearls are of two
368 B A I
Baise sorts, white and yellow ; and are sent to India, and through
Jl Bassora and Baghdad into Asia. The fishery is farmed out
’ by the different chiefs on the coast, who draw a large re-
/ ” venue from this source. It employs annually about 2500
boats, each with from eight to fifteen men. rlhe gains of
the divers do not average more than from 40 to 50 Spanish
dollars in a season. These islands once belonged to the
Portuguese, and afterwards fell under the dominion of an
Arabian chief, from whom they were seized by the Persians.
They were afterwards taken possession of by the Wahabees.
Bahrein is also the name of a province in Arabia. See
Arabia.
BAIT!, an ancient town of Campania, in Italy, situated
between the promontory of Misenum and Puteoli, on the
Sinus Baianus, and famous for its warm springs and baths,
which served the wealthier Romans for the purposes both of
health and pleasure. The variety of these baths, the soft¬
ness of the climate, and the beauty of the landscape, capti¬
vated the minds of the opulent nobles, whose passion for
bathing knew no bounds. Hither retired for temporary re¬
laxation the mighty rulers of the world, to recruit their
strength and revive their spirits, fatigued with bloody cam¬
paigns and civil contests. Their habitations at first were
small and modest; but increasing luxury soon added palace
to palace with such expedition, that ground could no longer
be found for new erections; while enterprising architects, sup¬
ported by boundless wealth, carried their foundations into
the sea, and drove that element back from its ancient limits.
From being a place of occasional resort for a season, Baiae
grew up into a regular city, and the confluence of wealthy
inhabitants rendered it as much a miracle of art as it had
before been of nature. Its great splendour is still attested
by innumerable ruins, heaps of marbles, mosaics, stucco,
and other precious relics of the past. It flourished in
undiminished magnificence till the days of Theodoric the
Goth ; but the destruction of these enchanted palaces fol¬
lowed quickly upon the irruption of the northern conquerors,
who overturned the Roman power, sacked and burned all
before them, and destroyed or dispersed the whole race of
nobility. When the guardian hand of man was withdrawn,
the sea rushed back upon its old domain; moles and but-
ti'esses were torn asunder and washed away; and promon¬
tories, with the proud towers that once crowned their brows,
were undermined and tumbled into the deep. Yet, in its
ruined state, and stripped of all its ornaments, Baiae still
presents many striking objects for the admiration of the tra¬
veller and the pencil of the artist. Long. 14. 3. E. Lat.
40. 50. N.
BAIBOUT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in thepashalic of,
and 65 miles W.N.W. from Erzroum. This was one of the
strongholds of the Genoese, when prosecuting their trade
with India. Remains of their fortifications still exist. Pop.
about 3000.
BAIER, or Bayer, Gottlieb Siegfred, an eminent Ger¬
man philologist and antiquarian, born at Konigsberg in 1694.
Of his various writings, the principal is that entitled Mu-
sceum Sinicum, a very curious and able work. He died at
St Petersburg in 1738.
BAIKAL, a great lake of Siberia, in the government of
Irkutsk, 366 miles in length from S.W. to N.E., and from
20 to 53 miles in breadth. This vast reservoir is 1200 feet
above the level of the sea. It is fed by several large rivers,
namely, the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin, and others;
while the only visible outlet is by the Lower Angara, which
is incapable of carrying off anything like the quantity of
water which is received. The water is excellent, and ex¬
tremely clear, so that the bottom can be seen at the depth
of 8 fathoms. The depth of the lake varies from 22 to up¬
wards of 300 fathoms. It yields abundance of fish, and
there is a profitable fishery of seals on its shores during the
whole summer; but the species is not ascertained. The
B A I
climate is extremely severe : the waters of this great in- Bail
land sea are frozen over from November, and the ice does II
not break up till May. This lake facilitates the Russian ^ Bai 11,
trade with China, and that between Irkutsk and Dauria. ^
It is navigated by the Russians in summer, and in winter
they travel across it on the ice. Steam-vessels were intro¬
duced herein 1844. Several hot springs and mineral waters
are seen on the margin, and naphtha is sometimes found
floating on the surface. It is between 51. 20. and 55. 30.
N. Lat. and 103. and 110. E. Long. The island of Olk-
hon, near its north shore, is 32 miles long, and nearly 10
broad.
BAIL, Ballium (from the French bailler, which is de¬
rived from the Greek (SaWeiv, and signifies to deliver into
hands), is used in our common law lor the freeing or set¬
ting at liberty of one arrested or imprisoned upon any ac¬
tion, either civil or criminal, on surety taken for his appear¬
ance at a certain day and place.
B AILEN, a town of Spain, in the province of Jaen, and
partido of Carolina, six leagues N.N.W. of Jaen. Pop. 4976.
This is the ancient Baecula, where Scipio gained a signal
victory over Hasdrubal, b.c. 209, and over Mago and Masi-
nissa, b.c. 206 (Polyb. x. 38, xi. 20; Liv.xxvii. 18-20, xxviii.
13.) In the Epitome of Livy, however, the place is called
Bcetula. Near this also, in 1212, was fought the great battle
of Navas de Tolosa, where Alonso VIII. is said to have left
200,000 Moors dead on the field, with the loss of only 25
Christians! Here again, on the 23d of J uly 1808, the French
general Dupont, after a bloody contest of several days, signed
the Capitulation of Bailen, by which 17,000 men were de¬
livered up to the Spaniards as prisoners of war. This disaster
was the first great blow to the French arms in the Peninsula.
(Madoz, Diccionario ; Ukert, vol. x. p. 379.)
BAILEY, or Baily, Nathan, an eminent English phi¬
lologist and lexicographer, whose Etymological English
Dictionary may be regarded as the basis of Johnson’s un¬
rivalled work. He had a school at Stepney, near London ;
and was the author of Dictionarium Domesticum, and seve¬
ral other works. He died in 1742.
BAILIE, the title of a class of magistrates of the second
rank in the burghs of Scotland, corresponding generally,
though not in all respects, with the aldermen of England.
In the royal burghs they seem to have been originally the
stewards or executive officers of the crown ; in the inferior
burghs, of the barons or feudal superiors. At common law
the magistrates of royal and parliamentary burghs are held
to possess the same powers within their territory as the
sheriff in his county ; but the powers of bailies of baronies
are now so limited as to be scarcely worth exercising, and
have fallen generally into disuse.
BAILIFF, or Bailie, in a general sense, denotes an
officer appointed for the administration of justice in a cer¬
tain district or bailiwick. The term is formed from the
French word bailif that is, prafectus provinciee. The chief
magistrates in some towns are called bailiffs or bailies ; and
sometimes the persons to whom the king’s castles are com¬
mitted are termed bailiffs, as the bailiff of Dover Castle. ,
Of ordinary bailiffs there are several sorts, viz., sheriffs^
bailiffs, bailiffs of liberties, &c. Sheriffs’ bailiffs, or sheriffs’
officers, are either bailiffs of hundreds or special bailiffs.
Bailiffs of hundreds are officers appointed over those dis¬
tricts by the sheriffs, to collect fines, to summon juries, to
attend the judges and justices at the assizes and quarter-
sessions, and also to execute writs and process in the seve¬
ral hundreds. Bailiffs of liberties were those bailiffs ap¬
pointed by every lord within his liberty, to execute process,
and do such offices as the bailiffs-errant were wont to do at
large in the countv.
BAILII, or Bailly, XVW,apainterofperspective views
and portraits, was the son of Peter Bailii, an artist of some
note, and was born at Leyden in 1588. From his father
B A I
Bailiwick
II
Baillie.
he learned to draw and design. He afterwards studied un-
er A dr1 an Verburg, and then under Cornelius Vandervoort,
^ with whom he spent about six years. Vandervoort possessed
many capital paintings of some great masters, which Bailii, for
his own improvement, copied with great care. One per-
spective view of the interior of a church, by Stenwyck; he
finished with such accuracy, that Stenwyck himself could
scarcely determine which of the two was the original. After
this he travelled in Italy, and spent some years at Rome.
In the latter part ot his life, he devoted himself to portraits
drawn with the pen, which are characterized by great force
and roundness. He died in 1638.
BAILIWICK {bailli, and the Saxon wic, a village), that
liberty which is exempted from the jurisdiction of the sheriff
ot the county, and over which liberty the lord thereof ap¬
points his own bailiff, with the like power within his precincts
as an under-sheriff exercises under the sheriff of the county
Or it signifies the precinct of a bailiff, or the place within
his jurisdiction.
BAILLET, Adrien, a very learned French writer and
critic, born in June 1649, at the village of Neuville, near
Beauvais, in Picardy. His parents were too poor to give
mm a proper education, which, however, he obtained by
the favour of the bishop of Beauvais, who afterwards pre¬
sented him with a small vicarage. In 1680 he was ap¬
pointed librarian to M. de Lamoignon, advocate-general to
the parliament of Paris, of whose library he made a Cata¬
logue Raisonne in thirty-five volumes folio, all written with
his own hand. He died in January 1706. In the list of
his numerous works, the followingare among the most con¬
spicuous:—!. Histoire de Hollande depuis 1609 jusqu’d
1690, 4 tom. 12mo, a continuation of Grotius, and pub¬
lished under the name of Neuville. 2. Les Vies des Saints,
3 tom. fob 3. Des Enfants devenus celebres par leurs
htudes et par leurs Ecrits, 2 tom. 12mo. 4. Vie de Des¬
cartes, 2 tom. 4to. 5. Jugemens des Savants sur les prin-
cipaux Ouvrages des Auteurs, 9 tom. 12mo. The last is
the most celebrated and the most useful of all the works of
this learned and indefatigable writer. The edition of it pub¬
lished in 1 /22 by M. de la Monnoye, in seven volumes
quarto, contains the Anti-Baillet of M. Menage, besides
notes ; but the edition published at Amsterdam in 1725 is
more esteemed.
BAILLEUL, an ancient town of France, department
Hu Nord, near the Belgian frontier. It was formerly a place
of great strength. Pop. 5988. Lat, 50.45. N. Long. 2.44. E.
BAILLIE, JOANNA. This very amiable and accomplished
lady was born at Bothwell, on the banks of the Clyde, in
^ niece of William and John Hunter, and a sister
of Dr Matthew Baillie, she shared the talents of this dis¬
tinguished family, and increased its honours by a pure and
elevated poetry, which has added another wreath to the
laurels of her country. She appears early to have cultivated
er poetic taste, but did not come before the public as a
poet until 1798, when she produced a volume of Plays on
the Passions, which at once established her powers in de-
hneating character, and exhibited originality of invention.
1 he public was not slow in acknowledging her genius, and
hailed with satisfaction the appearance of a second volume,
on the same plan, in 1802.
Though the design of each play was chiefly to illustrate
a single motive of action, Miss Baillie showed tact in giv-
ing variety to her compositions, and especially excelled in
the delicate discrimination of the peculiarities of female cha¬
racters. Although her plays were intended rather for the
closet than the stage, the enthusiastic admiration of the two
greatest tragedians of our age, Mrs Siddons and John Kem-
hie, introduced De Montfort successfully on the English
stage ; and another of her plays, The Family Legend, was
a ravourite piece in the theatre of Edinburgh, where it was
introduced by a prologue by Walter Scott, and followed by
VOL. iv. J
B A I
an epilogue by Mackenzie, the author of The Man of Feel-
ing. The subjects of her plays are not historical, but are
ideal combinations of character, given with a dignity and
force that stamp them as the conceptions of a pure and
vigorous mind. Though of unostentatious and retiring ha¬
bits, her friendship was eagerly sought and cultivated bv
some of the most distinguished literary characters of the
age; and Scott has thus happily expressed his admiration
ot Joanna Bailhe :—
“ W hen she the bold enchantress came
With fearless hand and heart on flame,
i rom the pale willow snatch’d the treasure,
And swept it with a kindred measure ;
Till Avon s swans, while rung the grove
With Montfort’s hate, and Basil’s love,
Awakening at the inspired strain,
Deem’d their own Shakspeare liv’d again.”
Her principal productions are De Montfort, The Family
Legend, Count Basil, Henriquez, and Separation. We
have already stated the favourable circumstances that intro¬
duced the first two on the stage; the last two have also
since been acted. Another volume containing her minor
poems, in which are some good specimens of humorous
song, showing her talent for lighter compositions, has more
lately been given to the public, and her works have very
recently been published in one volume by Messrs Long¬
man & Co. °
Miss Baillie s modest retreat at Hampstead was long a
avom ite resort of those individuals whom she honoured with
her friendship; and till within a short period of her death
she was able to receive her friends, and even to correspond
with a select few. There this accomplished and estimable
woman closed her long career, on the 23d of February
(x. s.x.)
Baillie, Dr Matthew, was the son of the Rev. James
Bafllie, who was successively the clergyman of the parishes
o bhotts, Bothwell, and Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, and
afterwards professor of divinity in the University of Glas¬
gow. The acknowledged influence of the female parent in
formmg the character of her offspring may be here admitted.
His wife was Dorothea, the intellectual sister of the cele¬
brated William and John Hunter ; their son, Matthew, be¬
came one of the most distinguished anatomists and physi¬
cians of the age; and their daughter, Joanna Baillie, added
fresh lustre to the poetic genius of Scotland.
The subject of this notice was born in the manse of
Shotts in 1761, and was for several years a student in the
University of Glasgow, where he became a pupil of Dr
Reid in moral philosophy. His professional career was de¬
termined by the advice of his maternal uncle, Dr William
Hunter, who undertook to superintend his education. On
his fathers death, a Glasgow exhibition to Balliol Colle°-e
Oxford, was obtained for him, and he remained a year^in
that celebrated seat of learning before he removed to Lon¬
don, where he enjoyed the advantages of his uncle’s per¬
sonal direction of his studies. In two years more he as¬
sisted Di Hunter in his anatomical lectures as his assistant
and demonstrator, visiting Oxford occasionally, so as to keep
his terms to qualify for the degree of bachelor of medicine.
Di Hunter, at his death, bequeathed the use of his magni¬
ficent collections to his nephew, together with the lecture-
rooms in Windmill Street, an annuity of L.100 a-year, and
a small family estate in Scotland; which last was resigned by
Baillie to his other uncle, John Hunter, whom he con¬
sidered as the natural heir.
Within two years after Dr Hunter’s death, his nephew
became the principal teacher in that celebrated school of ana¬
tomy ; and in 1787, although only a bachelor of medicine,
he was appointed physician to St George’s Hospital, where
r j. S^n?u*s^et^ himself by the precision and accuracy
of his diagnosis, and the sagacity of his treatment of dis-
3 a
369
Baillie.
370 B A I
Baillie. ease, which speedily introduced him to respectable private
P In 1789 he married Sophia, daughter of the eminent ac¬
coucheur Dr Denman ; a connection which favoured his in¬
troduction to practice among the first circles in London,
for which, however, he was still more indebted to his talents,
his high character, and his unassuming manners. Die tine
collections of his two uncles became his careful study; and
to render them more useful to the public, he gave to t ic
world, in 1795, the result of his examination ol them, and
of his own experience, in his Morbid Anatomy, a mostvalu-
able work, which was speedily translated into French, Ita¬
lian, and German, the latter by no less distinguished an ana¬
tomist than Soemmering. After this, Oxford did itself honou
by enrolling Matthew Baillie among its doctors of medicine ;
and he became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
Dr Baillie was eminently distinguished by his protoun
knowledge of his profession, his sagacity, his very perspi¬
cuous and decided mode of explaining his views of the nature
of a disease, his uniform courtesy to his professional brethren,
his kindness of manner to his numerous patients, and his
delicate attention to the feelings and cases of the poor who
applied to him for advice, at a time when the rich and the
noble, and even royalty itself, made large demands on his
time and medical services. In person Dr Bailhe was slen¬
der, and rather diminutive ; but his mind was expanded,
his intellect of the first order ; his manners were kind and
courteous, and perfectly unassuming ; his benevolence ex¬
tensive and unostentatious ; and probably no physician who
ever practised in London was more universally respected, or
more sincerely regretted, than Dr Matthew Baillie at the
periodof his decease, which took place on the 23d of Septem¬
ber 1823, in the 63d year of his age. The second edition
of the Morbid Anatomy appeared in 1797 ; and two years
afterwards it was illustrated by a 4to volume of engravings,
with excellent descriptions of the plates. I wo years after
his death, appeared his Anatomical Lectures and Medical
Observations. The Works, 2 vols. 8vo, edited, with a bio¬
graphical sketch, by Mr Wardrop, contain only the Mor¬
bid Anatomy and miscellaneous medical papers, (t. s. t.)
BAILLIE, Robert, one of the most learned men among
the Scottish presbyterians of the seventeenth century, was
born at Glasgow in the year 1599. His father, who is
described as a citizen, was a son of Baillie of Jerviston,
who belonged to the family of Carphin, a branch ot the
ancient family of Lamington, in the county of Lanark ;
his mother was Helen Gibson, connected with the Gib¬
sons of Durie, one of whom was an eminent judge in the
supreme court. In the year 1617 he was matriculated in
the university of Glasgow, under the name of Lobertus
Baillize; and here it may be remarked that, according to
the careless practice of the age, he afterwards exhibited no
small variety in the orthography of his surname, writing
it Baylie, Baily, Bailie, and Baillie. His studies were partly
conducted under the superintendence of John Cameron, a
man of great learning and reputation, who had been a pro¬
fessor in the protestant university of Saumur, and who in
1622 was appointed principal of the university of Glas¬
gow. From him Baillie imbibed the doctrine of passive
obedience ; and, in consequence of this prejudice of edu¬
cation, he only gave a tardy assent to the strenuous mea¬
sures which were afterwards adopted against Charles the
First. Having taken the degree of A. M. he applied him¬
self to the study of divinity, and in due time received or¬
dination from Archbishop Law.
On the 16th of August 1626 he was admitted one of the
regents of the university; and, on taking his chair, he
delivered an inaugural oration De Mente agente. Dr
Strang, a man of talents and learning, had been appointed
principal a few months before. About the same period,
B A I
Baillie appears to have prosecuted the study of the onen- Baillip.
tal languages, in which he is allowed to have attained to
no mean proficiency. He was anxious to promote similar
studies in the university; and in the year 1629 he deli¬
vered an oration In Laudern Lingua Hebrcea.
One of the pupils intrusted to his charge was Lord
Montgomery, eldest son to the earl of Eglintoun, by whom
he was presented to the living of Kilwinning in Ayrshire.
His induction must have taken place between 1630 and
1632. With this noble family he continued to live on
terms of intimacy; and as he was a person of excellent
character, he equally enjoyed the approbation of his own
parishioners, and the confidence of his ordinary the arc
bishop of Glasgow. In 1633 he declined the offer of a
living in Edinburgh. Between 1634 and 1636 he was
much employed in discussing, by means of private corre¬
spondence with his brethren, certain questions respecting
Arminianism, and the ceremonies obtruded on the churc
by the partisans of Laud. In 1638 the presbytery of Ir¬
vine elected him a member of the assembly which was
held at Glasgow, and which laid the foundation of mate¬
rial changes in church and state. _ During the ensuing
year his countrymen raised a considerable army, which
was placed under the command of Alexander Leslie, an
old and experienced officer; and Bailhe appears to have
caught some portion of the military ardour which now
prevailed in this cause of religion and liberty. ‘ It would
have done you good,” he remarks in one of his letters,
“ to have cast your eyes athortour brave and rich lulls as
oft as I did, with greater contentment and joy; for 1 was
there among the rest, being chosen preacher by the gen¬
tlemen of our shire, who came late with Lord Eghnton. 1
furnished to half a dozen of good fellows, muskets and pikes,
and to my boy a broad sword. I carried myself, as the
fashion was, a sword, and a couple of Dutch pistols at my
saddle; but, I promise, for the offence of no man, except
a robber in the way; for it was our part alone to pray and
preach for the encouragement of our countrymen, which
I did to my power most chearfully.” {Letters, yol. i. p-
174.) He afterwards states, “ Our soldiers grew in expe¬
rience of arms, in courage, in favour, daily. Every one
encouraged another. The sight of the nobles, and their
beloved pastors, daily raised their hearts. Ihe good ser¬
mons and prayers, morning and evening, under the roo
of heaven, to which their drums did call them for bells ,
the remonstrances very frequent of the goodness of their
cause; of their conduct hitherto, by a hand clearly divine,
also Lesly’s skill, and prudence, and fortune, made them
as resolute for battle as could be wished. We were feared
that emulation among our nobles might have done harm,
when they should be met in the field; but such was the
wisdom and authority of that old, little, crooked soldier,
that all, with an incredible submission, from the beginning
to the end, gave over themselves to be guided by him, as
if he had been great Solyman....Hadyou lent your ear in
the morning, or especially at even, and heard in the e
the sound of some singing psalms, some praying, and some
reading Scripture, ye would have been refreshed. rue,
there was swearing, and cursing, and brawling, in some
quarters, whereat we were grieved ; but we hoped, i ou
camp had been a little settled, to have gotten some way
for these misorders; for all of any fashion did regret, an
all promised to do their best endeavours for helping a
abuses. For myself, I never found my mind in bet er
temper than it was all that time since I came from home,
till my head was again homeward; for I was as a man w o
had taken my leave from the world, and wras resolved o
die in that service without return.” This enthusiastic ar¬
my had advanced to the borders of the kingdom, and ha
pitched its camp on Dunse Law; the royal forces were
B A 1
Baillie. within a very short distance ; and the adverse parties were
on the eve of a general engagement, when the treaty of
Berwick, negociated with Charles in person, produced a
temporary cessation of open hostilities. But the seeds of
dissension were too widely scattered, and had taken too
deep root, to be so speedily checked in their growth : the
notions of the king, sufficiently arbitrary in themselves,
were at variance with the elastic spirit of the age; and
his subjects, in both divisions of the island, were gradually
impressed with a deep conviction of his insincerity. In
the year 1640 the Covenanters again had recourse to
arms ; and having invaded England, they took the town of
Newcastle. Baillie now resumed his attendance in the
camp; and before the close of the year he was employed
in London, along with other commissioners, in preparing
charges against Archbishop Laud, for the innovations
which he had obtruded on the church of Scotland. He
had very recently published The Canterburiaris Self-Con¬
viction, which seems to have been industriously circulated,
and which arrived at a fourth edition. About this period
of his life he composed various other works of a contro¬
versial nature, and was regarded as one of the most stre¬
nuous defenders of the presbyterian cause.
His merit was now so conspicuous that he was offered
a professorship in each of the four universities. Having
been appointed one of the professors of divinity at Glas¬
gow, he delivered, on the 6th of July 1642, an inaugural
oration De Hcereticorum Autocatacrisi. About this pe¬
riod he must have taken the degree of D. D.; for the re¬
cords of the university describe him as “ Doctor et Pro¬
fessor SS. Theologiae.” His colleague David Dickson,
who had been appointed in 1640, is described in the same
manner; but neither of them assumed the title of doctor
in his printed works. Both professors discharged the
functions of clergymen in the city; and in such of his
publications as bear the author’s name, Baillie styles him¬
self minister at Glasgow, or minister of the gospel at
Glasgow, without any addition. While he filled this chair,
it is to be inferred that his chief employment consisted in
teaching the oriental languages. Dr Dickson having been
removed to the university of Edinburgh, he was admitted
to the higher professorship of divinity on the 17th of Ja¬
nuary 1651. His labours were various and extensive.
He was much engaged in the public affairs of the church,
and was a member of all the general assemblies from 1638
to 1653, with the exception of those which were held
during his attendance at Westminster. In 1642 the as¬
sembly appointed him to visit and preach in the north of
Ireland during four months. To the assembly of West¬
minster, which commenced its sittings in the year 1643,
the church of Scotland sent Alexander Henderson, Robert
Douglas, Samuel Rutherford, Robert Baillie, and George
Gillespie, together with three ruling elders, the Earl of
Cassilis, Lord Maitland, and Sir Archibald Johnston of
Warriston. Of the proceedings of this ecclesiastical coun¬
cil, Baillie has given an interesting account in his corre¬
spondence. His modest opinion of himself, and his
high estimate of his colleagues, are equally conspicuous.
“ These things are so high, and of so great concernment,”
j L I E.
he remarks in a letter to Robert Blair, “ that no living
man can think Mr Henderson may be away; and to put
him to go and return, it were very hard to venture such a
jewel, that is so necessary to the well-being both of church
and state of all these dominions. Mr Samuel, for the
great parts God has given him, and special acquaintance
with the question in hand, is very necessary to be here.
...Mr G. Gillespie, however I had a good opinion of
his gifts, yet I profess he has much deceived me. Of
a truth there is no man whose parts in a publick dispute
I do so admire. He has studied so accurately all the
points ever yet came to our assembly, he has gotten so
ready, so assured, so solid a way of publick debating, that
however there be in the assembly divers very excellent
men, yet, in my poor judgement, there is not one who
speaks more rationally, and to the point, than that brave
youth has done ever; so that his absence would be pre¬
judicial to our whole cause, and unpleasant to all here that
wishes it well.” {Letters, vol. i. p. 451.) In 1645 he re¬
turned from England, in order to give to the general as¬
sembly an account of the proceedings at Westminster;
and having resumed his station among the assembled di¬
vines, he continued to reside for some time longer in the
English metropolis.1 He now stood very high in the es¬
teem and confidence of his countrymen; and in 1649 he
was one of the commissioners sent to Holland for the
purpose of inviting Charles II., and of settling the terms
of his admission to the government. In the controversy
which prevailed among the presbyterians between 1650
and 1660, he adhered to the party of the Resolutioners
against that of the Protesters. The commission of the
general assembly had adopted two resolutions, by which
they consented to the repeal of the act for reforming the
army, and the act by which certain classes of persons were
excluded from places of power and trust, on account of
their immoral conduct, or of the opposition which they had
evinced towards the cause of civil and religious reform;
and the resolutions having been approved by two subse¬
quent assemblies, a formelprotest against the constitution
and proceedings of those assemblies was entered by va¬
rious ministers and elders.
After the restoration, Patrick Gillespie, who had en¬
joyed the special favour of Cromwell, was ejected from
his office ; and on the 23d of January 1661 Baillie was ad¬
mitted as principal of the university of Glasgow. For this
promotion he was indebted to Lauderdale, who had not
yet appeared in his true and hideous colours. According
to some writers, he might have exchanged his academical
office for a bishopric; but he was deeply grieved at the
establishment of episcopacy, and would not accept of
preferment in the church. When the new archbishop of
Glasgow, Andrew Fairfoul, arrived at his metropolitan
seat, he did not fail to pay his respects to the learned
principal. Baillie admits that “ he preached on the Sun¬
day, soberly and well.” “ The chancellor, my noble kind
scholar,” he afterwards states, “ brought all in to see me
in my chamber, where I gave them sack and ale the best
of the town. The bishop was very courteous to me. I
excused my not using of his styles, and professed my
371
Baillie.
1 The following passage occurs in a letter, dated at Glasgow on the 22d of August 1654, and addressed to the famous Dr Fuller:
“ Haveing lately, and but lately, gone through your Holy Warr and Description of Palestine, I am fallen so in love with your
pen, that I am sorie I wes not before acquaint with it, and with yourself, when from the 1643 to 1647 I lived at Worcester house,
and preached in the Savoy, that then, when I had some credite there, I might have used my best endeavours to have doneyow plea¬
sure.” (Baillie’s MS. Lett$s, vol. iv. p. 423.) Of the pulpit-oratory, and of the general talents of the Scotish divines who visited
London, the Earl of Clarendon and Mr Hume have given the same unfavourable account; but on this subject, as well as on many
others, their opinion is strongly contested by Mr Brodie. “ These famous divines preached as chaplains, by turns, in one of the lec¬
ture-rooms; and, as was to have been expected at such a juncture from men of their reputation, capacity, and profound as well as
varied erudition, they drew immense crowds. If we may form an estimate of their pulpit-oratory from their works, we may safely
pronounce that the English did not discredit themselves by flocking to hear such preachers.” {History of the British Empire, vol. iii.
p. 41.)
372
B A I L L I E.
Baillie.
utter difference from his way, yet behoved to intreat his
favour for our affairs of the college ; wherein he promised
liberally. What he will perform, time will try. {Letters,
vol. ii. p. 461.) According to another account, the arcti-
bishop visited him during his illness, and was accosted m
the following termsMr Andrew, I will not call you
my Lord. King Charles would have made me °ne °i
these lords; but I do not find in the New Testament that
Christ has any lords in his house. In other respects he
is said to have treated the prelate very courteously; an
it may not be superfluous to remark, that this mode of
using^the Christian name instead of the surname was not
unusual at that period. Baillie died in the month of July
1662, at the age of sixty-three. > „ , „ f pQr
His first wife was Lilias Fleming, of the family ofCar-
darroch, in the parish of Cadder, near Glasgow. Of tins
marriage there were many children, but only five su
ed him. 1. Henry, a clergyman, who was never benefictd.
His posterity inherited the estate of Carnbroe, which was
recently sold by General Bailhe. 2. Lilias, married to
Eccles of Kildonan in Ayrshire. 3. Helen, married to a
bailie of Glasgow, named Colquhoun. 4. Elizabeth, mar¬
ried to Mr Hamilton, a gentleman of Strathbane in the
kingdom of Ireland. 5. Mary, married to \\ alter Buchanan
of Orchard. The mother of these children died on the
7th of June 1653, after a lingering illness, bhe is men¬
tioned by her husband in terms of much respect and af¬
fection. On the 1st of October 1656 he married Mrs
Wilkie, who was a widow, and the daughter of Di ^trang.
The issue of this marriage was Margaret, who became
the wife of Walkingshaw of Borrowfield.
Wodrow, the zealous and faithful historian of the per¬
secuted church of Scotland, has formed a very high esti¬
mate of Baillie’s literary character. “ Mr Robert Bailie
may most justly be reckoned among the great men of this
time, and was an honour to his country, for his profound
and universal learning, his exact and solid judgement, that
vast variety of languages he understood, to the number o
twelve or thirteen, and his writing a Latin style which
might have become the Augustan age.”1 This commen¬
dation of his Latinity may admit of some abatement; ioi
although he evidently possessed a very familiar knovv-
ledge of the language, his Latin style cannot safely be
said to reach the standard of ancient purity and elegance.
An episcopalian writer, the author of the Appendix to
Spotswood, has commemorated Baillie as “ a learned an
modest man: though he published some very violent writ¬
ings, yet those flowed rather from the instigation of other
persons, than his own inclinations.”2 Mr Brodie, a recent
historian of much ability and research, bestows the fol¬
lowing commendation on Baillie and his associates. ^ ^
clergy, on whom they greatly depended, were profound
scholars, and no despicable politicians. Nothing can be
more misplaced than the ridicule which has been so pro¬
fusely levelled at that body. They proved themselves
ambitious ; but, to be satisfied of their talents, and to ad¬
mire their knowledge, it is only necessary to peruse their
works. The writings of Baillie, even his familiar letters,
breathe a manliness of spirit, and evince intelligence and
erudition, that must for ever rescue from contempt a class
of which he did not conceive himself entitled to rank at
the head.”3 . , .. r
Baillie had devoted much attention to the study of the
oriental languages, and was skilled in Hebrew, Chaldee,
Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, and Ethiopic. In his corre¬
spondence with the scholars of the continent, he urged
Golius, Buxtorf, and other learned men, to compose ele¬
mentary works on such of these languages as were not
already provided with them. In an unpublished letter,
dated at Glasgow on the 27th of August 1656, and ad¬
dressed to Mr Crawford, a minister of London, he re¬
marks, “ The reason of my calling to you at this tyme is
my desyre to know the condition of that excellent book,
the best to me that ever was printed, Dr W alton s roly-
glott Bible.” He was solicitous that the learned pro-
testants should undertake an Encyclopaedia of arts and
sciences; and urged his correspondents not to permit the
education of youth, and the composition of books for ele¬
mentary instruction, to be so generally engrossed by the
Baillie’s publications, the following is as complete a
list as we have been able to furnish.
1. Ladensium Avrowraxgitis, the Canterbvnans belt-
Conviction ; or, an evident Demonstration of the avowed
Arminianisme, Poperie, and Tyrannic of that Faction, by
their owne confessions : with a postscript to the peisonat
Jesuite Lysimachus Nicanor,4 a Prjmf
Written in March, and printed in Apnle, 1640, 4to.-- i his
book was speedily reprinted at Amsterdam; and a third
edition, augmented by the author, with a large UPP e-
ment,” was printed for Nathaniel Better, 1641, 4to. The
additional part was likewise published in a separate form,
under the title of “ A large Supplement of the Lantei-
bvrian Self-Conviction.” Imprinted \m,^o. A fourth
edition of the work bears the title of “ I he Life of Wil¬
liam now Lord Arch-bishop of Canterbvry, examined.
Lond. 1643, 4to. . , T •* •
2 A Parallel or briefe Comparison of the Liturgie with
the Masse-Book, the Breviarie, the Ceremoniall, and other
Romish Ritualls.5 Lond. 1641, 4to. Reprinted in 1661.
3. Queries anent the Service-Book.
4. An Antidote against Arminiamsm. .
5. The Unlawfulnesse and Danger of limited Lpis-
copacie; whereunto is subjoined a short Reply to the
modest Advertiser and calm Exammator of that liea-
tise: as also the Question of Episcopacie discussed from
Scripture and the Fathers. Lond. l^L 4t0-
6. Satan the Leader in chief to all who resist the Re¬
paration of Sion; as it was cleared in a Sermon to the
Honourable House of Commons at their late solemn hast,
Febr. 28, 1643. Lond. 1643, 4to.
7. Errours and Induration are the great Sms and the
great Judgements of the Time: preached in a Serrnon be¬
fore the Right Honourable House of Peers, in the Abbey-
Church at Westminster, July 30, 1645, the day of tie
monethly Fast. Lond. 1645, 4to.
8. A Dissvasive from the Errours of the 1 ime : where¬
in the Tenets of the principall Sects, especially of the In¬
dependents, are drawn together in one Map, &c. Lond.
1645, 4to. Lond. 1646, 4to.
Baillie.
, | . 10o vain}, 1791—9 2 vols. fol. See the same author s £<t/s
i Wodrow's History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland, \o\. i. p. 128. . 12mo<
of James Wodrow, A. M. Professor of Divinity in the University of Glasgow, ?. 30. • ,
"   i ii . i  j-ti,st t74i st-P 4I-1/7 f^h■,if nli nf ntland. n« JL_iO
Lond. 1677, foh
OdTTICS vv uuruw^ •* K/ «/ J /» j/ j oQ
2 T. Middleton’s Appendix to the History of the Church of Scotland, p. zo.
a Brodie’s Hist, of the British Empire, vol. ii. p. 506. p t „ «■„ Covenanters in Scotland; wherein is paral-
4 The Epistle congratvlatorie of Lysimachus Nicanor, of the Societie °f Jesm to t e Amo Domini i64o, 4to—The
lelled our sweet harmony and correspondency in divers matenall points of Doctrine was » hewed in pieces in the very
ofh“spSewt ™ 5° ».■ & ^ m B»n** w « ***
P-on tins work are subjoined to L. Womocf. Be.,e, OyUfir to l.V. ofilu Sa^arU. Loud. 1641, 4to.
B A I L L I E.
373
m9' JIltftorilcaIi Vindication of the Government of the Campvere, and afterwards of the English conffrep-atinn nt n -ir
Church of Scotland, from the manifold base Calumnies Middelburg in Zeeland. It was chiefly fronf tlfe mate-
which the most malignant of the Prelats did invent of old, rials thus communicated that Spang prepared two differ-
and now lately have been published with great industry ent publications. The first is entitled “ Brevis et fidelis
m two pamphlets at London; the one intituled Issachars Narratio Motuum in Regno et Ecclesia Scoticana pv.
Burden, &c., written and published at Oxford by John cerpta ex scriptis utriusque partis scitu dignissimis,’ per
Maxwell, a Scottish Prelate, &c. Lond. 1646, 4to. Irenaeum Philalethen.” Dantisci, 1640, 4to. This work
only prosecutes the narrative till the first of October
1638; but he speedily reprinted it, and added a continua¬
tion to the year 1640. “ Rerum nuper in Regno Sco-
tiae gestarum Historia.” Dantisci, 1641, 8vo. These
letters were published from a copy belonging to Matthew
Baillie of Carnbroe, Esq.; and the editor likewise consult¬
ed the copy preserved among the archives of the church
of Scotland. The copy which belonged to the author’s
family is now in the possession of Dr M‘Crie, to whose
10. Anabaptism, the trve Fovntaine of Independency,
Brownisme, Antinomy, Familisme, &c. in a Second Part of
the Disswasive from the Errors of the Time. Lond. 1647,
4to.
11. A Review of Doctor Bramble, late Bishop of Lon¬
donderry, his Faire Warning against the Scotes Disciplin.
Delf, 1649, 4to. 4 his tract was afterwards incorporated,
without being reprinted, in a collection entitled Three
Treatises concerning the Scotish Discipline. Hagh, 1661,
4to. 1 he other two treatises are Bramhall’s Fair Warn- kindness we are indebted for the use of it, as well as for
mg and Watson s Second Fair Warning, in answer to several biographical notices. This manuscript consists of
ai le; and the volume likewise includes a virulent epis- four volumes in folio, and is in a tolerably good state of pre-
t e by another Scottish writer, Dr Creyghton, afterwards servation. Baillie’s Letters and Journals are of greathis-
bishop of Bath and Wells. Baiihe s Review was reprint- - -1 1 ’   - 6
ed at Edinburgh ; and having been translated into Dutch,
it was published at Utrecht under the inspection of Gis-
bert Voet.
12. A Scotch Antidote against the English Infection of
Arminianism. Lond. 1652, 12mo.
13. Appendix practica ad Joannis Buxtorfii Epitomen
Grammaticse Hebraeae. Edinb. 1653, 8vo.
14. Catechesis elenctica Errorum qui hodie vexant Ec-
clesiam; ex nudis sacrae Scripturae Testimoniis, in brevi-
bus et Claris Quaestionibus ac Responsionibus proposita,
in gratiam studiosae Juventutis Academiae Glasguensis,
Lond. 1654, 12mo.
15. A Reply to the Modest Inquirer.—Perhaps relating
to the dispute between the Resolutioners and Protesters.
This tract, together with numbers 3 and 4, we have not
seen. They are all mentioned in Baillie’s papers, in the
possession of Dr M‘Crie.
16. The Disswasive from the Errors of the Time, vin¬
dicated from the Exceptions of Mr Cotton and Mr Tombes.
Lond. 1655, 4to.
17. Operis Historici et Chronologici libri duo ; in qui-
bus Historia sacra et profana compendiose deducitur ex
ipsis Fontibus, a Creatione Mundi ad Constantinum Mag¬
num. Amstelodami, 1663, fob—Some copies have the
addition of an index, with a new title bearing the date
of 1668.
18. Letters and Journals; containing an impartial Ac¬
count of public Transactions, civil, ecclesiastical, and mi¬
litary, in England and Scotland, from the beginning of
the Civil Wars in 1637, to the year 1662; a period, per¬
haps, the most remarkable and interesting in the British
History: now first published from the manuscripts of
Robert Baillie, D. D. Principal of the University of Glas¬
gow. Edinb. 1775, 2 vols. 8vo.—Some copies, bearing
the same date, have a different title, which states that the
Letters were “ carefully transcribed by Robert Aiken.”
Many of them are addressed to the author’s cousin-ger¬
man William Spang, minister of the Scottish staple at
torical value; and as the editor, besides omitting many
detached passages, has suppressed a considerable number
of entire letters, we beg leave to suggest, and even to
urge, the expediency of a new and complete edition.
Baillie had apparently some concern in the publication
of a posthumous work of his learned predecessor Robert
Boyd, principal of the university of Glasgow : In Epis-
tolam Pauli Aposloli ad Ephesios Prcelectiones supra cc.
Lond. 1652, fol. Prefixed is a life of the author by Rivet,
with whom Boyd had been intimately acquainted; but the
preface is subscribed with the initials R. B. A biogra¬
phical notice, bearing the same signature, is prefixed to
the work of his father-in-law Dr Strang, De Interpretatione
et Perfectione Scripturce. Roter. 1663, 4to. (d. i.)
BAILLY, Jean Sylvain, a celebrated philosopher and
astronomer, was born at Paris on the 15th of September
1736. He was originally intended for the profession of
painting, which his family had pursued for several gene¬
rations, and he even had made some progress in the art.
But the bias of his mind leaned too much to literary pur¬
suits, especially to poetry and works of imagination, to per¬
mit him to give that application which is necessary to se¬
cure success and eminence in any profession.
The friends of Bailly, who had witnessed the earty
dawn of his genius, saw that it was alike fitted to ap¬
pear with advantage in the study of polite literature, or
to shine in the walks of science; and they recommended
the latter chiefly to his attention. His acquaintance with
Lacaille, the celebrated geometer, commenced; and this
at once decided the object of his studies, which were now
almost entirely devoted to scientific investigations. The
first of his labours was a calculation of the comet which
appeared in the year 1759. In January 1763 he was ad¬
mitted a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in the
same yeai he published a reduction of the observations
made by Lacaille in 1760 and 1761 on the zodiacal stars:
an elaborate compilation, and of very extensive utility. His
attention was afterwards directed to the consideration of
the theory of Jupiter s satellites. Lagrange, who now pro-
1 John Maxwell, D. D., was the son of Maxwell of Cavons in Nithsdale ; and after having been beneficed at Murthlarlr nnd tn
Edinburgh, he became bishop of Ross in the year 1G33. He was deposed and excommunicated bv the assembly of 1638 and took
nakpif 'n„Enf?,a'f I" t?4? ie "aS •WjfaM WfP !" Irf "5 < rebellion
Ovfnra dTSe7«rfi7.W0Unded’ he Wf ag1a!n fomP^d to seek a place of refuge in England, and for some time he attended the king at
uxlord. In 1645 he was appointed archbishop of iuam, and died on the 14th of February 1646. The work which Baillie answered
is entitled the Burthen of Issachar: or, the Tyranical Power and Practises of the Presbyteriall Government in Scotland ” Printed
m the yeare 1646, 4to. Dr Maxwell is the author of another work, which was answered by Rutherford : “ Sacro-sancta Resum Maks,
tas ; or, the sacred and royall Prerogative of Christian Kings.” Oxford, 1644, 4to. According to Bishop Burnet, he was “ a man
}L?mwent a,”d a,n excellent preacher; but by his forwardness and aspiring he was the unhappy instrument of that which
brought on all the disorders in Scotland.” {Life of Bishop Bedell, p. 141.) He is mentioned and described in the Life, Diary and
Correspondence of Sir William Dugdale, p. 437. Lond. 1827, 4to. y
374
Bailly.
B A I
B A I
mised to become the first mathematician in Europe, was
the formidable rival of Bailly in the compeUtmn for this
prize question in 1764. The results of his investigations
were collected into a treatise, which also coined the
history of that part of astronomy, and were pubhshed
1766 In 1771 appeared his interesting and important
memoir on the Lifft of the Satel.ites, “ked
with a degree of precision and accuracy till that time un
known in the observations of their echpses
The studies of Bailly were not entirely ^ the
cultivation of abstract science, nor to profound ^ ^
speculations; his genius shone with e,)ua'”nati0n
departments of literature which requ.re a discrnn.natio^
of character, and no common powers of e'°q“e > „
der to attain excellence. H.s Ekges Charles V, Lor
neille, Leibnitz, Moliere, Cook, Lacaille, and Cresset,
were universally admired as valuable specimens of
writing, and they added much to his reputation. The dis¬
tinguished place of secretary of the f-Oademy of Sciences
became vacant in 1771; and, supported by the patronage
and influence of Buffon, he offered a oandfoate
But, in this instance, he was unsuccessful. Condorcet, the
rising into reputation, and supported by the active infl
ence of D’Alembert, was preferred to the office.
In the year 1775 he published at Pans the first volume
of his great work, the History of Astronomy, c°ntaming
the history of astronomy from its origin to the foundat o
of the Alexandrian School; and this was followed by three
volumes on the history of modern astronomy, published
between 1776 and 1783. This work, which is of inesti¬
mable value, is distinguished alike for an-ated descrip¬
tion, luminous narration, and interesting detail, besides,
he published, in 1777, a work entitled Letter son the Origin
of the Sciences, and of the People of Asia ; and this was f
lowed by another series of Letters on the Atlantis of Plato,
and the Ancient History of Asia, as a contlJutatl«nn10.fflJee ^
work. These volumes were addressed to Voltaire, with
whom he had commenced an ingenious correspondence
and discussion on this curious subject. The coincide
of his opinions with those of Buffon in points respect g
some ofPithe favourite theories of the latter, brought on an
intimate acquaintance and close friendship ^lth th^ ce^‘
brated naturalist; which, however, declined and was en¬
tirely dissolved, in consequence of the opposition whic
Bailly made to the election of the Abbe Maury into 11
French Academy. Bailly had been chosen secretary of
the academy in 1784; and in the following he was
admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles
Lettres. This was the only instance, since the time ot
Fontenelle, of the same person being at once a member
of all the three academies.
In the year 1784 he was nominated one of the commis¬
sion to investigate the nature of the animal magnetism of
Mesmer; and he drew up a very elegant report, which
was presented to the academy of Sciences. This report,
which was soon afterwards translated into English, not
only marked the acuteness and discernment of the author,
and contained the most satisfactory and decisive evidence
with regard to its object, but it may be held up as an excel¬
lent model of imitation for those who are engaged in simi¬
lar investigations. In developing the physical effects pro¬
duced by moral causes, it is of the greatest value; and it is
particularly interesting when we consider the political influ¬
ence which causes of this nature have exerted on the gene¬
ral opinions of society, and even on the destiny of nations.
In 1787 he published, in one volume 4to, the History oj
Indian and Oriental Astronomy; a work of great erudi¬
tion and ability, but in which he is thought to have made
gome erroneous calculations, and to have overrated the
antiquity of the Indian observations.
Hitherto we have contemplated Bailly in the shades of
retirement, and in the calm undisturbed retreats of philo¬
sophy, employing the energy of a vigorous and compre¬
hensive mind in the profound researches of physical truth.
We are now to follow him in his political career, and to
behold him struggling with the adverse interests of fac¬
tions, and contending with the unbridled fury of a law¬
less mob, in defence of the rights of a people whose minds
were not prepared to understand, and whose habits were
not yet formed to enjoy, the blessings of rational liberty.
He was one of the first and most zealous promoters of
the revolution in France; and in the part which he acted
in this bloody struggle, he has had the good fortune to be
well spoken of by opposite factions. He has never been
charged with want of integrity or with selfish designs;
but apparently actuated by a misguided zeal, and dazzled
with the prospect of freedom which the warmth of his
imagination held out, he rashly committed himself in a
cause which, as he had espoused it with enthusiasm, so
he supported it with his utmost exertions. But in that
cause lie fell a sacrifice to the unrelenting spirit of vio¬
lence and faction which had been easily roused, but which
it was found impossible either to subdue or to regulate.
When the states-general of France were assembled m
1789, he was elected a deputy to the tiers-etat, of whic
he was afterwards chosen president; and when the na¬
tional assembly had been constituted, he continued in the
chair, and officiated as president at the time the kings
proclamation was issued ordering that body to disperse.
During the struggle which took place between the national
assembly and the court, Bailly was amongst the most
forward in asserting those popukr rights which were
then new in France; and it was he who dictated the fa¬
mous oath to the members of the tiers-etat, hy which they
pledged themselves “ to resist tyrants and tyranny, and
never to separate till they had obtained a free constitu¬
tion.” On the 14th of July following, the day on which
the Bastille was stormed and taken by the people, he was
appointed mayor of Paris with universal consent. In this
high office he is allowed to have acted with great inte¬
grity, courage, and moderation, and to have discharged
fts arduous and sometimes perilous duties in a manner
highly honourable to his character. While he held this
conspicuous situation, he was instrumental m promoting
the various measures by which the popular party at lengt
prevailed over that of the court; for which, as wdl as for
his conduct in other respects, he obtained a high deg ee
of favour among the people. But the tide of public op-
nion now swelled beyond all bounds; and no restraint could
oppose its violent course. The multitude, newly un¬
shackled from the fetters of despotism, greedy of novelty,
fired with enthusiastic and unsettled notions of freedom,
and daily panting for change, would brook no opposition.
Bailly, who now perhaps saw when it was too ate the
general disposition of the people to anarchy still wished
the laws to be respected, and hoped by their vigorous
execution to restore and maintain tranquillity. He or¬
dered some deputies from the military insurgents o
Nancy to be arrested, and firmly opposed the rash pro¬
ceedings of Marat and Hebert; he became a member of
a less promiscuous club than that of the Jacobins; and
exerted himself strongly to persuade the populace to p
mit the king and royal family to depart to St Cloud. By
these measures, which were little relished by a fickle a
infuriated people, he lost their confidence ^d favour
But what finally destroyed his popularity, was h»s conduct
on the occasion of the tumultuous meeting the populace
on the 17th of July 1791, to demand the abolition of mo¬
narchy ; for being called by the national assembly to dis¬
perse the mob, who had assaulted the soldiery, he ordered
Bailly.
B A I
Bailment the latter to fire, by which means forty persons were killed
II and above a hundred wounded. Having thus become ob-
Baily. noxious to the people, whom he had faithfully served, he
resigned his office at the dissolution of the constituent as¬
sembly in the end of the year 1791 ; and having resumed
his philosophical researches, lived for some time in retire¬
ment. But the times of bloody proscription approached;
and he was doomed to fall a sacrifice to the ferocious ven¬
geance of the plebeian tyrant who now bore unlimited sway.
He was accordingly denounced as an enemy to the republic,
arrested, and thrown into prison. Arraigned before a san¬
guinary tribunal, he was summarily condemned to death as
a conspirator, and executed the day following, near the spot
where he had given the order for the military to fire on the
people. On the day of execution, his sufferings, which he
bore with the utmost calmness and magnanimity, were stu¬
diously protracted. He wore the red shirt, or badge of con¬
spiracy, and was placed in a cart with his hands tied behind
his back. During the whole time of his progress to the place
of execution, the rain poured incessantly on his head. The
populace, as he passed, threw mud at him, and cruelly in¬
sulted him with every kind of opprobrious language. Ar¬
rived at the place of execution, it was found necessary to re¬
move the guillotine from the spot where it had first been
erected, to firmer ground. During this time he was forced
to get out of the cart, and walk round the field, in order to
gratify more fully the implacable and unrelenting malice of
the populace. While he was ascending the platform, a spec¬
tator who happened to be near him exclaimed, in a tone of
insult, “ Bailly, you tremble “ Yes,” he instantly replied,
“ but it is from cold.”
Several works written by Bailly, and found in manuscript,
have been published since his death ; particularly an Essay
on Fables and their History, and Memoirs of a Witness of
the Revolution, which come down to October 1789.
In his person Bailly was tall, and of a sedate but striking
countenance. He possessed great firmness and integrity of
character, combined with many amiable qualities. In the
time of his magistracy he spent part of his fortune in reliev¬
ing the wants of the poor. His wife, whom he married in
1787, survived him. She was the widow of Raymond Gaye,
who had been his intimate friend for twenty-five years.
BAILMENT, from the French bailler, to deliver, means,
in law, a delivery of goods in trust upon a contract, expressed
or implied, that the trust shall be faithfully executed on the
part of the bailee or person to whom they are delivered, and
the goods re-delivered as soon as the time or use for which
they were bailed shall have elapsed or been performed. There
is a valuable Essay on the Law of Bailment by Sir William
Jones.
B AIL Y, Francis. The history of this gentleman affords
a remarkable instance of that energy with which a man suc¬
cessfully engaged in a laborious mercantile occupation, can
devote his leisure to abstruse mathematical investigations.
Mr Baily was born in Berkshire in 1774, and for many years
was a stockbroker in London. While amassing a large
fortune by his business, he had applied his profound mathe¬
matical knowledge to the doctrine of probabilities, and pub¬
lished several interesting works on that subject; as, Tables
for the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases ; The Doc¬
trine of Interest and Annuities ; The Doctrine of Annuities
and Assurances, See. In 1820 he was one of the original
and most active promoters of the Astronomical Society; and
on his retirement from business in 1825, he entered with all
the energy of youth, rather than that of a man between fifty
and sixty, into the cultivation of astronomy and its kindred
sciences. To Mr Baily we owe the present form and im¬
provement of the Nautical Almanac ; he took an active part
in the investigation of the effects of the atmosphere on the
nice experiments with the pendulum; he aided in the repe¬
tition of the famous experiments of Cavendish on the spe-
B A l 375
cific gravity of the earth ; he superintended the publication Bainbridge
of the Astronomical Society’s catalogue of the fixed stars; II
and the revision of the annual catalogues in the 13th vo- Baird-
lume of the Society’s Memoirs was entirely his work. Be-
sides these labours, he took an active share in the phy¬
sical labours of the British Association. It was on his re¬
commendation that it undertook the republication of the
Histoire Celeste of Lalande, combined with Lacaille’s cata¬
logue, which together contain no less than 57,000 stars; and
there is reason to believe that the investigations concern¬
ing the course of the tidal wave in the Atlantic owe much
of their value to this able philosopher. He also superintended
the construction and printing of the tables of coefficients of
reduction for the 10,000 stars in the Astronomical Society’s
catalogue ; and he had undertaken to superintend the con¬
struction of the new metrical scale for government, on the
destruction of the original by fire.
In fact, Mr Baily effected, in the last twenty years of his
very active and useful career, a greater number of complete
and refined researches than most other philosophers have ac¬
complished during a whole lifetime. He died on 30th August
1844. (t. s. t.)
BAINBRIDGE, Dr John, an eminent physician and
astronomer, born at Ashby de la Zouche, in Leicestershire,
in 1582. He taught a grammar school for some years, and
practised physic, employing his leisure hours in astronomy,
which was his favourite study; but at length, removing to
London, he was admitted a fellow of the College of Physicians,
and raised his character by his description of the comet in
1618. The next year Sir Henry Savile appointed Bain¬
bridge his first professor of astronomy at Oxford; and the
masters and fellows of Merton College made him first junior,
and then superior, reader of Linacre’s lecture. He died in
1643. His published works are, 1. An Astronomical De¬
scription of the late Comet, Lond. 1619. 2. Procli Spluera,
1620. 3. Canicularia; a Treatise concerning the Cani¬
cular Days, Oxford 1648. Several of his unpublished writ¬
ings exist in manuscript in the library of Trinity College,
Dublin.
BAIOLENSIANS, or Bagnolensians, a sect of here¬
tics in the twelfth century, who in reality were Manicheans,
though they somewhat disguised their errors. They re¬
jected the Old Testament and part of the New. They
were a branch of the Cathari, and derived their appellation
from Bagnolo in Provence.
BAIR AM, a Mahometan feast, instituted in imitation of
the Easter of the Christian Church. It follows the Rhamadan,
or month of fasting. The lesser Bairam follows sixty days
after the first.
BAIRD, General Sir David, Bart., was born at New-
byth in Aberdeenshire, in December 1757. He entered
the British army in 1773, and was sent to India with the 73d
Highlanders in 1779. In the following year he had the
misfortune to fall into the hands of Hyder Ali, in the Mysore
chief’s perfidious attack on a handful of British troops at
Perambucum. The prisoners, it is well known, were most
barbarously treated. Baird survived his captivity ; and on
his release, visited his native country, but returned to India
in 1791, as a lieutenant-colonel.
When Harris marched against Tippoo Saib, Baird, now
a major-general, served under him in that campaign ; and
when it was resolved to storm Seringapatam, he solicited
and obtained the honour of leading the storming party to
the breach. He made a daring assault, and was soon a victor
in that stronghold in which he had long been a prisoner.
He seems, however, not to have been in favour with the
superior powers; for he was rather unceremoniously re¬
quired to resign the place his valour had contributed to gain,
to a junior officer, who had not been engaged in the assault;
but he received the thanks of the British parliament and of
the East India Company for his gallant bearing on that im-
376
B A J
Bajaret.
Baireuth portant day, and being more athirst for fame than emolu¬
ment, he declined the pension offered to him on that occa¬
sion by the company. m
General Baird commanded the Indian army thatm IHUl
was sent to co-operate with Hutchinson, in the expulsion o
the French from Egypt. He landed at Kosseir, conducte
his army to Keneh on the Nile, and thence to Rosetta, where
he arrived just as the French were treating for the evacua¬
tion of Alexandria. Baird returned to India in 1802, where
he was employed against Scindia; but, irritated at some ne¬
glect he had experienced, he relinquished his command am
returned to Europe. . „
In 1805 he commanded the expedition against the Cape
of Good Hope, and captured Cape Town; but here again,
his usual ill-luck attended him, for he was recalled before
he had organized his conquest, for having sanctioned the ex¬
pedition of Sir Home Popham against Buenos Ayres. He
served again in 1807 in the expedition against Copenhagen,
and in the following year commanded the considerable force
which was sent to Spain to co-operate with Sir John Moore.
In the battle of Coruna, a grape-shot shattered his left arm,
so as to require amputation at the shoulder-joint; and he
was again thanked by the parliament of his country for his
gallant services, and at last obtained the decoration of the
order of the Bath, and the rank of a baronet.
Sir David married Miss Campbell Preston, a Perthshire
heiress, in 1810. In 1820-he was appointed commander-in-
chief in Ireland ; but the same influence which had thwarted
him in India, again was exerted against him, and he was re¬
moved in 1821. From that period he no more appeared in
public life; and he died on the 18th August 1829. (t. S.T.)
BAIREUTH, or Bayreuth, capital of the circle of Up¬
per Franconia, in Bavaria, is pleasantly situated in a valley on
the left bank of the Red Maine, 40 miles N.N.E. of Nurem¬
berg. It is well built, with broad, regular, and well-paved
streets ; and is partially surrounded by old walls. The river
is here crossed by two bridges. Among its public buildings
are the modern castle, the opera-house, one of the finest in
Germany, gymnasium founded in 1664, bank, riding school,
and barracks. It has also five churches, a handsome syna¬
gogue, public library, theatre, hospital, an orphan and a lu¬
natic asylum. In 1841, a monument was erected here to
the poet Jean Paul Richter, who died here in 1825. Baireuth
has an active trade, chiefly in grain ; and manufactories of
woollen and cotton goods, leather, delft, and other earthen¬
ware, and tobacco. It has also several breweries and dis¬
tilleries. About half a league distant is the suburb of St
George, noted for its marble works; and about two miles
to the E. is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in
the early part of the last century, with gardens containing
terraces, statues, and fountains. Pop. in 1849, 14,145.
Baireuth was formerly the capital of a principality of the
same name, which, on the death of the last margrave with¬
out issue in 1791, was annexed to the kingdom of Prussia.
In 1807, it was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept pos¬
session of it till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria.
BAIROUT. See Beyrout.
BAITING (Saxon, hate, contention), the act of attack¬
ing and harassing greater and stronger animals by smaller
or weaker ones, as bulls or bears by mastiffs or bull-dogs.
BAIZE, a coarse woollen stuff, in texture resembling
flannel.
BAJAZET I., sultan of the Turks, commenced to reign
in 1389, and died in 1403. See Turkey, and Coxstanti-
nopolitan History. The authority of the celebrated story
of the iron cage, in which this monarch was said to have been
carried about by his conqueror Timour, is considerably weak¬
ened by the silence of the Persian historian Shereffed in Ali.
On the evidence on both sides of the question, see Gibbon.
Bajazet II., son of Mahomet II., succeeded his father in
1481, and died in 1512. See Turkey.
Baker.
B A K
BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the Greek Bajulus
emperors. There were several degrees of bajuli; as, the
grand bajulus, who was preceptor to the emperor; and the
simple bajuli, who were sub-preceptors. The word is de-
rived from the Latin verb bajulare, to carry or bear a thing
in the arms or on the shoulders ; bajulus and gerulus being
the names applied to those who performed this office for the
children of the great; whence the subsequent figurative use of
the term. The word passed in the same sense into Greece.
BAKER, a person whose occupation or business it is to
bake bread. There is considerable doubt as to the time
when baking first became a particular profession, and bakers
were introduced. It is, however, generally agreed that they
had their rise in the East, and passed from Greece to Italy
about the year b.c. 173. Till that time every housewife
was her own baker; for the word pistor, which we find in
Roman authors before this period, signified, as Varro justly
observes, a person who ground or pounded the grain in a
mill or mortar to prepare it for baking. According to Athe-
nseus, the Cappadocians were the most approved bakers ;
after them the Lydians; and then the Phoenicians. To the
foreign bakers brought into Rome were added a number of
freedmen, who were incorporated into a body, or, as they
termed it, a college ; from which neither they nor their
children were ever allowed to withdraw. They held their^
effects in common, and could not dispose of any part of
them. Every bakehouse had a patronus intrusted with the
superintendence of it; and these patroni again elected one
of their number every year, who had superintendence over
all the rest, and the care of the college. Out of the body
of the bakers one was every now and then admitted among
the senators ; and, to preserve honour and honesty in the
college, they were expressly prohibited all alliance with
comedians and gladiators. Every one had his own shop or
bakehouse, and they were distributed into fouiteen regions
or wards of the city. They were excused from guardian¬
ships and other offices which might divert them from their
employment. By British statutes bakers are declared not
to be handicraftsmen. No man for using the mysteries or
sciences of baking, brewing, surgery, or writing, shall be in¬
terpreted a handicraftsman. The bakers were a brother¬
hood in England before the year 1155, in the reign of King
Henry II., although the white bakers were not incorporated
till 1407, and the brown bakers not till 1621. The French
had anciently a great baker, grand panetier de France, who
had the superintendence of all the bakers of Paris.
Baker, Henry, an ingenious and diligent naturalist,^ was
born in Fleet Street, London, either near the end of the
seventeenth, or very early in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. His father’s profession is not known, but his mother
was in her time a midwife of great practice. He vv as bi ought
up under an eminent bookseller, who preceded the elder
Dodsley, to the business of a bookseller ; in which, how¬
ever, he appears not to have engaged at all after his ap¬
prenticeship, or if he did, it was soon relinquished by him;
for although it was in his power to have drawn away many
of his master’s customers, he would not set up against him.
Mr Baker being of a philosophical turn of mind, and having
diligently attended to the methods which might be practi¬
cable and useful in the cure of stammering, especially m
teaching deaf and dumb persons to speak, made this the
employment of his life. In the prosecution of so valuable
and difficult an undertaking he was very successful, and
several of his pupils have borne testimony to the ability and
good effect of his instructions. He married Sophia, youngest
daughter of the famous Daniel Defoe, who brought him two
sons, both of whom he survived. On the 29th of January
1740 Mr Baker was elected a fellow of the Society ot An¬
tiquaries, and on the 12th of March following tie same
honour was conferred upon him by the Royal Society. n
1744 Sir Godfrey Copley’s gold medal was bestowed upon
Baker.
B A K
him, for having, by his microscopical experiments on the
crystallizations and configuration of saline particles, produced
the most extraordinary discovery during that year. Having
led a very useful and honourable life, he died at his apart¬
ments in the Strand on the 25th of November 1 774. being
then above seventy years of age. Several of Mr Baker’s
communications are printed in the Philosophical Transac¬
tions ; and he was the means, by his extensive correspond¬
ence, of conveying to the society much useful intelligence.
He was one of the earliest members of the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, and
contributed in no small degree to its rise and establishment.
His principal publications are, The Microscope made Easy,
and Employmentfor the Microscope. The first of these was
published in 1742 or 1743. The second edition of the other
appeared in 1764. These treatises, especially the latter, con¬
tain the most curious and important of the observations and
experiments which Mr Baker either laid before the Royal
Society or published separately. His memory is perpetuated
by the Bakerian Lecture of the Royal Society, for the
foundation of which he left by will the sum of L.100.
Baker, Sir Richard, author of the Chronicle of the
Kings of England, was born at Sissingherst, in Kent, about
the year 1568. After going through the usual course at
Hart Hall, Oxford, he travelled abroad. Upon his return he
took his degree as master of arts, and in 1603 received the
honour of knighthood. In 1620 he was made high sheriff
of Oxfordshire: but having engaged to pay some debts of
his wife s family, he was reduced to poverty, and obliged to
betake himself for shelter to the Fleet prison, where he died,
February 18. 1645. During his confinement, he composed
numerous works, historical, poetical, and miscellaneous.
Amongst these are Meditations and Disquisitions on the
Lord’s Prayer; Meditations, &c., on several of the Psalms of
David ; Meditations and Prayers upon the Seven Days of
the Week; Cato Variegatus, or Cato’s Moral Distichs ;
Theatrus Triumphans, or Theatrus Redivivus, being a reply
to Prynne’s Histriomastix, &c. His principal work, the Chro¬
nicle of the Kings of England, long maintained its reputa¬
tion among the less critical class of readers, but is now in
little esteem. The author seems to have been sometimes
more studious to please than to inform, and with that view
to have sacrificed even chronology itself to method. In 1658,
Edward Philips, nephew to Milton, published a third edition
of this work, with the addition of the reign of Charles I. Sir
Richard also translated several works from the French and
Italian.
Baker, Thomas, an eminent mathematician, was born at
Ilton in Somersetshire about the year 1625, and entered at
Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1640. He became vicar of
Bishop’s-Nymmet, in Devonshire, where he wrote The Geo¬
metrical Key, or the Gate of Equations unlocked, London,
1684. He died at Bishop’s-Nymmet on the 5th of June 1690.
Baker, Thomas, a very ingenious and learned antiquary,
descended from an ancient family distinguished by its loyalty,
was born at Crook in 1656. He was educated at the free
school at Durham, and thence removed, in 1674, to St John’s
College, Cambridge, where he took his degree of A.M. in
1681, and afterwards was elected fellow. Lord Crew, bishop
of Durham, collated him to the rectory of Long-Newton in
his diocese, in 1687; and further intended to give him that
of Sedgefield, with a golden prebend, had he not incurred his
lordship’s displeasure for refusing to read King James II.’s
declaration for liberty of conscience. The bishop, who dis¬
graced him for this refusal, and was excepted out of King
William’s pardon, took the oaths to that king, and kept his
bishopric till his death. Baker resigned Long-Newton on
the 1st of August 1690, refusing to take the oaths; and re-
VOL. IV.
B A k
tired to St John’s, in which he was protected till the 20th
of January 1716-17, when he, with one-and-twenty others
was deprived of his fellowship. After the passing of the
Registering Act in 1723, he was desired to register his
annuity of L.40, which the last act required before it was
amended and explained. Though this annuity, left him by
his father for his fortune, with L.20 per annum out of his
collieries by his elder brother, was now his whole subsistence
he could not be prevailed on to secure himself against the
act. He retained a lively resentment of his deprivations ;
and wrote himself in all his books, as well as in those which
he gave to the college library, socius ejectus, and in some
rector ejectus. He continued to reside in the college as com¬
moner-master till his death, which happened on the 2d of
July 1740, in consequence of a paralytic stroke.
Having been appointed one of the executors of his elder
brother’s will, by which a large sum was bequeathed to pious
uses, he prevailed on the other two executors, who were his
younger brother Francis and the Hon. Charles Montagu, to
lay out L.1310 of the money upon an estate to be settled
upon St John s College for six exhibitioners. He likewise
gave to the college L.100 for the consideration of L.6 a-
year, then only legal interest, during his life ; and to the
library several choice books, both printed and in manu¬
script, with medals and coins; besides what he left to it by
his will viz. “all such books, printed and manuscript, as he
had, and were wanting there.” All that he ever published
were, Reflections on Learning, showing the Insufficiency
thereof in its several particulars, in order to evince the use¬
fulness and necessity of Revelation, Fond. 1709-10; and
the preface to Bishop Fisher’s Funeral Sermon for Mar¬
garet Countess of Richmond and Derby, 1708 ; both with¬
out his name. His manuscript collections relative to the
history and antiquities of the university of Cambridge, amount¬
ing to forty-nine volumes in folio and three in quarto, are
divided between the British Museum and the public library
at Cambridge : the former possesses twenty-three volumes,
the latter sixteen in folio and three in quarto. Dr Knight
styles him “ the greatest master of the antiquities of this our
university ;” and Hearne says, “ Optandum est ut suaquo-
que collectanea de antiquitatibus Cantabrigiensibus juris
faciat publici Cl. Bakerus, quippe qui eruditione summaju-
dicioque acri et subacto polleat.” He had intended some¬
thing like an Athence Cantabrigienses, on the plan of the
Athena; Oxonienses. The life of Baker has been written by
Robert Martin, 8vo, 1784 ; and by Horace Walpole, in the
quarto edition of his works.
B AKEWELL, Robert, a distinguished agriculturist and
improver of live stock, was born at Dishley, in Leicester¬
shire, in 1725 or 1726, and died there in October 1795.
His attention was more particularly devoted to the improve¬
ment of the race of sheep known as the Dishley or New
Leicestershire breed; in which he was so successful that
some of his rams were let for the season at the extraordi¬
nary sum of four hundred guineas. The improvements he
introduced in the breeding of live stock generally were such
as to secure him a high rank among the benefactors of Bri¬
tish husbandry.
Bakewell, a market-town in Derbyshire, on the River
Wye, 152 miles from London. The church is a fine old
structure, in the form of a cross. The inhabitants are sup¬
ported by the working of the coal, lead, and zinc mines, and
the stone and marble quarries in the neighbourhood. There
is also a large cotton manufactory in the town. Bakewell
is remarkable for its excellent trout-fishing, and for a chaly¬
beate spring, frequented by invalids. It has a free school of
very ancient date, a dispensary, and a literary and scientific
institution, &c. Pop. in 1851, 2217.
3 B
378
BAKING-
Baking.
Baking.
History of
the art.
Unfer¬
mented
Bread.
Baking properly means to heat anything in an oven or fire
““ to harden it; and in this sense it is used when applied
to the manufacture of bread, porcelain, Potter>'>,b"l'h f'’
It is also used as synonymous w.th the words and
as when applied to baked meats, pies, &c. In the present
Sttele the baking of Hour into bread will alone be treated of.
Se most ofHie arts of primary importance, .ts ongm
precedes the period of history, and is involved in the ob¬
scurity of thePearly ages of the world. Th^e ^ no evidence
from Scripture that Abraham was acquainted with the me
thod of making loaf-bread. Cakes and unleavened bread are
repeatedly mentioned as made by him, but no notice is ta e
of loaf-bread. We are certain that it was known m the time
of Moses, as in the Jewish law there is a prohibition against
making use of it during the celebration of the passover.
(Exodus, chap. xii. vers! 15.) Egypt, both from the nature
of the country and the early period of its ciyilwation, seems
very probably to have been the place where this art was first
practised. The Chaldeans, however, put in a claim, i hey
were civilized nearly as early as the Egyptians, and they
were celebrated among the ancients for the excellence of
their bread. The Greeks assure us that they were taught
the art of making bread by the god Pan. This lively and
superstitious people ascribed almost all the important arts of
common life to their gods ; or rather, perhaps, their grati¬
tude induced them to deify the authors of these most use¬
ful inventions. Bakers first settled in Rome during the war
with Perseus, king of Macedon. (Phnii Hist. Ata. xvi n. 11.)
It was then that the Romans became acquainted with the
refinements of the Greeks, and that their capital became
crowded with adventurers of all kinds, with artists and p i-
losophers, from the prolific soil of Achaia. Before this period
the Romans were often distinguished or reproached by the
appellation of the pulse-eating nation. , ~
Since the introduction of bakers into Rome, the art of
making bread has always been practised m the south of
Europe. But it made its way into the north very slowly ,
and even at present, in the northern countries of Europe an
Asia, loaf-bread is seldom used except by the higher classes
of inhabitants. In Sweden, for example, you see rolls fre¬
quently in the towns, but never loaves. Gottenburg is a
town containing about 23,000 inhabitants. In the year 1812
it was crowded with merchants from all parts of Europe, being
the great connecting link between Britain and the Continent.
Towards the end of that year the captain of an English packet
ordered a Gbttenburg baker to bake for him a quantity o
bread, amounting to L.l sterling in value. The baker was
confounded at so great an order, and refused to comply till
the captain gave him security that he would carry off and pay
for the loaves, declaring that he could never dispose of so
o-reat a quantity of bread in Gbttenburg if it were left upon
his hands. In the country part of Sweden no bread is
made but rye-cakes, as hard nearly as flint, and which are
only baked twice a year. About eighty years ago loaf-bread
was almost as rare in the country places and villages of Scot¬
land, barley bannocks and oaten cakes constituting the uni¬
versal substitutes among almost all ranks. But the case is
much otherwise now. .
In many parts of England it is the custom for private
families to' bake their own bread. This is particularly the
case in Kent, and in some parts of Lancashire. In the year
1804 the town of Manchester, with a population of JO,OUU
persons, did not contain a single public baker.
' Bread consists of two kinds, fermented and unfermented.
Unfermented bread consists of the flour of various kinds of
grains or pulse, formed by means of water into a thick paste
or doughv mass, and then fired either in a regular oven, or
a hot iron plate, or by being put into a hde ^ated by fud
of some kind, where it is covered over with the ashes t
thorousrhlv cooked. When the firing is carried so far as to
dry and harden this kind of unfermented bread, it receives
the name of biscuit (from the French words meaning ftmce
W) when less thoroughly baked the bread forms a heavv
loaf or cake>ich receives vanous "«ne|
of cake, bannock, scone, damper &c, and is the form
bread used most generally over the woild.
Almost every kind of edible grain is used m baking un¬
fermented bread. In the warmer regions of the globe and
termei . ^ „T1 .i tnke the place of most other
human race feed
Sn these two grains than on all the ^,P“‘ ‘“aff Im'chie"
wheat is the chief and most valuable of the grams. In van
ous countries, but to a comparatively Heall x e t ti1
pease, beans, lentils, millet, guinea corn or dhurra, Sc,
in form their unfermented bread.
Unfermented bread possesses this P^t “Ivar^e OTer
At the victualling departments ot om navy y , ^ turi. of
^drfmaShfneAP f“ apphcadon of ^hmjry to this ^
»egnbiS" IZrTaEon to doing the
b^annimUy1 produced, ^^^^^^^e^^Idsaiits^fiN^the
experience h^ Mly demons! h a cer_
seamen is much hf ^ Ptf when the whole bran is
tain admixture ot hran m 't, * ot.the manu.
1 , xhe baking establishment consists ot 9
mg,n “i , 3 feet long by 11 feet wide, and 17J inches in
re2 These are each heated by separate furnaces, so
constructed that a blast of hot ” “dJ^J^Sn
them, and gives to the interior q operation in
an incredible short space o i * , qour 0r rather
making the biscuits consists m _ introduced into
meal and water ; 13 gallons o wa 280 lb. When
a trough, and then a sack ^hS communicating
the whole has been poured m y < trough is closed.
with an upper room, a bell rin^, and^ troj ^ ^
An apparatus, consis ing are ma(ie to revolve
knives, each set ten in numbe ,
BAKING.
Baking, among the flour and water by means of machinery. This
' mixing operation lasts one minute and a half, during which
time the double set of knives or stirrers makes twenty-six
revolutions. The next process is to cast the lumps of dough
under what are called the breaking rollers,—huge cylinders
of iron, weighing 14 cwt. each, and moved horizontally by
the machinery along stout tables. The dough is thus formed
into large rude masses 6 feet long by 3 feet broad, and seve¬
ral inches thick. At this stage of the business the kneading
is still very imperfect, and traces of dry flour may still be
detected. These great masses of dough are now drawn out,
and cut into a number of smaller masses about a foot and
a half long by a foot wide, and again thrust under the rollers,
which is repeated until the mixture is so complete that not
the slightest trace of any inequality is discoverable in any
part of the mass. It should have been stated that two work¬
men stand one at each side of the rollers, and as the dough
is flattened out they fold it up, or double up one part upon
another, so that the roller at its next passage squeezes these
parts together, and forces them to mix. The dough is next
cut into small portions, and being placed upon large flat
boards, is, by the agency of machinery, conveyed from the
centre to the extremity of the baking room. Here it is re¬
ceived by a workman who places it under what is called the
sheet roller, but which for size, colour, and thickness, more
nearly resembles a blanket. The kneading is thus com¬
plete, and the dough only requires to be cut into biscuits
before it is committed to the oven. The cutting is effected
by what is called the cutting-plate, consisting of a net-work
of fifty-two sharp-edged hexagonal frames, each as large as a
biscuit. This frame is moved slowly up and down by ma¬
chinery, and the workman, watching his opportunity, slides
under it the above described blanket of dough, which is about
the size of a leaf of a dining-table ; and the cutting frame,
in its descent, indents the sheet, but does not actually cut
it through, but leaves sufficient substance to enable the work¬
man at the mouth of the oven to jerk the whole mass of
biscuits unbroken into it. The dough is prevented sticking
to the cutting-frame by the following ingenious device : be¬
tween each of the cutter-frames is a small flat open frame,
moveable up and down, and loaded with an iron ball weigh¬
ing several ounces. When the great frame comes down upon
the dough, and cuts out fifty-two biscuits, each of these minor
frames yields to the pressure and is raised up ; but as soon
as the great frame rises, the weight of the balls, acting on the
little frames, thrusts the whole blanket off and allows the
workmen to pull it out.” Each biscuit is stamped with the go¬
vernment mark, and the number of the oven, as well as punc¬
tured with holes, by the same movement which cuts out the
piece of dough. One quarter of an hour is sufficient to bake
the biscuit; they are then withdrawn from the oven, broken
asunder by the hand, and placed for three days in a drying-
room heated to 85° or 90°. Dr Ure mentions that it was
found, on experiment at the above-mentioned baking esta¬
blishment, that in 116 days, during 68 of which the work
was continued for only 7-g hours; and during 48 days for
only 5f hours each day, in all 769 working hours, 12,307
cwt., or 1,378,400 lb. of biscuits were produced from the
nine ovens. The wages of the men employed amounted to
L.273, 10s. 9£d.; whereas, if the same quantity had been
made by hand labour, the wages alone would have amounted
to L.933, 9s. lOd.; showing a saving during that time, in the
matter of wages alone, to the extent of L.659, 7s. 0|d.
Fermented or loaf bread differs from unfermented bread
in being light and spongy, in being full of small cavities,
in having a more agreeable taste, and in being more easily
chewed and digested. Fermented bread can only be made
from flour which contains the substance called gluten as one
of its ingredients, and wheat is the only grain which con¬
tains it in sufficient abundance to form a light and spongy
bread. Rye, which next to wheat contains the greatest
Fermented
Bread.
quantity of gluten, is also capable of being formed into a
fermented bread, but very inferior in lightness and spongi¬
ness to that made from wheat flour. Gluten is the viscid
substance which is left in the mouth when wheat is lono'
chewed, and may more easily be procured by forming flour
into dough with water, putting this into a muslin bag, and
washing and kneading it till all the starch is washed out:
the glutinous matter left in the bag is the impure gluten".
I he finer the wheat the larger is the proportion of this matter,
and consequently the better fitted for making loaf-bread. It
is this viscid substance which gives wheaten flour, when made
into dough, that superior tenacity which enables it to be
raised by fermentation. Wheat,' besides gluten, contains
starch, sugar, gum, also small quantities of albumen, caseine,
and fatty matter or oil. The following table shows the re¬
lative quantities of the constituent parts of wheat flours, as
ascertained by Vauquelin in 100 parts of flour.
379
Species of Wheat Flour.
Raw wheat of Odessa j
flour, Vauquelin  |
Soft wheat of Odessa |
flour, V. J
French wheat flour, V....
Wheat of Paris hospi- |
tals (second quality.. J
Water.
12-0
100
100
8-0
Gluten.
14-55
12-00
10-96
10-30
Starch.
56-50
6200
71-49
71-20
Sugar.; Gum.
8-48
7-56
4-72
4-80
4- 90
5- 80
3-32
3-60
Bran
2-3
1-2
Sir Humphry Davy and others have estimated the quan¬
tity of gluten in wheat flour so high as from 19 to 24 per
cent. But this probably resulted from their not drying the
gluten thoroughly, or freeing it sufficiently from foreign in¬
gredients. Professor Johnston, from numerous experiments
carefully conducted in his laboratory, states, “ we may safely,
I think, conclude from these, that English flour seldom con¬
tains more than 10 per cent, of dry gluten and he gives
a long table of the results actually obtained in proof of his
statement. (Ar/ric. Chemistry, p. 871.)
When wheat is ground it is sifted so as to separate the
bran, which consists of the coarse outer skin of the grain,
and the parts of the grain which are more or less imper¬
fectly or coarsely ground. Professor Johnston states, that
taking as an example three lots of good wheat ground at Mr
Robson’s mills, Durham, the yield of the different products
was respectively, per 100 parts of the wheat:—
„. „ 1st Lot. 2d Lot.
r me flour  74-2
Boxings, or coarser flour  9-0
Sharps or pollard  5-8
Bran  7-8
Waste  3-2
75-1
8-3
6-6
7-0
30
3d Lot.
77-9
6-1
5- 6
6- 9
3-5
100-0 100-0 100-0
From Mr John R. Tait, mill-owner and baker in Edin¬
burgh, we have received the following as the average yield
of good wheat flour, the whole being copied from one of his
actual mill receipts for May 1853. Thirty-two Scotch bolls,
or 16 quarters of wheat, at the average weight of 63^ lb.
per bushel—weighing in all 578 st. 11 lb.—yielded of
. St. Lb.
r me flour  414 0
Odd and second flour  23 13
Parings (sharps and pollard) 36 12
Bran and shellings  92 0
Waste  11 0
Total, 578 11
According to the purpose for which the flour is required,
the second flour is sometimes not separated; in which
case the 578 st. 11 lb. of wheat would yield 437 st. 13 lb.
of flour, the other ingredients remaining the same ; and
Mr Tail’s mill receipts are so uniform for a series of years,
that the above may be taken as the average production of
Baking.
380
baking.
Baking.
Use of
Leaven.
Y east.
flour from the best wheat sold in the Edinburgh and Lin-
1 lithgow markets. f
When wheat flour is made into a dough by means ot
water, and is kept in a warm place, a spontaneous fermenta¬
tion occurs among its particles, causing it to swell up. i ms,
for distinction’s sake, has been called the panary fermenta¬
tion. This fermentation goes on at the expense of the
sugar and starch in the flour, a portion of the carbon and
oxygen of these principles combining in the proportions to
form carbonic acid gas. As the escape of this gas is prevented
by the tough or viscid gluten in the dough, the whole mass
is swelled by the formation of numerous vesicular cavities,
which are filled with this gas, and which are very apparent
in the bread when baked. Dough, when thus naturally fer-
mented, requires not only much time, but possesses the ad¬
ditional disadvantage of having contracted an acidity and a
putrescent flavour, both of which seriously injure the qua¬
lity of the bread. This used to be got the better of by
using this self-fermented mass as leaven only, adding a
comparatively small piece of it to a large mass ot fresh-made
dough. This leaven rapidly excited the fermentive process
in the whole of the new mass, and the whole mass was then
said to be leavened. ,
This was, however, a clumsy way of exciting the panary
fermentation in large masses of dough; and it was soon dis¬
covered that the addition of yeast or barm, i. e. the frothy
scum which rises to the surface of beer when it is under¬
going fermentation, was a much more speedy mode of ac¬
complishing the same end. At first all the yeast used was
obtained from the brewers ; but now, in almost every large
town, yeast or barm breweries exist, where a wort from
pure malt is fermented alone, for the sole purpose of sup¬
plying the bakers with yeast for baking.
Pliny informs us that yeast in his time was employed in
Spain and Gaul as a ferment of bread. Gallia et IJispama
frumento in potum resoluto, quibus diximm yeneribus, spuma
ita concreta pro fermento utuntur. Qua de causa levior
Hits quam cceteris panis est. {Hist. JSat. lib. c- W
From this passage we see that the Homans employed leaven
to raise their bread, but that they were sensible of the supe¬
riority of yeast. Leaven, however, made its way both into
France and Spain, and was universally employed in the
manufacture of bread till towards the end of the seventeenth
century, when the bakers of Paris began to import yeast
from Flanders, and to employ it pretty generally as a sub¬
stitute for leaven. We have here a striking instance of the
blindness and obstinacy of the learned and the powerful, and
the readiness with which they are disposed to arm them¬
selves against all alterations and improvements. The bread
by this substitution was manifestly improved, both in ap¬
pearance and in flavour. This variation excited attention ;
the cause was discovered; the faculty of medicine in Paris
declared it prejudicial to the health; the French govern¬
ment interfered ; and the bakers were prohibited, under a
severe penalty, from employing yeast in the manufacture of
bread.
But it is in vain for governments, colleges, and universi¬
ties, to oppose themselves to those improvements which
take place in the arts and manufactures essential to civilized
society. The ingenuity and perseverance of self-interest is
proof against prohibitions, and contrives to elude the vigi¬
lance of the most active government. The laws of Queen
Elizabeth, however tyrannical and absurd, did not prevent
the introduction of indigo as a dye-stuff1 into England. Nei¬
ther did the authority of Louis the Fourteenth, nor the de¬
cision of the physicians, deter the Parisian bakers from per¬
sisting in their improved mode of making bread. The yeast
in Flanders was put into sacks; the moisture was allowed
to drop out; and in this comparatively dry state it was car¬
ried to the capital of France.
The superiority of yeast bread became gradually visible Baking,
to all; the decisions of the medical faculty were forgotten ;
and the prohibition laws were allowed tacitly to sink into
oblivion. The new mode of baking by degrees extended
itself to other countries, and is now, we believe, practised
everywhere. In warm climates, where the yeast ot beer
cannot be had, other substitutes are employed, which an¬
swer the same purpose. , , , c
It was formerly much disputed whether the panary ter-jsjature 0f
mentation was the same as, or different from the vinous, panary fer-
But the researches of Dr Colquhoun, Mr Graham, andmentauon.
others, have settled the question by showing that it is nei¬
ther more nor less than true vinous fermentation ; and the
fact may be easily shown by inclosing the loaf when baking
• in a close oven, and condensing the vapour which escapes
from it, when alcohol is obtained. If however, the dough
be allowed to sour before being subjected to the heat, no
alcohol is obtained, because the next stage of the vinous
fermentation has been gone through, namely, the acetous,
when all the alcohol assumes the form of the acetic or lactic
acids. Following out these researches, it was found that
the fermentation was mainly dependent on the saccharine
matter in the wheat, aided by the conversion of a portion
of the starch into sugar, as happens in the well-known pro-
06 When the baker prepares his dough for a batch, accord-^xmgof^
ing to circumstances he either mixes the whole ingredients - o
together at once—called setting the whole sponge,—or else
he only mixes a quarter of the ingredients at one time,—
called setting quarter-sponge. The quantity ot ingredients
used in setting a sponge varies according to the sale of the
bread ; but for a bag of good wheat, weighing 280 Jb about
15 gallons of water, of about the temperatur e ot 90,5 lb. ot
salt and U pint of yeast are employed. In Edinburgh it has
been found, by numerous experiments conducted on the large
scale by the best bakers, whose bread is unequalled tor qua¬
lity, that the best bread is produced by setting the whole
sponge at once. In London, and most towns where much
of the bread sold is very inferior, the custom is to mix at
first only a fourth of the flour which is intended to be em¬
ployed, adding only half a pint of yeast and the requisite pro¬
portion of salt. This is called setting quarter-sponge. In
this case some dry flour is thrown over the top of the mass,
and cloths are thrown over the barrel in which the mixture
is made. It is then left for three hours. By this time ac¬
tive fermentation has been excited in the whole mass, which
has swollen up, burst, and collapsed two or three times An
additional quarter of flour, and its proportion of salt and
water, are then added to the mass, the whole intimately
mixed and left for about five hours. This is termed setting
half-sponge. After this period the other halt ot the ,
with its relative proportions of salt and water, are added,
the whole mixed intimately for about an hour, and th s
is termed setting whole sponge ; after which the doug
laid in the baking-trough and covered up tor about tour
h° As*above mentioned, the best Edinburgh b^ers ^eady Siting the
prefer setting the whole sponge at once , an ie g gp0nge
of the chemical nature of the changes which the flour unde - the begt
goes during the fermentation, quite bears out the practical method.
conclusion^that such should not only produce better bread
than by setting quarter-sponge, but also that ti e p
of loaves from the bag of flour should be peater. Bytte
plan of setting quarter-sponge, a portion of the flo P
in a state of fermentation for a much longer p ofwhich
the whole-sponge process ; the natural consefl . h
is, that a much larger quantity of the sugar and starch in t e
flour is decomposed, and the whole mass has a greater te^
dency to pass into the next stage of fenne
tons fermentation. Thebreadprepared by the quarter-sponge
Import¬
ance of
thorough
firing and
exposure
to air.
Use of
alum.
Testing of
bread.
B A K
process is therefore not only diminished in quantity, but also
sooner gets sour than when the whole sponge is set at once;
and instead of a bag of flour yielding from 96 to 100 loaves,
each 4 lb. in weight, which it does by the whole-sponge
process, the number of loaves rarely if ever exceeds 94.
As a general rule it takes 3 lb. of good flour to make a well-
fired loaf weighing 4 lb.
When the dough is sufficiently fermented it iswell kneaded,
and is then weighed out into masses weighing 4^ lb. each.
During the firing this half-pound is nearly dissipated, so
that when the loaf comes from the oven it weighs somewhat
more than 4 lb., and when well and properly fired will not
fall below that weight for 24 or 36 hours. Many London
and second-rate bakers, in order to make more loaves out of
a bag of flour, and yet keep up the weight of the loaf, under¬
fire their bread, and when it is removed from the oven, place
it in a close place, and cover it over with thick cloths till it
cools. This greatly deteriorates the bread, rendering it
heavy, more indigestible, and prone to turn acid and mouldy.
The first-rate Edinburgh bakers, who fire their bread so
much more thoroughly, expose the loaves freely to the air
when removed from the oven, by placing them in open
shelves, and do all in their power to prevent the vapour ris¬
ing from the warm bread condensing on the loaves them¬
selves. It seems to be mainly attention to these points, viz.
setting at once the whole sponge, thorough firing, and free
exposure of the bread to the air during its cooling, that the
great superiority of the Edinburgh bread is to be attributed.
But it may be remarked that no subsequent attention will
make up for the want of good flour.
In London, where so much bad bread is made, and inferior
flour is used, it is not unusual to add alum, in proportions
varying from one ounce to six or eight ounces to the bag of
flour : the more inferior the flour, the larger is the quantity
of alum used. This addition is supposed to render the bread
firmer and whiter, and it certainly appears to have such an
effect on the inferior flours; and, as in London bread is valued
according to its whiteness, the Londoners are content to eat
an inferior and not so wholesome bread in order to please
the eye. Potatoes and several other articles are used to
adulterate the flour from which bread is prepared, but it is
unnecessary to particularize these, as every addition to
wheaten flour only deteriorates the bread baked from it.
See Adulteration.
An important desideratum has long been felt, viz. an easy
mode of ascertaining the relative goodness of bread. The
comfort and health of so many are dependent on the purity
and goodness of the bread they use, that it is astonishing so
few attempts have been made to find a test easy of applica¬
tion for this purpose. One of the most intelligent of the
bakers in Edinburgh mentioned to us one test he has been in
I N G. 381
the habit of using for twenty years past with uniform success. Baking
Well-fired bread, made of good and pure wheat flour, is dry, II
light, and spongy. Bread made of inferior flour, or to which Baku-
has been added rye, barley, potatoes, potato starch, alum,
See., or bread under-fired, or sweated, or acid, is heavier,
damper, and less spongy. The test is: cut from the two loaves
pieces of equal size, and put them in saucers having each the
same quantity of water, the best bread will invariably absorb
the most water. The same may be more accurately done
by cutting the pieces of bread of equal weight, placing each
in water till thoroughly saturated, and weighing each piece
again. Invariably the best bread will be found to have ab¬
sorbed the largest quantity of water and to weigh the heaviest.
The varieties of bread baked in this country are endless,
and it would only be waste of space to mention them here.
It may merely be mentioned, that when the bread is desired
to be especially light and porous the dough is fired in deep
iron pans, which, by preventing the escape of carbonic acid
gas from the sides of the loaf, causes the whole loaf to swell
up more, and produces a greater amount of sponginess.
Bread thus baked is termed pan or pan-soled bread.
With many invalids even the best fermented or leavened Varieties
bread disagrees, and it has been the aim of many bakers to of unlea-
produce a light and spongy bread by the disengagement ofvened
carbonic acid gas or other vapour in the mass of dough, dur- biead-
ing the firing, without the use of yeast or leaven. For this
purpose carbonate of ammonia has been and is extensively
used ; and, as this substance is totally volatilized by the heat
of the oven, it imparts neither smell nor taste to the bread,
yet, by assuming the gaseous form in the dough, causes it to
swell out, thus rendering it lightand spongy, and consequently
easily digestible. With the same end in view muriatic acid
(spirit of salt) and carbonate of soda, in the proper propor¬
tions for forming table salt, have been used with perfect suc¬
cess. Others again have used with the same view carbonate
of soda and tartaric acid, in the proper proportions to neutralize
each other; and it is by one of these three processes that most
of the light spongy unfermented bread now sold is prepared.
Whenever acid of any kind is used for this end, it ought al¬
ways to be used in the exact proportion to neutralize the soda
used ; if the soda be in excess, the bread assumes a yellowish
discoloured hue ; if the acid be in excess, the bread is un¬
pleasant to eat. We have often baked very pleasant bread by
using 600 grains carbonate of soda and six drachms muriatic
acid to 8 lb. of flour. Some however use a half more of the
soda and acid to the same quantity of flour. When from
oversight, or from the panary fermentation having gone on
too rapidly, the dough has become sour, the acidity may be
checked, and the bread rendered wholesome, by the addi¬
tion of a small quantity of carbonate of soda or of mag¬
nesia. (j. s—K.)
BAKU, or Badku, a town, with an adjoining district of the yield from 1000 to 1500 lb. in a day; and the district, in dry
" " weather, has often afforded as much as 5600 lb. in one day.
The naphtha consists of two kinds, the impure or black, con¬
taining petroleum, and the pale yellow or white, which is pure
naphtha. The quantity annually obtained in the district
amounts to 240,000 Russian poods, or 9,600,000 lb. of the
first sort, and 900 poods, or 36,000 lb. of the latter. The
fundamental rock of this district appears to be a secondary
limestone, on which is imposed a bed of white clay; then
two strata of bituminous shale separated by a bed of sand ;
next a stratum of fossiliferous sandstone, covered by a bed
of clay. The naphtha oozes through the fissures of the
white clay, and probably is thus distilled by subterranean
heat. These wells contain inexhaustible springs of oil; and
they are no sooner emptied than the oil begins to flow, and
continues until it has attained its former level. It is used by
the natives for lamp-oil, and emits a clear light, with much
smoke and a disagreeable odour. All around the town the
,
same name, in me itussian province of Daghestan. Badku is
the most spacious and convenient port in the Caspian. It
stands in the peninsula of Apsheron, in Long. 49. 40. E. Eat.
40.22. N. It is a place of considerable trade, and is defended
by a double wall and ditch, constructed during the reign of
Peter the Great. The town, which is situated on a declivity,
is of an obtuse-triangular form, and was a celebrated resort
of the ancient worshippers of fire. Before the conquest of
the Saracens it was annually visited by thousands of pilgrims,
and is still visited by a few Persian fire-worshippers. In the
adjacent district a great quantity of excellent cotton is pro¬
duced, which is exported from Badku ; together with fruit,
opium, rice, silk, wine, rock-salt, and naphtha. Cloths, dye¬
stuffs, iron, linen, and silk stuffs, are imported from Astracan,
with which place its principal trade is carried on. In the
plain nine miles north of the city, enormous quantities of
naphtha are produced. It is drawn from wells, some of which
382
Bala
il
Balaam.
B A L
country is deeply impregnated with inflammable matter, both
above and below the surface. About 15 miles to the N.E.
is a fire temple of the Guebres ; a remarkable spot, some¬
thing less than a mile in circumference, from the centre of
which a bluish flame is seen to arise. Here are some smal
houses ; and the inhabitants, when they wish to smother the
flame, cover the space inclosed with walls by a thick loam
of earth. When an incision is made in the floor, the flame
arises ; and when it is no longer wanted for culinary or other
purposes, it is again suppressed by closing the aperture. 1 lie
whole country around Badku has at times the appearance
of being enveloped in flames. It often appears as it tire
rolled down the mountains in large masses with great velo¬
city ; and at night a bright blue light is observed to cover
the whole western range of hills. This fire does not con¬
sume, or emit any sensible warmth.
The jurisdiction of Baku extends over thirty-two villages.
It was ceded to Russia in 1723, and restored to Persia in
1735. After remaining for some years under the dominion
of Persia, in 1801 it was taken possession of by the Rus¬
sians, by whom it is still retained. The district, including
the town, contains, according to Klaproth, 19,000 inhabi-
BALA, a market-town of Wales, county of Merioneth,
and hundred of Penllyn, at the northern extremity of a small
lake, 17 miles N.E. of Dolgelly. It consists principally ot
one wide street. Its manufactures are flannels, stockings,
and Moves. The lake of Bala is four miles long and about
half a mile broad. It is very deep and clear, and abounds
with pike, perch, trout, eels, and the gwyniad, or coregonus
lavaretus. The beds of limestone in the slate of this dis¬
trict, from their fossil contents, belong to the upper and
lower series of silurian rocks. > ^ r> i,
BALAAM, a prophet and diviner of the city of Pethor
on the Euphrates, whose practices with Balak, king of the
Moabites, are recorded in the Book of Numbers, chap. xxii.
In 2 Peter ii. 15, Balaam is called the son of Bosor, which
Gesenius attributes to an early corruption of the text, but
Dr Lightfoot considers it to be a Chaldaism, and infers from
the apostle’s use of it, that he was then resident at Babylon.
Of the numerous paradoxes which we find in this re¬
markable person, not the least striking is, that with the piac-
tice of an art expressly forbidden to the Israelites, he
united the knowledge and worship of Jehovah, and was in
the habit of receiving intimations of his will. The sacred
narrative gives us no reason to suppose that he had any pre¬
vious knowledge of the Israelites. In the absence of more
copious and precise information, we may reasonably con¬
jecture that Jacob’s residence for twenty years in Mesopo¬
tamia contributed to maintain some just ideas of religion,
though mingled with much superstition. To this source,
and the existing remains of patriarchal religion, Balaam was
probably indebted for that truth which he unhappily “ held
in unrighteousness.”
On the narrative contained in Numb. xxii. 22-35 a dif¬
ference of opinion has long existed, even among those who
fully admit its authenticity. The advocates for a literal in¬
terpretation urge, that in a historical narrative it would be
unnatural to regard any of the occurrences as taking place
in vision, unless expressly so stated ; that it would be dif¬
ficult to determine where the vision begins, and where it
ends; that Jehovah’s “opening the mouth of the ass” must
have been an external act; and, finally, that Peter’s lan¬
guage is decidedly in favour of the literal sense. “ The dumb
ass, speaking with a man’s voice, reproved the madness of
the prophet” (2 Peter ii. 16). Those who conceive that
the whole scene occurred in vision to Balaam (among whom
are Maimonides, Leibnitz, and Hengstenberg), insist upon
the fact that dreams and visions were the ordinary methods
by which God made himself known to the prophets (Numb,
xii. 6) ; they remark that Balaam speaks of himself as the
B A L
man who had his eyes shut, and who, on falling down in Baladan
prophetic ecstasy, had his “eyes opened that he expressed
no surprise on hearing the ass speak ; and that neither his v ^ (
servants nor the Moabitish princes who accompanied him
appear to have been cognizant of any supernatural appear¬
ance. Gregory of Nyssa supposes that the ass did not utter
any word articulately ; but that having brayed as usual, the
diviner, whose practice it had been to draw presages from
the cries of beasts and singing of birds, comprehended easily
the ass’s meaning by its noise ; and that Moses designed to
ridicule the superstitious art of augurs and* soothsayers, as
if the ass had really spoken in words articulate.
BALADAN, the Scripture name for a king of Babylon,
called by profane authors Belesus or Belesis, Nabonassar
or Nanybrus. See Belesis.
B ALAIN A, the common Greenland whale. See Mam¬
malia. ,. , . . t
B AL AGHAUT Districts. This country, which is in the
south of India, comprehends a large proportion of the table¬
land supported like a terrace by the stupendous mountain
ranges of the Eastern and Western Ghauts. It extends from
the Toombuddraand Krishnarivers on the north, to the south¬
ern extremity of Mysore, and is named Balaghaut or above
the Ghauts,” in contradistinction to Payenghaut or “ below
the Ghauts.” This tract of country comprehends, in addition
to the native state of Mysore, the three British districts ot
Ballary, Cuddapah, and Kurnoul, the first two having been
ceded by the Nizam in 1800, in commutation of subsidy, and
the last taken from the nawaub ot that district in 1841, in
consequence of a breach of allegiance to the paramount
power. The area of the Balaghaut, excluding the Mysore, is
28,669 square miles, and its population 2,954,710. Sugar,
grain, and cotton, form the staple produce.
In ancient times these provinces formed part of the Hin¬
du kingdom of Bijyanagur ; and many of the modern Poly-
gars claim their descent from the otficers, and some from the
royal family of that kingdom. On the fall of the Mogu
o-overnment, the Balaghaut was broken into several indepen¬
dent states. It was conquered by Hyder Ali between the
years 1766 and 1780. Upon the dismemberment of Tippoo s
dominions in 1800, the dependency of Kurnoul continued in
the possession of its nawaub. Ot the residue of the Bala¬
ghaut, a portion was assigned to the rajah ot Mysore, the re¬
presentative of a family dispossessed by Hyder Ah, but res¬
cued by the British to participate in the results ot their suc¬
cess over that usurper’s son. 1 hat which remained was di¬
vided between the British and the Nizam. The dependency
of Kurnoul and the portion of territory allotted to the
Nizam, are now, as above stated, annexed to the British em¬
pire ; the territory of Mysore, though still nominally consti-
tutino- a native state, was some time since, in consequence ol
the misconduct of its affairs, transferred to the direct man-
ao-ement and control of the British government, (e. t.)
&BALAGUER (Bargusia of the Romans), apartido and
city of the province of Lerida, in Spain. The city is situated
on the right bank of the River Segra, in a fruitful district, and
is defended by a citadel. Pop. 4642, chiefly occupied in the
pursuits of agriculture. Long. 1. 24. E. Lat. 41. 43. N.
BALAMBANGAN, an island in the Eastern Seas, be¬
tween Magindanao and Borneo. I he East India Company
formerly had a settlement here, but it is now abandoned.
Long. 117. 5. E. Lat. 7. 15. N. ^ ,
BALANCE, a machine for ascertaining the weight ot suo-
stances. There are several kinds of balances, as the com¬
mon balance or scales, the steelyard, the Danish or we is i
balance, the Chinese balance, the hydrostatic balance, &c.
The same name is also given to certain kinds of apparatus
for measuring or comparing the intensities of very sma
forces, as the balance of torsion, the electric balance, arc.
The common balance, which is of the most extensive
use in the affairs of life, as well as in the arts and expen-
Balance.
BALANCE.
383
mental physics, consists of a beam, AB (fig. 1, Plate CIII.),
supported in the middle by a fulcrum or prop C, round
which it turns freely, and having a scale or dish attached to
each of its extremities A, B, one of which holds the weight,
and the other the substance to be weighed. The balance,
therefore, in reference to the mechanical powers, is a le¬
ver of the first kind; that is to say, having the fulcrum
placed between the power and the weight to be raised;
hence its theory is easily deduced from the statical pro¬
perties ot the lever. Let P represent the weight in the
scale D, and Q that in E ; then (supposing AB an inflexible
straight line without weight), when AB becomes stable in
the horizontal position, or when P balances Q, the condition
of equilibrium is expressed by the equation
P X AC = Q X BC.
In order, therefore, that the two bodies P and Q may
have precisely the same weight, or both exert the same
force in turning the beam about its axis of motion, it is
indispensable that the two points of suspension A and B
be exactly equidistant from the fulcrum C.
When the two arms of the balance are not exactly of
the same length, it is obvious that the two weights P gnd
Q, which, in the case of equilibrium, are reciprocally as
CA and CB, must also be unequal, in order that the fore¬
going equation may still be true. If, for example, AC is
longer than CB, then a less weight in D will balance a
greater in E; and it is on this principle that false balances
are constructed. The fraud, however, may be easily de¬
tected by transferring the weights P and Q to the opposite
scales; for then the less weight P being attached to the
shorter arm CB, the product P X CB will be smaller than
Q X CA, and the equilibrium consequently destroyed.
It may be remarked, that the true weight of a body
may easily be found by means of a false balance of this
kind. It is only necessary to weigh the body first in the
one scale and then in the other, and the true weight will
be a mean proportional between the two weights thus in¬
dicated. To demonstrate this property, let w be the true
weight of the body in grains, and suppose that when placed
in the scale E it balances p grains in D, and that when
transferred to D it balances q grains in E, and makes
m = AC, n — BC ; by the statical property of the lever
we have the two equations,
nip — nw, nq = mw ;
, m w m q
whence — = —, — — — ;
n p n w
therefore — = S- and w = Vnq:
p w 11
so that is a mean proportional between p and q, and is
consequently found by multiplying those numbers to¬
gether, and extracting the square root of their product.
In what precedes, the beam has been regarded as an
inflexible rod devoid of weight; but in order to investi¬
gate fully the properties of the instrument, and the con¬
ditions that must be fulfilled in order to render it practi¬
cally useful, it is necessary to have regard to the weight
of the beam, and the position of its centre of gravity in
respect of the axis of motion. The great requisites of a
good balance are sensibility and stability; that is to say,
it ought to be such that a very small weight added to
either scale disturbs the equilibrium, and causes the beam
to deviate sensibly from the horizontal position; and also
such, that when the equilibrium has been disturbed, it may
return quickly to a state of rest. In order to discover the
construction best adapted to confer these two properties,
it is convenient to regard the beam as a bent lever. Let
G (fig. 2) be the centre of gravity of the beam, O the
middle point of the straight line joining the points of sus¬
pension A and B, H'H a horizontal straight line drawn
through C, and GD, OE, BH, AH', perpendiculars to Balance.
H'H. Make
W = weight of beam,
L = weight of scales with their load,
P = the preponderating weight,
<p — COE = BOK = angle of inclination.
The condition of equilibrium is now
L.CE + W.CD = P.CH;
whence, since CH = EH — EC = OK — EC,
L.OC sin. <p + W.GC sin. <p = P.OB cos. © — P.OC sin. ©;
therefore, sin. <p [(L + P) . OC + W.GC] = P.OB cos. <p;
, * sin. f P.OB
cos. p (L + P) . OC + W . GC
From this equation it appears that, for any given value
of P, the tangent of the angle of inclination, which mea¬
sures the sensibility of the balance, is directly as the
length of the beam, inversely as the weights of the beam
and load, and also inversely as the distances of G and O
from the axis. The sensibility is therefore greatest when
the quantity (L + P) . OC + W . CG is the least pos¬
sible. On the other hand, when P = 0, the stability, or
the force acting to restore the beam to the horizontal po¬
sition, is sin. <p [L.OC -f- W. CG], which will be di¬
minished by diminishing the value of L . OC + Wr. CG.
In what precedes we have supposed the points G and O
both to fall below the centre of the motion C ; but the ba¬
lance may be constructed so that one or both of these
points shall coincide with C, or fall above it. Suppose, in
the first place, the arms to be bent upwards, so that O falls
above the fulcrum, while G remains below it. In this case
the measure of stability is sin. p (W.CG L.OC), whence
it appears that a balance of this sort can only be used for
small weights; for if the load is increased till L.OC becomes
equal to W.CG, the balance has no restoring power, and
is indifferent to any position. If L.OC exceeds W.CG, it
would entirely upset by the slightest deviation from the
horizontal position.
Suppose next that the centre of gravity G falls above
the fulcrum, O remaining below it. The measure of sta¬
bility now becomes sin. <p (L.OC — W\CG), and conse¬
quently the balance is only useful for heavy weights; for
as L.OC is diminished, the stability is lessened, and when
L.OC is equal to or less than W.CG, the balance is use¬
less. Hence it appears that when either of the points
G, O, falls above C, the balance can only be employed in
particular cases.
Let the point G coincide with C, and O fall below it.
In this case CG vanishes, and the measure of stability be¬
comes sin. (f> L.OC, which, for any given value of <p, in¬
creases with the load, or the weight of the substance to
be weighed. A balance of this sort would be unfit for
weighing small bodies on account of its want of stability,
though it might be used in the estimation of great weights.
Lastly, let O coincide with C, while G falls below the
axis. 1 he three points of action A, C, B, are now arranged
in a straight line, and the measure of stability is sin. <p
W . CG, which is constant for a given value of <p. The re¬
storing force is therefore independent of the load in the
scales, so that a balance of this sort can be employed in
all cases, whether the weights are great or small; and as
it is easy, diminishing W and CG, to give it any requir¬
ed degree of sensibility, it is this form that ought to be
adopted in every case where great precision and accuracy
are necessary.
Another reason for this disposition of the three points
of action in a straight line is, that unless C is in the same
straight line with A and B, an equilibrium will subsist be¬
tween two unequal weights when AB is not exactly hori¬
zontal. In fact, since the weights P, Q, suspended from A
and B, act in the direction perpendicular to H'H, the mo-
384
BALANCE.
Balance, ments of these weights, or their energies in turning the
beam round its axis, are respectively P X CH', andQ X CH ;
therefore, when BCH is a greater angle than ACH', and
the line CH consequently less than CH', a smaller weight
at A will balance a greater at B, and the beam remain
at rest though loaded with unequal weights. It is hence
important, in all accurate weighing, to make certain that
when the equilibrium takes place, the line AB is exactly
horizontal. .
Having determined from theory the conditions that
ought to be observed in the construction of the balance,
we shall now proceed to give a brief description of the in¬
strument as it is constructed for assaying or other delicate
purposes. In the first place, the beam ought to be as light
as possible, consistently with its perfect inflexibility; tor
it is evident that the friction of the axis will be increased
with its weight, and the sensibility proportionally diminish¬
ed. To combine the qualities of lightness and inflexibility,
it is found most advantageous to form the arms of the ba¬
lance of two hollow cones of brass, very thin, but strength¬
ened and inflexible by means of circular rings driven into
them at proper intervals. In order to diminish as much
as possible the extent of the surfaces in contact, the axis
is formed of two sharp edges of tempered steel, lying in
the same straight line, and supported on two planes ot
steel, agate, or crystal, finely polished, and placed with
the greatest precision, in the same horizontal plane. In
a balance made by the celebrated Troughton, the sharp
edges are ground on the lower side of a cylinder of steel,
which crosses the beam in the middle, and they extend
over the agate planes about ^yth of an inch. I he angle
of the edges is about 30°. The suspension at the extre¬
mities of the beam ought also to be made by sharp edges,
crossing each other at right angles; and in order to obviate
any risk of displacement, the edges may be concave, those
formed in the beam being sharp upwards, and the others,
to which the scales are attached, being sharp downwards.
The horizontality of the beam is usually indicated by a
slender pointed rod called the tongue of the balance, rising
perpendicularly above the beam, and passing through the
centres of gravity and motion. A divided ivory scale,
placed contiguous to it, shows deviations of the tongue from
the perpendicular, and renders sensible the slightest mo¬
tion of the beam. In some balances the tongue is placed
below the beam, pointing downwards, in order to diminish
the volume of instrument. But the preferable method is
to bring the arms themselves to terminate in sharp points,
and place a divided scale behind each. By this means
the tongue is rendered unnecessary, and any flexure of
the beam immediately becomes evident. Care must be
taken that the zeros of the two scales be placed exactly
in the same level. The points of suspension at the ex¬
tremities of the arms ought to be adjustable both horizon¬
tally and vertically ; horizontally, for the purpose of giving
the two arms exactly the same length; and vertically, in
order to bring the three points of action into a straight
line. A nut or bob, formed of some heavy substance,
placed near the middle of the beam (in the interior of the
cylinder if it be hollow), and capable of being raised or
lowered by a screw, serves to increase or diminish the dis¬
tance of the centre of gravity of the beam from the axis
of motion, and consequently to accelerate or retard the
oscillations at pleasure. Two supporters, the upper ends
of which are formed into angles, are placed under the
beam. These, being raised by means of a screw, lift the
beam from the supporting planes, and relieve the sharp
edges when the balance is not in use. If the arms of the
balance are hollow, this object may be accomplished with
less risk by placing the supporters under the extremities
of the cross steel bar on which the sharp edges are form¬
ed. Props should also be placed under the scales while Balance,
loading or unloading them ; and care taken to confine the
oscillations within narrow limits, or prevent the beam
from deviating much from the horizontal position, by
which the points of action might be endangered. The
sensibility, as we have seen, increases with the length of
the beam ; but the liability to flexure also increases in the
same proportion : and the arms of a balance, such as has
been described, cannot, perhaps, safely exceed nine or ten
inches. When great delicacy is required, the apparatus
must be protected from the disturbing influences of cur¬
rents of air, by being inclosed within a glass case, having
doors at the ends for the convenience of loading and un¬
loading the scales.
Fig. 3, Plate CIII. represents a balance by Fortin, a
celebrated mechanician of Paris. The beam is made ot
tempered steel, and the arms slightly bent, so that all the
parts of action may be situated in the same plane, and
the centre of gravity fall a little below the axis of motion,
which is here under the beam. The planes of support are
of steel, and highly polished. The suspension at the ex¬
tremities of the arms is represented by fig. 4.
With a balance of great sensibility, weighing is not only
a delicate, but also tedious operation. When the adjust¬
ments are all perfect, and the beam nearly poised, the os¬
cillations should be extremely slow and regular, and ex¬
tend to equal distances on each side of the zero of the
scale. In fact, it is by the equality of the excursions of
the index from zero that the horizontality of the beam
must be inferred ; for a very long time would elapse before
the oscillations entirely cease. The sensibility of a balance
constructed with the requisite care, according to the
ciples above explained, is very great. Those of Fortin of
Paris have been found to oscillate by the addition of a
single milligramme, when loaded with a weight of 1000
grammes in each scale ; so that the weight is indicated to
the millionth part. A balance constructed by the late Mr
Ramsden, for the Royal Society of London, is said to vi¬
brate with the seven-millionth part of its load. In general,
however, no such exactness can be hoped for ; and even
when the greatest precautions are taken, and the most de¬
licate instruments employed, it would seldom be safe to
vouch for the truth of any figure carried beyond the fourth
decimal. .
But notwithstanding the high state of perfection to
which the mechanical arts have arrived, the mathematical
equality of the length of the arms, and their symmetry
in respect of the axis of motion, can never be practically
attained; it is therefore desirable to have the means of
obtaining results in as great a degree as possible indepen¬
dent of such extreme precision. The following method
of weighing, ascribed by the French writers to Borda,
gives results not affected by the inequality of the arms, or
other imperfections to which the balance is principally
subject, and ought to be practised whenever very great
accuracy is necessary. Let the body to be weighed,
which we shall call P, be placed in the scale A, and for
a counterpoise put into the scale B, substances of any
sort, for instance bits of copper, lead, wire, or even chips
of paper, added in small quantities till the beam becomes
perfectly horizontal, which is known by the index pointing
to zero. This being done, remove gently the body P from
A, and substitute for it known weights, as grains and frac¬
tions of a grain, till the equilibrium is restored, and the
index again settles at zero. Now it is evident that the
weights in A, having been placed exactly in the same cir¬
cumstances with the body P, and producing equa y wi i
an equilibrium with the loaded scale B,must be the exact
equivalent or weight of P. In fact, the accuracy of this
process can only be affected by two circumstances; t e
BALANCE.
Balance.^ first is, the friction of the axis, or the want of sensibility in
the balance ; and the second is, a change of position in the
point of suspension. Unless the points of suspension are
identical in both operations, the weights which succes¬
sively pioduce equilibrium with B will not be exactly
equal; for even if no change takes place in the length of
the arm, the friction developed at the new points of con¬
tact will have a different value, and consequently require
a different force to overcome it. The chief objects to be
attended to, therefore, in practising the method of double
weighing, are, that the mode of contact may receive no
change during the loading and unloading of the scales;
and that the friction may be reduced to its least possible
value by giving the finest polish to the edges, as well as
the plane of support.
With regard to the weights that ought to be employed,
it may be sufficient to state, that, in delicate weighing, and
for philosophical purposes, they are usually reckoned by
Troy grains. The geometrical series 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c.
offers one considerable advantage, namely, that a smaller
number of weights is required than when any other system
is adopted ; but it would, perhaps, be more convenient in
practice to follow the decimal division, and use weights of
the following values: 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.; 10, 20, 30, 40, &c.;
100, 200, 300, 400, &c.; 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, &c., up
to 9000; and -1, -2, -3, *4, &c.; *01, -02, -03, 0-4, &c.; -001,
•002, -003, *004, &c. By this means the trouble of adding
would be entirely avoided, and the number of weights in
the scale would equal the digits in the number by which
the grains are expressed. Thus a load of 735*4 grains
would be counterpoised by weights of 700 grains, 30 grains,
5 grains, and 4-10ths of a grain.
See Euler, Comment. Petrop. tom. x. p. 3. Phil Trans.
for 1766 ; Shuckburgh in ditto for 1798, part 2d ; Prony,
Annales de Chimie, tom. xxxvi. p. 3; Biot, Trade de
Physique, tom. i. p. 9; Ure’s Dictionary of Chemistry;
Leslie’s Elements of Natural Philosophy, vol. i. p. 185.
The Steelyard is a balance by which the weights of
bodies are estimated by means of a single weight. This
machine, which is represented by fig. 5, is likewise a le¬
ver of the first kind, having two unequal arms. The load
L to be weighed is suspended from the extremity of the
short arm C A, and the counterpoise or constant weight P
is movable along CB. Divisions traced on CB indicate
the weight of L corresponding to each of the positions of
P. In the East, where the steelyard is much in use, the
standard weight P is generally made to resemble a pome¬
granate in shape; whence the instrument acquired the
name of Romman, and from this circumstance it has fre¬
quently but erroneously been denominated the Roman
balance or Statera.
To find the points of division of the arm CB, let W be
the weight of the bar AB, exclusive of L and P; and let
p be the weight in'pounds of the body L. Let CA = l,
and x be the unknown distance of the centre of gravity
of the beam from the fulcrum C. Then, carrying P along
the arm CB till the beam is horizontal, let Aj be the point
at which P rests, and put CAX = Xj. Now, the beam is
kept in equilibrium by its own weight acting at the centre
of gravity x, and by the weights p and P acting respec¬
tively at A and Ax; therefore the condition of equilibrium
is expressed by the equation
W a; + + PX! = 0.
Let another weight p, equal to the former, be suspended
irom A, and let A2 be the position of P when the equili¬
brium is restored. Make CA2 = X2, and the above equa¬
tion now becomes
W a; + 2 ;?/+ PX2 = 0.
In this manner, by the successive addition of equal weights
V to A, the following system of equations is formed:
VOL. IT.
w a; + ^ + PXj = 0
W a; + 2 + PX2 = 0
Wtf-f 3^+ PX3 =0
385
Balance.
Wx+ npl + PX„ = 0.
By subtracting the first of these equations from the se¬
cond, the second from the third, and so on, we have
^+P(XS!_XJ) = 0
^+P(X3-X2) = 0
^+P(X4-X3) = 0
i’i +p’(xn--xn-1) = o.
The successive differences X2—Xj, X3 — X2, &c. are
therefore constant, each being equal to the constant quan-
tity The divisions of the arm CB may therefore be
found as follows:
Having suspended the given weight p from the extre¬
mity of the shorter arm CA, find the point at which it
is necessary to place P in order that the beam may be
horizontal. Then, having removed p, substitute for it
another weight, which is an exact multiple of p, as np,
and let P be moved toward C till the equilibrium is re¬
stored, A„ being the point where P is now placed. Di¬
vide the distance Aj An into n — 1 equal parts, and the
points of division will be respectively those at which P
will balance the intermediate weights between p and np.
If, therefore, each of those points is marked with the cor¬
responding value of p, the weight of any body whatever
suspended from A will be indicated by the number of the
division at which P rests when the beam is horizontal.
The distances A1 A2, A2 A3, &c. may be divided into
tenths, or other fractional parts.
For weighing heavy loads the steelyard is a convenient
instrument; but for small weights it is not susceptible of
so much accuracy as the common balance. The pressure
on the fulcrum, and consequently the friction, is greater,
when the commodities to be weighed are less than the
constant weight P, and the subdivision of the arm cannot
be effected with the same precision as that of weights for
the balance. It may be proper, however, to remark, that
the instrument ought to be constructed so that the con¬
stant centres C and A may be in the same straight line
with the divisions of the beam, and that the centre of
gravity of the unloaded beam, when placed horizontally,
shall be in the vertical passing through C, and a little
below that point, as in the common balance. An index
or tongue shows when the beam takes the horizontal situ¬
ation.
The Chinese Balance is a sort of steelyard for weighing
small commodities, formed of a slender tapering rod of
wood or ivory, about a foot in length, perforated generally
with four holes through which silk threads are passed, to
serve as so many points of support. Four different sets
of divisions are marked on the corresponding sides of the
rod ; and when any thing is to be weighed, the rod is held
up by one of the strings, and a sliding weight of about 1^
ounce Iroy employed as a counterpoise to the substance,
which is placed in a small scale suspended from the extre-
mity of the shorter arm. The position of the standard
weight indicates the weight of the substance, as in the
ordinary steelyard.
The Danish or Swedish Balance, which is commonly
employed in many parts of the north of Europe for weigh¬
ing coarse commodities, is of a very simple construction.
It consists usually of a batten of hard wood, having a
heavy lump A (fig. 6) fixed at one end, and a swivel
hook at the other. The goods to be weighed are fixed to
the hook, and the whole is suspended in a loop of whip¬
cord C, in which the rod is slid backward and forward
3 c
386
BALANCE.
Balance, till the equilibrium is established. The weight of the
load L is determined by the position of the loop on a
scale of divisions, which may be formed in the following
manner.
Let O be the centre of gravity of the beam and the at¬
tached weight at A, W their weight, L the load to be
weighed, and make BO = a, BC = x. The equation of
°   W a
equilibrium is Lr = W (a — x), whence x — ^
Now, if we suppose a to be 30 inches, W — 2 lbs., and
substitute for L the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. successively, we
shall have the following values of x:
When L = 1, a? = 20 inches
L = 2, a? = 15
L = 3, a: = 12
L = 4, a; = 10
&c.
A balance constructed in this manner is obviously sus¬
ceptible of very little accuracy.
The Bent Lever Balance, which is represented by hg.
7 is sometimes employed for expedition in the coarser
processes of weighing. To one extremity of a bent lever
ACB. is attached a constant weight B, which acts as a
counterpoise to the load placed in the scale suspended
Irom A. Through C, the point of support, draw the ho¬
rizontal line DE, and through A and B the peipendicu-
lars AD, BE, meeting DE in D and E. Now the equi¬
librium will take place when CE is to CD as the load at
A to the constant weight B; and if the arms are bent so
that the lines joining CA and CB are at right angles,
then as B moves upward, its momentum increases in pro¬
portion to the sine of the arc it describes, while the mo¬
mentum at B decreases in proportion to the cosine of a
similar arc. The weight on A corresponding to any po¬
sition of B, may therefore be expressed on a graduated
circular scale placed behind the index at B. Theoreti¬
cally considered, the range of this balance is very consi¬
derable ; but the indications are little to be depended on
when B approaches either the perpendicular or the hori¬
zontal line passing through C.
The Hydrostatic Balance is an instrument contrived
for weighing bodies in water, and thereby determining
their specific gravities.
It is constructed in various forms; but we shall con¬
tent ourselves here with describing that which appears of
all others the most accurate. VCG (fig. 8) is the stand
or pillar of this hydrostatic balance, which is to be fixed
in a table. From the top A hangs, by two silk strings,
the horizontal bar BB, from which is suspended, by a ring
i, the fine beam of a balance b, which is prevented from
descending too low on either side by the gently springing
piece txyz, fixed on the support M. The harness is an-
nulated at o, to show distinctly the perpendicular position
of the examen, by the small pointed index fixed above it.
The strings by which the balance is suspended, passing
over two pulleys, one on each side of the piece at A, go
down to the bottom on the other side, and are hung over
the hook at v; which hook, by means of a screw P, is
movable about one inch and a quarter backward and for¬
ward, and therefore the balance may be raised or de¬
pressed so much. But if a greater elevation or depres¬
sion be required, the sliding piece S, which carries the
screw P, is readily moved to any part of the square brass
rod VK, and fixed by means of a screw.
The motion of the balance being thus adjusted, the
rest of the apparatus is as follows. HH is a small board,
fixed upon the piece D, under the scales d and e, and is
movable up and down in a low slit in the pillar above C,
and fastened at any part by a screw behind. From the
point in the middle of the bottom of each scale hangs, by
a fine hook, a brass wire ad and ac. These pass through Balance
two holes m, m, in the table. To the wire ad is suspended v—
a cylindric wire rs, perforated at each end for that pur¬
pose. This wire rs is covered with paper, graduated by
equal divisions, and is about five inches long.
In the corner of the board at E is fixed a brass tube, on
which a round wire hi is so adapted as to move neither
too tight nor too free, by its flat head I. Upon the lower
part of this moves another tube Q, which has sufficient
friction to make it remain in any position required. To
this is fixed an index T, moving horizontally when the
wire hi is turned about, and therefore may be easily set
to tbe graduated wire rs. To the lower end of the wire
rs hangs a weight L; and to that a wire pn, with a small
brass ball g about one fourth of an inch diameter. On the
other side, to the wire ac, hangs a large glass bubble R,
by a horse hair.
Let us first suppose the weight L taken away, and the
wire pn suspended from S ; and, on the other side, let the
bubble R be taken away, and the weight F suspended at
c in its room. This weight F we suppose to be sufficient
to keep the several parts hanging to the other scale in
equilibrium; at the same time that the middle point of
the wire pn is at the surface of the water in the vessel 0.
The wire pn is to be of such a size that the length of one
inch shall weigh four grains.
Now, it is evident, since brass is eight times heavier
than water, that for every inch the wire sinks in the wa¬
ter it will become half a grain lighter, and half a grain
heavier for every inch it rises out of the water: conse¬
quently) by sinking two inches below the middle point, or
rising two inches above it, the wire will become one grain
lio-hter or heavier. Therefore if, when the middle point
is at the surface of the water in equilibrium, the index T
be set to the middle point a of the graduated wire rs, and
the distance on each side ar and as contains 100 equal
parts; then, if in weighing bodies the weight is required
to the hundredth part of a grain, it may be easily had by
proceeding in the following manner. >
Let the body to be weighed be placed in the scale d.
Put the weight X in the scale e ; and let this be so deter¬
mined, that one grain more shall be too much, and one
grain less too little. Then, the balance being moved
gently up or down by the screw P, till the equilibrium be
nicely shown at o, if the index T be at the middle point
a of the wire rs, it shows that the weights put into the
scale e are just equal to the weight of the body. By this
method we find the absolute weight of the body; the re¬
lative weight is found by weighing it hydrostatically in
water, as follows. _ . c „
Instead of putting the body into the scale e, as before)
let it hang with the weight F at the hook c by a horse
hair, as at R, supposing the vessel O of water were away.
The equilibrium being then made, the index I standing
between a and r at the 36 division, shows the weight ot
the body put in to be 1095-36 grains. As it thus hangs,
let it be immersed in the water of the vessel N, and it
will become much lighter; the scale e will descend till
the beam of the balance rest on the support z. then,
suppose 100 grains put into the scale d restore the equi¬
librium precisely, so that the index T stand at the 36 di¬
vision above a, it is evident that the weight of an equal
bulk of water would in this case be exactly 100 grains.
The Balance of Torsion is an instrument invented
by Coulomb, for comparing the intensities of very small
forces. It consists essentially of a metallic wire, suspend¬
ed vertically from a fixed point, to the lowei en o ^
a horizontal needle is attached, with a sma
the purpose of keeping the wire stretched. ie in
sity of any small force made to act on the ex remi y
BALANCE.
Balance the needle is measured by the arc which the needle passes
Balance ofuT’ re*me,d from.the Pomt °f repose. The force is thus
Power. balai,ce'1 c le torsion ot the wire, whence the name of the
instrument.
To prevent any derangement from the agitation of
the air, the apparatus must be covered by a glass cylin¬
der, to which a circular scale is applied horizontally, for
the purpose of measuring the amplitude of the arc tra¬
versed by the needle. A divided circle is also adapted to
the top of the cylinder, and capable of being turned round
on it, by means of which, and a fixed index attached ho¬
rizontally to the hook from which the wire is suspended,
the wire may be twisted any required number of degrees,
this apparatus is represented by fig. 9. The length of
the wire and the needle must be regulated by the object
in view. If the. forces to be measured are very small,
and great sensibility is consequently required, the wire
387
Balance
Power.
must be long and very fine; for the force of torsion is
inversely proportional to the length of the wire, and di- ||
rectly as the fourth power of its diameter. It must also®a^ance
be formed of a substance possessing considerable elasti-
city, and for this reason brass wire is greatly superior to
iron. By experiments undertaken for the purpose, Cou¬
lomb found the elasticity of some wires so perfect, that
on keeping them twisted through eight circumferences
for thirty hours together, the centre of torsion was not
displaced by a single degree. Their length was about a
metre, or 39 inches.
The balance of torsion is used chiefly in experiments
on electricity, magnetism, the adhesion of fluids, &c.; and
it was by means of this instrument that Cavendish made
his famous experiments on the attraction of lead balls,
from which he deduced the mean density of the earth
equal to about 5*5, that of water being unit. (t. g.)
balance of poweb,,
Among states, a most important principle of foreign po¬
licy, intimately connected with the general peace and in¬
dependence of nations, but which some have treated as
altogether chimerical, and others represented as having
led only to pernicious results. It is more generally admit¬
ted, however, to have a real foundation in the rules of in¬
tercourse and union among states, and to have exercised
a great and beneficial influence on the affairs of modern
Europe. We say of modern Europe, because, though the
policy in question was not wholly unknown to other ages
and countries, it was nowhere systematically pursued but
among the European nations of modern times. Previous
to the sixteenth century there was little political connec¬
tion among those nations, their circumstances not being
such as to admit of any regulated attention to foreign af¬
fairs ; but about the commencement of that century they
began to form one grand community or federal league, of
which the actuating principle was the preservation of the
balance of power. The attention to this principle thence¬
forth influenced all the great wars and negociations, and
made every foreign movement, however remote, an object
of interest throughout every part of the European system.
. We sllall endeavour to sketch a general outline of this
important subject; and, in doing so, we shall notice,
though in a brief way, all the principal topics which it
seems to present for discussion.
ofanbCilPle }' The ultimate intention of the system founded on the
ofpower a .e °f p0VVer’ is t0 secui:e ever7 state in full pos-
and system sessi.on an<^ enjoyment of all its rights, by making its safety
founded on?n^ ^dependence objects of interest and guardianship to
k- its neighbours. It endeavours to accomplish this great
end by teaching that it is the interest of all states to check
the first encroachments of ambition, to watch every move-
ment of toreign powers, and to unite their respective forces
in support ot the weak against the strong. It is called the
balancing system, because its aim is to prevent any state
from aggrandizing itself at the expense of its neighbours,
and to counterpoise any state that may have become too
powerful, by a union of the forces of others.
The metaphorical terms applied to this system seem to
have given rise to some very absurd misconceptions of its
tiue theory and purposes. It has sometimes been sup¬
posed that its object was to equalize the powers of states
composing a common system ; and as it is plainly impossi¬
ble either to effect or to maintain such an eauality, it has
thence been concluded, that the whole system is founded
upon a chimera. But, with a view to the objects of this
system, the question is, not what amount of power above
another any state possesses, provided the power so pos¬
sessed be fairly acquired, but whether any state possess¬
es its power in such circumstances as to enable it to tres¬
pass at pleasure on a weaker neighbour. If there be
no other state, or confederacy of states, capable of coun¬
teracting any injurious designs which a greater power
might undertake, then it is said there is no balance; but
if there be such a counterpoise, this is all that the balan-
cing system requires to produce what, in its language, is
called an equilibrium. In order to make this point as
clear as possible, we beg to refer to the following defini¬
tions of the balance of power, as given by Vattel and by
Gentz: “ By this balance,” says the former, “ is to be
understood such a disposition of things, as that no one
potentate or state shall be able absolutely to predomi¬
nate and prescribe laws to the others.” {Law of Nations,
b. iii. c. iii. § 47.)—“ What is usually termed a balance of
power,” says M. Gentz, “ is that constitution subsisting
among neighbouring states, more or less connected with
one another, by virtue of which no one among them can
injure the independence or essential rights of another,
without meeting with effectual resistance on some side,
and, consequently, exposing itself to danger.” {Fragments
on the Political Balance, c. i.)
Thus, then, it is distinctly understood that the balan-
cing system is not grounded upon an equality among states
in respect of power, but upon a union of powers to repress
the enterprises of the strong and ambitious, and to coun¬
teract the effects of necessary individual inequalities by
aggregate strength.
It is quite indispensable to the existence of such a sys¬
tem, that one state should not be permitted to obtain such
a superiority of power as to enable it to overawe all oppo¬
sition, and make the safety of those around it dependent
on its will; and as it is the disposition of all unchecked
power to extend itself, the balancing system inculcates it
as the interest, as well as the right, of every state to join
in opposing the first encroachments of any ambitious po¬
tentate or community. It teaches that the danger ex¬
tends much further than to the party immediately attack¬
ed or menaced ; that one encroachment will pave the way
to another ; and that it is therefore wise to meet the dan¬
ger whilst yet distant, and capable of being combated
with less peril or loss. The right of interference to put
down a danger of this kind is, in fact, only a modification
of the right to resist an immediate attack. All human
experience shows, that the state which is suffered to ag¬
grandize itself at the expense of one neighbour, will with
388
BALANCE OF POWER.
Balance of its increased means acquire stronger dispositions to en-
Power. croach still further; and therefore self-defence authorizes
^   us to treat as already an invader, any potentate whose
conduct entitles us to conclude that he only waits a con"
venient opportunity to become so in effect. “ As long,
says Bacon, “ as men are men, and as long as reason is rea¬
son, a just fear will be a just cause of a preventive war,
but especially if it be part of the case that there be a na¬
tion that is manifestly detected to aspire to new acquests,
then other states assuredly cannot be justly accused for
not paying for the first blow, or for not adopting Poly¬
phemus’s courtesy, to be the last that shall be eaten up.
(Speech concerning a War with Spain.} It is peculiaily
and emphatically the language of the balancing system,
Principiis obsta,—in other words, look well to the safety
and independence of your neighbours, even the most re¬
mote, if you wish to preserve your own.
Upon this point it is by no means necessary to enter
into any lengthened deductions. The principle of inter¬
ference to prevent the progress of a dangerous power rests,
both as to right and policy, upon the most obvious dic¬
tates of experience and prudence. No state ever yet ac¬
quired a preponderating power without abusing it; and
therefore it is the right and interest of all states to pre¬
vent any one from rising to such an ascendency as may
endanger the common safety.
The right in question, however, is that of guarding
against injury justly to be apprehended from the conduct
of a state which uses improper means of aggrandizement.
As far, therefore, as measures of hostility are concerned,
there must be actual encroachment in order to wan ant
them. The balancing system does not say there shall be
no alterations in the relative strength of states; for a
state may fairly and honourably increase her power by
wise legislation, or by the cultivation of her own internal
resources. To attempt to impede a state which takes this
road to greatness, would be to make war upon those very
arts by the successful cultivation of which peace and hap¬
piness are spread throughout the world. Ihe aggrandize¬
ments to which the balancing system stands opposed, are
those attended with immediate violence to some, and
which infer further violence to others. All that nations
can do when a neighbour becomes formidable in a fair
way, is to watch her, and to draw closer those ties of al¬
liance which may enable them to counteract any bad use
of her power. When Lord Bacon, in his Essay on Em¬
pire, counsels princes “ to keep due sentinel, that none of
their neighbours do so overgrow by increase of territory,
by embracing of trade, by approaches or the like, as to be¬
come more able to annoy them than they were,” he does
not mean that the growth of a state by commerce is to
be prevented in the same way as in the case of its exten¬
sion by a seizure of territory, but, that all great power,
however acquired, is in its nature dangerous, and ought to
be counterpoised by timely confederation.
There is another way in which a state may become
formidable, and that of a sudden, where the balancing sys¬
tem does not authorize immediate hostile interference.
We allude here to the case of a sovereign who acquires
a great accession of power by marriage or by inheritance.
“ It is a sacred principle of the law of nations,” says Vat-
tel, “ that such an increase of power cannot, alone and of
itself, give any one a right to take up arms in order to op¬
pose it.” (B. iii. c. 3, sect. 43.) Grotius and Pulfendorf Balance of
maintain the same opinion in terms equally decided. But,
suppose a sovereign, who has already displayed an en-
crouching disposition, is about to acquire in this way an
accession of power, which would render him more and
more formidable to his neighbours; in this case, as Vattel
shows, the maxims of the balancing system authorize an
immediate interference to procure securities; or, accord¬
ing as the danger is imminent, altogether to prevent the
impending aggrandizement. It is perhaps wholly unpre¬
cedented, as this writer observes, that a state should re¬
ceive any remarkable accession of power, without giving
other states just grounds to interfere ; but if it should be
otherwise, the only course to be pursued is that which the
balancing system recommends, namely, to keep a watch¬
ful eye on all the proceedings of the formidable state, and
the formation of a counterpoise by means of alliances.
These, then, are the grand expedients of the balancing
system : vigilant inspection to discover, and prompt union
to counteract, in their birth, all such projects of encroach¬
ment as powerful states will ever, when opportunity of¬
fers, be ready to form. By employing resident agents to
procure speedy information, and by the weight of joint
warnings and reclamations in every case of apprehended
or of real injury, the balancing system furnishes the only
peaceful means which human wisdom can devise to con¬
trol the conduct of independent states; the only means
which can be employed to guard against injustice, or ob¬
tain redress, without an actual appeal to the sword. It was
the habitual employment of these expedients, with a view
to guard against distant dangers, that distinguished the
balancing system, as exemplified in modern Europe, from
those momentary efforts and loose confederacies in which
all nations, and even the rudest tribes, have occasionally
united, in order to repel or pull down a powerful and com¬
mon enemy.1 Without this habitual attention to foreign
affairs, and constant application of the principles of coun¬
terpoise, there cannot, indeed, be said to exist any thing
like a system of reciprocal guarantee of the independence
of nations, such as is involved in the idea of a balance of
power.
What particular alliances each state ought to form, with a
view to maintain this balance, is a matter of circumstances,
and must accordingly vary with them. The object of
the system is always the same,—to preserve such a dis¬
tribution of power amidst the varying relations of states,
as shall most effectually check the spirit of encroachment,
and confine every potentate to his own dominions.
In the preceding observations we have had it in view
to give a general idea of the nature, intention, and means
of maintaining a balance of power among a number of con¬
nected nations of different degrees of power and magni¬
tude. But before proceeding to any remarks on the history
and results of this branch of policy, we shall recapitulate,
in the words of M. Gentz, those fundamental maxims
which constitute the necessary conditions of the benefi¬
cial existence of such a system as we have described.
These are,—
“ That no one state in the common system must ever
become so powerful as to be able to coerce all the rest
put together;— . ,
“ That, if the system is not merely to exist, but to be
maintained, without constant perils and violent concus-
1 “ The grand and distinguishing feature of the balancing system is the perpetual attention to foreign affairs w ic 11 ’
the constant watchfulness over every nation which it prescribes; the subjection in which it places all national Pa^‘ , , s:tuatp(]
thies to the fine and delicate view of remote expediency; the unceasing care which it dictates, of nations mos 7 certain
and apparently unconnected with ourselves; the general union which it has effected of all the European P amoncr civilized
laws, and actuated in general by a common principle; in fine, the right of mutual inspection, universally recog g
states in the rights of public envoys and residents.” (Brougham’s Colonial Policy, b. iii. sect. 1.)
BALANCE
Balance ofsions, every member which infringes it must be in a con-
.^>ow^r': dition to be coerced, not only by the collective strength
of the other members, but by any majority of them, if not
by one individual;—and,
That if ever a state attempts, by unlawful enterprise,
to attain, or does in fact attain, to a degree of power,
which enables it to defy the danger of a union of several
of its neighbours, or even of the whole, such a state
should be treated as a common enemy; and if it has ac¬
quired that degree of force by an accidental concurrence
of circumstances, without any acts of violence, whenever
it appears upon the public theatre, no means which poli¬
tical wisdom can devise for the purpose of diminishing its
power should be neglected or left untried.” (Fragments
upon the Political Balance, c. 1.)
Ancient 2. The knowledge of the ancients in regard to these
knowfedge great principles of national safety, and the period when
knceof they Came t0 °btain a decided influence among the mo-
power, and derns’ are Points of. considerable historical interest. Mr
rise of the Hume has proved, in a very satisfactory manner, that the
modern principle of preserving a balance of power is distinctly to
eystem. be recognised in many of the great political transactions
of the ancient world. The same thing had previously
been shown by Kahle, a famous physician and professor,
in a learned and able work, of which a French trans¬
lation by Formey, entitled La Balance de VEurope, was
published at Berlin in 1744. The anxiety of the Greeks
with regard to the principle of equilibrium among states
was particularly manifested in that famous league against
the rising power of Athens which produced the Pelopon¬
nesian war. Athens herself showed that she both knew
and practised this policy, by constantly throwing her
power into the lighter scale, when Thebes and Sparta
came to contend for the mastery of Greece. Mr Hume
also traces the influence of this salutary principle in the
contests which arose among the successors of Alexander;
their attention to it having “ preserved distinct, for seve¬
ral ages, the partitions made after the death of that con¬
queror. ’ (Essays, vol. i.) The orations of Demosthenes
frequently display very clear and extensive views in this
branch of policy. In that for the Megalopolitans, in par¬
ticular, “ we may see,” according to Mr Hume, “ the ut¬
most refinements in the balance of power that ever en¬
tered into the head of a Venetian or English speculatist
and by a later writer this speech is also pointed out as
“ containing discussions of some of the most delicate parts
of the theory.” (Brougham’s Colonial Policy, b. iii. sect.
1.) All who peruse this remarkable oration with due at¬
tention must indeed perceive that it fully bears out this
character. Its reasonings may be analyzed into these
leading doctrines of the balancing system: that it is the
interest of every state to prevent the formation of a pre¬
dominating power; that to this end the first encroach¬
ments ought to be promptly checked ; and that it is neces¬
sary to join even a rival against a former friend, when
that friend would otherwise infringe upon the balance.1
It seems, in short, to be no longer a question, that it
was only with the phrase, and not the idea, of a balance
of power, that the ancients were unacquainted. But we
cannot agree with Mr Hume when he goes so far as to
say that this principle, though it has been more generally
known and acknowledged in modern times, has not had
an authority much more extensive in practice, than it had
among the nations of antiquity. (Essays, vol. i.) This
opinion stands clearly refuted by all the great facts, and
OF POWER.
339
by the whole tenor of modern history, from the com-Balance of
mencement of the sixteenth century. It was the more Power,
constant operation of the principle in question which gra-
dually formed the nations of Europe into one great repub¬
lic or federal league, whose common bond of union was
the guarantee which it afforded of their respective inde¬
pendence. But neither, on the other hand, can we agree
with Mr Brougham, when he affirms that the ancient
states displayed nothing beyond a mere speculative know¬
ledge in this department. (Colonial Policy, b. iii. § 1.)
It may be very true that those more enlarged ideas of fo¬
reign policy which Demosthenes disclosed in some of his
orations were not generally understood or acted upon by
his contemporaries ; but it is nevertheless perfectly clear,
from Mr Hume’s statements, the accuracy of which has
never been called in question, that among the Grecian
states the maxim of preserving a balance of power, though
it had not produced any course of policy so regular and
authoritative as the modern international system, was yet,
on many occasions, the sole moving spring of their wars
and alliances.
This maxim, indeed, lies so much within the sphere of
common sense, that it can scarcely fail to be attended to,
wherever there is a collection of states capable of observ¬
ing and attacking each other. But circumstances may be
more or less favourable to the growth of a consistent po¬
licy in this respect. In modern Europe, a number of
considerable states were formed under such circumstances
as tended peculiarly to promote a regular intercourse
among them, and consequently to develope and systema¬
tize this great principle of national security. But it did
not begin to manifest itself until, in the gradual and simi¬
lar progress of European society, the power of the sove¬
reigns of these states was so far consolidated as to enable
them to give part of their attention to foreign affairs, and
to maintain armies beyond their own frontiers. It wasfin
Italy, where civilization was more advanced, and where
there existed a number of small states and commonwealths
whose safety required that their rulers should recipro¬
cally keep watch on each other, that the modern system
of interference took its beginnings. From an early period
of the fifteenth century, we see the balance of power as
constant an object of concern among these states as, in
the next, it came to be throughout Europe. “ Their jea¬
lousy of each other,” says Guicciardini, “ made them
watchful of every motion or measure which they conceived
might any way increase the power of their neighbours
and he presents a splendid picture of the beneficial ef¬
fects, the long peace, and general independence, attend¬
ant upon this habitual attention to the balancing principle.
(History of Italy, b. i.)
It was about the end of the same century that these ideas
began to extend to other quarters, and to actuate the
movements of greater potentates. There were now seve¬
ral piinces possessed of large kingdoms, with powers and
prerogatives which enabled them to take part in distant
wars and negociations. The first great movement of an
ambitious neighbour would naturally, therefore, excite
their jealousy, and bring them into concert. Thus, when
Charles VIII. of France, in 1494, invaded Italy and laid
claim to Naples, the sovereigns of Germany and Spain
saw the expediency of listening to the Italian princes,
who suggested a confederacy to prevent France from
gaining an accession of power which could not but ren¬
der her a dangerous neighbour. Dr Robertson regards
18 ! Passage of Polybius, which has been frequently quoted as pointing out the leading aim of the balancing system in
in thetwa!n0fttV,XpllClt-V lhe after mentionin£ that Hier«> king of Syracuse, acted wisely in assisting the Carthaginian
nointir m°f the aUX1lianf ’ adds’ “ Nun(luam enim ejusmodi pnneipia contemnere oportet, neque tanta cuiquam astruenda es
potentia, ut cum eo postea de tuo quamvis manifesto jure disceptare ex aequo non queas.” (Lib. i. cap. 83.)
390
BALANCE OF POWER.
B"t!,eeXpediti0".°f S.ar'^lS t “Tivhad rf power“t ^
litics. “ From this era,” he says, “ we can trace the pro
gress of that intercourse between nations which nas
linked the powers of Europe so closely together, and can
discern the operations of that provident policy which,
during peace, guards against remote and contingent dan¬
gers, and in war has prevented rapid and destructive con
quests.” ( View of the Progress of Society in Europe, § <i.)
If we look only a little later, we shall everywhere see a
constant jealousy of the increase of power, and a vigilant
 a. n pombined with the ap-
tne expeuiuon or vmarics as ^ had of power. It is possible, he adds, that the idea of the Fo^er.
those new powers with which the progress of society la ba1ance ^ Eur0pe may have been copied from
invested the princes of Europe; and views the co^ede a y ^ ^ confederacies. (Essai sur V Esprit et Un-
formed against him as the ^^"^^^nce had fluence de la ^formation, 2de partie.) This conjecture,
those ideas of a balance ot power whose int1^ p understand the learned author, appears to us
hitherto been limited to the narrow sphere jtahan ^^^/^phi^sophical. The states of Europe em-
hbrs. « From this era, he says, we can t P bracgd tg yof & ^a1ance of power in proportion as
their circumstances enabled them to act upon it, and not
in consequence of any estimate of its effects, as displayed
on those earlier and narrower stages of its agency. _ _
3. It appears, then, to have been about the beginning General
of the sixteenth century that the principle of maintaining results and
a balance of power came to be generally recognised andjecen^-
. . • i " f inrrpase of power, and a vigilant acted upon by the states of Europe ; “ at rst, as ’SyStem.
constant jealousy of the increase ot power, a g i j^ & tical wayj and, as it were, '
attention to all foreign operations, combine P nnlifical instinct but afterwards with clear, reflect-
plication of those means ^ a^'metiXtco^^cy.” (Fra^ents.) What
tinguish the balancing system. Dunn» tn^ t • , tl ° adVantaees were which Europe reaped from this course
of kings,” says Lord Bacon m his ^-fess-lan the advantages we h d.
guage, “ Henry YIII. of England, ha • , verted to certain arguments generally employed by those
n^'o/thetoe c^ulliwlTpX of ground, but who wish to give an unfavourable view of the balancing
the other two would straightways balance it, ejJer b7 con“ §y jj^some this system is represented as productive only
federation, or, if need " of iTas ta ^Cvenienf pretext to cWr projects of
wise, take up peace at interest. y that h/has Ve- ambition, or to screen the restless movements ot nationa
It has been objected o Dr Robertso jealousy. Others talk of it as being merely a brilliant
presented “ the principle of the balance ot po e J„nnrpn;inn nnd anneal to the many violences and usurpa-
discovery made by the Italian politicians ^ h tions which modern history records, as proofs, if not of its
this invasion of Charles; whereas y was no,^to any such t.ons whmh ( ^ But there is surely
no great respect due to that sort of estimate of the system
which is founded solely on the abuses to which it is lia¬
ble, or upon imperfections from which no human institu¬
tion is free. They who decry or who ridicule the balan¬
cing system should be prepared to show, not that it has
sometimes afforded plausible pretexts for unnecessary
wars, or has sometimes failed to protect the weak against
the outrages of the strong, but that it is wholly useless to
interest ourselves in the safety of neighbouring nations;
to take any trouble to avert dangers which are yet dis¬
tant; or to seek to strengthen ourselves against a power¬
ful enemy with any strength not our own. This view ot
things, were it to prevail, would, as M. Gentz observes,
open the most desirable prospects to every sovereign
K  j rvnVVit nrnrrmt him to aspire tO
nils invasiuii ui Villen — % .
single event that the balancing system owed either its on
gin or refinement, but to the progress of society, which
placed the whole states of Europe in the same relative si¬
tuation in which the states of Italy were at that period,
and taught them not to wait for an actual invasion, but to
see a Charles at all times in every prince or common¬
wealth that should manifest the least desire of change.
(Brougham’s Colonial Policy, b. hi. § 1.) What is here
said as to the origin of the balancing system is no doubt
true. We have already stated that the principle on which
it rests is a principle of our common nature, which can¬
not fail to manifest itself in certain situations; but that
nations must have arrived at an advanced stage of civili¬
zation and intercourse before it can be acted upon with
consistency and concert. It would therefore be absurd
consistency and concert. It would therefore be absurd oj ambition might prompt him to aspire to
to renresent that system as taking its rise in any single whose power and am muon g i ^
event, or its principle as a discovery of some ,on^lgllt^ ^J^'raust wethink, appear obvious to every one who re¬
statesman. But Dr Robertson knew human nature t b ^ gubject^hat the balancing system is, upon
well to seek the origin of this principle in an accide. whole favourable to peace. The wars which pecu-
occurrence; and he knew history too well to fix its origin beiong to it are \n the nature of a sacrifice of a
“ as a consequence” of Charles s invasion. On the con- F |nt t0 secure a greater future good; and the
trary, throughout the whole of his masterly chapter 01 P , system is to render these wars less and
the progress of the nations of Europe, with respect to t e en e 7 ^ Tbe evii passions which give rise to ambi-
command of the national force requisite in foreign opera- ^ss requ t. ^ ^ ^P. evil assionS) wm be more apt
tions, he speaks of this system as holding progress with turns at ^ ^ ^ l  qvp to nrmosition or
 ! or»rl infprpmiVSP of* t.l 1PS0 FI cl"
LIUII&J 11C j * ox v-7
the growing improvement and intercourse of these na
tions; and, so far from representing the principle of the
balance of power as a discovery consequent upon the
event alluded to, he expressly speaks of the league against
the French monarch as only exemplifying an extension
of those ideas which had long been familiar to the Italian
LlOUS d.ttdGlN.Oj llivt CX1A vyv 1 •, • ^
to be indulged the less exposed they are to opposition or
restraint. And it cannot be questioned that, in proportion
as the maxims of this system are vigilantly and steadily
pursued, there will be less inducement, because less pro¬
spect of success, for ambitious undertakings.
Its object is to alarm, and to arm all against the prince
of those ideas which had long been familiar to the Italian its oojem ’ transgress upon others ; and
statesmen “ m regulating the operations of the petty Sws That all his motfons are keenly
states in their own country. (View of the Piogr f an(1 tbat his first successes would only expose
Society, § 2.) , . ’ extended contest, must see how hopeless
Before concluding these very general remarks on the him to a more exte ^ himself of the territories
rise of the balancing system m modem times, we shall hiPs neighbours. Such is the ge-
briefly advert to a conjecture of M. Villers upon this sub- even ot tne weaKesi 8 however it may have
iert which occurs in his able work on the Reformation, neral tendency of penfys‘e“(;““"07tecan„0t be'doubt-
long before the states of Europe became united in a ge- «cas Pformidable barrier against conquest,
neral system, Italy and Germany, he observes, had formed ^ t0 the weaker states,
partial systems, with a view to restrain the members with- and a rampait
BALANCE OF POWER,
Balance of The complaint of a certain class of French politicians,
^Power. alluded to by Mr Burke in his Letters on a Regicide Peace,
“ that Rome had frequently acquired more territory in a
single year, than all the power of France, actuated by all
her ambition, had enabled her to acquire in two centuries”
forms, in fact, though unintended, one of the finest pane¬
gyrics that could have been pronounced upon the salutary
influence of the modern system. The advocates of that
system can, indeed, appeal to history for the most satis¬
factory of all proofs ol its efficacy, in the remarkable fact,
that, for a period of nearly three centuries, no European
state, however small, has lost its independence from exter¬
nal violence. When we recollect the number of small states
which, during so long a period, enjoyed an independent
existence in the immediate neighbourhood of powerful
nations, and reflect for a moment on those evil passions
which have, in all ages, prompted the strong to prey on
the weak; we must admit that, but for that salutary jea¬
lousy of power, and united resistance to its encroachments,
which it was the object and office of this system to nour¬
ish and enforce, these otherwise helpless states would
have been speedily absorbed, or their independence anni¬
hilated, by the mighty masses with which they were in
contact. It was not the preservation of such countries
as Portugal or Holland, of Sweden or Denmark, which,
though small compared with many others in the system,
were yet possessed of considerable means of self-defence;
—it was not the preservation of such states as these
merely, but of a multitude of feeble communities in Ger¬
many, in Switzerland, and Italy, which affords the proud¬
est proof of the salutary influence of the balancing system
on the fortunes of modern Europe. “ Consider, for in¬
stance,” to use the impressive words of a distinguished
writer and orator, “ the situation of the republic of Gene¬
va ; think of her defenceless position in the very jaws of
France ; but think also of her undisturbed security, of her
profound quiet, of the brilliant success with which she
applied to industry and literature, while Lewis XIV. was
pouring his myriads into Italy before her gates; call to
mind that happy period when we scarcely dreamt more
of the subjugation of the feeblest republic of Europe, than
of the conquest of her mightiest empire; and say whether
any spectacle can be imagined more beautiful to the mo¬
ral eye, or which affords a more striking proof of progress
in the noblest principles of true civilization.” (Mackin¬
tosh’s Speech on the Trial of John Peltier, in 1803.)1 i
Such were the results of the system founded on the
balance of power. It was a bridle upon the strong and a
bulwark to the weak. When it failed to prevent the in-
391
roads of violence and injustice, it yet acted as a restora-Balance of
tive principle, and replaced injured nations in their former Power,
state of independence. It was at the memorable and fa
tal era of the partition of Poland in 1772 that it first lost
this character; that the first example was set of a deli¬
berate, successful, unchecked conspiracy against the in¬
dependent existence of an unoffending country. It is here
proper to mention, that some authors have spoken of this
infamous transaction in terms which seem to imply that
it was quite in consonance with the principles of the ba¬
lancing system.2 It is indeed true, that the maxims of
that system were still so far operative as to effect a rela¬
tive equality in the division of the spoil. But as the whole
intention of this system is to maintain the integrity and
independence of nations against unlawful attacks, the par¬
tition was just as diametrically opposite to its principle, as
if the whole spoil had been appropriated by one robber,
instead of being shared by three. The equality of the
division did not take away from the danger of the exam¬
ple ; the example of states combining, not to uphold, but
to destroy,—not to enforce respect to the great principles
of national safety, but to set them at defiance; an exam¬
ple too soon followed by similar violences, and which, in
fact, paved the way for that total overthrow of the ancient
system of Europe which ere long took place.
The origin of a project so pernicious in its consequences
is a matter of some interest in the history of the balancing
system. We learn from Rulhiere’s Histoire de VAnarchic
de Pologne, published in 1807, that the distractions of
this country had suggested the project of a partition as
early as 1658; that a Swedish minister, named Stippen-
bach, proposed it to his own court, to Austria, and the
grand duke of Prussia, whose armies were then in posses¬
sion of the country; and that it would, in all probability,
have been acted upon but for the discovery of the scheme
by France, and the consequent interference of that power.3
With regard to the project actually carried into execution
in 1772, each party concerned was desirous to shift the
blame of the first proposal on the others; but it was ge¬
nerally believed to have originated with Frederick, though
some were of opinion that he was indebted for the idea
to his brother, Prince Henry. Frederick, however, in one
of his posthumous pieces (Memoires de 1763 jusqud
1775), states that the scheme was devised by the empress
Catharine; and this is corroborated by M. Rulhiere, who
asserts that she communicated it to Prince Henry durino-
his visit to St Petersburg in 1770; a piece of informal
tion, he adds, which was detailed to him in the most cir¬
cumstantial manner, by three different secretaries, who
sha11 here add a striking passage in reference to our subject from this celebrated oration. “ These small states were, in many
respects, one of the most interesting parts of the ancient system of Europe. Unfortunately for the repose of mankind, great states
are compelled, by regard to their own safety, to consider the military spirit and martial habits of their people as one of the main ob¬
jects ot their policy, i requent hostilities seem almost the necessary condition of their greatness; and, without being great thev can
not long remain safe. Smaller states, exempted from this cruel necessity—a hard condition of greatness, a bitter satire on human
nature-devoted themseives to the arts of peace, to the cultivation of literature, and the improvement of reason. They became
places ot refuge for free and fearless discussion; they were the impartial spectators and judges of the various contests of ambition
which from time to time disturbed the quiet of the world. They thus became peculiarly qualified to be the organs of that public
opinion which converted Europe into a great republic, with laws which mitigated, though they could not extinguish, ambition; and
wun moral tribunals to which even the most despotic sovereigns were amenable. If wars of aggrandizement were undertaken their
We.re 1frai?,nedJin the face of Europe. If acts of internal tyranny were perpetrated, they resounded from a thousand presses
throughout all civilized countries. Princes on whose will there were no legal checks thus found a moral restraint which the most
poweitul of them could not brave with absolute impunity. They acted before a vast audience, to whose applause they could not be
fini-ti llldlft.erent1- ,lhe vei7 constitution of human nature, the unalterable laws of the mind of man, against which all rebellion is
iruuiess, subjected the proudest tyrants to this control. No elevation of power,—no depravity, however consummate,—no innocence,
however spotless,—can render man wholly independent of the praise or blame of his fellow-men.”
2 See, for example, the terms in which Count Hertzberg speaks of the partition, in his essav, Sur la Balance du Commerce et eelle du
j'ouvoi.r. (CLnvres, tome i.) The language of M. Gentz upon this subject, in his able work,'VEtat de VEurope avant et avres la Re-
voiutian Franfoise, is extremely exceptionable; but in his later work, referred to in this article, he condemns the partition as wholly
inconsistent with, and as having in fact led to the subversion of, the balancing system.
" J’a* ^trouve,” says M. liulhiere, “ dans les archives des affaires etrangeres' de France, cette anecdote importante, et iusqu’a prd-
sent ignoree. (Tom. i. p. 9.) r ? j i ^
392
B A L
Balance ofaccompanied the prince to the Russian court. (Tome iv.
Power p. 151-210.) It seems to be generally acknowledged,
11 that the proposal, when first made to the cabinet of Vi-
Balasore. enna was opposed by that power; and that her accession
woui(j not have been obtained but for the astonishing
apathy displayed by France, and, indeed, by all the other
states of Europe. The silence of England during the
perpetration of this shameless plot against the mdepenc -
ence of nations, if it can be accounted for, can never, at
any rate, be excused; inasmuch as the fact appears pretty
well established, that, had she, as the guardian of the po¬
litical balance, raised her voice against the partition, Eu¬
rope might have been saved from the fatal effects of that
new system of robbery and oppression which the spoilers
of Poland were suffered, without any sort of interruption,
to exemplify. “ To my certain knowledge, says Mr
Burke, “ if Great Britain had at that time been willing to
concur in preventing the execution of a project so dan¬
gerous in the example, even exhausted as trance then was
by the preceding war, and under a lazy and unenterpnzing
prince, she would have at every risk taken an active part
in this business.” ( Thoughts on French Affairs in 1791.)
Interest of 4. We have still to allude to the question, whether Bn-
Great Bri- tajn> protected as she is on all sides by nature, ought to
tain in the consider it as a necessary part of her policy to attend to
balancing the E ean balance of power ? This has been consider-
S>'8tem' ed as constituting a separate question, by some who make
no doubt that the other states of Europe could not long
preserve their independence secure by any other course.
Taking the question generally, we do not think there
is any great difficulty in regard to it. With the mul¬
titude, to be sure, it always will be popular to argue, that
Britain stands in need of no other defence than what the
seas and her invincible navy afford her, and that all con¬
tinental connections are useless or pernicious. But the
argument from the advantages of our insular situation
would not in fact bear out this conclusion, even were the
seas and the navy a stronger defence than it is possible
they can always be. Our commerce and our colonies, the
supports of that navy, render it indispensably necessary
that we should more particularly observe some nations,
B A L
and ally ourselves with others. These great concerns Balance of
make it, indeed, nothing less than absurd to talk of our rower
being insulated zs an empire or state, because Britairus an Balagore>
island. And, with regard to invasion, it is clear that we
could not always be as secure and as free from uneasy ap¬
prehensions, in a state of total insulation from foieign con¬
nections, as with friends and confederates to employ or
oppose a formidable enemy on his own confines.
But supposing the balance of power to constitute a great
national object, the line of conduct which that object im¬
poses upon us may, no doubt, be affected by our msu ar
situation. We may on some occasions allow other nations
who are more exposed to danger, and who ought, on that
account, to be more on the alert to prevent encroach¬
ments, to take the first measures, and bear the first ex¬
pense of resistance. We may watch and warn, and use
the influence of our remonstrances and our counsels, with¬
out having recourse, except in urgent cases, to the extre¬
mity of arms.1 It is only, in a word, as to the application
of the general principle, and not as to its being necessary
and worthy to be entertained, that there seems any fair
room for difference of opinion among British statesmen.
In point of fact, all our later statesmen, however differing
in other respects, have distinctly assented to the general
doctrine, that the balance of power was an interest of the
highest importance to England. The last time, we be¬
lieve, that this question can be said to have been fairly
brought into debate, and fully discussed in Parliament,
was on occasion of the famous armament against Russia
for refusing to restore Oczakov to the Porte; and on
that occasion, though Mr Fox and his followers reprobat¬
ed the armament in the strongest terms, they did so, not
because they denied the great principle to which the mi¬
nister appealed, as the sole justification of the measure,
that the balance of power was a British concern, and gave
Britain an undoubted interest to mingle in the affairs of
the continent,—not because they thought that Britain
ought never to guard against any distant danger,—but be¬
cause there was no such degree of danger from the reten¬
tion of that city and its district, as called upon this coun¬
try to interfere at the risk of a war.2 (m. n.)
Balance of Trade. See Political Economy.
BAL A.S Ruby, a variety of spinelruby. See Mineralogy.
BALASINORE, in Western India, a town, the chief
place of the native state of the same name, situate in the
province of Guzerat. The territory of the ruling nawaub
contains an area of 258 square miles, and a population of
19,000. In 1768 it was subjected to tribute by the Mah-
rattas, which, subsequently to 1818, when the peishwa was
deprived of his supremacy, has been paid to the British.
The town of Balasinore is distant from Bombay N. 280
miles ; Lat. 22. 58. Long. 73. 20. _
BALASORE, a town and seaport of Hindustan, in the
British district of Cuttack, within the province of Orissa.
The town, which is long and straggling, is built along the
banks of the Booree Bellaun River. The English, Dutch,
French, and Danes, formerly had factories here; and traces
of a Portuguese establishment are also to be found m the
ruins of a small Roman Catholic chapel within the town.
The English factory was burnt down in November 1688,
when, on account of a rupture with Aurungzebe, Captain
Heath attacked and plundered the town. Balasore is the
principal port of the district, and is provided with dry docks
on the banks of the river, to which vessels drawing not more
than 14 feet water can be floated during spring tides. Ba¬
lasore roads form an extensive bay, stretching from Point
Palmyras to the mouths of the Hooghly; and as the naviga¬
tion of this river to Calcutta is extremely dangerous, and
requires skilful pilots, it is in these roads that those who
1 “ Other nations must watch over every motion of their ne^hbours penet ’ ^ But ag we cann0t be easily nor suddenly
event; and take part, by some engagement or other, m almost every conjuncture . to advige and warn . to abet and oppose;
attacked, it may he our interest to watch the secret workings of the several councl ^ a inents that imply action and ex¬
hut it never can he our true interest easily and officiously to enter into action, muc g fa
pense.” (Bolingbroke’s Idea of a Patriot King.) _ statesmen who opposed the armament, repeatedly and
1 2 Earl Grey, when the only survivor of that illustrious group of orators and states ^ and romantic had sometimes been applied
forcibly declared his adherence to the general doctrine; affirming, that though theepithe balance of power; and that this
to it,he nevertheless considered the poorest peasant in England ““fn^ Mr ^
country ought to interfere whenever that balance appeared to be really in danger. Of a principle, namely, that Turkey never
was the only statesman who did so upon a ground, as it appears to toe maintenanc{ of the balance of power in Europe. (See
had been nor ought to be, taken into consideration, in any question as to the mamtenanc
mateTin Z Hole of Commons, 29th March and 12th April 1791, and 29th February and 1st March 1792.)
J
B A L
Balaton undertake that service wait the arrival of vessels. Balasore
II town is distant 116 miles S.W. from Calcutta. Lat. 21.30.
Baldinger. Long. 87. (E. T.)
BALATON Lake, or Platen Zee, in the S.W. of
Hungary, 55 miles S.W. of Pesth. It is 46 miles in
length, but of varying width, with a surface of 110 square
miles, exclusive of the extensive marshes by which it is
surrounded.
BALBI, Adrian, one of the most eminent geographers
of modern times, was born at Venice in 1782. In 1820 he
visited Portugal, and there collected materials for his well-
known work entitled Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de
Portugal et d’Algarve, &c., which was published at Paris in
1822 ; and this was followed by Varietes Politiques et Sta-
tistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise. This work contains
some curious observations respecting that country under
the Roman sway, and on the state of literature and the arts.
In 1826 he published the first volume of his Atlas Ethno-
graphique du Globe, &c., a work of great erudition, and
embodying the researches of the most distinguished German
philologists and geographers. In 1832 appeared the Abrege
de Geographie, which comprises the whole compass of that
science, and procured for the author the highest reputation.
This work, in an augmented form, was translated into the
principal languages of Europe. Balbi afterwards retired to
Padua, where he continued to pursue his favourite science
with unabated ardour. Besides those already mentioned,
Balbi was the author of several other works in the same de¬
partment of science. He died on the 14th of March 1848.
BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de. See Peru.
BALBRIGGAN, a seaport of Ireland, county of Dub¬
lin, and parish of Balrothery, 18^ miles N.N.E. of the capi¬
tal. The harbour, though dry at low tides, has a depth of
14 feet at high-water springs, and affords a good refuge from
the E. or S.E. gales. It is formed by a pier 600 feet long,
with a lighthouse at its extremity, in Lat. 53. 37. N. Long.
6. 12. W. The town has considerable manufactures of cot¬
tons and hosiery, and is much frequented as a watering-place
in summer. Pop. (1851) 2310.
BALDI, Bernardino, a distinguished mathematician
and miscellaneous writer, was descended of a noble family at
Urbino, in which city he was born on the 6th of June 1533.
He pursued his studies at Padua with extraordinary zeal and
success, and is said to have acquired, during the course of
his life, no fewer than sixteen languages, though, according
to Tiraboschi, the inscription on his tomb limits the number
to twelve. The appearance of the plague at Padua obliged
him to retire to his native city, where, some time afterwards,
his acquirements were the means of his obtaining from Fer-
rante Gonzaga the rich abbey of Guastalla. He afterwards
visited Rome, where he was honoured with the title of apos¬
tolic protonotary. Returning to Urbino, he was employed
by the duke, in 1612, as his envoy to Venice, where he
distinguished himself by the congratulatory oration he de¬
livered before the Venetian senate on the election of the
new doge, Andrea Memmo, who on this occasion presented
Baldi with a massive gold chain. Shortly afterwards he re¬
signed the cares of his abbey, and retired into a private sta¬
tion, but he did not long survive this event. He died at
Urbino on the 12th of October 1617. Baldi was perhaps
the most universal genius of his age, and is said to have
written upwards of a hundred different works, the chief part
of which have remained inedited. His various works are evi¬
dence of his abilities as a theologian, canonist, mathema¬
tician, geographer, philosopher, antiquary, historian, orator,
and poet. His life has been written by Affo, Mazzuchelli,
and others. Baldi’s Coronica dei Matematici is an abridg¬
ment of a larger work on which he had bestowed twelve years
of labour, and which was intended to contain the lives of
more than two hundred mathematicians.
BALDINGER, Ernst Gotfried, a German physician
VOL. IV.
B A L
393
of considerable eminence, and the author of a great number Baldinucci
of medical publications, was born near Erfurth, 13th May II
1738. He was originally destined for the church; but Baldwin-
having acquired a strong predilection for medicine, his father ^
yielded to his wishes, and with this view he prosecuted his
studies at Erfurth, Halle, and Jena. In 1761 he was in¬
trusted with the superintendence of the military hospitals
connected with the Prussian encampment near Torgau;
and he there gave public lectures with great applause. Hav- .
ing acquired considerable experience in army practice by ’
his assiduous attention to the duties of his office, he pub¬
lished, in 1763, a dissertation on the diseases of soldiers,
which met with so favourable a reception from the public,
that he enlarged the plan of his work, and republished it
under the title of Treatise on the Diseases that prevail in
Armies, Langensalz, 1774, 8vo. In 1773 he was appointed
professor of medicine at Gottingen, where he enjoyed con¬
siderable reputation. He was afterwards professor of the
theory of medicine at Jena ; and in 1785 was promoted to
a professorship at Marpurg, where he died of apoplexy on
the 21st of .January 1804. Among the number of his pupils
were Akermann, Sommering, and Blumenbach.
His writings are exceedingly numerous: many of them
are scattered in various collections and journals. No less
than eighty-four distinct treatises are mentioned as having
proceeded from his pen. He had collected an extensive
library, consisting of 16,000 volumes, of which a catalogue
was published after his death.
BALDINUCCI, Filippo, a distinguished Italian writer
on the history of the arts, was born at Florence about 1624.
His chief work is entitled Notizie de' Professori del Disegno
da Cimabue in qua, Secolo v. dal 1610 al 1670, and was
first published in six vols. 4to, in 1681-8. An edition in
twenty vols. 8vo, with notes by Manni, was published at
Florence in 1767—74. The capital defect of this work is
his puerile attempt to derive Italian art from the schools
of F lorence ; in which he has been often refuted, especially
by Malvasia and Lanzi. Baldinucci died in 1696.
BALDOCK, a market-town of England, county of
Hertford, and hundred of Broadwater, 37 miles N. of Lon¬
don. It is pleasantly situated in a valley on the Great
North Road, and is well paved and lighted. Its principal
street has several handsome buildings. The church is a
spacious edifice, with a spire, three chancels, a curious font,
and some monuments of its founders the Templars. There
are also places of worship belonging to the Methodists, In¬
dependents, and Quakers ; and several schools, almshouses,
and other charities. Manufactures, beer, malt, and straw-
plait. Pop. (1851) 1920.
Baldock, Ralph de, bishop of London in the reigns of
Edward I. and II., was educated at Merton College, Oxford,
became dean of St Paul’s, was afterwards promoted to the
see of London, and at last was made lord high chancellor of
England. He wrote Historia Anglica, or a History of the
British Affairs down to his own time; and A Collection of
the Statutes and Constitutions of the Church of St Paul.
The former, though it was seen by Leland, is not now ex¬
tant ; the latter is preserved in the library of that cathedral.
He died at Stepney, July 24. 1313.
BALDRICK, a kind of girdle, richly ornamented, which
in feudal times served to indicate the rank of the wearer.
The term is sometimes applied also to the zodiac.
BALDWIN, Thomas, a celebrated English prelate, was
born of obscure parents at Exeter, where, in the early part
of his life, he taught a grammar-school. After this he took
orders, and was made archdeacon of Exeter; but he resigned
that dignity, and became a Cistercian monk in the monastery
of Ford in Devonshire, of which, in a few years, he was made
abbot. In the year 1180 he was consecrated bishop of Wor¬
cester. In 1184 he was promoted to the see of Canterbury
by Pope Lucius III., and by his successor Urban III. was
3 D
394
B A L
Balen.
Baldwin appointed legate for that diocese. He laid the foundation of
a church and monastery in honour ot Thomas a Becket at
Hackington, near Canterbury, for secular priests ; but being
opposed by the monks of Canterbury and the pope, he was
obliged to desist. Baldwin then laid the foundation of the
archiepiscopal palace at Lambeth. In 1190 he crow net
King Richard I. at Westminster, and soon after followed
that prince to the Holy Land, where he died at the siege
of Ptolemais or St Jean d’Acre. Giraldus Cambrensis, who
accompanied him in this expedition, says he was ot a mi c
disposition, and practised great abstinence. He wrote va¬
rious tracts on religious subjects, which were collected and
published by Bertrand Tissier in 1662.
Baldwin, the name of nine counts of Flanders, the^ last
of whom ascended the throne of Constantinople in 1204.
There were also four kings of Jerusalem of this name, from
1100 to 1186, when the nephew ot the last, then a child, was
titular king until the capture of the city by Saladin in 1187.
See Crusades.
BALE, John, bishop of Ossory, in Ireland, was born at
Cove, near Dunwich in Suffolk, in the year 1495. At
twelve years of age he was entered in the monastery of
Carmelites at Norwich, and thence sent some years after¬
wards to Jesus College, Oxford. He was educated a Roman
Catholic, but was afterwards converted to the Protestant re¬
ligion by Thomas Lord Wentworth. On the death of Lord
Cromwell the favourite of Henry VIII., who had protected
him from the persecutions of the Romish clergy, he was ob¬
liged to fly, and took refuge in Flanders, where he continued
eight years. Soon after the accession of Edward VI. he was
recalled ; and being first presented to the living of Bishop’s
Stocke (Bishopstoke), in Hampshire, in 1552 he was nomi¬
nated to the see of Ossory. During his residence in Ireland
he was remarkably assiduous in propagating the Protestant
doctrines ; but with little success, and frequently at the ha¬
zard of his life. On the accession of Queen Mary the tide of
opposition became so powerful that, to avoid assassination,
he embarked for Holland ; but was so unfortunate as to be
first taken by a Dutch man-of-war, and robbed by the cap¬
tain of all his effects ; then forced by stress of weather into
St Ives in Cornwall, where he was arrested on suspicion of
treason. Having obtained his release, however, after a few
days’ confinement, the ship in which he had embarked an¬
chored in Dover road, where he was again seized on a false
accusation, but soon liberated. On his arrival in Holland
he was kept prisoner for three weeks, but at length obtained
his liberty on paying L.30. From Holland he travelled to
Basil in Switzerland, where he continued till Queen Eliza¬
beth ascended the throne. After his return to England he
was in 1560 made prebendary of Canterbury; where he
died in November 1563, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
He was the author of many works, the most noted of which
is his collection of British Biography, entitled lllustrium
Majoris Britannice Scriptorum Catalogus, aJapheto sanc-
tissimi Noah jilio ad An. Bom. 1559. This work was first
published in quarto in 1548, and afterwards, with various ad¬
ditions, in folio, 1557-59. Ames and Herbert have given
a long list of his other works ; and Tanner has given a list
of his manuscripts, with the names of the places where they
are preserved.
BALEARIC Islands. The appellation is commonly
derived from /SaAAeA, jacere, because the inhabitants were
excellent slingers. They are two in number, the Major
and Minor ; hence the modern names. See Majorca and
Minorca.
BALECHOU, Jean-Jacques-Nicolas, an eminent
French engraver, born at Arles in 1715 ; died at Avignon
in 1765. His works are distinguished by decision and vi¬
gour, but are sometimes hard in the details. His chef-
d’oeuvre is the portrait of the king of Poland.
BALEN, Hendrick van, historical and portrait painter,
B A L
was born at Antwerp in 1560. He was a disciple of Adam Bales
van Oort; but quitting that master, he pursued his studies
at Rome, where he resided for a considerable time. He ^ ^ our‘
died in 1632. All the historical subjects painted by Van “
Balen have merit. His designs of the Deluge, of Moses
Striking the Rock, and the Drowning of Pharaoh, are meii-
torious compositions. His J udgment of Paris is accounted a
masterly performance ; and the figure of Venus, in particu¬
lar, is exceedingly admired. He was Van Dyk s first master.
BALES, Peter, a famous caligraphist, and one ofAhe
first inventors of short-hand writing. He was born in 1547,
and is described by Anthony Wood as a “most dexteious
person in his profession, to the great wonder of scholars and
others.” WTe are also informed that “ he spent several
years in sciences among Oxonians, particularly, as it seems,
in Gloucester Hall; but that study which he used for a
diversion only, proved at length an employment of pro¬
fit.” He is mentioned for his skill in micrography in Hol-
lingshed’s Chronicle, anno 1575. “ Hadrian Junius, says
Evelyn, “speaking as a miracle of somebody who wrote the
Apostles’ Creed and the beginning of St John’s Gospel
within the compass of a farthing: what would he have said
of our famous Peter Bales, who, in the year 1575, wrote
the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, Decalogue, with two short
prayers in Latin, his own name, motto, day of the month,
year of the Lord, and reign of the queen, to whom he pre¬
sented it at Hampton Court, all of it written within the
circle of a single penny, inchased in a ring and boideis of
o-old, and covered with a crystal so accurately wrought as
to be very plainly legible ; to the great admiration of her
Majesty, the whole privy-council, and several ambassadors
then at court?” Bales was likewise very dexterous in imi¬
tating handwritings, and about 1576 was employed by Se¬
cretary Walsingham in certain political manoeuvres. We
find him at the head of a school near the Old Bailey, Loh-
don, in 1590, in which year he published his Writing
Schoolmaster, in three parts. In 1595 he had a great trial
of skill in the Blackfriars with one Daniel Johnson, for a
golden pen of L.20 value, and won it; and a contempoiary
author further relates that he had also the arms of caligraphy
given him, which are azure, a pen or. Bales seems to have
died about the year 1610.
BALEY, Walter, physician in ordinary to Queen Eli¬
zabeth, was born at Portsham in Dorsetshire, in 1529, and
died in 1592. Having taken his degrees in arts at Ox¬
ford, he practised physic; and in 1558 was proctor of the
university. About this time he obtained a prebend of
Wells, which he resigned in 1579. In 1561 he^ was ap¬
pointed queen’s professor of physic; in 1563 took his de¬
gree of M.D.; and afterwards became one of Her Majesty s
physicians in ordinary. His works are, A Discourse of
certain Baths in the County of Warwick, near JSewnham-
Reqis 1587, 8vo ; A Discourse of three kinds of Pepper in
common use, 1588, 8vo ; Brief Treatise of the Preservation
of the Eyesight, first printed in the reign of Elizabeth in
12mo, afterwards at Oxford in 1616, 1654, and 8vo;
Directions for Health, Natural and Artificial, with Medi¬
cines for all Diseases of the Eyes, 1626, 4to.
BALFOUR, Sir James, of Pittendreich, at one time
lord president of the Supreme Court in Scotland, an in¬
triguing and corrupt man of the stormy period of the six¬
teenth century. He was the author of a collection of the sta¬
tutes entitled The Practicks. See Skene, Sir John.
Balfour, Sir James, Bart., of Denmylne and Kmnaird,
lord lyon king-at-arms in the reigns of Charles 1. and 11.,
was eminent as an annalist, a lawyer, and antiquary, lie
appears to have been an able and indefatiga e co.
of MSS., and left, besides his Annales of Scotland, sixteen
treatises on genealogies and heraldry. Sonm o ns wor
are preserved in the Advocates’ Library at Edinburgh, to¬
gether with his correspondence ; from which rich collection
B A L
Balfour Mr Haig published Balfour’s Annales of Scotland, from the
II zeire 1057 to 1603, in 4 vols. 8vo.
Balguy. Balfour, Robert, a learned Scotchman, born about
the year 1550, who was for many years principal of the
Guienne College at Bordeaux. His principal work is his
Commentary on the Logic and Ethics of Aristotle (Burdig.
1616—20, 2 tom. 4to), which is described by Dr Irving
{Lives of the Scottish Writers) as uniting vigour of intellect
with great extent and variety of learning. Balfour was one
of the most learned men of the time, and is spoken of by
Dempster as the “ phoenix of the age,” the “ stay of his
countrymen,” and the “ glory of his nation.”
BALFROOSH, a large commercial town of Persia, pro¬
vince of Mazanderan, on the river Bahbool, which is here
crossed by a bridge of nine arches, about 12 miles distant
from the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. It is built in
a low, swampy, though rich country; and, from the deep
and almost impassable roads which lead to it, seems not at
all favourably situated for the seat of an extensive inland
trade. It is, however, peopled entirely by merchants, me¬
chanics, and their dependants ; and is wholly indebted for
its present size and importance to its commercial prosperity.
The town is of a very peculiar structure and aspect. It is
placed in the midst of a forest of tall trees, by which the
buildings are so separated from one another, and so con¬
cealed, that except in the bazaars it has no appearance of a
populous town. The streets are broad and neat, though
generally unpaved ; and they are kept in good order. No
ruins are to be seen, as in other Persian towns ; the houses
are comfortable, in good repair, and roofed with tiles ; and
they are inclosed by substantial walls. According to Fraser,
by whom it was visited in 1822, Balfroosh had a plain and
simple air of plenty, ease, and comfort, attended with a bustle
and show of business which is rarely to be seen in the Per¬
sian towns. There are no public buildings of any import¬
ance. The only places of interest are the bazaars, which
extend fully a mile in length, and consist of substantially-
built ranges of shops, covered with a roof of wood and tiles,
and well stored with commodities. There are about ten
principal caravanserais, several of which are attached to the
bazaar, and are let as warehouses for goods; and from twenty
to thirty medresses or colleges, the place being as much
celebrated for learning as for commerce. At tbe time of
Fraser’s visit, it was said to contain 200,000 inhabitants;
but this was probably an exaggeration ; and since that time
the plague and the cholera have committed great ravages,
so that at present there may not be above 50,000. It is 20
miles W. ofSori. Long. 52. 42. E. Lat. 36. 37. N.
BALGUY, John, an eminent English divine, born at
Sheffield, in Yorkshire, in 1686. He was admitted of St
John’s College, Cambridge, in 1702 ; and having taken the
degrees of B.A. and M.A., he soon after quitted the uni¬
versity. In 1711 he obtained a small living, and in 1729
was preferred to the vicarage of Northallerton, which he
retained till his death in 1748. Besides sermons and vari¬
ous theological tracts, he published a philosophical work on
the Foundation of Moral Goodness, written in answer to
Dr Hutcheson’s work on the Origin of our Ideas of Beauty
and Virtue. Some of these pieces were collected by the
author into one volume, and published with a dedication to
Bishop Hoadley.
Balguy, Thomas, D.D., son of the above, was born in
1716. After studying in St John’s College, Cambridge, he
was in 1746 presented to the rectory of North Stoke, in
Lincolnshire. He afterwards became archdeacon of Salis¬
bury, and of Winchester, in succession.. He was offered
the bishopric of Gloucester in 1781, but was prevented from
accepting it by the declining state of his health. He was
afterwards afflicted with blindness, and died at Winchester
in January 1795. Besides sermons and charges, he was
the author of a very able and well-known work, entitled
B A L 395
Divine Benevolence asserted, and vindicated from the Re- Balharry
flections of Ancient and Modern Sceptics, 8vo, 1782. II
BALHARRY, a town and fortress of Hindustan, situ- v Ealk~
ated on the W. side of the Haggry River, 187 miles N.
from Seringapatam, and the capital of the British collector-
ate of the same name. The population, exclusive of mili¬
tary, is returned at 30,426. Elevation above the sea, 1600
feet. Lat. 15. 8. Long. 76. 59.
The district, of which the town is the principal place,
contains an area of 13,056 square miles, with a population
of 1,229,599, and forms a portion of the Balaghaut or table¬
land of the Deccan. Upon the partition of Tippoo Sul¬
tan’s dominions, Balharry fell to the share of the nizam, by
whom it was ceded to the British in 1800, in commutation
of subsidy. Fi’om its centrical position Balharry is removed
from the full force of either monsoon, and the climate is
consequently characterized by aridity ; the annual rain-fall
ranging from 12 to 26 inches.
BALI, Bally, or Little Java, one of the Sunda
Islands, in the Eastern Seas, separated from Java by the
straits of the same name, which are three miles wide. It is
a large island, being seventy-five miles in length by forty in
breadth. A chain of mountains crosses the island in a direc¬
tion E. and W., and terminates on the E. in the volcanic
peak of Bali. The climate and soil are the same as in Java ;
it has mountains of proportionate height, several lakes, and
streams well fitted for the purposes of irrigation. Rice is
produced in great quantities, and two crops are raised in the
year; while in the dry season the lands yield a crop of
maize. The other productions are tobacco, oil, and salt;
also cotton of an excellent quality. The inhabitants, though
originally sprung from the same stock as those of Java, ex¬
ceed them in stature and muscular power, as well as in ac¬
tivity and enterprising habits. “ They have,” says Sir
Stamford Raffles, “a higher cast of spirit, independence, and
manliness than belongs to any of their neighbours.” They
are also more moral, not being addicted to drunkenness or
licentiousness, though they indulge in the practice of eat¬
ing opium. Their favourite amusements are gambling and
cock-fighting, to which they devote themselves with all the
vehemence and energy of their character. They are in¬
ferior to their neighbours the Javanese in mechanical art
and industry. Cotton is spun into yarn, and made into
cloth by the women. Knives, and warlike instruments, such
as matchlocks, are also manufactured. The principal ex¬
ports are rice, edible birds’ nests, coarse cloths, cotton yarn,
salted eggs, &c. The imports are opium, betel nut, ivory,
gold, and silver. The traffic in slaves was formerly great;
all prisoners of war, insolvent debtors, and those who at¬
tempted to evade the laws against emigration, being re¬
duced to the condition of slaves. The Hindu superstition
is prevalent here. The island is divided into eight states,
each under its own chief, subject to the Dutch. The total
population is estimated at 800,000. (Raffles’s History of
Java; Temminck’s lu hide Achipelagique.)
BALIOL, or Balliol, Sir John he, founder of Baliol
College in Oxford, was the son of Hugh Baliol, of Ber¬
nard’s Castle, in the diocese of Durham, and very eminent
on account of his power and riches. During the contests
between Henry III. and his barons he firmly adhered to the
king. In 1263 he began the foundation and endowment
of Baliol College, which was afterwards perfected by his
widow, Dervorgille. He died in 1269. His son, John
Balliol, was the competitor with Bruce for the crown of
Scotland.
BALIZE. See Honduras.
BALK, or Balkii (the ancient kingdom of Bactria), a
province of Central Asia, now a dependency of the khanat
of Bokhara, lying between Lat. 35. and 37. N., and Long.
63. and 69. E. The country of Balk is bounded by the
Oxus on the N., by the great mountain range of the Hindu
296
Balk
II
Ballad.
B A L
B A L
Khoh and Paropamisus on the S., by Badakshan on the E.,
and generally by sandy deserts on the W. It is said to ex¬
tend 250 miles from E. to W., and from 100 to 120 nines
from N. to S. Towards the S. the country abounds in hills
which branch out from the Hindu Khoh range. Here the
soil is generally stony, though it has many well-watered
valleys. The central portion of the country is level, fertile,
and well watered, from the vicinity of the hills; while to¬
wards the N., near the stream of the Oxus, it is sandy a.nd
barren. The western part of the country of Balk, which
borders on the desert, is of a similar nature; but in the E.
there are mountainous tracts which are well watered, and
occasionally fertile. The country descends very rapidly
from the mountain range of Hindu Khoh, and towards t e
Oxus is of a lower level and of a much hotter climate than
those parts of Afghanistan which lie to the S. of these moun¬
tains. Balk is inhabited by the Usbek-latars, lanjiks,
and Arabs. The total population is estimated at 1,000,000.
Balk, or Balkh (the ancient Bactra), formerly a great
city, is now an immense and desolate mass of ruins, situ¬
ated on the right bank of the Adirsiah, or Balk River, in
a large and fertile plain, 1800 feet above the sea. These
ruins consist chiefly of fallen mosques and decayed tombs
built of sun-dried bricks, and occupy a space of about twenty
miles in circuit. None of these ruins are of an age prior to
Mahometanism. Balk is still called by the Asiatics “Mother
of Cities,” but its population, which once numbered some
hundred thousands, now scarcely amounts to 2000. 1 his
city is said to have been built by Kaiomurs, the founder of
the Persian monarchy ; and here the archi-magus resided
till the followers of Zoroaster were overcome by the khalifs.
Zenghis Khan sacked the city,and butchered its inhabitants;
and under the house of Timour it became a province of the
Mogul empire. Balk formed the government of Aurung-
zebe in his youth, and was at last invaded by the great
Nadir. Under the Dooranee monarchy it fell into the hands
of the Afghans ; and for the last twenty years it has been
in the possession of the Khan of Bokhara. (See Burnes s
Travels in Bokhara?)
BALKAN, the lofty mountain range that separates the
waters of the Lower Danube from those that flow into the
Archipelago. The name, however, has been extended to the
whole mountain group that stretches from the Adriatic to the
Euxine. The highest point of this range, Mount Orbelus,
is 9000 feet above the sea. It rises to the W. of the town
of Sophia.
BALLAD is a word frequently used as synonymous with
song ; but it properly denotes an historical song, or a song
containing a narrative of adventures or exploits either serious
or comic. It is one of the most ancient species of compo¬
sition, and still constitutes a great portion of the literature
of the more uncivilized tribes of mankind. Giovanni Finati,
who supplies us with much information respecting the man¬
ners and customs of the East, has recorded the following
anecdote of ballad-literature among the Benysackr Arabs,
whom he found encamped near the shores of the Dead Sea.
Their chief Ibn Fays, he states, “had strangers with him
from Damascus, and feasted his guests so plentifully, that
the wooden dish out of which we all fed had four iron
handles to it, and required three persons to lift it and set it
before us. Afterwards, a great earthen pan of grease was
lighted as a lamp for the company, and Ibn Fays himself,
and his brother, sung a sort of slow plaintive ballad to an
instrument with one string, the purport of which was the
tragic account of a battle against a neighbouring tribe, in
which their own father perished.”1 The leader of this wan¬
dering horde might himself be the author, as well as the
reciter, of the ballad which thus regaled his guests.
Most of the nations of modern Europe have considerable
collections of the ballads which delighted their forefathers ;
and in some countries the political influence of such com¬
positions has been found to be very powerful. “Of these,
says Dr Aikin, “ the most copious source is party ; and there
has seldom been an occasion of political contest in countries
permitting such freedoms, in which appeal has not been made
to the popular feelings by means of comic and satirical bal¬
lads, often with great effect. The share that Lillibulero
had in producing the Revolution in this country has been
noticed by grave historians. In the war of the Fronde in
France, ballads were a weapon as much employed as muskets,
and those written for and against Cardinal Mazarin filled
several volumes. The French give to these compositions
the appropriate title of Vaudeville, implying their fitness to
walk the streets ; and indeed street-poetry in general be¬
longs to the ballad class.”2 The Spaniards,3 and other na¬
tions of the south, have preserved ample collections of their
early ballads ; but the affinity of our own nation and tongue
with those of the northern tribes, renders their^ literary re-
liques an object of more particular interest. The various
tribes of Scandinavians have generally been distinguished for
their love of poetry. Many ancient reliques of Icelandic poetry
are still preserved, and are regarded as very curious speci¬
mens of the literature of the different ages to which they
belong ; nor are the kindred nations of Sweden and Den¬
mark without their early and recent poets, some of whom
have attained to high reputation. Of the ballad-poetry of
these northern nations, many remnants have descended to
our times; and ample collections of Danish, Swedish, and even
Feroese ballads have recently been published by respectable
editors. “ The songs mentioned by Tacitus in his account
of the Germans,” says Mr Jamieson, “those collected by
the order of Charlemagne, and those which the Goths brought
with them out of the East, are now not to be found; yet it
is more than probable that much more of them is preserved,
in however altered a form, than we are aware of; in the
elder Northern and Teutonic romances, the Danish and
Swedish, Scottish and English popular ballads, and those
which arc sung by old women and nurses, and hawked about
at fairs, in Germany.”4 The same ingenious and well-in¬
formed writer has elsewhere expressed his conviction, that
many of the traditionary ballads still current in this kingdom
havebeen preserved in the northof England and the lowlands
of Scotland, ever since the arrival of the Cimbri in Britain.0
Many of our historical ballads may at all events be consider¬
ed as the productions of a remote period ; but it is not to be
supposed that they have been transmitted from one genera¬
tion to another without innumerable transformations. A
great proportion of them have doubtless been preserved by
oral tradition ; and they seem in general to have undergone
such changes as brought them nearer to the current speech
of each successive generation ; for, without this progressive
adaptation, the lapse of a few centuries would have rendered
them unintelligible to the great body of the people ; nor is
it usual for any combination of words to be retained in the
memory without being understood. Thus, for example, we
have reason to believe that the ballad of Sir Patrick Spence
derives its origin from a very early age ; but the variations
to which it must gradually have been subjected, may easily
Ballad.
1 Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Giovanni Finati, translated by William John Bankes, Esq. vol. ii. p. 27
2 Aikin’s Essay on Song-Writing (p. xviii.), prefixed to Vocal Poetry, or a Select Collection of English Songs‘ ’ Altenburg
3 See the introduction to Depping’s Sammlung der besten alien Spanischen Historischen Ritter un “Mr^Ct245 gdinb 1814, 4to.
und Leipzig, 1817, 12mo. ^ * Illustrations of f^howeS Tray’s Historical and
G Jamieson’s Popular Ballads and Songs, vol. ii. p. 87. Edmb. 1806, 2 vols. 8vo. See howe y
Romantic Ballads, vol. i. p. xxv. Edinb. 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.
B A L
Ballad, be inferred from a comparison of the different copies which
—are now to be found.1 A story may thus be preserved, when
most of the original words have been changed. The close
affinity between the old Danish and the old Scottish and
English ballads has been noticed by various writers, by
Pinkerton, Jamieson, Nyerup, Geijer, and Grimm :2 their
resemblance is to be traced in the general spirit and con¬
trivance of the poems; while some of the Danish and Scottish
ballads exhibit a remarkable coincidence in their particular
stories. Whether these effects are to be imputed to so re¬
mote a cause as the emigration of the ancient Scandinavians,
may however admit of much doubt and hesitation. Fiction
moves from one region to another with very elastic steps,
and in many instances it is impossible to trace her progress.
The earliest collector of Danish ballads was Anders So¬
renson Vedel, chaplain to the king of Denmark, and an in¬
timate friend of the celebrated astronomer Tycho Brahe. His
publication bears the title of a hundred select Danish bal¬
lads, or Viser. Ribe, 1591,
8vo. It is now a very rare book, even in Denmark; but a
copious account of it is given by Nyerup, in the last volume
of the more recent collection of Danske Viser. After an
interval of more than a century, another clergyman, Peder
Syv, reprinted this collection of Vedel, and added an equal
number of ballads. Kiobenhavn, 1695, 8vo. But the most
extensive collection appeared under the following title :
Udvalgte Danske Viser fra Middelalderen; efter A. S.
Vedels og P. Syvs trykte Udgaver, og efter haandskrevne
Samlinger, udgivne paa ny af Abrahamson, Nyerup, og Rah-
bek. Kiobenhavn, 1812-14, 5 bind. 8vo. This work is ac¬
companied with notes and illustrations, and appears to us to
possess no inconsiderable value. A similar collection of
Swedish ballads was published by Geijer and Afzelius:
Svenska Folk- Visor fran Forntiden, samlade och utgifne
af Er. Gust. Geijer och Arv. Aug. Afzelius. Stockholm,
1814-16, 3 del. 8vo. These volumes are accompanied with
music, printed in a quarto form. Of Feroese ballads there
is a recent collection : Fceroiske Qveeder om Sigurd Fos-
nersbane o'j bans 2Et, med et Anhang: samlede og over-
satte af Hans Christian Lyngbye, Sognepraest i Gjesing;
med en Indledning af P. E. Muller, Dr. og Prof, i Theol.
Randers, 1822, 8vo. Dr Muller, the author of the introduc¬
tion, is a learned and able writer, well known as the author
of more important works.
Debes mentions that, at their weddings, and at Christ¬
mas, the Feroese were accustomed to “ recreate themselves
with a plain dance, holding one another by the hand, and
singing some old champion’s ballad.”3 These islands were
peopled in the ninth century by a colony of Norwegians.4
The language of the people, as it appears in these ballads,
is removed to a considerable distance from the Icelandic as
well as the Danish. The plan of publishing a Feroese dic¬
tionary was formed about seventy years ago ; and the Eng¬
lish prospectus printed upon that occasion furnishes so curious
and entertaining a specimen of the language, that we are
tempted to insert it with all its peculiarities.
“ Subscription.—We are minded after many years trou¬
blesome Collection to acquaint the World with the Tongue,
used upon the Isles of Fero, a Dialect of the old noble
Tongue in former Times written and spoken in Norway,
Denmark, Jsland, Swede, and in a good Deal of the eng-
lish Dominion. Now it appears for the world translated in
Latin, Danish, and conferr’d with the islandsh Tongue.
B A L 397
“If we were men of Wealth, we would not forbear to Ballast
Regard the Expenses of printing this Dictionary as a great II
Trifle, because it, very likely, not will exceed a good^Vo- Ballet-
lume in 4to ; but we are poor-men. Nevertheless we hope
to bring it forth byWay of Subscription, and for that Reason,
We invite hereby our Neighbours, the brave and Reason¬
able Englishmen to Deal with us the Honour of bringing
this Dialect out of the Darkness, wherein it lies, and let it
see the Day-Liht. No-Body of our Countrymen, aswe know,
has thought this before.
“ Perhaps this moment in our Life, that has been the first
in Time for this Purpose, will be the Last, and no body
afterwards would attend it. The Price will be 2 pence a
Sheet, and upon good Paper 3 pence.
“ N. Mohr. J. 0. Svabo.”
The two pages which follow are divided into columns, for
the Names of the Subscriptors and the Number of Exem¬
plars ; but it appears that the well-meaning and pains¬
taking creatures met with too little encouragement to pro¬
ceed in their enterprise. The prospectus is without a date ;
but we learn from Muller and Nyerup that Svabo was em¬
ployed in collecting Feroese ballads in the years 1781 and
1782. (D. i.)
BALLAST, any heavy matter, as stone, gravel, or iron,
thrown into the hold of a ship, in order to make her sink a
proper depth in the water, that she may be capable of carry¬
ing a sufficient quantity of sail without upsetting. To bal¬
last a ship properly, the materials should be so disposed that
she may be duly poised, and maintain a proper equilibrium
on the water, without either being too stiff or too crank,
which are conditions equally pernicious. Stiffness, in bal¬
lasting, is occasioned by disposing a great quantity of heavy
ballast, as lead or iron, in the hold, which naturally places
the centre of gravity very near the keel; and that being the
centre about which the vibrations are made, the lower it is
placed, the more violent will be the motion of rolling.
Crankness, on the other hand, is occasioned by having too
little ballast, or by disposing the ship’s lading so as to raise
the centre of gravity too high, which also endangers the
mast when it blows hard. For, when the masts are de¬
flected from the perpendicular, they strain on the shrouds
in the nature of a lever, which increases as the sine of their
obliquity.
Ships are said to be in ballast when they have no other
loading. Masters of vessels are obliged to declare the
quantity of ballast they bear, and to unload it at certain
places. They are prohibited unloading their ballast in havens,
roadsteads, &c., the neglect of which prohibition has ruined
many excellent ports.
BALLATER, a village of Aberdeenshire, on the River
Dee, 42 miles from Aberdeen. It is much resorted to in
the summer season, on account of the romantic scenery in
the vicinity, and the fine medicinal wells at Pananich, about
two miles distant.
BALLENDEN, John. See Bellenden.
BALLENSTEDT, a city in the duchy of Anhalt-Bern-
burg. It is situated in the Hartz Forest, in a most pic¬
turesque district, selected for a seat of the sovereign, whose
castle is accommodated with the usual appendages of courtly
residences. The city, besides the court, contains about
3800 inhabitants, who are very industrious in linen manu¬
factures, gardening, &c.
BALLET (derived through the Italian ballare, from the
1 Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, vol. i. p. 81. Scott’s Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, vol. i. p. 7. Jamieson’s Popular
Ballads and Songs, vol. i. p. 157.—See Motherwell’s Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern, p. xliv. Glasgow, 1827, 4to.
2 Pinkerton’s Enquiry, vol. i. p. 364. Jamieson’s Ballads, vol. ii. p. 87. Nyerup, Danske Viser, Bind. v. S. 12. Geijer, Svenska
Folk- Visor, del. i. s. liv.—The affinity between the old English and the old Danish ballads is noticed in the preface (S. xxxi.) to Altdd-
nische Heldenlieder, Balladen, und Mdrchen, ubersetzt von Wilhelm Carl Grimm. Heidelberg, 1811, 8vo.
3 Debes’s Description of the Islands and Inhabitants of Eoeroe, Englished by Dr Sterpin, p. 273. Lond. 1676, 12mo.
4 Torfsei Commentatio historica de Rebus gestis Fcereyensium seu Farbensium, p. 7. Havnise, 1695, 8vo.
398 B A L
Ballina. Greek BaXXt^etv, to dance) is a dramatic representation com-
's—posed of dancing and pantomime guided by music.
The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their
tragedies and comedies ; not indeed as making part of those
spectacles, but merely as an accessary.
The Romans, as usual, copied from the Greeks ; but in
the reign of Augustus they left their instructors far behind
them. At that time a new species of entertainment was
brought upon the stage, and carried to an astonishing de¬
gree of perfection. Nothing was then talked of but the
wonderful performances of Bathyllus, Pylades, and Hylas,
who were the first to introduce among the Romans what the
French call the ballet d’action, in which the performer is
both actor and dancer.
The enthusiasm excited among the Roman public by
these celebrated pantomimes (pantomimi) was extraordi¬
nary. Pylades personified grave and tragic subjects, while
Bathyllus excelled in the representation of the comic. Each
had his school of disciples, and his host of partizans, whose
eager rivalry often led to serious disturbances. I he de¬
moralizing effects of these exciting representations are
severely noted by the great satirist Juvenal (vi. 63). These
entertainments, though proscribed by some of the emperors,
continued popular down to the fall of the empire. In the
time of Augustus, only one actor appeared on the stage, re¬
presenting singly the various parts in succession. About
the end of the following century the number of performers
was increased. No women took part in the public panto¬
mimes till the last and worst period of the empire.
Buried with the other arts in the fall of the Roman em¬
pire, dancing remained uncultivated till about the fifteenth
century, when ballets were revived in Italy at a magnificent
entertainment given by a nobleman of Lombardy at I ortona,
on account of the marriage of Galeas Duke of Milan with
Isabella of Aragon. Every resource that poetry, music,
dancing, and machinery could supply, was employed and
exhausted on the occasion. The description given of so
superb an entertainment excited the admiration of all Europe,
and roused the emulation of several ingenious persons, who
improved the hint by introducing amongst their countrymen
a kind of spectacle equally pleasing and novel.
Female performers do not appear to have taken part in
the various entertainments given at the opera in Paris till
the 21st of January 1681, when the then dauphiness, the
Princess of Conti, and some other ladies of the first distinc¬
tion in the court of Louis XIV., performed a ballet in the
opera called Le Triomphe de VAmour. This additional at¬
traction rendered the spectacle more lively than it ever
had been at any other period; and it was received with so
much applause, that on the 16th of May following, when
the same opera was acted in Paris at the theatre of the
Palais Royal, it was thought indispensable for its success to
introduce female dancers. They have continued ever since
to be the principal support of the opera.
A ballet perfect in all its parts, says Noverre, in his
treatise on this subject, is a picture drawn from life, of the
manners, dresses, ceremonies, and customs of all nations.
It must therefore be a complete pantomime, and speak, as
it were, through the eyes, to the very soul of the spectator.
If it be deficient in point of expression, of situation, or of
scenery, it degenerates into a spectacle equally flat and
monotonous. {Lettres sur les Arts Imitateurs, et sur la
Danse enparticulier, 8vo. Paris, 1807.)
BALLINA, a seaport and market town of Ireland, county
of Mayo, 18 miles N.N.E. of Castlebar. It is a neat clean
place, pleasantly situated on the river Moy, which is here
crossed by two bridges. Pop. in 1851,4635. Ardnaree, on the
opposite side of the Moy, is popularly included, making a total
population of 6569. It has a parish and a Roman Catholic
church, Baptist and Methodist chapels, a court-house, work-
house, hospital, dispensary, barracks, and several schools.
B A L
The salmon fishery, and provision and fish curing, are irn- Ballina-
portant branches of its trade; and it has also breweries, hinch
flour mills, and manufactures of snuff and coarse linen. The BalJgtic
amount of customs duty received in 1850 was L.5000. In pen(juiuinf
1798 Ballina was for a short time in the possession of the y _
French under General Humbert.
BALLINAHINCH, a small town of Ireland, county of
Down, seven miles W.N. W. of Downpatrick. It is much fre¬
quented in summer on account of a chalybeate spa about
two miles N.W. of the town. Pop. in 1851, 1006.
BALLINASLOE, a town of Ireland, province of Con¬
naught, 91 miles W.S.W. of Dublin. The River Suck, an
affluent of the Shannon, divides it into two parts, the west¬
ern being in the county of Galway and parish of Kilclooney.
the eastern in the county of Roscommon and parish of
Creagh. These are connected by a causeway across an
island in the river and by two bridges. It is clean and well-
built, and contains a handsome church, with a singular octa¬
gonal spire springing from scrolls. There are Roman Ca¬
tholic and Methodist chapels, several public schools, district
lunatic asylum, union workhouse, market-house, a savings-
bank established in 1822, several flour mills, hat and coach
factories, and breweries. Pop. in 1851,6550. The great
annual cattle fair, held from the 5th to the 9th of October,
and for which Ballinasloe has long been celebrated, has
latterly declined, as will be seen from the following table:—
Sheep.
Sold. Unsold.
1847.. .53.095
1848.. .57.287
1849.. .60.256
1850.. .51.668
1851.. .47.072
27,424
9,758
1,198
2,404
3,477
Total.
80,519
67,045
61,446
54,072
50,549
Horned Cattle.
Sold. Unsold. Total.
7,698
7,297
7,844
9,395
10,640
2,756
865
4,914
6,400
1,019
10,454
8,162
12,758
15,795
11,659
The number for sale in 1828 exceeded that of any other
year since 1790, being 97,384 sheep and 11,513 horned
cattle.
BALLINROBE, a small well-built town in Ireland,
county of Mayo, situated on the Robe, 16 miles S.S.E. of
Castlebar. It has a parish church, Roman Catholic chapel,
several schools, and a union workhouse. Pop. in 1851,
2161.
BALLISTA, or Balista, a military engine used by the
ancientsfor discharging darts, javelins, and stones. T he name
is derived from the Greek word /3d\Xeiv, to throw. It would
appear that the projectile force of these machines, in their
several kinds, was derived from the torsion of ropes by
means of a lever. Their power was very great, and indeed
they may be said to have answered, in some degree, the
purposes of modern artillery. The balista originally differed
from the catapulta, which was used for discharging darts ;
but they are confounded by writers subsequent to the time
of Julius Caesar.
BALLISTEA, in Antiquity, songs accompanied by
dancing, used on occasions of victory. Vopiscus has pre¬
served a song of this kind sung in honour of Aurelian, who,
in the Sarmatian war, was said to have killed forty-eight of
the enemy in one day with his own hand. Mille, mille,
mille, mille, mille, mille decollavimus: Unus homo mille,
mille, mille, mille decollavit; mille, mille, mille vivat, qui
mille, mille occidit. Tantum vini habet nemo, quantum
fudit sanguinis. The same writer subjoins another popular
song of the same kind: Mille Francos, mille Sarmatas,
semel occidimus ; mille, mille, mille, mille, mille Persas
queerimus. The term is derived from the Greek /3aAAo), I
cast or toss, on account of the motions used in this dance,
which consisted in elevating, swinging, and throwing round
the hands. The ballistea were a kind of popular ballads,
composed by poets of the lower class, with little regard to
the laws of metre.
BALLISTIC PENDULUM, an ingenious machine,
invented by Benjamin Robins, for ascertaining the velocity of
B A L
Ballis- military projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gun-
trana powder. It consists of a large block of wood, affixed to the
Ballot enC^ a stronS *ron s^em? having at the other end a cross
ja °i' j steel axis, placed horizontally, about which the whole vi¬
brates together like the pendulum of a clock. The machine
being at rest, a piece of ordnance is pointed straight to¬
wards the wooden block or ball of this pendulum, and then
discharged : in consequence of which the ball strikes, enters
the block, and causes the pendulum to vibrate more or less
according to the velocity of the projectile or the force of
the blow; so that by observing the extent of the vibration,
or the chord of the arc,—which is ascertained by means of
a ribbon fixed to the lower extremity of the pendulum, and
passed through a couple of steel edges something in the
manner of a drawing pen,—the force of that blow becomes
known, or the greatest velocity with which the block is
moved out of its place, and consequently the velocity of the
projectile which struck the blow and urged the pendulum.
See Gunnery.
BALLISTRARIA, cruciform apertures in the walls of a
stronghold, through which the cross-bowmen discharged
their bolts. It also signified a projecting turret, otherwise
called a bartizan, such as is commonly seen in the castles of
the Border.
BALLOON. See Aeronautics.
Balloon, a kind of game somewhat resembling tennis,
played in the open field, with a great ball of leather inflated
with air, and driven to and fro with the strength of the arm.
Balloon, in the older chemistry, was the name for a
spherical receiver used in distillation.
BALLOT (from the French ballotte, a little ball), a gene¬
ral expression for the practice of private voting, from its being
usually accomplished by depositing a ball or ticket. Its
most important signification in modern politics is when it is
applied to the great question of the secret or public exercise
of the suffrage in elections of members of the legislature.
The vindex tacitae libertatis, as Cicero calls it—the giving
effect to the exercise of opinion in such a manner as to defeat
by secrecy the influence of other persons on him who has to
exercise the function—has been sought after in many coun¬
tries and times. In Greece the dikasts gave their verdict by
ballot, according to arrangements varied from time to time.
It was signified by a mark on a shell, or by the depositing of
a ball or a stone, white or black according to the verdict;
whence comes the proverbial reference to “a white stone”
as connected with good fortune, and the expression “ black¬
balling,” which is sometimes even still practical as well as
figurative. The Greeks, indeed, like the members of
clubs and societies at the present day, had two methods of
taking the vote—either by two balls and one box, or by
two boxes and one ball. The well known ostracism was a
species of condemnation by ballot, arising out of the old
constitutional principle, that on questions of personal privi¬
lege—whether it were for conferring on the candidate what
the ordinary citizen did not enjoy, or depriving him of his
ordinary legal rights—the vote of a certain number of the
citizens taken secretly was necessary. Of the ostracism as
exercised in Athens, Mr Grote, who is a great champion of
the ballot, gives an interesting vindication in his History of
Greece, where he endeavours to show that, as a mere re¬
moval from the state without a forfeiture of property or posi¬
tion, or any other privation, it was the gentlest manner in
which the republic could protect itself against those whose
waxing power threatened a danger to the constitution, which,
if not checked, might produce more disastrous effects, not
only to the state, but to the aggrandizing citizen himself.
Among the Romans, just as we use the word ballot, ta-
bella or tabula, a ticket, was employed to express the vot¬
ing of the citizens or judges in comitia or courts of justice.
In voting for a law there woidd be two tickets,—one in¬
scribed V. R., uti rogas, or assent; the other A., the initial of
B A L 399
antique for the old law. When it was a case of election, Ballot,
the names of the candidates were written on the tabella,the v ^
voter putting a punctum or puncture opposite to the favoured
name ; and Cicero speaks of how many puncta a man will
have in such a tribe, as we speak of the number of votes one
will have in a ward. The tabellae were cast into a cista,
and the officers called diribitores are supposed to have been
those who cast up the votes. The different laws from time
to time establishing secret voting were called Tabellarice
Leges. Among these, the enactment most resembling the
ballot in its modern acceptation, called the Gabiana Lex,
for the election of magistrates, dates from about 140 years
before Christ. Others are named the Cassia Lex, Papinia
Lex, and Ccelia Lex.
Secret voting was a peculiarity of the Venetian senate,
and the first shape in which the ballot was demanded in
Britain was not for the purpose of elections, but of votes in
parliament. In a work published after the Revolution,
called State Tracts, being a collection of several treatises
relating to the Government, privately printed in the reign of
King Charles II.,” a tract is reprinted, called “ The benefit
of the Ballot, with the nature and use thereofsupposed
to have been written by Andrew Marvell. Voting by ballot
in the legislature was a frequent demand of the popular
party in Scotland during the reign of Charles II., and in
the revulsions against the court it was at one time carried
out. Sir George Mackenzie mentions an instance of its use,
where it was arranged that the lord clerk-register should
hold a bag to receive the “ billets” at the foot of the throne,
and they should be then secretly examined and burned;
“ which form,” he says, “was thereafter punctually observed:
only the register having a rooted quarrel against Southesk,
did mark his billet with a nip when he received it, and
thereby discovered his vote,” In this country secret voting
is at the present day chiefly known in social clubs, where a
small number generally have the power of ostracising any
candidate for admission with whom they would dislike, for
any private reason of their own, to associate. The election
of officers and other acts of public or joint-stock bodies, are
sometimes determined by private votes, as in the important
instance of the proprietors of India stock. It is generally
remarked that this attempt at secrecy is ineffective, and the
votes of the respective stockholders are quite well known ;
but they do not themselves generally seek concealment.
In France, under the constitutional charter, secret voting
existed in the chamber of deputies from 1840 to 1845,
when it was abolished on a project of Duvergier de Hau-
ranne accepted by M. Guizot, who thought the scrutin secret
productive of abuse. No argument can be brought from
the practice on this occasion, any more than from other in¬
stances of secret voting in the legislature, to bear on the
question of secret voting in elections. The two things are
quite distinct, and, according to British constitutional no¬
tions, antagonistic; for, while secrecy is demanded for the
elector, on the ground that he is not and should not be re¬
sponsible, the proceedings of the members of the legislature
have been subjected to increasing publicity, on the ground
that they are responsible to their constituents for the faith¬
ful performance of the trust reposed in them. Nor is there,
perhaps, any sounder practical illustration of the question to
be derived from the more extensive electoral applications of
the vote by ballot in connection with the events which fol¬
lowed the revolution of 1848. In taking the very critical vote
which justified the coup d'etat of December 1851 and led
to the establishment of the empire, it is known that fear of
disturbance compelled Louis Napoleon to have recourse to
secret voting, and that the effect was guarded both by a
limitation of the vote to a simple yes or no to the question
of the prolongation of the presidency, and by arrangements
for taking the votes in small groups, which rendered conceal¬
ment difficult.
400
B A L
Ballot.
The ballot is adopted in elections in several of the United
States, and many arguments against it have been founded on
its bad or ineffective operation there. It is said that the vo er
cannot preserve secrecy in presence of the popu ai coercion
which renders it most necessary ; that those to w lom ,e
secret arrangements are committed flagrantly betray then
trust; and that the voters on either side of a contest are
quite well known to the public at large. It must he re¬
membered, however, that the characteristic defects of Ame¬
rican elections are not those from which protection is soug
in this country, nor are they of a kind for which the ba o
is well adapted as a safeguard. There the evil to be -
ated is the public and palpable coercion of the minority b}
the majority in the act of voting ; in Britain it is the secret
employment of individual influence away r0^ SP^
The former influence may overbear, as it is said to do, the
machinery for secrecy, but the latter has not the same
means of accomplishing such an object.
In these references to experience may be traced some of
the arguments which have at the present day been used in
favour of and against secret voting. Among the arguments
specifically brought forward against the proposal to adopt
the system in England, it is said that the franchise is a trust
which should be exercised with publicity, so that those in¬
terested may see how it is discharged. To this it is gene¬
rally answered by the supporters of the ballot, that election
is not a trust, but a function which each man must discharge
according to what his own conscientious opinion, and not
that of any other man, decides to be for the good of the
community; and it is said that whoever ought to have any
influence on an election, should enjoy it in the shape of a
direct vote to be exercised by himself. Another argument
used against the ballot has been, that it will be an enticement
to falsehood, because voters will ever be induced to pledge
themselves to particular sides, and under the protection ot
the ballot will falsify their pledges. The answer to this
has generally been, that it may be a question whether it is
a more immoral act to break a promise by voting according
to conscientious opinion, or to vote against conscientious
conviction in the coerced performance of a promise extracted
by coercion. But it is generally maintained that secret
voting will render such a balance of ethical difficulties un¬
necessary, because, as it will be impossible for the person
who uses improper influence to be certain that it is effica¬
cious, he will not have a sufficient prospect of success to
tempt him to exercise it. Another argument against the
propounders of secret voting has been, that were it the rule,
any elector whose vote is desired by a person having an in¬
fluence over him, would require to lead a life of hypocrisy,
perpetually professing opinions which he does not hold, in
order that the person exercising the influence may be led
to believe that it has effectually entered into the nature ot
the voter and made him a partizan, whereas, under the sys¬
tem of open voting, he requires only to perform one act of
hypocrisy—that of voting against his opinions—and is free
to speak and act as he pleases in the other affairs ot life.
The answer generally given to this by the supporters of the
ballot is, that the one effective act of hypocrisy—the voting
wrong_js an act worth purchasing ; but that it would not be
worth the corrupter’s while to buy a whole lifetime of hypo¬
crisy, with the chance, if not the certainty, that the pro¬
fessed opinions would be discarded on the only occasions
when the acting on them would be worth the purchase-
money. It has been sometimes said that secrecy in voting
is not practicable ; but this is an argument rarely maintained
as a serious objection to the ballot, for although the votes ot
a large portion of the community who are political partizans,
and own their partizanship, must always be well known,
there is no doubt that if it were sincerely set about, secrecy
could be imparted to the votes of those who desire it.
Perhaps the argument which has proved the most influ-
Balm of
Gilead.
B A L
ential against the ballot has been that, supposing it to be Ballston
effective, it would to some extent deaden that open, candid
system of party conflict, ranging the forces on every ques¬
tion palpably on either side, which is a main characteristic ^
of British politics. In answer to this, it is generally ad¬
mitted that the national characteristic has its merits, but it is
said that the corruption of voters is a disease far outweigh¬
ing them, the removal of which may be cheaply purchased
by their sacrifice. It is generally admitted, however, that
the progress of parliamentary morality during the past twenty
vears, and the gradual transition of electoral bribery from
an act of gallant and justifiable expenditure, to a crime
which men shrink from being charged with, has been re¬
moving or modifying a considerable portion of the disease
for which the ballot has been sought as a remedy.
The ballot has occasioned frequent parliamentary discus¬
sions and divisions, yet it has never created any formidable
conflict involving the fate of a party in parliament. After
the accession of Lord Melbourne’s government in 1835, it
became in all Whig governments an open question, or one
in which members of the government might take what side
they pleased. It is one of those matters of which it is ne¬
cessary, in a work like the present, to give some historical
account, and at the same time to explain its existing posi¬
tion as a political question ; and this has been done with an
endeavour to avoid partizanship, and give a fair view or the
arguments adopted by either side. (J’ B‘)
BALLSTON, a town in the state of New York, cele¬
brated for its spa. , . .
BALLYB AY, a market and post town of Ireland, in the
county of Monaghan, 86 miles from Dublin. Pop. in 1851,
1617, chiefly engaged in the linen manufacture.
BALLYCASTLE, a decayed seaport town of Ireland,
county Antrim, situated on a bay opposite Rathlin island.
The town is well-built, consisting of two parts, about a quar¬
ter of a mile asunder, and connected by a fine avenue. Up¬
wards of L.l50,000 were expended upon the harbour and
pier, but the violence of the sea overthrew the pier and
filled the harbour with sand, so that Ballycastle is now little
more than a fishing village. Pop. in 1851, 1669.
BALLYMENA, a town of Ireland, county Antrim, on
the Braid, an affluent of the Maine, two miles above their
junction, It is 33 miles N.N.W. of Belfast, with which it
is connected by railway. The town owes its prosperity
chiefly to its linen trade, which gives employment to the
greater part of the inhabitants. It has a parish church
several chapels and schools, a market-house, distillery, and
several branch banks. Pop. in 1851, including Hanyville in
the suburbs, 6493. . ^ . .
BALLYMONEY, a village of Ireland, county of Antrim,
140 miles N. of Dublin. Pop. in 1851, 2578.
BALLYSHANNON, a seaport and market town ot
Ireland, county of Donegal, situated on the Erne, at its in¬
flux into the bay of Donegal. Lat. 54. 30. N. Long. 8. 11.
W. The river is here crossed by a bridge of 14 arches,
which connects the town with the suburb of Purt. Below
the bridge the river forms a beautiful cascade lo0 yards
wide, with a fall at low-water of 16 feet. The harbour is a
small creek of Donegal Bay, about 600 yards long, and 350
yards broad, and is only accessible to small vessels. Ihe
town contains a church, several chapels, a bank, market-
house, barracks, and a union workhouse. Previous to the
Union, Ballyshannon returned two members to the Irish
Parliament. Pop. in 1851, 3697.
BALM OF GILEAD. Among the more precious suh
stances obtained from plants, applied as curative o woun s
bv the ruder inhabitants of the Eastern climates, the balm ot
Gilead, or balsam of Mecca, has been eminently distin¬
guished during many ages. But althoug i
Gilead is well known from several scriptural allusions, a
highly esteemed, it is only of secondary quality to the bai-
BALM OF GILEAD
Balm of
Gilead.
sam of Mecca, for which it is frequently substituted; and
illustrations of its nature and properties must chiefly be de-
; rived from the latter. This balsam is a resinous matter,
exuding, like ordinary resin, from incisions in the bark of
two different vegetables ; at least there are apparently two,
though the distinction is not well characterized or described
by naturalists. The plant producing the balsam of Mecca
was first ascertained by Forskal to belong to the genus
Amyris. He transmitted one or two specimens to Linnaeus,
who has characterized it as the “ Amyris Opobalsamum,
leaves pinnate, with sessile leaflets, a native of Arabia;” while
he characterizes the other as “Amyris Gileadensis, leaves
ternate, very entire peduncles, one flowered lateral, a native
of Abyssinia.” This plant grows to the height of fourteen
feet, flourishing in a hot climate, and in a stony barren soil.
In general it is lovyer ; and Mr Bruce describes a specimen
five feet and a half in height, and five inches across the stem
where thickest. The wood is white, light, and of open tex¬
ture, covered with a smooth bark, reddish or bluish white,
resembling that of a healthy standard cherry tree, green
within, and emitting a very fragrant odour; that of the
branches, which are very flexible and resinous, being equally
agreeable. The leaves, which are evergreen and scanty,
bear some resemblance to those of rue; and the flowers,
which are leguminous and of a purplish colour, resemble
those of the acacia. The fruit consists of small pointed
ovoidal berries, containing a yellowish fluid similar to honey,
of a bitterish taste, and exhaling a pleasant perfume, ap¬
proaching the odour of balm.
The balsam flows from incisions in the tree, which are
made with an axe, in July, August, and the beginning of
September, when the circulation of the sap is in the great¬
est activity ; and it is received into a small earthen bottle.
The total exudation is usually but three or four drops in a
day, nor does the most productive tree afford above sixty.
Its scarcity, therefore, and the difficulty of procuring it, have
no inconsiderable effect in enhancing its value. The odour
is at first strong and pungent, occasioning a sensation like
that of volatile salts rashly inhaled. Its intensity is propor¬
tioned to its freshness and the care it receives ; for if ne¬
glected and exposed to the influence of the air, the fragrance
entirely decays. It is also of a rough, acrid, pungent taste.
Originally the balsam is of a light yellow colour, somewhat
turbid, and of a whitish cast, which is supposed to arise from
the globules of air absorbed along with it; and it dissolves
readily in water. It then acquires greater consistence, re¬
sembling honey, and becomes pellucid ; and after the lapse
of some years grows of deeper yellow, or gold colour, when
it is very tenacious, and may be drawn out in threads. It is
difficult, however, to obtain the balsam in a state of purity;
for several different substances are employed in its adultera¬
tion, to detect which various experiments are resorted to.
If dropped into a glass of clean water, it falls to the bottom
without rising again to the surface ; or if it remain still on
the surface, like oil in a drop, it is certainly adulterated. If,
on the contrary, it spreads on the surface of the water, dif-
msing itself in a thin pellicle, scarcely visible to the eye, and
capable of being collected with a thread or a feather, it is the
pure and natural product. In this state it will coagulate
hke milk, but not if otherwise. If pure, it collects in a glo¬
bule when dropped on hot iron ; if adulterated, it runs and
spreads itself all around. The different substances used in
the adulteration of this balsam are honey, wax, oil of sesa-
Bium, turpentine, and ostrich fat. Sweetness of taste betrays
h°ney’ anc^ a tur^'d appearance the presence of wax.
Adulteration with oil is detected by its yielding a darker
and grosser flame than that which issues from the genuine
.am when dropped on burning coals. When the con¬
sistency becomes too great, which seems a consequence of
age and long preservation, fluidity is restored by the simple
application of heat.
VOL. IV.
401
Besides the balsam now described, which is the purest Balm of
and most valuable kind, and is called Opobalsamum, other Gilead,
two of inferior quality are obtained from the balessan the '
name by which the plant is known in the East: first, Car-
pobalsamum, which is prepared by expression from the fruit
when it has attained maturity, and which, if good, should
be ponderous, of a pungent taste and balsamic odour ; se¬
condly, Xylobalsamum, which is elaborated from a decoc¬
tion of the twigs.
Prosper Alpinus, one of the older naturalists, ascribes many
propel ties to the balsam of Mecca, esteemed the most pre¬
cious of all that bear the appellation of balsam, and in ordi¬
nary description considered as synonymous with the balm of
Gilead; and the modern Arabs, Turks, and Egyptians, en¬
tertain great confidence in its efficacy. Hasselquist says it
is useful as a stomachic in doses of three grains. It is also
taken for complaints in the breast, in fevers, and in rheu¬
matism. Its repute as an antiseptic is very great; and by
the Egyptians it is esteemed an effectual antidote against
the plague. The balsam of Mecca, however, is principally
used as a cosmetic by the Eastern females of rank.
The balm of Gilead has been celebrated from a very re¬
mote antiquity. We have the testimony of Moses that it
was an article of commerce in the earlier periods of Jewish
history ; for at the time Joseph was confined by his brethren
m a pit, and during their deliberations on his fate, it is said,
And they sat down to eat bread,—and they lifted up their
eyes and looked, and behold a company of Ishmaelites came
from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery, and balm,
and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt.” Jeremiah
particularly alludes to the virtues of the balm in Gilead.
Josephus, however, does not carry the knowledge of it so
high ; for he observes, that the Queen of Sheba brought the
balm of Gilead as a present to Solomon. The ancients who
were contemporary with Josephus, seem to have regarded
Judea as exclusively possessed of this product. Plinv re¬
marks, “ but to all other odours whatsoever is to be "pre¬
ferred that balsam which is produced in no other part of
the world than the land of Judea, and there in two gardens
only, both belonging to the king, one not exceeding twenty
acres in size, and the second still smaller.” Strabo, however,
in the opinion of Mr Bruce, ascertained the real spot where
the balsam originated, in ascribing it to that country over
or near to which the Queen of Sheba reigned. “ Near to
to this,” he says, “ is the mostfavoured land of the Sabeeans,
and they are a very great people. Frankincense, myrrh,
and cinnamon, grow among them, and on the coast that is
about Saba, the balsam also. Whence Mr Bruce observes
that “ among the myrrh-trees behind Asab, all along the
coast to the Straits of Babelmandel, is its native country.
It glows to a tree above fourteen feet high, spontaneously
and without culture, like the myrrh, the coffee, and the frank¬
incense tree ; they are all equally the wood of the country,
and occasionally cut down for fuel.” Diodorus Siculus like¬
wise affirms that this balsam grew in a valley of Arabia
Felix. But Mr Bruce, who investigated the subject with
considerable care, supposes that it was towards the era of Pliny
that it received its name of Balsamum Judaicurh, or balm
of Gilead, and thence became an article of commerce and
fiscal revenue, which might probably operate as a discourage¬
ment to bringing it from Arabia; as also that it might be pro¬
hibited as contraband. Some centuries later than the time
of those ancient authors, we see that it was known in Arabia,
and perhaps in the place now most celebrated for it. In the
travels of Ali Bey it is stated that there is no balsam made at
Mecca; that, on the contrary, it is very scarce, and is ob¬
tained principally in the territory of Medina ; and also that
it was called belsan. As the repute of the balsam of Mecca
rose, the balm of Gilead disappeared ; though in the era of
Galen, who flourished in the second century, and travelled
into Syria and Palestine purposely to obtain a knowledge
3 E
402
B A L
Balmerino of this substance, it grew in Jericho, and many other part
II of the Holy Land. The cause of its tota decay has been
Balnearii. ascribe(j, not without reason, to the royal attention Being
withdrawn from it by the distractions of the country,
more recent times its naturalization seems to lave
tempted in Egypt; but apparently without succe^.
Notwithstanding the celebrity of this plan ,
denies that it had ever been seen by the ancients, by who
he probably means the Romans, as their descriptions are s
various and discordant. Prosper Alpinus, ^0 hved in tlm
sixteenth century, does not seem to knnwtherealc ^
which it belongs; and even more recently M. Duplessy p
parently not aware of its having been figured by Bruce, anti
S Sr by Dr Woodville. Such uncertainties of old ex¬
cited a violent dispute between the inhabitants of Rome and
Venice whether the drug used in medicinal comP«™^ vv^
truly the balm of Gilead ; and the point being referred to
the pope, his holiness directed that information should be
obtained from Egypt, in consequence of which he decide
in favour of the Venetians.
Several other balsamic plants of the same genus are enu¬
merated by botanists, each exhibiting some peculiarity j^.d.
BALMERINO, a village and pamh of Scotland, count>
of Fife, situated on the Tay, 8 miles N. .0 •
Pop. in 1851, 945. It has the rums of an abbey founded
in 1229, by Emergarde, mother of Alexander II.
BALMEZ, Jayme Lucien, a Spanish ecclesiastic, emi¬
nent as a political writer and a philosopher was born at
Vich in Catalonia, on the 28th August 1810. He is the
author of several able works, of which that entitled El Pro-
testantismo Comparado con el Catolicismo en sus relaciones
con la Civilisacion Europea, is the one on which his repu¬
tation chiefly rests. It has been translated into French
German, and English. This gifted and amiable man died
at Vich, on the 9th July 1848.
BALMORAL, the residence of Her Majesty Queen Vic¬
toria, is a romantic spot in the Highlands of Aberdeenshire.
It lies in the centre of a highly picturesque country on the
right bank of the river Dee, about 9 miles above Ballatei,
and 50 miles from Aberdeen. A dwelling more extensive
and commodious than the present castle is in the course of
erection •
BALNAVES, Henry, a Scottish Protestant, born at
Kirkcaldy in Fife, in the reign of James V., and educated at
the university of St Andrews. He afterwards studied in
France ; and returning to Scotland, he entered into the
family of the Earl of Arran, who at that time was regent:
but, in the year 1542, the earl dismissed him tor embracing
the Protestant religion. In 1564 he joined (says Mackenzie)
the murderers of Cardinal Beaton; for which he was de¬
clared a traitor, and excommunicated. Whilst that party
were besieged in the castle of St Andrews, they sent Lal-
naves to England, who returned with a considerable supply
of money and provisions; but being at last obliged to sur¬
render to the French, he was sent with the rest of the gar¬
rison a prisoner to France. During his confinement at
Rouen he wrote the work entitled (Confession of Faith; but
it was not published till 1584, five years after his death.
He returned to Scotland about the year 1559, and having
joined the Congregation, was appointed one of the commis¬
sioners to treat with the Duke of Norfolk on the part of
Queen Elizabeth. In 1563 he was made one of the Lords
of Session, and appointed by the General Assembly, with
other learned men, to revise the Booh of Discipline. Knox,
his contemporary and fellow-labourer, gives him the cha¬
racter of a very learned and pious man. Balnaves died at
Edinburgh in the year 1579.
BALNEARII Servi, in Roman Antiquity, servants or
attendants belonging to the baths. Some were appointed
to heat them, cAleffornacatores; others were denominated
capsarii, who kept the clothes of those that went into them;
B A L
others aliptce. and unctores, whose care it was to pull out Balognes
the hairs and anoint and perfume the body. Baltic Sea.
BALOGNES. SeeVALONGES. v—vr—/
BALSAM, the resinous juice of a tree or shrub; the
true balsams being distinguished from the spurious ones, or
turpentines, by containing benzoic or an analogous acid as
one of their essential ingredients, in addition to the volatile
oil and resin of which alone the turpentines consist. I he
true balsams known in commerce are five in number, viz., the
balsam of Peru, yielded by the Myrospermum Permferum;
the balsam of Tolu, procured from the M. Toluiferum, ben¬
zoin, the produce of styrax benzoin; storax, from the Storax
officinalis ; and liquid amber, from Liquid-ambarstyraciflua.
Balsams are used in medicine in certain diseased states of
the mucous membranes, and are hence frequently pre¬
scribed in cough mixtures, and during recovery from cer¬
tain inflammatory and diseased conditions of the mucous
surfaces of the stomach and bowels, &c. Formerly bal¬
samic preparations were much used in surgery for dressing
wounds, sores, &c., but are almost completely exploded in
modern practice in this country. Balsams are used also m
the manufacture of sealing-wax, pastils, &c.; and the incense
burnt in Roman Catholic chapels owes its peculiar perfume
chiefly to the presence of benzoin. Canadian balsam, balsam
of copaiba, balm of Gilead, &c., though commonly styled
balsams, are not so, properly speaking, since they contain no
benzoic 3.cid*
B ALS AMINES, a natural order of plants. See Botany.
BALSAMODENDRON, a genus of plants belonging
to the natural order of Amyrideae. The B.Myrrha pro¬
duces that gum-resin which is said also to be afforded by
B. Katof. See Botany.
BALSOVER. SeeBoESOVER.
BALTA, the capital of the circle of the same name, in
the Russian government of Podolia. It stands on the Ko-
dima, near its junction with the Bug, and carries on a trade
in corn by that river. Population, including suburbs, about
10,000. Long. 29. 44. E. Lat. 47. 56. N.
BALTIC SEA. The denomination of the lialtic, ap¬
plied to the inland sea which forms the subject of this article,
is first found in the work entitled Chorographia Scandi¬
navia;, by Adam of Bremen, who was canon of that city at
the closed the eleventh century. The etymology of the
name has given rise to many conjectures. The Swedes
derive it from the Scandinavian word baelt, a girdle, be¬
cause of its peculiar form ; the Prussians, from the Sc a-
vonian or Lettonian word bait, white, from its being frozen
part of the year, or from Baltus, one of their kings , while
by others it is derived from Baltea, the name of an island
mentioned by Pytheas, a merchant of Marseilles, who, m
Se second oJ third century before the Christian era is sup¬
posed to have sailed as far north as this sea. In the coun¬
tries which bound it, its ancient name was Vanatzkoie More,
or the Sea of Variaghi; by the modern Russians it is called
Baltiskoe More; and by the Swedes, Danes, and Germans,
The Baltic is inclosed by Sweden, Russia, Prussia, Meek- ® ^ BaltiCi
lenburo-, and Denmark; and it communicates with the
North Sea by the Skager-Rack, Kattegat, Sound and
Great and Little Belts. From Swinemunde in the S., t
Tornea in the N, its length is 770 geographical miles;
and it, width from Karkcrona to Memel
180 miles. Its whole area, including the G.,1 of Bothnia^
is about 120,000 geographical square miles. Itruns first m
an easterly direction as far as Memel, a distance oi^
miles, and then northwards as far as Lat- 59. • •’
tance of 350 miles, at which point it separates into two
gulfs. One of these, the Gulf of Finland, ™ J
E • the other, the Gulf of Bothnia, almost N. i he Fr
of Bothnia is 400 miles in length, with an av^e breadg^f
120 miles, but where narrowest it does not exceed 40 miles.
y
BALTIC.
Baltic Sea. The archipelago of Aland lies at its entrance. The Gulf
of Finland is 200 miles in length, with a mean breadth of
60 or i0 miles. Numerous rocky islands and reefs, many
of them level with the water, render the navigation of this
sea extremely dangerous.
Depth of d he greatest depth of the Baltic rarely exceeds 100
the Baltic, fathoms. On the western side it is not more than 15fathoms;
and, in general, it is only from 8 to 10 fathoms. On the S.
it nowhere exceeds 50 fathoms. The Gulf of Finland sud¬
denly shallows from 50 or 60 fathoms to 5, or even less.
The average depth of the Gulf of Bothnia is not greater
than that of the rest of the sea.
Level of its ^ has long been a generally received opinion that the
waters. waters of the Baltic are gradually diminishing. Celsius, a
learned Swede, who flourished towards the middle of last
century, advances this hypothesis ; and, from observations
made on the coasts of the Baltic, he estimated the diminu¬
tion at 45 inches in a hundred years. This hypothesis was
supported by Linnaeus, who founded on it a theory of the
earth. M. Otto, in his physical observations on this sea, has
suggested another theory to account for its apparent de¬
crease. He supposes that, instead of really subsiding, it
may be only shifting its position, and gaining in one quarter
what it loses in another; and this he ascribes to the large
and rapid rivers, which carry along with them an immense
quantity of earth and sand, by which the beds at their
mouths are raised, and their banks extend towards the sea.
Ihe views of Celsius have been confirmed by the observa¬
tions of Von Buch, who also discovered at several places on
the western shores of Scandinavia, and at considerable ele¬
vations, deposits of sand and mud containing numerous ma¬
rine shells of species still existing in the neighbouring ocean.
Mr Lyell at first entertained doubts of these phenomena;
but on subsequent inspection he was led to concur in the
opinion of Von Buch. Mr Lyell found the marks which
were cut in the rocks at water-line some years previous to
his visit, to be actually several inches above the level of the
Baltic. From these observations, that eminent geologist
concludes, that in several parts of Sweden a gradual eleva¬
tion of the land is taking place. (Lyell’s Principles of
Geology.) The great quantity of sand and mud carried
down by the rivers has considerably raised the bottom of
this sea, and affected its navigation, so that the mouths of
rivers formerly navigable are now inaccessible.
Tides. the Baltic, the tides are scarcely, if at all, perceptible.
There are sensible tides in the Skager-Rack; but these be¬
gin to diminish in the Cattegat, and are very trifling in the
Sound and Belts. There are, however, irregular variations
in the level of the waters of the Baltic which bear some
resemblance to tides. These elevations generally occur in
autumn, when the weather threatens rain; and they last
sometimes a few days, sometimes several weeks. The maxi¬
mum rise is three feet and a half, and the low shores are
occasionally inundated. They also render brackish the fresh¬
water lakes which communicate with the sea. In the Gulf
of Bothnia, the subsidence of the waters is usually succeeded
by north winds; whereas, near Stockholm, these winds usu¬
ally follow their rise. M. Kraft, formerly professor of ex¬
perimental philosophy in the Imperial Academy of Sciences
at Petersburg, in his treatise on the inundations of the
Neva at the autumnal equinox, observes, that three or four
days before or after the full or new moon, a violent N.W.
wind drives the waters of the Northern Ocean, during the
influx of the tide, into the Baltic, and is accompanied or
immediately succeeded by a south wind in that sea and the
Onlf t>.. a,  i i ^ i i
403
Gulf of Finland. By Schultens, a learned Swede, who paid
particular attention to the physical geography of the Baltic,
the irregular elevations of this sea are attributed to the state
of the atmosphere. He had observed that when the waters
were about to rise the barometer fell, and that when they
were about to fall it rose. Hence he inferred that the un¬
equal pressure of the atmosphere on different portions of Baltic Sea.
the water deranged the level of the waters. The difference ' 
between the greatest and the least rise of the barometer in
the northern parts of Europe is two and a half inches, which
answers to three and a half feet of water, or the difference
of the elevation of the waters at their extremes.
In the Sound there are superior and inferior currents. Superior
I hese were first observed by some Englishmen, who, being and infe-
in a boat in the middle of the channel, found that theyrior cur‘
drifted towards the Cattegat; but having let down a loaded rents'
bucket to the depth of four or five fathoms, the boat became
stationary; and when the bucket was sunk deeper, the boat
drifted against the superficial current. The general cur¬
rents of the Baltic are strong, and evidently occasioned by
the vast number of rivers and streams that pour their waters
into it, many of which, especially towards the north, rise
thrice in the course of the year. At the northern extre¬
mity of the Island of Bornholm, a violent agitation of the
waters, or kind of whirlpool, called by the Swedes malt-quern,
or the grinding-mill, is occasioned by the current rushing
over a circular cluster of sunken rocks. The waves of the
Baltic are short and broken, in consequence of sudden
changes of wind, irregular depths, and strong currents.
The waters of this sea are not nearly so salt as those of Saltness,
the ocean ; and when the wind blows strong from the north
they become so fresh as to be fit for drinking or cooking
meat. 1 he degree of their saltness varies in different parts,
and even in the same parts, according to the season or wind.
According to Bergman, in his Physical Geography, the
waters near the south coast of Norway, at the entrance of the
Skager-Rack, contain from ^th to |th part of their weight
of salt; in the Cattegat ^th ; in the Baltic ^th; and in the
Gulf of Bothnia from to The S.W. and W.
winds augment the saltness, by introducing the waters of
the ocean. In the summer it requires 300 tons of the water
of the Gulf of Bothnia to produce one ton of salt, but in the
winter only 50 tons. This difference is caused by congela¬
tion, and by the diminished flow of fresh water.
The analysis of three pounds of water taken up from the Analysis of
British Sea, on the coast of East Friesland, and the sameits waters,
quantity from near Rostock in the Baltic, gave
British Sea. Baltic.
Muriate of soda 522 263
Muriate of magnesia 198£ 111
Sulphate of lime..'.  23 12
Sulphate of soda  1£ i
Residue  ii. p
746i 388
The following are the results of some experiments made
by Dr Thomson on the specific gravity of the water in the
Firth of Forth, the Baltic offTunaberg, the Sound, and off
the Skaw Point; and also on the comparative weight of salt
obtained from 1000 grains of each of the waters evaporated.
Specific Weight of
gravity. salt.
Water of the Firth of Forth 1-02900 36-6
Baltic off Tunaberg 1-00476 7"4
Sound 1-00701 11-2
Skaw 1-02037 32-0
In the salt obtained from the water off the Skaw, he found
Muriate of soda 55*7
Sulphate of magnesia 25-0
Muriate of magnesia 19-3
100-0
Wilcke ascertained that the specific gravity of the water
of the Baltic was much influenced by the wind. When the
wind was at
East, it was 1-0039
West 1-0067
North-west 1-0098
Storm at West  1-0118
404 B A L
Baltic Sea. There is great difference in the temperature in different
parts of the Baltic. The general temperature of the Gulf
Tempera- of Bothnia in July is from 48° to 56°, but it is sometimes
ture. heated to 70° ; the medium of the thermometer throughout
the year at Uleoborg is 29°, and at Stockholm 42£ . Near
the land in the Gulf of Bothnia the temperature of the at¬
mosphere in the month of July was observed to be 68 , while
the temperature of the surface of the water was 65 ; ar>d in
October the temperatures of both were respectively 39 and
46°. In the Sound, the temperature of the atmosphere in
the month of August was 70° ; on the surface °f the watei
68° ; and at three fathoms 66°. On the 10th of October
1813, Dr Thomson found the temperature of the Sound to
be 54°. The Skager-Rack and Gulf of Norway are open to
navigation all the winter, whereas several portions of the
Baltic are covered with ice in a very moderate degree o
cold ; and generally the bays and channels are encumbeie
with ice at the latter end of December. The waters to¬
wards the heads of the Gulfs of Bothnia and F inland are hi st
frozen ; and the ice being conveyed by the currents to the
south, the masses of it are united by the increasing cold
into vast fields, which become stationary on the west towards
Stockholm, and in the east towards the islands of Dagce an
CEsel. In the southern parts of the sea the ice begins to
break up in April, but the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland
often continue closed till May. The rigour of the climate
in the Baltic is supposed to be considerably diminished by
the clearing of the forests and the progress of cultivation ;
at least the frosts during the fourteenth and fifteenth cen¬
turies appear in their intensity and long continuance to have
exceeded those of the severest seasons in more lecent times.
The winds are extremely variable in the Baltic, but they
blow most commonly from the E. in the spring, and from
the W. in autumn. Calms are seldom experienced except
in the middle of summer.
Fisheries. There is historical evidence that the herring fishery was
a branch of national industry in the Sound as early as the
year 1168 J and in 1389, according to Philip de Mezieres,
such vast shoals of herrings crowded into the Sound, that
40,000 boats, with from six to ten men each, were employed
in the fishery, besides 900 large vessels, in which the her¬
rings were salted. This important branch of industry, how¬
ever, no longer exists. Salmon ascend the rivers from April
to June, according as they are free from ice. On the S. they
abound most in the Oder, Vistula, Diina, and Narrowa; on
the N., in the Motala, Dalecarlia, Ulea, Kemi, Tornea, and
Keymen. Salmon-trout is taken in some bays of the Baltic.
In the middle of the River Kemi is a small island where an
annual salmon fair is held.
Whales very rarely enter the Baltic. The common por-
pesse is the only one of the lesser species of cetaceous ani¬
mals that lives habitually in this sea ; and at Middlefahrt, in
Funen, is a company which enjoys the exclusive privilege
of taking it. There are two varieties of the common seal,
which are hunted for their oil in March and April by the
peasants of the Isle of Gottland, and of the islands in the
Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.
The trade of the Baltic is of great extent and importance.
In 1852, 17,563 ships passed up and down the Sound, of
which 3902 were British vessels. The internal trade is also
very considerable. The exports consist of the various pro¬
ductions of the countries on its coasts, and include corn,
timber, pitch and tar, hemp, flax, tallow, hides, linseed, bris¬
tles, wool, &c. Its imports are colonial products, manufac¬
tured goods, dry stuffs, wines, salt, coal, &c. The most im¬
portant ports are St Petersburg, Riga, Konigsberg, Danzig,
B A L
Swinemiinde, Liibeck, Copenhagen, Karlscrona, and Stock- Baltimore,
holm. By means of numerous large rivers and canals a con-
sidearble trade is carried on with the interior. (See Thom¬
son’s Travels in Sweden ; Tableau de la Mer Baltigue, par
Catteau; Tableau des Etats Danois, par Catteau.)
BALTIMORE, a decayed town of Ireland, county of
Cork, on a headland projecting into the sea. Previous to
the Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament.
It has a good harbour ; but the population in 1851 was only
189. N. Eat. 51.29. W. Long. 9. 20.
Baltimore, in Maryland, one of the largest and most
flourishing cities in the United States ot North America, is
situated on the north side of the Patapsco River or Bay, 14
miles above its entrance into the Chesapeake, 37 miles N.E.
of Washington, and 100 S.W. of Philadelphia; Lat. 39.17.
N. Long. 76. 36. W. The natural advantages of this posi¬
tion were long overlooked by the settlers in the vicinity of
the Chesapeake, and it was only in 1729 that they directed
their attention to this place, and laid out a plan of the town.
At this time a part of it was under cultivation as a farm,
but all the rest was a wilderness. For some years its growth
was by no means rapid, as it had to contend with all the ob¬
stacles that could be thrown in its way by the jealousy of
older rivals. From an authentic sketch of Baltimoie made
in the year 1752, it appears that it then contained about 25
houses, only four of which were built of brick, the rest being
of a more primitive structure. In 1768 it became the county
town; and in 1775, according to a census then taken, it
contained 564 houses, and 5934 inhabitants. From this
time it rose rapidly into importance, and in 1780 became a
port of entry, when a custom-house was opened. Previous
to this all vessels trading to and from the port had to be
entered, cleared, and registered at Annapolis. In December
1796 it obtained an act of incorporation. By the census
of 1850 Baltimore contained 169,012 inhabitants, of whom
141,441 were whites, 24,625 free coloured, and 2946 slaves.
The city is pleasantly situated on slightly undulating
ground, and extends about 4J miles from E. to W., and
3|- from N. to S., covering an area of 10,000 acres. It is
divided into two nearly equal parts by a rapid stream called
Jones’s Falls, crossed by a number of bridges. The divi¬
sion east of the falls is nominally subdivided into two parts
Fell’s Point and Old Town. The former, the most easterly
part of the town, is the principal resort of seamen, and is
the place where the shipbuilding and manufactures are pi in-
cipally carried on. rIhe Old I own lies to the N. and M.
of this, and is principally inhabited by mechanics and labour¬
ers. The portion west of the Falls is likewise divided into
two parts, the city proper and Spring Garden. The for¬
mer is the centre of trade, and the residence of the more
wealthy inhabitants ; while the latter, which is the extreme
south-western quarter, and the lowest and most unhealthy
portion of the city, is inhabited by the poorer classes. Bal¬
timore contains upwards of 100 churches, 3 universities, 4
colleges, about 50 grammar schools and academies, nume¬
rous common schools; an infirmary, several hospitals, orphan
asylums, dispensaries, &c.; two theatres, a circus, a museum,
and many beautiful and commodious public buildings. Ihe
city hall is a plain three-storied building, with a portico of
four massive pillars. The court-house, a large and commo¬
dious edifice constructed of marble and brick, is 145 feet
long, 65 wide, and two stories high. It is adorned with
several Tuscan columns, and the whole is surmounted by
a cupola of an imposing appearance. The state peniten¬
tiary consists of three large buildings, besides workshops,
&c., and, with its gardens and walks, occupies an area ot
i “ In the year 1238 the inhabitants of Gothia (Sweden) and Prise were prevented, by their fear of the if™™ c^old1 for a^hil-
their ships to the herring fishing on the coast of England ; and as there was no exportation, 40 or o o , f ^v,:na should
Ung (Matthew Paris, p. 396.) It is whimsical enough that the orders of Mogul Khan, who reigned on the borders of China, should
have lowered the price of herrings in the English market.(Gibbon’s Roman Empire, vol. xi. p.
B A L
Baltimore, four acres, surrounded by a stone wall 20 feet high. The
Merchants’ Exchange is a spacious building 225 feet long
by 141 feet wide, and contains a reading-room, the custom¬
house, a bank, telegraphic offices, &c. The room in which
the merchants’ meetings are held is 53 feet square, and is
lighted by a dome 115 feet above the street. On its east
and west sides are colonnades, the columns of which are each
a single block of fine Italian marble. Baltimore has also
several splendid monuments, which have acquired for it the
name of “ the Monumental City.” The largest of these,
erected to the memory of Washington, stands on an emi¬
nence of 150 feet, and has, with its base, an altitude of 200
feet. It is built of white marble : the base is 50 feet square,
and 20 feet in height, surmounted by a Doric column 20
feet in diameter, with a spiral staircase in its interior ; and
on the summit is a statue of Washington 13 feet high. The
“ Battle Monument,” also of white marble, was erected by
public subscription in 1815, to the memory of those who
had fallen in defence of the city in the previous year. It
is 52 feet high ; the base is of Egyptian architecture ; the
column in the form of a bundle of Roman fasces, upon the
bands of which are inscribed the names of those whom it
commemorates; and the whole is surmounted by a female
figure, the emblematical genius of the city. This city is
supplied with water from an elevated part of Jones’s Falls,
by an aqueduct half a mile in length, and distribution pipes.
There are also numerous public springs and fountains
throughout the town.
The manufactures and commerce of Baltimore are very
extensive and flourishing. There is scarcely a branch of in¬
dustry that is not prosecuted to some extent in the city or its
vicinity. Among these are shipbuilding, iron and copper
works, woollen and cotton manufactures, pottery, sugar re¬
fining, distilling, saddlery, agricultural implement making,
cabinet-making, tanning, &c. It is the greatest flour-mar¬
ket in the Union, and has a large export trade in tobacco.
There belonged to the port of Baltimore, on the 30th June
1852, 159,408 tons of shipping ; of which 63,608 tons were
engaged in the coasting trade. There are twelve banks,
with a capital (in 1853) of #7,291,415 ; ten fire and marine
and one life insurance company, besides several agencies
for other companies. The aggregate value of the different
descriptions of property assessed in Baltimore for the year
1846 was 086,103,673; and for the year 1853, 0104,801,438,
being an increase of 018,697,765.
The harbour is excellent, and consists of three parts. Its
entrance, between Fort M‘Henry and the lazaretto, is about
600 yards wide, with 22 feet of water. This depth is con¬
tinued vith an increased width for a mile and a quarter, to
near Fell’s Point. The entrance to the second harbour is
opposite Fell’s Point, where the width is contracted to one-
fourth of a mile, with a depth of 12 feet. Above this en¬
trance it widens into an ellipse of a mile long, half a mile
broad, and 15 feet deep. The third or inner harbour has
a depth of 10 feet, and penetrates to near the centre of the
city. Vessels of 500 or 600 tons can lie at the wharfs near
Fell’s Point, and those of 200 tons can come into the inner
harbour. The harbour is well defended by Fort M‘Henry.
The railroads of Baltimore are—the Philadelphia Wil¬
mington and Baltimore line, opened in 1837—length, 98
miles ; the Baltimore and Susquehanna, to York in Penn¬
sylvania, opened in 1846—length 85 miles ; the Baltimore
and Ohio, to Wheeling, a branch of which goes to Wash¬
ington, opened in 1853—length, including branches, 421
miles. It is in contemplation to extend the Baltimore and
Ohio railroad to Parkersbury, and the Baltimore and Sus¬
quehanna railroad to Sunbury. It is also proposed to con¬
nect a branch to the Central Ohio railway at Zanesville
with the Baltimore and Ohio line. See Gazetteer of the
United States ; De Bow’s Industrial Resources, fyc., of the
Southernand Western States; Hunt’s Merchants' Magazine.
B A L
405
BALTINGLASS, a town of Ireland, county of Wick-Baltinglass
low, on the river Slaney, 37 miles S.S.W. of Dublin. It II
formerly carried on a manufacture of linen and woollen Baluze*
cloths, but its trade is now confined to bleaching. Here
an action took place in 1798 between the royalists and the
insurgents, in which the latter were defeated. It has the
remains of an ancient Cistercian abbey and a castle. Be¬
fore the Union it returned two members to the Irish par¬
liament. Pop. in 1851, 1572.
BALUE, Jean, a French cardinal who raised himself
from a very mean station to dignity and honours. He be¬
came almoner to Louis XL, and eventually obtained the
whole management of the government; but being detected
in a treasonable correspondence with the Duke of Bour¬
gogne, he was shut up by Louis in an iron cage eight feet
square, a punishment he richly merited by his crimes. On
his release, however, eleven years afterwards, he was loaded
with honours by Sixtus IV. He died at Ancona in 1491.
BALUSTER, a small kind of pillar used for balustrades.
BALUSTRADE (Spanish, Balustrada), a series or row
of balusters joined by a rail, and serving as a fence or in¬
closure to balconies, altars, staircases, &c.
BALUZE, Etienne, a writer eminently distinguished by
his knowledge of history, ecclesiastical antiquities, and the
canon law, was born at Tulle on the 24th of December 1630,
of a family which had long adhered to the legal profession.
He received his elementary education at the place of his
nativity, and afterwards prosecuted his studies in the uni¬
versity of Toulouse, where he obtained an exhibition in the
College of St Martial. Having finished his course of phi¬
losophy, he commenced his attendance in the schools of
law; but although he attained to great proficiency in cer¬
tain departments of jurisprudence, he felt no inclination for
the ordinary occupations of a lawyer, and never followed the
profession of an advocate. His earliest inquiries related to
different subjects of ecclesiastical antiquities; and the re¬
putation which he thus acquired recommended him to the
notice of M. de Montehal, archbishop of Toulouse, who
granted him access to his library. This prelate was suc¬
ceeded by M. de Marca, soon afterwards archbishop of
Paris, a man who was profoundly skilled in those branches
of knowledge which Baluze so long continued to cultivate.
In 1656 Baluze was invited by the archbishop to the metro¬
polis ; but before his hopes of preferment were realized, his
patron died.
He speedily found another favourer of his studies in M.
le Lellier, afterwards chancellor of France, who conferred
upon him many benefits. He was next connected with the
establishment of M. de Lamothe-Houdancourt, archbishop
of Auch. In 1667 M. Colbert offered him the situation of
keeper of bis library, one of the most magnificent private
collections in Europe; and its value, both in manuscripts
and in printed books, was greatly augmented by the judg¬
ment and zeal of the learned librarian. Having retained his
office for some time after the death of Colbert, he resigned
it in the year 1700, and retired to a house belonffino: to the
Scottish College.
In 1670 he was appointed professor of the canon law in
the Royal College, a new chair which the king was pleased
to erect in his favour ; and of his high qualifications for such
a professorship he has left the most unequivocal proofs. He
was also appointed a canon of the cathedral of Rheims;
and in the privilege appended to his edition of Marius Mer¬
cator, printed in the year 1684, he is designated “ Estienne
Baluze, prieur de Beauvais.” It may therefore be inferred
that he enjoyed a considerable pension from that abbey;
nor were such arrangements uncommon at that period of
the history of France. He is described as “simple ton-
sure an expression which denotes that he was not a priest
or a deacon, but had only been initiated into one of the
lowest of the seven holy orders. In 1683 he published a
406 B A L
Balzac, volume of Councils, and it was his original intention to ex-
' tend the collection ; but as some of the materials which he
had prepared could not be much relished at Rome, he
thought it expedient to abandon his design. Ot the acts of
the council of Basle he had proposed to print a very ample
collection ; and this was indeed the part of his plan for
which the whole had chiefly been undertaken. After an in¬
terval of ten years, he published his Lives of the Popes of
Avignon ; a work of curious research, which procured him
a pension from the crown, and afterwards the o™ce of di¬
rector of the Royal College, where he succeeded the Abbe
Gallois in the year 1700. But the favour of a court is at
all times and in all places held by a very precarious tenure.
Baluze, who had attached himself to Cardinal de Bouillon,
was involved in the disgrace which attended that prelate.
A lettre de cachet removed him from Paris: his place of
exile was repeatedly changed, and his residence successively
restricted to Rouen, Blois, Tours, and Orleans; nor con
he obtain his recal till 1713, after the peace of Utiecht.
Though at length permitted to revisit Paris, he never re¬
covered his two offices of director and professor of the Royal
College. This persecution did not however quench his lite¬
rary ardour ; for, during his exile, he employed himself in
preparing an edition of the works of St Cyprian, which was
published after his death. His constitution had never been
vigorous, but the sobriety and regularity of his habits en¬
abled him to reach a mature and healthy old age. He died
on the 28th of July 1718, in his eighty-eighth year; and
was buried in the church of St Sulpice. A person who had
lived so long in the midst of learned dust, without either
wife or children to blow it aside, could not well be without
his share of peculiarities. He was not entirely exempted
from caprice, and his testament exhibited this caprice in no
very amiable light; his relations and domestics were almost
totally forgotten, and the bulk of his property was bequeathed
to a woman who appears to have had no claim upon him.
Some scholars, who have collected libraries with much la¬
bour and at great expense, are inclined to cherish an anxious
wish that they should be preserved entire ; but, on the con¬
trary, he was desirous that his library should be sold in detail,
lest any one individual should be put in possession of those
literary treasures which he himself had gradually amassed.
This collection consisted of 10,799 articles, including more
than 1500 manuscripts, together with 115 printed books
which he had interspersed with annotations. I he manu¬
scripts were added to the Royal Library.
The merits of Baluze are perhaps more conspicuous in his
capacity of editor than in that of author. If his labours had
not extended beyond the Capitularia Regum Francorum,
his name would always have been mentioned with respect
by lawyers and historians; but some of his other publica¬
tions greatly illustrate the history of the middle ages ; nor
must we forget the light which they reflect upon the history
of the canon law, and upon the writings of the Latin fathers.
His published works formed fifteen volumes in folio, three
in 4to, sixteen in 8vo, and two in 12mo. (d. i.)
BALZAC, Honore, one of the most distinguished and
most prolific of the modern French novelists, was born at
Tours on the 20th May 1799. After completing his studies
at Vendome, he entered the office of a notary at Paris, and
commenced his literary career by contributions to periodical
works; which attempts, however, gave little indication of
his genius. Between the years 1821 and 1829 he published,
under various pseudonymes, no fewer than thirteen ro¬
mances ; and in the last-mentioned year appeared the first
work to which he affixed his name. His writings display a
profound knowledge of the human heart, and several of them
bear the stamp of unquestionable genius ; such, for ex¬
ample, as La Peau de Chagrin, Le Dernier Chouan, La
Physiologic de Mariage, Le Pere Goriot, La Femme de
Trente Ans ; and his later works, Medecin de Campagne,
BAM
and Parens Pauvres. The most remarkable feature in his Balzac
private history was his deep attachment to the Countess j5ai||bo()
Eveline Hanska, a Russian princess, who rewarded his long v am ,00'
and untiring devotion with the gift of her hand in 1848. —
Balzac did not long enjoy his felicity. He died at Paris,
of hypertrophy of the heart, on the 30th of August 1850.
His remains, attended by a vast concourse of people, were
deposited in the cemetery of Pere-Lachaise.
Balzac, Jean-Lords-Guez de, was born at Angouleme
in 1594. He was one of the most popular writers of his
day, but his works have long since sunk into comparative
obscurity. Voltaire allows him the merit of having been
the first who gave numbers and harmony to French prose,
but censures his style as bombastic. His writings extend
to two folio volumes, which were published in that form in
1665, with a preface by the Abbe Cassaigne ; but his repu¬
tation rests chiefly on his Letters. He died in 1655, and
was buried in the hospital of Notre Dame des Anges, to
which he bequeathed 12,000 livres. He also left an estate
of 100 francs per annum for a gold medal to be bestowed
every two years for the best discourse on some moral sub¬
ject. This prize is still continued.
BAMBA, a province of Congo, on the western coast of
Africa, lying to the S. of the river Ambriz. This district is
said to be very fertile, and to abound in gold, silver, cop¬
per, salt, &c. Its chief town bears the same name.
BAMBARRA, an extensive and important country of
interior Africa, with which the journeys of Park, who was
perhaps the first European that reached it, have made us
tolerably acquainted. It is situated between the 5th and
9th degrees of W. Long., and the 12th and 15th of N.
Lat. See Africa.
BAMBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Upper
Franconia, on the river Regnitz, 3 miles above its junction
with the Maine, and 33 miles N. of Nuremberg, with which
it is connected by railway. It is partially surrounded by
walls and ditches, and is divided by the river into three dis¬
tricts, which are connected by two handsome bridges. The
town is well built, and the streets are well paved and lighted.
The cathedral, a noble structure in the Byzantine style
of architecture, is surpassed by few of the kind in Germany.
It was founded in 1004 by the Emperor Henry II., and
finished in 1012, but was afterwards partially burnt, and re¬
built in 1110. It contains the tombs of the founder and
his empress Kunigunde, Konrad III., Pope Clement II.,
&c.; and numerous monuments and paintings by the most
eminent masters. Among the other public buildings are
St Martin’s church, the church and convent of St Michael,
the palace formerly the residence of the prince-bishops,
town-house, and theatre. It has numerous literary and cha¬
ritable institutions, as the lyceum, gymnasium, polytechnic,
normal, and medical schools; library, museum, picture-
gallery, hospital, and workhouse. There is a very con¬
siderable trade here, and manufactures of cloths, sealing-
wax, leather, tobacco, musical instruments, carriages, &c.,
besides numerous breweries. The Bamberg beer is in much
repute. Bamberg was formerly the capital of an indepen¬
dent bishopric, which was secularized in 1801, and assigned
to Bavaria in 1803. Pop. (1849) 18,531.
BAMBOCCIO, a celebrated painter, born at Laeren,
near Naarden, in Holland, in 1613. His name was Peeter
van Laer ; but in Italy he was called Bamboccio, on account
of the strange proportions of his person. Nature, however,
made him amends in the superior beauties of his mind.. His
style of painting was sweet and true, and his touch delicate,
with great transparency of colouring. His subjects were
taken from scenes in humble life, such as plunderings, play¬
ing at bowls, inns, cattle, conversations, &c.; yet his designs
were so correct, and so highly finished, that his manner w as
adopted by many Italian painters of his time.
B AMB O O. This plant was ranked by the older botanists
B A M
Bamboo, in the number of reeds ; but some, less sensible of its ana-
logics with them, instituted for it a separate genus. In the
Systerna Natures, Linnaeus describes two species, under the
genus Arundo-Bambos, now termed Bambusa, which is
characterized thus: “ scales three, covering the spikelets,
which are about five flowered ; calyx none ; corolla, a two-
valved glume ; style bifid ; seed one.” Roxburgh describes
about thirty kinds of Bambusae: but the species of Rox¬
burgh have been by later botanists subdivided into several
other genera; and we now find but a few species considered
as true Bambusae. Thus, in Willdenow’s Species Planta-
rum there are but two recognised, B. arundinacea and
B. verticillata. In the Systema Vegetabiliunt of Spren-
gel, there are three species, B. arundinacea, B. spinosa,
B. stricta.
Loureiro, who had an opportunity of studying the na¬
ture of the bamboo in its own climate, characterizes it as
having “flowers with six stamina; panicle diffused, with
imbricate spikelets ; branches of the culm spiny ; calyx one
flowered.” The Bambusa arundinacea is a native of the
warmer climates only, though growing luxuriantly with¬
out the limits of the torrid zone. It rises to the height
of forty, sixty, or even eighty feet, with a hollow stem,
shining as if varnished. The stem is extremely slender,
not exceeding the thickness of five inches in some which
are fifty feet high, and in others reaching fifteen or eighteen
inches in diameter. The whole is divided into joints or
articulations, separated by a short interval, called a knot
or internode; and in some there is the distance of several
feet between each. These joints or divisions are formed
by the crossing of the vascular bundles of fibres. They
produce alternate lateral buds which form small alternate
branchlets springing from the base to the top, and together
with the narrow-pointed leaves issuing from them, give
the tree an elegant feathered appearance as it waves in the
wind.
The rapidity of its growth is surprising. It sometimes
grows three or four inches in a single day. Accurate
observers have seen it rise twenty feet, and expand as thick
as a man’s wrist, in five or six weeks; and it has been
known to reach thirty feet in six months. This enables us
to credit the assertion, that its full dimensions are attained in
a year; and that the only subsequent change is greater thick¬
ness and induration of the wood. In Malabar it is said to
bear fruit when fifteen years old, and then to die.
The bamboo grows wild in most places of the East, and
the warmer parts of the West. Where the country is prin¬
cipally dependent on its use, it is cultivated in regular plan¬
tations. It apparently succeeds best in low sheltered grounds,
with rich, soft, spongy earth ; but humidity is especially pre¬
judicial to it. This plant is propagated by shoots deposited
in pits at the close of autumn or commencement of winter,
eighteen inches or two feet deep ; and in order to obtain
bamboos of considerable size, the scions are cut over as they
spring up. Their subsequent treatment depends entirely
on the uses to which they are to be converted ; much care
being bestowed on those designed for beauty or ornament
only. They are propped up with rods; and, if complete
plants, are cut over in order to obtain suitable shoots. It
is necessary to surround the plantation with a ditch, in order
to drain off superabundant humidity, which woidd otherwise
be prejudicial. Various expedients are followed to obtain
good bamboos ; one of the most usual being to take a vigor¬
ous root and transplant it, leaving only four or five inches
above the joint next the ground. The cavity is then filled
with a mixture of horse-litter and sulphur. According to
the vigour of the root, the shoots will be more numerous ;
but they are destroyed at an early stage during three succes¬
sive years ; and those springing in the fourth resemble the
parent tree. It is affirmed that no culture can obtain any
thing of larger size.
B O 0.
The utility of this plant soon becomes conspicuous. The Bamboo,
soft and succulent shoots, when just beginning to spring are v-~-
cut over and served up at table, like asparagus. Like this
vegetable, also, they are earthed over to keep them longer
fit for consumption ; and they afford a supply in succession
during the whole year, though more abundantly in autumn.
They are also salted and eaten with rice, or prepared after
different other fashions. As the plant grows older, a kind
of fluid of grateful taste and odour is secreted in the hollow
joints, affording a considerable quantity of an agreeable be¬
verage. If allowed to remain in the tree, a concrete sub¬
stance, highly valued for its medicinal properties, called
tabaxir or tabascheer, is produced from it. The presence
of the fluid is ascertained by agitating the bamboo ; after
some time its quantity gradually diminishes, and then the
stem is opened to reach the tabascheer. This substance, par¬
ticipating in nothing of a vegetable nature, has been found
to be siliceous earth ; it resists the impression of all acids,
is indestructible by fire, and with alkalies forms a trans¬
parent glass. Notwithstanding its repute in the East, it
has never been received into the European materia medica.
Besides the tabascheer, many parts of the bamboo are said
to be endowed with medicinal properties ; a decoction of
the leaves is recommended for coughs and sore throat; the
bark for fever and vomiting ; the buds as a diuretic ; and a
compound of the root with tobacco-leaves, betel nut, and
oil, is believed to form an efficacious unguent. But setting
aside its medicinal properties, it is highly valuable as an ar¬
ticle of food; for many of the poorer classes in the most po¬
pulous countries subsist on it in times of scarcity. Its seed
is recorded in Chinese history to have preserved the lives
of thousands. The Hindus eat it mixed with honey as a
delicacy, equal quantities of each being put into a hollow
joint, coated externally with clay, and thus roasted over a fire.
From the copious draught which a joint of the bamboo
naturally yields, mankind are taught its use as a vessel for
carrying water, and in some places no other bucket is em¬
ployed. The Eastern nations build their houses solely of
the wood, without any auxiliary substance : if entire, it
forms posts or columns ; split up, it serves for floors or raf¬
ters ; or interwoven in lattice-work, it is employed for the
sides of rooms, admitting light and air. The roof is some¬
times of bamboo solely, for which two species growing in
Laos, an Asiatic country, are described as specially adapted;
and when split, which is accomplished with the greatest ease,
it can be formed into laths or planks. It is employed in
shipping of all kinds ; and as houses are constructed entirely
of it, so are complete vessels framed out of it, and fitted for
sea. The hull is obtained from the stem ; and some of the
strongest plants are selected for masts of boats of moderate
size. In Bengal a boat of four or five tons may be furnished
with both mast and yard from the same bamboo, at the cost
of threepence; and the masts of larger vessels are some¬
times formed by the union of several bamboos built up and
joined together. Those of considerable dimensions are used
in the higher yards of ships of four or five hundred tons,
for which service they are well adapted by their great strength
and lightness.
The bamboo is employed in the construction of all agri¬
cultural and domestic implements ; and in all materials and
implements required in fishery, hooks and nets excepted.
In Tibet the strongest bows are made of it, by the union
of two pieces with many bands; and, in the same country
also, it is employed, as we use leaden pipes, in transmitting
water a distance of several miles to reservoirs or gardens.
The species from which these pipes are constructed is said
to grow in the mountains ; and from other light and slender
stalks the inhabitants obtain shafts for their arrows. In the
south-west of Asia there is a certain species of equally slen¬
der growth, from which writing pens or I'eeds are made.
From the extreme flexibility of this substance, and also
407
408
Bam-
borough
II
Bambouk.
BAM
its divisibility, for it splits like whalebone from top to bottom,
it can be reduced to the smallest dimensions, and bent into
every shape. It is woven into baskets, cages, hats, or va¬
rious ornamental articles. By a particular process in bruis¬
ing and steeping the wood or bark, a paste is procured that
is made into paper. In short, from its very origin until its
decay, it never ceases to produce something beneficial. t
has justly been observed: “ All that composes a bamboo is
profitable, of whatever species it may be. Ihe artists of
China have each made their choice, and, in the works t lej
produce, show the advantages they have derived from it.
Its uses are so numerous, so various, and so beneficial, that
it is impossible to conceive how China could now dispense
with this precious reed. It is no exaggeration to affirm, that
the mines of this vast empire are of less importance to it
than the possession of the bamboo; which, we may add, is
also the chief instrument of government.”
Some European climates might not prove noxious to the
bamboo ; but the same rapidity of vegetation, the same na¬
tural qualities, could not be expected, or only in an inferior
degree, even in the most favourable situation, and conse¬
quently its utility would be greatly diminished, (j. G. d.)
BAMBOROUGH, a village in Northumberland, on the
sea-coast, fourteen miles north of Alnwick, and once a royal
borough. Its very ancient castle stands on an almost per¬
pendicular rock close to the sea, and is accessible only on
the south-east side, on a spot where the castle or palace of
the kings of Northumberland, supposed to have been built
by King Ida, who began his reign about the year 547, is said
to have stood. The"castle and property connected with it
were vested by Lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, in tiustees,
for charitable purposes, in virtue of which a patrol is kept on
the coast, apartments are provided for shipwrecked seamen,
together with a storehouse for goods, &c. saved from wrecks;
and other apartments are used as granaries for corn, to be
sold cheap to the poor in times of scarcity. Bamborough
has an infirmary and dispensary, with a resident surgeon,
and also a large library. Pop. in 1851, 466.
BAMBOUK, a country in the interior of Western Africa,
situated between the Ba-Fing and the Faleme, the two great
upper tributaries of the Senegal. The chief characteristic
of this country is the quantity of gold with which its soil is
almost universally impregnated.
The Portuguese, it appears, penetrated early into Bam¬
bouk, and were even for some time masters of the country ;
but the inhabitants, inflamed by their oppressions, made a
general rising, and completely drove them out. The French,
when they formed their settlement on the Senegal, soon di¬
rected their eager search towards a country abounding in so
valuable a commodity ; but their efforts to penetrate into it
proved for a long time abortive. At length, in 1716, one
Compagnon succeeded, by great address, and not without
risk, in gaining the favour of some leading persons, and ob¬
taining a view of the mineral treasures of this country.
David and Levens, two successive French governors, after¬
wards contrived to effect an entrance. Sieur Brue, the most
enterprising of the governors of Senegal, laid before the
French administration a plan by which, with 1200 men, he
undertook to conquer and maintain Bambouk. Such an ex¬
pedition might very probably have been in the first instance
successful, and the French might probably, by skilful work¬
ing, have greatly increased the produce of the mines ; but
when we consider the various casualties and difficulties at¬
tendant on the occupation of this interior region, it must ap¬
pear very doubtful if this would have been in the end a pro¬
fitable possession.
Bambouk is fertile and populous along the banks of the
rivers, but many of the interior districts are arid and barren.
There is a king, but the farims or chiefs compose nearly an
independent feudal body. The population is Mandingo,
yet the Mahometan religion is professed; but the obser-
B A N
vance consists chiefly in some outward ceremonies, and the Bamiyan
marabouts or priests of that faith are carefully excluded from
the kingdom. (h. m.) i ‘
BAMIYAN, a fertile valley of Afghanistan, traversed by
the route from Kabul to Turkistan, and bounded on each
side by lofty and almost perpendicular steeps. The pass
is of importance both in a military and commercial point of
view, having less elevation and fewer difficulties than other
passes in its vicinity, and being the only one across the Hin¬
du Koh practicable for artillery or heavy carriages. Ba¬
miyan and its vicinity are celebrated for some of the most
remarkable relics of antiquity; its colossal idols, the castle
of Zohak, and the ruins of Ghulghaleh, which are scattered
over the valley. The town of Bamiyan is in Lat. 67. 50.
Long. 34. 50. (e. t.)
B AMP TON, or Bampton-in-the-Bush, a market-town
of Oxford, hundred of Bampton. It stands in a flat situation
near the banks of the Isis, 70 miles from London, and 14 from
Oxford. The church is a magnificent ancient edifice. Pop.
of town and parish in 1851, 2780. Market-day Wednesday.
Bampton, a market-town in Devonshire, hundred of
Bampton, 164 miles from London, and 21 from Exeter.
It formerly returned two members to parliament. Pop. of
town and parish in 1851, 2102. Market-day Saturday. A
great battle was fought here a.d. 614, between the West
Saxons and Britons, in which the former were defeated.
BAN, Bangs, a Slavonian word signifying lord, an an¬
cient title belonging to the wardens of the eastern marches
of Hungary, and corresponding somewhat in dignity to that
of the ancient margraves of the empire. The ban was equal
in dignity to the palatine of Hungary, and took rank next to
the king, with whom he had in his own province equal powers.
The country under his jurisdiction was called a banat. This
dignity is confined in modern times to the viceroy of Temes-
var, who is called the ban of Croatia, and holds the third
rank among the secular nobles of Hungary.
Ban or Bann (from the Saxon bannan, to proclaim,
to send forth) is a public notice or edict, whereby a thing is
commanded or forbidden. In France the word ban has ge¬
nerally been confined to the simple sense of a public pro¬
clamation. The word banns is used in England and in
Scotland in publishing matrimonial contracts ; which is done
in church before marriage, to the end that if any persons
can speak against the intention of the parties, either in re"*
spect of kindred, precontract, or other just cause, they may
take their exception before the marriage be consummated.
The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been first in¬
troduced into the Galilean church, though something like it
obtained even in the primitive times ; and it is this that
Tertullian is supposed to mean by trinundina promulgatio.
The word is also used to denote proscription or banish¬
ment for a crime proved, because anciently published by
sound of trumpet; or, as Vossius thinks, because those who
did not appear at the above-mentioned summons were pun¬
ished by proscription. Hence, u to put a prince under the
ban of the empire,” was to declare him divested of all his
dignities. In an ecclesiastical sense, in like manner, it sig¬
nifies a solemn anathema, or excommunication attended
with curses. Such was the ban of the pope.
B AN AGHER, a market-town of Ireland, King’s County,
on the river Shannon. Pop. in 1851, 1846. It is 81 miles
W.S.W. of Dublin.
BANALBUFAR, a town on the western coast of the
island of Majorca. It produces good wine. Pop. 5000.
BANANA, Musa sapientum, an herbaceous plant, a na¬
tive of the West Indies. Its fruit is produced in large clus¬
ters weighing many pounds, and forms a considerable article
of food among the better classes.
BANAT, an old province of Hungary, of which the ca¬
pital was Temesvar. It extended from the Maros on the
N. to the Danube on the S., and from Transylvania and
BAN
Banbridge Wallachia on the E. to the Theiss on the W., comprehend-
, N the present counties of Torontal, Temesh, and Kras-
uanaa sova. See HUNGARY.
^san^ BANBRIDGE, a town of Ireland, county of Down, on
the Bann, 23 miles S. W. of Belfast. It occupies the sum¬
mit of an eminence. To facilitate the access, a central car¬
riage-way 200 yards long has been cut through the main
street to a depth of 15 feet, the opposite terraces being con¬
nected by a bridge. It is a neat town, with a handsome
church, several chapels, and a new market-house ; and it
has extensive cloth and thread factories, bleachfields, and
p emical woiks. It is the principal seat of the linen trade
in the county. Pop. in 1851, including the workhouse, 3779.
BANBURY, a market and borough town in the county
of Oxford, 71 miles from London. It is well built, contain¬
ing many respectable houses; and is watered by the River
Cherwell. The corporation consists of a mayor, four aider-
men, and twelve councillors. Banbury returns a member
to parliament. It has some manufactures, but depends chiefly
on the villages around it, which send their agricultural pro¬
duce to the market, which is held on Thursday. The Ox¬
ford and Birmingham canal passes here. Pop. of borough
in 1851, 8715. b
BANCA, Banka, or Bangka, an island off the east coast
of Sumatra, and separated from it by the Strait of Banca.
It lies between Lat. 1. 30. and 3. 7. S. and Long. 105. 9.
and 106. 54. E. It varies from 8 to 20 miles in breadth,
and has an area of 3560 geographical square miles. Its mines
of tin, which were discovered in 1710, are remarkably pro¬
ductive, and in 1844 yielded no less than 70,289 peculs, or
4183 tons 18 cwt. of that metal. Iron, copper, lead, silver,
and arsenic, are also found there. The soil is generally dry
and stony, and the greater part of the island is covered with
forests, in which the logwood tree especially abounds. Its
mountains, which scarcely exceed 2000 feet in height, are
covered with vegetation to their summits. They are of
granitic formation, containing felspar, quartz, mica, and tour¬
maline. Pop. in 1840, 35,000, including 18,000 Chinese.
Muntak, the capital, has 3000 inhabitants, and a fort garri¬
soned by 200 men. There are several other forts on the
island. ^ It belongs to the Dutch.
BANCOORA, a town of Hindustan, in the presidency
of Bengal, and the chief place of the district of the same
name, is situate on the route from Calcutta to Benares, 100
mdes north-west of the former. The district of which it
forms the capital has an area of 1476 square miles, and con¬
tains a population of 480,000. It occupies a portion of the
valley of the River Damooda, in which is situate the great
carboniferous and iron-ore tract of Bengal. A branch from
the East Indian railway, diverging near the city of Burdwan,
and proceeding to Raneegunge, in the north-west angle of
the district, where the most valuable collieries are situate, is
now under construction. The town of Bancoora is distant
from Burdwan W. 60 miles. Lat. 23.14. Long. 87.6. (e. t.)
BANDA, a town in Hindustan, the principal place of a
district of the same name, situate in the territory constitut¬
ing the lieutenant-governorship of Agra. The town is
built at the base of a hill rising 300 or 400 feet above the
surrounding plain, but though of considerable size and a
iriving place, being the great mart for cotton, the houses,
with the exception of the palace of the Nawaub of Banda,
are of inferior construction. This prince is a descendant of
the former native governors of Bundlecund. He has no
hereditary dominions ; but enjoys an allowance of LAO,000
P®r ^nnuni, guaranteed to him and his heirs in perpetuity by
^itish government. The district of Banda has an area
ot 2878 square miles, and a population of 552,556. The
town is distant from Calcutta 560 miles. Lat. 25. 28. Long.
(e. t.)
BANDA ISLANDS. These islands, belonging to Hol-
and, are 130 miles to the S.E. of Amboyna, between Lat.
VOL. IV.
B A ' N 409
3.50. and 4.40. S. They are ten in number, viz. Banda Neira, Banda
Gonong Apee, Banda Lantoir, Pulo Ay or Way Pulo Islands.
Rondo or Pulo Roon, Rosyngen, Pulo Pisang, Craka, Ca- '
pella, and Sonangy.
Of these, Banda Neira is the seat of the supreme govern¬
ment. It is protected by one principal fortification, situate
on the south side of the island, and consisting of a small
square fort, with a wet ditch, and a horn-work towards the sea.
This fortification, which is called Fort Napau, forms the chief
defence of the Banda Islands. The troops are quartered,
and the public granaries are kept in this fort; but the store¬
houses for the nutmegs and mace are on the outside, as well
as the government-house. Above Fort Napau, on a neigh¬
bouring eminence, stands the castle of Belgica, an old pen¬
tagon, with round towers at the angles. It is surrounded
with a wall, secured by small bastions, but has no ditch. It
is said to have been built by the Portuguese.
Banda Lantoir or Great Banda is to the northward of
Banda Neira. It is protected by a considerable fort, called
Fort Hollandia, which also commands the harbour. At
first view the situation of this fort appears preferable to
Banda Neira for the residence of government, not only on
account of its strong and commanding situation, but be¬
cause the island is the largest as well as the richest in the
produce of spices. Its unhealthiness has been found, how¬
ever, to be a sufficient objection. The water is said to be
bad, and the vapour which sometimes descends from the vol¬
canic mountain of the neighbouring island, Gonong Apec,
is represented as particularly noxious. Such fatal effects
were produced by these causes, that when the Wirtemberg
Company formerly garrisoned the island, out of a hundred
men eight died and forty fell sick in the course of two months.
The numbers of decayed houses, also, which are seen in dif¬
ferent parts of the island, show that the experiment of a settle¬
ment has already been tried, and has not been found success¬
ful. From the sea this island appears very high; its sides are
steep, and from the top of them there is a sort of table-land,
which extends nearly from one end of the island to the other.
Gonong Apee is to the northward of Banda Neira, and
derives its name from a large volcano about 2000 feet above
the level of the sea, which constantly emits smoke, and some¬
times cinders and ashes, accompanied with a crackling noise.
On the south side of this island are two forts, originally in¬
tended to defend the west channel of Lantoir harbour; but,
owing to an eruption of the volcano in 1778, at the same
time that a dreadful hurricane laid waste the island, the lava
flowed down in such quantities as to form a considerable
promontory between these batteries and the channel they
were intended to defend, so that they are now in a great
measure useless. This island is generally unproductive, its
surface being covered with a quantity of sulphur and chalk.
There is no vegetation whatever on upwards of one third of
the eminence on which the volcano is situated.
Pulo Way is about nine miles to the westward of Gonong
Apee, and is defended by a strong fort. It is esteemed the
most healthy of the whole group, and produces abundance
of nutmegs, of a kind superior in quality to those of the other
islands. Pulo Rondo, or Pulo Roon, is about four miles
farther, in a somewhat more northerly direction. On this
island the English had a factory, from which they were ex¬
pelled by the Dutch about the period of the massacre of
Amboyna; and the island having been since abandoned, has
become a wilderness. Rosyngen is about seven miles to the
S.E. of Lantoir. It produces nutmegs, mace, yams, and
subsistence for a few cattle. The convicts of Amboyna were
formerly kept on this island, and were compelled to culti¬
vate the land for the use of the supreme government. Pulo
Pisang is about two miles N.E. from Banda Neira, and yields
some fine fruits, as well as nutmegs and mace. The other
three islands are uninhabited, being little more than barren
rocks.
3 p
410
BAN
Banda The Banda Islands were discovered in the year loll by
Oriental t]ie Portuguese, who immediately took possession ot them
_ in the name of their sovereign. About the year 1603 they
™ "j^-were expelled by the Dutch. In 1608 the English, with
' the permission of the king, built a factory-house on 1 ulo
Way, which the Dutch demolished as soon as the ship which
brought out the factors returned to England. Ihe natives
of Banda, notwithstanding the opposition of the Dutch, as¬
sisted the English in forming a new colony ; and shortly
afterwards they, along with the natives of Lantoir, made
a formal resignation of their respective islands to the new
settlers. In 1620 Pulo Boon and Pulo Way were added
to the English dominions, and these cessions were confirmed
by a treaty concluded between the English and the Dutch.
But, in defiance of this treaty, the latter determined on the
expulsion of their rivals from those islands, in the possession
of which they appeared to be gradually establishing them¬
selves. They accordingly attacked them with a strong force,
seized their factories, magazines, and shipping, and, after
stripping the factors naked, first whipped and then loaded them
with irons. Some notion may be formed of the trade, then
in its infancy, by the quantity of spices seized here, which
amounted to 23,000 lb. of mace and 150,000 lb. of nut¬
megs. In 1654 the Dutch were compelled, by the firmness
of Cromwell, to restore the island of Pulo Boon, and to make
satisfaction for the massacre af Amboyna. But the English
settlers not being adequately supported from home, were un¬
able to resist the power of their rivals, and the island was
retaken by the Dutch in 1664. They retained undisturbed
possession of their conquests in this quarter of the globe un¬
til the year 1796, when the Banda Islands, along with all
the other Dutch colonies, were conquered by the British.
They were restored by the treaty ot Amiens in the year
1800, again captured, and finally restored by the treaty of
Paris concluded in 1814.
In the space between Banda Lantoir and the islands of
Banda Neira and Gonong Apee there is a very good har¬
bour formed with entrances both from the E. and W., which
enable vessels to enter it from either of the monsoons.
These channels are well defended with several batteries,
particularly the western one, which is very narrow. Be¬
tween Gonong Apee and Banda Neira there is a third chan¬
nel into this harbour from the N., but it is navigable only
for small vessels.
The great articles of commerce in these islands are nut¬
megs and mace. The islands of Banda Neira, Banda Lan¬
toir, and Pulo Ay, are exclusively devoted to the cultivation
of the nutmeg ; and the restrictions imposed by the govern¬
ment constitute a monopoly of this produce in the hands of
the Dutch East Company. The laws and regulations gene¬
rally established are calculated to support and promote the
monopoly of these products rather than the happiness of
the people or the improvement of the country. The an¬
nual produce amounts to about 420,000 lb. of nutmegs and
140,000 lb. of mace. They are divided into large planta¬
tions, to each of which a certain number of slaves or convicts
is attached. In 1840 the population was 5081, distributed
as follows:—In Banda Neira and Gonong Apee, 1223;
Lantoir, 372 ; Pulo Ay, 148 ; Pulo Boon, 42 ; Bosyngen,
84; slaves, 2183; and convicts, 1029. See Temminck,
Linde Archipelagique.
An account of the nutmeg tree and its cultivation is given
under Myristica.
BANDA OBIENTAL. See Uruguay.
BANDALEEB, or Bandoleer (from the Dutch band,
and leer, leather), a large leathern belt thrown over the right
shoulder, and hanging under the left arm. It was worn by
the ancient musketeers for sustaining their fire-arms, and for
holding their musket charges, which, being put up in little
wooden cases coated with leather, were hung, to the number
of twelve, to each bandaleer.
Bandello.
BAN
BANDANNA, a term of Indian origin for a kind of Bandanna
calico-printing, in which white or bright-coloured spots ap¬
pear on a Turkey-red or dark ground. v
BANDELLO, Matteo, a celebrated Italian novelist,born
at Castelnuovo, near Tortona, about the year 1480. In his
youth he studied both at Borne and at Paris ; and his educa¬
tion being completed, he went to reside at Mantua. There
he remained for several years, much esteemed by Pirro
Gonzaga, who intrusted him with the education of his daugh¬
ter, the celebrated Lucrezia Gonzaga. The incidents in the
lives of the literary men who flourished in Italy during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have in many respects
a strong similarity. Like most of his literary contemporaries,
Bandello passed from one petty court to another, and was
frequently employed in political missions by the patron whom
he served at the time. At this period the small states of
Italy were divided between the French and Spanish interests.
Bandello had chiefly attached himself to those princes ot
Lombardy who favoured the French party ; and, in conse¬
quence, when the decisive battle of Pavia put the Spaniards
in possession of Milan, where Bandello at that time resided,
his paternal mansion was burned, and the property ot his
family confiscated. He fled in disguise from Milan, and after
wandering from town to town, he placed himselt under the
protection of Cesar Fregoso, a celebrated captain ot that age,
who had recently quitted the Venetian for the French ser-
With this general Bandello resided in Piedmont, till
* &    , _ - .
a truce was concluded, when he accompanied his patron to
France. After the death of Cesar he continued to live with
his widow and family at Agen, to the bishopric of which
he was raised by Francis I. in 1550, and continued to reside
in the vicinity of that town till his death, which happened
about 1562. , j jj i
During his residence at Agen, Bandello revised and added
to the novels which he had written in Italy during his youth,
and which some of his friends had recovered from the hands
of the Spanish soldiers who burned his house at Milan. His
Tales were first published at Lucca in 1554, 4to. In the
complete editions of Bandello, the work is divided into four
parts ; the first, second, and third parts containing fifty-nine
stories, and the fourth comprehending twenty-eight. The
whole are dedicated to Ippolita Sforza, though she died be-
fore their publication, because it was at her desire that the
work was originally undertaken. Besides this general dedi¬
cation, each novel is addressed to some Valoroso Signore,
or Chiarissima Signora; and in these introductions the
novelist generally explains how he came to a knowledge of
the event he is about to relate. He usually declares that
he heard it told in company, details the conversation by which
it was introduced, and pretends to report it, as far as his
memory serves, in the exact words of his authority.
Bandello is chiefly indebted for his celebrity to these no¬
vels, which belong to a class of composition that enjoyed for
many centuries the utmost popularity in Italy. 1 he tales
of the French Trouveurs, having passed into Italy towards
the close of the thirteenth century, were first imitated in the
Cento Novelle Antiche ; which also contains stories formed
from episodes in the romances of chivalry, the ancient chro¬
nicles of Italy, and jests or repartees preserved by oral tradi¬
tion. Boccaccio, whose Decameron appeared shortly after,
identified this species of composition with the history ot
Italian literature and the progress of the Italian language.
That celebrated writer was followed by Sacchetti, oer Gio¬
vanni, Centhio, and a numerous tribe of imitators, of whom
Bandello is by much the best known and most celebrated,
at least in this country. His popularity, however, has not
been so great in Italy, which may probably be attributed to
the negligence and impurity of his style ; a fau to ^ 1C
the author himself appears to have been conscious, as ie re¬
peatedly apologizes for his defects in elegance of dictum.
lo non sono Toscano, ne bene intendo la propnetd di quclla
BAN
Bandinelli. lingua ,* anzi mi confesso Lombardo. Napioni, in his eulogy
of Bandello, confesses that he is not remarkable for that har¬
mony of periods, and delightful naivete of expression, for
which Boccaccio and others of his predecessors were so dis¬
tinguished ; but he adds, that none of the Italian novelists
is so interesting for the development and illustration of mi¬
nute historical facts, which would in vain be sought for in
the histories of the revolutions of the Italian states. Some
of the novels of Bandello, however, it must be admitted, are
little edifying ; and it is curious that one of his stories, which
is perhaps the most obscene in the whole series of Italian
novels, should be declared, in the introduction, to have been
related by the celebrated Navagero to the Princess of Mantua
and Duchess of Urbino. Besides, notwithstanding the re¬
peated assertions of Bandello, that all his stories have some
foundation in fact, and the light which his eulogists suppose
that they throw on the history of the Italian republics, it
cannot be denied that the greater proportion of them are de¬
rived from the Fabliaux of the French Trouveurs, and the
works of preceding Italian novelists, with an alteration of the
names, and some slight variations in the incidents. But
while Bandello has thus copied largely from preceding fablers,
none of their works has suggested more to others, or is more
curious for illustrating the genealogy of fiction, and the
transmission of fabulous incident from the novelist to the dra¬
matic poet. Many of the tales of Bandello were translated
by Belleforest in his Histoires Tragiques, whence they found
their way into Paynter’s Palace of Pleasure, and other works
of a similar description which appeared in England during
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In this manner they fur¬
nished the plots of many tragedies and comedies to the most
numerous and noble race of the English dramatic poets.
That part of Shakspeare’s Much Ado about Nothing which
relates to Don John, Claudio, and Hero, is taken, with little
variation in the incidents, from the twenty-second tale of the
first part of Bandello ; The Twelfth Night is borrowed from
the thirty-sixth of the second part; and his Romeo and
Juliet is derived from the same source (vol. ii. novel ix.).
Massinger has been indebted for his Picture, which is, per¬
haps, the most agreeable and fanciful of his dramas, to the
twenty-first of the first part; while Beaumont and Fletcher
have derived from the same source their comedy of the Maid
in the Mill, and the Triumph of Death, which is the third
of their “ Four Plays in One.” The thirty-fifth of the second
part of Bandello is the same story as the plot of Horace
Walpole’s Mysterious Mother, and the thirtieth tale of the
Queen of Navarre. As the works of Bandello and the Queen
of Navarre were printed nearly at the same period, it is not
probable that they copied from each other ; and it may be
presumed, that some current tradition furnished both with
the horrible incident they relate. Mr Walpole, however,
disclaims having had any knowledge of the tale of the Queen
of Navarre or Bandello at the time he wrote this drama. Its
plot, he says, was suggested by a story he heard when very
young, of a lady, who, under uncommon agonies of mind,
had waited on Archbishop Tillotson, and besought his coun¬
sel in what manner she should act under the fatal circum¬
stances that had occurred.
Besides his Tales, Bandello is author of a poem in eleven
cantos, which was his first work, and is now very scarce,
entitled Delle Lodi della Signora Lucrezia Gonzaga, printed
at Agen, 1545, in 8vo. He also wrote a complimentary poem,
in three cantos, on the birth of a son of his patron, Cesar
Fregoso Both these productions are written without taste
or spirit •, but it is said that some good verses, composed by
Bandello, on different subjects, are still preserved in manu¬
script in the library of the Academy of Turin, (j. C. d.)
BANDINELLI, Baccio, a celebrated Florentine sculp¬
tor, born in 1487 His father was an eminent goldsmith,
distinguished by his exquisite designs in chasing of gold and
silver ornaments; and in this domestic school, Baccio, or
BAN 411
Bartolommeo, obtained the first elements of drawing. Show- Bandini
ing a strong inclination for the fine arts, he was early placed II
under Francesco Rastui, a sculptor, and he made rapid pro- Bandon-
gress. He was the fellow student of Buonarotti in the gar-
den of the Medici at Florence. As an artist, Bandinelli was
very eminent; but his bad temper and arrogance made him
hateful to his contemporaries, who have not in general done
justice to his merit. He executed many works in marble
and in bronze, of much grandeur. His best works are the
marble colossal group of Hercules and Cacus in the Piazza
del Gran Duco ; his group of Adam and Eve ; his exqui¬
site bassi-rilievi in the choir of the cathedral of Florence ;
and the figures of Christ and Nicodemus on his own tomb.
Bandinelli shows himself in these works an admirable mas¬
ter of design, and exhibits great skill in human anatomy,
and in the cast of his draperies. He died at Florence in
1559. (t. s.t.)
BANDINI, Angelo Maria, a learned Italian, was born
at Florence on the 25th of September 1726. Having been
left an orphan in his infancy, he was supported by his uncle,
Joseph Bandini, a lawyer of some note. He received his
education among the Jesuits, and discovered an early pas¬
sion for the study of antiquities. A desire which he also
manifested to distinguish himself as a poet was fortunately
checked by the ill success of his first attempt; and, from
that period, he devoted himself principally to literary his¬
tory and archaeological science. The celebrated Dr Lami,
with whom he had the good fortune to contract a friend¬
ship, assisted him with his counsels, and encouraged him to
persevere in that path to which his genius seems to have
directed him.
In the year 1747 Bandini undertook a journey to Vienna,
in company with the bishop of Volterra, to whom he acted
in the capacity of secretary. He was introduced to the
emperor, and took the opportunity of dedicating to that mon¬
arch his Specimen Litteraturce Florentine, which was then
printing at Florence. In the following year he returned by
the way of Venice, Padua, Ferrara, and Bologna, and united
himself in friendship with the learned men in all these cities.
Having resided some time at Florence, he repaired to Rome,
and entered into orders, passing the whole of his time in the
library of the Vatican, and in those of the Cardinals Pas-
sionei and Corsini. At that time the famous obelisk of Au¬
gustus was disinterred from the ruins of the Campus Mar-
tius. Bandini, by the order of Benedict XIV., undertook to
describe and explain this curious monument; but finding
that the air of Rome was injurious to his health, he returned
to Florence. In 1750 he was selected by Alexander Ma-
rucelli to take charge of the valuable library which his uncle
the Abbe Francis Marucelli had left, and which, according
to the will of the founder, was to be open to the public. But
he had scarcely entered upon the duties of this charge when
the proprietor died, after bequeathing all his effects to the
library, and appointing the Abbe Bandini perpetual librarian
and his testamentary executor. It required two years to
liquidate the succession and to form the complete catalogue
of this vast library, which was at length opened to the public
in the year 1752. In 1756 he was preferred by the emperor
to a prebend at Florence, and appointed principal librarian
to the Laurentian library. During forty-four years he con¬
tinued to discharge the duties of this situation, and died in
1800, generally esteemed and regretted. On his death¬
bed he founded a public school, and bequeathed the re¬
mainder of his fortune to other charitable purposes. For
a list of his numerous works, see Biographic Universelle,
tom. iii. (j. c.)
BANDITTI,from theltalian bandito,persons proscribed,
or, as we call it, outlawed, and sometimes denominated ban-
niti or toris banniti. It is also a denomination given to high¬
waymen or robbers who infest roads in troops.
BANDON, or Bandonbiudge, a town of Ireland, county
412 BAN
Bandore of Cork, situated on both sides of the River Bandon, which
li is here crossed by a bridge of six arches. It has two churches,
v Banff- ^ a ]iantlsome Roman Catholic chapel, Protestant and Metho-
dist places of worship, a convent, two market-houses, a spa¬
cious quay on the south side of the river; an infirmary,
hospital, dispensary, three public libraries, two reading-rooms,
two endowed schools, and a savings-bank. Its manufactures
of woollen and cotton goods have much declined, but a ma¬
nufacture of fine stuffs has lately sprung up ; and there are
also several distilleries, breweries, tanneries, and flour mills.
It returns a member to parliament. Pop. (1851) 7943.
By railway it is 20 miles S.W. of Cork.
BANDORE (Spanish, bandurria), the name of a
stringed musical instrument resembling a lute, invented in
the fourth year of Queen Elizabeth, by one John Rose.
BANDROL (French, banderole), a pennant, streamer, or
little flag, in the form of a guidon, longer than broad, and
usually hoisted on the masts of vessels. The term is also
applied to the little silk flag that hangs on a trumpet.
BANDUSLE FONS, a fountain in Apulia, about six miles
south of Venusia, celebrated by Horace, Carm.iii. 13. Some,
however, suppose that this fountain is the modern t onteBello,
near the poet’s SabineTarm in the valley of Licenza. In the
older editions of Horace it is called Blandusia, but in tbe
best MS. the name is written as above. (See Decouverle
de la Maison d’Horace, by the Abbe Chaupy, vol. rii.; Ob-
barius’s Horace, Jena, 1848.)
BANE, from the Saxon bana, a murderer, signifies de¬
struction or overthrow. Thus, “ I will be the bane of such
a man,” is a common saying; when a person receives a mortal
injury by anything, we say, “ it was his bane ; and he who
is the cause of another man’s death is said to be le bane,
that is, a malefactor.
BANFF, the county town of Banffshire, is a place of great
antiquity, and according to tradition, was at times the resi¬
dence of Malcolm Canmore. It was in existence at least
before the days of Malcolm IV., surnamed the Maiden, who
dates one of his charters from thence, and it is noticed as a
royalty since 1057. Writings of Malcolm, 1152, and Wil¬
liam the Lion, 1165, evince the certainty of this tradition.
There is a charter of Malcolm IV. signed at Banff the
eleventh year of his reign, which con-esponds with 1163.
The town” lost many of its ancient grants, but these were
renewed in 1324 by King Robert the Bruce, and by Robert
II. in 1372.
The natural situation of the town is beautiful, having its
south-eastern exposure on a gentle slope, the wide blue sea
on its N., the river Deveron on the E., and on the S. the richly
wooded country with the magnificent mansion and grounds
of the Earl of Fife. The streets are well and regularly built
and paved, and are remarkable for their cleanliness.
The principal buildings are Banff Castle, a plain modern
building, belonging to the Earl of Seafield ; the town-house,
a handsome edifice surmounted by a spire 100 feet high;
a prison; parish church, Episcopal church and parsonage,
Free church, United Presbyterian, Independent, Methodist,
and Roman Catholic places of worship; a mason lodge of
tasteful architecture; the academy, a modei’n edifice of Grecian
design, capable of containing 400 students, to which there
is attached an extensive museum ; and a large and well-con¬
ducted seminary for young ladies. There are also several
libraries and reading-rooms, five branch banks, and a savings-
bank, public baths and hotels, custom-house, gas and water
works, &c. A well-conducted newspaper, with an extensive
circulation, is published weekly. At one period, Banff car¬
ried on a considerable manufactory of stockings and linen
yarn, but at present there are none of any kind. It may be
hoped, however, that the advantage of a commodious har¬
bour, and the prospect of railway conveyance by the North
of Scotland line, will ere long stimulate enterprise in this di¬
rection.
BAN
The principal exports are grain, cattle, salmon, herrings, Banffshire,
haddocks, pork, butter, and potatoes. For the year ending
5th January 1853 the customs revenue of the port was
I..2595. At the same date there were 144 vessels, with an
aggregate of 12,689 tons, belonging to the port.
The salmon fishery extends for miles along the coast, a
portion of which belongs to the town. The river fishing is
the property of the Earl of Fife, with the sea-line towards
Macduff'. The latter town is about a mile to the east of
Banff, with which it has communication by a stone bridge of
seven arches across the Deveron.
These is also a seal and whale fishing company, with its
establishment; and the steamers plying between Aberdeen,
Leith, and Inverness, call regularly.
The burgh is under the jurisdiction of a provost, three
bailies, and five councillors, who manage all the town’s af¬
fairs. Mr Alexander Cassie of London, a native of Banff,
some thirty years ago left to the poor of this town about
L.20,000, the interest of which is divided twice a-year among
the poor.
Banff unites with Elgin, Cullen, Inverury, Kintore, and
Peterhead, in sending a member to parliament. Pop. within
the parliamentary boundaries in 1851,6000; within the
municipality, 3557.
The weekly market-day is Friday, on which day a corn
market is held; and there are four annual fairs.
BANFFSHIRE, a maritime county in the N.E. of Scot¬
land, lying between Lat. 57. 6. and 57- 42. N., and Long.
2. 15. and 3. 40. N.; and bounded on the N. by the Moray
Firth, E. and S. by Aberdeenshire, and W. by Morayshire
and part of Inverness-shire. It has an area of 686 square
miles, or 439,219 statute acres; its extent from N. to S.
being 50 miles, and from E. to W. 32 miles; its average
breadth not exceeding 12 miles. It contains 21 parishes,
and parts of 10 others ; has two royal and parliamentary
burghs, Banff and Cullen; two burghs of barony, Macduff
and Corncairn, in the parish of Ordiquhill; and five har¬
bours, Banff, Cullen, Macduff, Portsoy, and Portgordon.
The parliamentary burghs are contributory to Elgin, but
the county returns a member to parliament. The parlia¬
mentary constituency in 1852 was 851. The parochial
schoolmasters, with those of the counties of Aberdeen and
Moray, share in Dick’s bequest.
The surface of Banffshire presents a very diversified
aspect. The lower district, which is divided from the upper
by a chain of hills, is a fine open country, of a rich, deep, and
highly-cultivated soil, agreeably diversified with gentle risings
and young plantations. The upper district is mountainous,
and at a distance wears a bleak forbidding appearance. But
the scene changes on a nearer approach. Extensive farms
are found embosomed in its fertile and well-cultivated glens.
Some of the mountains are covered with trees in full luxu¬
riance of growth; some presenting a beautiful intermixture of
rock and copses, while others are covered with brown heath.
The Spey flows along its western, and the Deveron along
its eastern boundary ; and both yield a considerable revenue
from their salmon fishings. The principal mountains of
Banffshire are Belrinnes, Knockhill, and Cairngorm, the last
of which attains an elevation of 4095 feet above the level
of the sea. In the lower part of the country, towards the
coast, there are several elegant mansions, of which the most
conspicuous are Duff House, Cullen House, Park House,
Forglen House, and Gordon Castle. These, and a number
of gentlemen’s seats in the interior, are surrounded by ex¬
tensive ornamental plantations, very tastefully laid out.
The natural woods are inconsiderable both in extent and
value.
The southern boundary of the county is mountainous,
and is chiefly composed of gneiss and mica slate, through
which granite and syenite often protrude. The granite to the
eastward of Portsoy has very little mica in its composition }
BANFF
Banffshire, the quartz assumes that letter-like form in the felspar, from
which it has been termed graphic granite. Quartz rock
appears, in the hill near Portsoy, to exist in beds, on which
reposes a bed of most beautifully varied serpentine. In de¬
scending towards the coast, the primary rocks give place to
gray wacke-slate, which occasionally contains beds of the lime¬
stone peculiar to this formation ; and these rocks are covered
by the old red sandstone, which sometimes passes into quartz
rock. In the graywacke near Keith, a vein of sulphuret of
antimony occurs, associated with fluor spar. The bold and
precipitous Troup Head, and several other parts of the coast,
consist of a graywacke formation. Near Gamrie, in a bed
of a bluish marly clay, are imbedded nodules of a fibrous
limestone, which frequently contains fine specimens of ich-
thyolites or fossil fishes; of these the most remarkable spe¬
cies are Cheirolepis uragus, Cheirocanthns Murchisoni, and
Osteolepis arenatus. The clay is, near the farm of Findon,
about 40 feet deep, in the bottom of a ravine, the sides of
which consist of old red sandstone. It extends over a con¬
siderable district; and to the westward of Banff affords many
organic remains. Cudbear, or archil, a lichen used as a dye,
is found growing in rocky situations.
The agriculture of Banffshire is conducted upon the
newest and most approved principles. The soil, though
varying even in adjacent fields, is in general rich and pro¬
ductive, yielding heavy crops of wheat, barley, oats, and
other grain ; and the grass and green crops are equally
abundant. About 124,000 acres are under cultivation. The
extent of the farms is in general from 150 to 200 arable
acres, independently of moorland and pasture-grounds.
The duration of leases is nineteen years ; although there are
some individuals who possess on liferent, and a few leases
are held for a longer term. The whole of the farms, even
the smallest pendicles, are under regular rotations of cropping,
generally a five or seven course shift. The fields are well
laid out and subdivided, and properly cleaned and manured ;
for which last purpose large quantities of lime, bone-dust,
and guano, are annually imported. The ridges are all straight;
and the fields, at least many of them, are inclosed with stone
dykes or other fences. The swamps and wet grounds have
also been drained and cultivated, so as to effect a total re¬
volution in the ancient modes of agriculture within the
county. The cattle and stock of every description are of
the finest breeds which can be procured, and are sought
after by the dealers at home, as well as conveyed to Lon¬
don, where they bring the highest prices.
This district was much indebted to one of the earls of
Findlater, who, as early as the year 1754, not only intro¬
duced and exemplified on some of his own farms the most
approved practices then known in England, but held out
liberal encouragement to his tenants to follow his example ;
and his descendant, the late Earl of Seafield, did much to
improve the family estates, adding to them many thousands
of acres of arable land ; and with truth it may be said that
he was the greatest planter of trees in Great Britain within
the present century. In 1846 this nobleman received
the honorary gold medal of the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland, for his vast and thriving plantations of
useful timber trees, in the counties of Banff, Moray, and
Nairn. From the year 1811 to 1845, he had planted
18,938,234 Scotch firs; 11,904,798 larches; 843,450 hard
woods; making the enormous aggregate of 31,686,472 forest
trees, planted in 8223 acres of inclosed ground.
This county also owes much to the present Earl of Fife,
by whose generous efforts, and taste for improvement, a vast
amount has been done in planting and reclaiming land by
favourable leases to the tenantry, and allowances for drain¬
ing, &c. Green crop cultivation did not become general
till after the commencement of the late war with France.
Latterly, improvement has been promoted by agricultural
associations, the annual premiums held out for the best spe-
SHIRE. 413
cimens of live stock, and the best productions of the soil. Bang
The Banffshire Agricultural Association, which numbers 11
about 200 members, has two shows yearly, for all sorts of Bangkok-
stock and produce and agricultural implements, with pre-
miums for superiority in breed of cattle, poultry, &c. The
valued rental of the county is now upwards of L.l50,000
sterling.
The manufactures of Banffshire are very unimportant,
the inhabitants being principally engaged in agriculture
and the rearing of cattle. The salmon fishery is actively
prosecuted on the rivers, and the herring and other fisheries
on the coast. Distilling is largely carried on in Glenlivet
and other places.
Banffshire was the scene of many bloody conflicts between
the Scots and their Danish invaders, but details of these en¬
counters belong more properly to the history of Scotland.
From 1624 to 1645 it was the theatre of almost incessant
struggles. The Covenanting troubles of that period, com¬
bined with the frequent conflicts of the clans, were pro¬
ductive of serious evils. Several remains of antiquity are
pointed out in different parts of the country. Of these the
churches of Mortlach and Gamrie are perhaps the most re¬
markable. Ruins of castles and traces of encampments are
often to be met with, and a great number of cairns and
tumuli are also found. Among the distinguished men
whom Banffshire has produced, the following may be men¬
tioned : Archbishop Sharp of St Andrews ; George Baird,
distinguished for his services as sheriff of the county during
the time of the Covenanters ; Thomas Ruddiman the gram¬
marian ; Walter Goodall, the defender of Mary Queen of
Scots; and James Ferguson the astronomer. The popu¬
lation of the county in 1841 and in 1851, was as follows—
the apparent decrease of the number of houses in 1851
arising from stories let to different families being frequently
reckoned houses in the census of 1841:—■
Houses.
Persons.
Inhabited. Uninhab. Building.
1841 11,149 474 82
1851 10,662 377 62
Male. Female. Total.
23,249 26,430 49,679
25,575 28,596 54,171
BANG, or Banga, the leaf of a kind of hemp or cannabis,
which is used in India and in Egypt as a narcotic.
BANGALORE, a fortified town of Hindustan, in the
Rajah of Mysore’s territories, and a place of considerable
importance during the Mussulman dynasty of Hyder Ali
and his son Tippoo Sultan. In 1791 it was stormed by a force
under Lord Cornwallis. Subsequently the fort, which had
been constructed by Hyder in the best fashion of Mahome¬
tan architecture, wras destroyed by his son Tippoo, upon
finding that it was incapable of effectually resisting an as¬
sault of the British army. It was afterwards repaired in
1802. The gardens here made by Hyder and Tippoo are
extensive; and owing to the elevation of the ground, the
town being by observation 2901 feet above the level of the
sea, European fruits and plants may be reared. During the
reign of flyder this city was populous, but was much injured
by the edicts of Tippoo prohibiting all trade with the domin¬
ions of Arcot and Hyderabad, and by his forcing the mer¬
chants to buy from him a large quantity of goods at a high
price. The town is well built, and has its bazaar and manu¬
factures of silk and cotton ; but its present importance arises
chiefly from its being the locality of the British military
establishment for the whole territory of Mysore. The dis¬
tance from Seringapatam is 71 miles; from Madras 185.
Lat. 12. 58. Long. 77. 38. (e. t.)
BANGKOK, the capital of Siam, stands on the banks
of the river Menam, about 20 miles by water from the sea.
The river is navigable to the city; but there is a bar at its
mouth, which at neap ebbs has only 6 feet water on it. The
river farther up is deep, though impeded by shoals and stock¬
ades. After the Burmese in 1760 took the capital Yuthia,
414 BAN
Bangor the country was in a state of anarchy until a merchant of
II Chinese extraction put himself at the head of affairs, and
ma^e Bangkok his capital. The town extends for two
miles and a half, chiefly on the east side of the river. It
^v~,*~ contains many well-built Buddhist temples, which, with
their gilded pinnacles and ornamented roofs, have a good
effect. On the left bank of the river are rows of floating
houses. The river is nearly a quarter of a mile wide at the
city. The population is believed to be from 100,000 to
150,000. The country is intersected with canals, so that
the inhabitants live much on the water, especially during
the annual inundations. A considerable trade is carried
on with China. Except the temples and the royal palace,
all the houses are of wood. Lat. 13. 58. N. Long. 100.
34. E.
BANGOR, a parliamentary borough and market town
of Caernarvonshire, North Wales, nine miles N.E. of Caer¬
narvon, to which it is a contributory borough. It consists
mainly of one narrow crooked street of nearly a mile in
length, stretching N.E. and S.W. through a romantic valley
between two ridges of x'ock. It stands near the northern
entrance of the Menai Strait, and the beauty of its scenery
attracts many visitors, whose numbers have greatly increased
since the completion of the Chester and Holyhead Railway
and the Britannia tubular bridge. The principal buildings
are the cathedral, Episcopal palace, deanery-house, Roman
Catholic chapel, several dissenting meeting-houses, free
school, union poorhouse, infirmary, market-house, assem¬
bly-rooms, temperance-hall, three banks, and railw ay-station.
The cathedral is an embattled cruciform structure, with a low
massive tower crowned with pinnacles. It occupies the site of
a more ancient edifice, originally founded about 525, but de¬
stroyed by the Anglo-Normans in 1071. It was afterwards
rebuilt, but suffered severely in the wars between the Welsh
and Henry III.; and in 1402 it was burned down during
the ravages of Owen Glyndwr. For more than ninety years
it remained in ruins. The choir was rebuilt by Bishop Dean
in the time of Henry VII., and the tower and nave were
added by Bishop Skeffington in 1532. The principal trade
of Bangor consists in the export of slates, which are raised
in the quarries six miles distant, and conveyed by a rail¬
way to Port Penrhyn, at the mouth of the River Cegid, a little
to the east of the town. This port is accessible for vessels of
from 200 to 300 tons at all states of the tide, and has a quay
upwards of 300 yards in length. Pop. of burgh in 1851,
6338.
Bangok, a seaport and market town of Ireland, county
Down, on the south side of Belfast Lough, 12 miles E.N.E.
of Belfast. Pop. in 1851, 2850. It carries on a consider¬
able cotton and linen trade, and a fishery; and has a savings-
bank, market-house, a parish church, several chapels, and a
public library. It is frequented as a bathing-place. Re¬
mains of an ancient abbey, said to have been destroyed by
the Danes in 820, are still to be seen.
Bangor, a seaport town in the state of Maine, North
America, capital of the county of Penobscot, on the river
of that name, 60 miles from the sea. Lat. 44. 47. 50. N.
Long. 68. 47. W. The harbour is spacious, and affords an¬
chorage for the largest vessels at high tide. The chief
article of trade is timber. There are several good schools
and a theological seminary here, and numerous churches of
various denominations. Pop. 14,432.
There is another small town of this name in the state of
New York, county of Franklin, 152 miles N.N.W. of Al¬
bany. Pop. 2160.
Bangor-ys-coed, a village of North Wales, in a de¬
tached portion of Flintshire, on the Dee. Pop. 554. It
was the site of one of the largest monasteries in Britain,
founded before the year 180, and said to have contained in
596 no fewer than 2400 monks. Ethelfrid, king of North¬
umbria, in the beginning of the seventh century, massacred
BAN
1200 of these ecclesiastics, and destroyed their monastery. Bangorian
No traces of it are visible. Contro
BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY. See Hoadly. versy
BANG-PA-SOE, a fortified seaport town of Siam, situ- BaJ]ster
ated on the left bank of the Bang-pa-Kung river, near its i ^nis^r'y
mouth, 39 miles E.S.E. of Bangkok. Lat. 13. 30. N. Long.
101. 11. E.
B ANGLEY, an island in the Eastern Seas, lying off the
north coast of Borneo. The shores abound with turtle. It is
about 23 miles in length by 11 in breadth. Long. 117. 6.
E. Lat. 7. 9. N.
B ANIAK, an island in the Eastern Seas, off the west coast
of Sumatra. It is one of a cluster of islands of the same
name, and is about 17 miles in length by 7 in average
breadth. The sea-slug, or biche-de-mer, is obtained here.
Long. 96. 48. E. Lat. 2. 10. N.
BANIAN, a word used in the East to denote a Gentoo
servant employed as an agent in commerce. The word is
derived from the Sanscrit banij or banik, i. e. a merchant
or trader. There is no authority for regarding the Banians
as a distinct sect or caste among the inhabitants of India.
Banian Tree (Ficus religiosa, or Ficus Indicd) is a native
of several parts of the East Indies. It has a woody stem,
branching to a great height and vast extent, with heart-
shaped entire leaves terminating in acute points. Some of
these trees are of amazing size and extent, as they are con¬
tinually increasing, and, contrary to most other things in
animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from decay.
Every branch from the main body throws out its own roots,
at first in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground;
but these continually grow thicker until they reach the sur¬
face, when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and be¬
come parent trees, shooting out new branches from the top,
which again in time suspend their roots, and these, swelling
into trunks, produce other branches; thus continuing in a
state of progression as long as the earth, the parent of them
all, contributes her sustenance. On the banks of the Ner-
budda stands a celebrated tree of this kind, which once
covered an area so immense, that it has been known, in the
march of an army, to shelter no fewer than 7000 men be¬
neath its shade. Though now much reduced in size by the
destructive power of the floods, the remainder is still near
2000 feet in circumference, measured round the principal
stems, and exclusive of the spread of the branches. The
Hindus have a great veneration for the banian tree, which,
from its long duration, its outstretching arms, and over¬
shadowing beneficence, they look upon as an emblem of the
Deity. Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are
generally erected; under their shade the Brahmins spend
their lives in religious solitude ; and the natives of all castes
and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool recesses, beau¬
tiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy,
impervious even to the direct rays of a tropical sun.
BANIAS, a town of Palestine, in the Anti-Libanus or
Mount Hermon. The sources of the Jordan are about
four miles N.E. of the town, now reduced to a village of
150 houses.
BANIER, Antoine, member of the Academy of Inscrip¬
tions and Belles-lettres, an ecclesiastic of the diocese of
Clermont in Auvergne, was born in 1673. He is princi¬
pally celebrated for his translation of the Metamorphoses of
Ovid, with historical remarks and explanations ; which was
published in 1732 at Amsterdam, in folio, finely ornamented
with copperplates by Picart, and reprinted at Paris in 1738,
in 2 vols. 4to ; and for his Mythology, or Fables of the An¬
cients explained by History, which was translated into Eng¬
lish, and printed at London in 1741, in 4 vols. 8vo. He died
at Paris in November 1741.
BANISTER, John, a physician and surgeon in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, was educated at Oxford. In 1573 he
took the degree of bachelor of physic; and obtaining a li-
BAN
Banjar- cense from the university to practise, settled at Nottingham,
massia The time of his death is not known. His works were col¬
li lected and published in 8vo and 4to in 1633.
ruptcy BANJARMASSIN, a town and district of Borneo on
■IL j the south-eastern coast, situated on a river of the same name,
which has a shallow bar at the entrance. Lat. 3. S. Long.
114. 55. E. Many Chinese reside in this place, and carry
on a considerable trade with China, exporting pepper, cam¬
phor, gold-dust, spices, wax, rattans, edible bird-nests, and
biche-de-mer; and importing opium, piece-goods, coarse cut¬
lery, gunpowder, and fire arms. In 1703 the English esta¬
blished a factory here; but the place was found to be ex¬
tremely unhealthy, and the company’s servants were finally
attacked by the natives, whom they repulsed with great
difficulty. The settlement was afterwards abandoned. The
sultan of the district is subject to the Dutch, who established
a factory here in 1848. The coal discovered in 1846 is exten¬
sively wrought by the Dutch government.
BANK, m Political Economy, an establishment for keep¬
ing money secure, and for dealing in money by discounting
bills and otherwise. For the history of banks, see Money
and Paper-Money. That class of banks whose object is to
encourage habits of saving among labourers, called banks for
savings, is treated of under the head of Savings-Banks.
BANKER, a person who traffics and negotiates in mo¬
ney. The ancient bankers were called argentarii and
nummularii ; by the Greeks, rpaTre^trat, KoXXvfSiaTaL, and
apyvpa[j.oil3oL. Their chief business was to pul out the
money of private persons to interest. They had their boards
and benches for this purpose in all the markets and public
places, where they took in the money from some in order
to lend it to others.
BANKING, the science of a banker or dealer in money.
See Money and Paper-Money.
Banking also denotes that branch of civil engineering
which relates to the formation of banks to oppose the force
of rivers, the sea, &c. See Embankment.
BANKRUPTCY, in its practical acceptation, means the
arrangement by which the property of an insolvent trader
or speculator is realized and distributed among his creditors
according to an equitable adjustment of their claims. The
term bankrupt has been derived through the Norman phra¬
seology of English law, from the old French banqueroute,
a word of disputed etymological origin. The term, in its
earlier acceptation, involved an accusation; and the bank¬
rupt of the old law was, according to Blackstone, “ a trader
who secrets himself, or does certain other acts tending to de¬
fraud his creditors.” The inculpatory attribute is still re¬
tained in the law of France, where the banqueroutier, by
coming within the penal law, is distinguished from the failli,
or the tradesman who has become insolvent without fraud or
other penal culpability.
It has been a characteristic of the laws of rude times to
endeavour to trammel the extent to which legal engage¬
ments may be incurred—as, for instance, by usury laws pro¬
hibiting loans at the current or market interest of the day;
while, on the other hand, they have been found to place
tyrannical and exterminating remedies in the hands of cre¬
ditors for enforcing such obligations as the law ordained. It
seemed to be considered that there was no choice but to let
the creditor exercise his will—were it to the extent of slavery
or a cruel death—against the debtor unable to fulfil that
obligation which the law acknowledged, and the remedies
against the insolvent debtor in the twelve tables became
proverbial for their sanguinary ferocity. The manner in
which the conflicts between debtor and creditor in republi¬
can Rome shook the state is well known to all readers of
history. It was not until the ascendancy of Julius Caesar
that a distinction is said to have been drawn between fraud
and calamity, so that the debtor was released from liability
to indiscriminate cruelties if he gave up all his property to
BAN
415
those who had claims against him. It is usual, at all events,
to attribute to the Lex Julia the origin of the ccssio bono-
rum, or yielding up of goods—an expression still in practi¬
cal use, and employed in Scotland and other countries which
have inherited the civil law.
With the rise of trade in the sixteenth century a material
distinction came to be established between commercial and
ordinary debtors. Perhaps the distinction, which we shall
presently see to have its own peculiar justification, arose in
England; and arose there not from any philosophical dis¬
tinction being taken between the position of the commercial
speculator and that of the ordinary debtor, but from that
dislike of the civil law which made Westminster Hall reject
the Roman cessio, and continue to discard it both in name
and principle until the year 1826, when the first insolvent
debtors’ act was passed.
Nearly three centuries earlier, however, the principle of
a general distribution of the debtor’s goods had been at least
approached as a remedy for the difficulties of mercantile
men. The long line of English bankrupt statutes traces its
parliamentary genealogy back to the year 1542, when an act
was passed nominally intended not so much to establish a
general system of realization and distribution of the property
of insolvent traders, as to check certain characteristic frauds
which traders were deemed to enjoy peculiar facilities for
perpetrating. Thus the act (34th and 35th Hen. VIII. cap.
4) founds its remedial provisions on the preamble, “ Whereas
divers and sundry persons, craftily obtaining into their
hands great substance of other men’s goods, do suddenly
flee to parts unknown, or keep their houses, not minding to
pay or restore to any of their creditors their debts and duties,
but at their own wills and pleasures consume the substance
obtained by credit of other men, for their own pleasure and
delicate living, against all reason, equity, and good con¬
science.” Though thus directed, however, as a remedy for
fraud, the statute set the precedent of a general distribu¬
tion, which was more distinctly organized and assigned as
an exceptional remedy against the trading classes by the act
of 1570.
Bank¬
ruptcy.
This being a mere remedy against frauds supposed to be
peculiar to the trading class, the law of bankruptcy gradually
resolved itself into a system for the speedy distribution of
the effects of the insolvent trader among his creditors. While
it thus changed its character from a species of penal correc¬
tion and preservative against fraud, to an adjustment equally
merciful to the harassed insolvent and equitable to the per¬
plexed and discontented creditors, it retained its original
peculiarity as a system applicable solely to tradesmen, and,
like many other legal peculiarities which have had a for¬
tuitous origin, this specialty has been preserved for efficient
reasons.
It might appear at first that, if it be right, in the case of a
tradesman in difficulties, to distribute his available effects,
and enable him with his obligations discharged to start on a
new race for success, it is just that all other classes of debtors
should have the same privilege. It has not been usual,
however, to make the privilege universal; and the following
reasons may be set forth against its being so.
The true purpose of a bankrupt law is not only to release
the insolvent debtor from persecuting creditors, to realize his
available funds at once, and to distribute them according to
an equitable adjustment among all claimants; but also to
discharge the bankrupt from all subsequent legal responsi¬
bility for debts contracted before his bankruptcy. When a
man is engaged in trading speculations, the justice of giving
him a discharge when he yields his whole available means
to his creditors, is founded on their having in some respects
connived with him in his speculations, and thrown them¬
selves on the chances of his general success. Wherever the
element of credit has been admitted into trade—and there
is seldom extensive trade without it—the liability of each
416 ' ' B A N K R
Bank- associate in the circle of transactions must more or less de-
ruptcy. pend on that of the others. The importer grants his bill to
the producer, trusting to be able to meet it from the price
of the imported commodities, and the producer who takes
his bill becomes a sharer in the chances. The importer, in
his turn, takes the warehouseman’s bill on a similar expec¬
tation ; and he in his turn receives as payment the bill of
the retailer, who, knowing that he has a market for the
goods, believes that he will be able to retire the bill. If,
from any accidental break in the circle of credit from the
loss of a vessel, a fire, or even the failure of a trusted debtor
—some one in the circle should be unable to pay his obli¬
gations, it would be cruel to leave him all his days at the
mercy of every greedy or malignant man who may have had
a claim against him. Thus the lawr of bankruptcy, after a
debtor has fairly surrendered his available estate for distri¬
bution among his creditors, permits him to be discharged as
if he had paid them all in full.
But, in the genei'al case, the private debtor who pur¬
chases for consumption or possession, not to sell again, holds
himself out as possessed of means to meet the obligation so
incurred. At all events, he does not depend on the success
of his trading with the commodity purchased by him.
Hence his creditor is not a participator in a speculation, and
neither directly nor indirectly looks to the debtor’s chances
of success for payment. In the general case, when such a
debtor finds himself unable to pay his debts, his difficulties
arise from wilful extravagance, or careless miscalculation ;
and excepting, perhaps, the too great credulity of creditors,
he has no one’s conduct to blame but his own. The huma¬
nity of the later English law provides for the immediate re¬
lief from execution against person or property of all persons
who become embarrassed without fraud or excessive reck¬
lessness. But there is this general distinction,—and it has
been the object of the preceding remarks to make it the more
emphatically distinct,—that such debtors do not obtain their
discharge from all obligations, which is the closing scene of
a mercantile bankruptcy. If debtors not connected with
trade could thus effect, when plunged into the lowest depths
of insolvency, a complete release from all their obligations,
we would have the spendthrift passing through the ordeal
before the opening of his succession to an estate, and laugh¬
ing at the creditors, of whom he is as much as ever he was
morally, though he may not be legally, the debtor.
The defect of the English system, undoubtedly, was to
make the distinction too broad, and, while a code of bank¬
ruptcy had been gradually reared up for the distribution of
traders’ estates, to leave the ordinary class of debtors to the
mercy of their creditors until the jails, becoming choked,
were from time to time emptied by those legal protests
against the inhumanity of the law, the acts for the relief of
-insolvent debtors. A permanent measure for dealing with
insolvents not in trade was at last adopted, and an account
of it will be found under the head of insolvency. It is
chiefly of importance here from its preserving the principle,
that the debtor not in trade, however he may be protected
from execution, is not to be relieved from his obligations,
should he afterwards obtain property which might be ap¬
plied to them. The commissioners appointed to inquire
into the state of the law of bankruptcy and insolvency, who
reported in 1840, said—
“ The immediate object of the bankrupt law is the equal
distribution of the effects of traders who cannot meet their
engagements—its ordinary consequence, the release of such
traders from all future liability of their persons and after ac¬
quired property.
“ The object of the law for the relief of insolvent debtors
is the personal discharge of honest debtors, prolonged im¬
prisonment by way of punishment for the dishonest and
fraudulent, and a fair distribution of their present effects, and
future acquired property, among their creditors.”
U P T C Y.
The availability of the future acquired property is thus Bank-
the peculiar responsibility from which the trader is exempt. ruPtcy-
Perhaps the line is sometimes arbitrarily drawn, excluding
some who ought to be included in the class, entitled at once
to clear themselves of responsibility for past debts. That the
definitions of the bankrupt acts have never cut clean, has
been shown by the crowds of persons who have been ad¬
mitted within the definitions of trading persons contained
in them, without having been intentionally or definitely in¬
cluded. Still the existence of a distinction between dis¬
chargeable and undischargeable insolvents is fundamental
to the bankruptcy system of the great trading nations, al¬
though there is probably a tendency to modify the difference
between them. Thus in England, the measure of 1844,
called “ An Act for facilitating arrangements between
Debtors and Creditors” (7th and 8th Viet. cap. 70), provides
for the discharge of insolvents, though not in trade, if they
have a certain amount of concurrence from their creditors.
The insolvent must have the concurrence of a third of his
creditors (calculated both by number and value) to the initial
steps ; and to conduct his discharge he must not only have
certain proportional consents at a preliminary meeting, but
at the conclusive meeting must have the votes of three-fifths
in number and value, or of nine-tenths in value, or of nine-
tenths of those whose debts exceed L.20. In the general
bankruptcy act passed by congress in 1841 for the United
States, there was a large extension of the old privileges of
bankruptcy to classes of persons not in trade; and it has
been stated that this was the main reason for the repeal of
the act in 1843, which left the United States without any
general system of bankruptcy law.
The classes of persons subject to the bankrupt law in
England have been enlarged from time to time by succes¬
sive statutes. The conditions of circumstances called “acts
of bankruptcy,” which bring a trader within the operation of
the law, have also been more fully defined from time to time.
Some standard definitions have, however, been always relU
giously preserved from the old acts, because they possess not
only their natural meaning as English sentences, but carry
with them the whole substantive law of a long series of de¬
cisions, fixing their application to practical life and business.
Hence, these definitions are ever terse and distinct, enabling
one section of the bankrupt act to contain more law than all
the others. Thus, each event is briefly described in a
series of sentences like these: “ If any such trader shall de¬
part this realm, or being out of this realm, shall remain
abroad or depart from his dwelling-house, or otherwise ab¬
sent himself, or suffer himself to be arrested for any debt
not due,” &c., has an extensive practical meaning in law; and
it is only to be regretted, that while great power and preci¬
sion are imparted to these brief definitions by the proceed¬
ings of the courts of law for more than 200 years, the defi¬
nitions, so pregnant with meaning to practical lawyers, con¬
vey little or no information to the rest of the world.
A rapid series of reforms in the English bankruptcy
law began at the conclusion of the first quarter of the pre¬
sent centurv, and it may be questioned if they are yet con¬
cluded. The act of 1825 (6th Geo. IV. cap. 16) gathered up
all the stray impi’ovements which had been for some time
scattered through the statute-book, and consolidated them
with some new and significant alterations. It contained the
fruit of Sir Samuel Romilly’s enlightened speculations, and
in furtherance of his suggestions, made provision for proving
or adjusting the claims of annuitants and persons who were
not immediate, but merely contingent creditors; both of
them classes whose admission to a claim on the estate re¬
quired the operation of the law of chances. A novelty in
the law of England was introduced by this act, from the
practice long known in Scotlandasthe “composition contract,
by which the sanction of the bankrupt law is given to an
engagement on the part of the bankrupt to pay, and on the
Bank¬
ruptcy.
B A N K R
part of his creditors, to accept in full, a certain sum as a
single and final dividend.
A great revolution both in the judicial and administrative de¬
partment of the bankrupt law was begun by Lord Brougham’s
Act of 1831 (1st and 2d Will. IV. cap. 56). One of its
main features was the establishment of a separate tribunal in
bankruptcy, and the substitution of a “fiat” instead of the old
“ commission” issuing from the Court of Chancery. Another
great feature in this measure was the appointment of “official
assignees in connection with the court of bankruptcy, who as
neutral stipendiary officers have charge of the property im¬
mediately on the bankruptcy, and see to its fair distribution
among the creditors; while the “chosen assignee” in each
estate, as the general representative of the creditors, finds it
his function to make the estate collectively large, without
reference to its division. The bankruptcy laws of England
were consolidated in 1849, in an act consisting of 278 sec¬
tions (12th and 13th Viet. cap. 106). Again there was a
change in the essential nomenclature. The “ fiat” was super¬
seded, an “ adjudication” substituted for it, and the relations
of matters in order of time, of which the fiat was the crite¬
rion, came to be considered in relation to the petition for
adjudication. Another and highly important arrangement
completes a series of changes by which judicial inquiry and
decision on the conduct of the bankrupt have gradually
superseded the arbitrary votes of the creditors for treating
him according as they might deem fitting, from the influ¬
ence of his conduct on their feelings or opinions. A public
sitting is held on the allowance of the certificate, and the
commissioner there hears creditors, giving weight to their
statements and pleadings, but not acting under their votes.
Should no creditors give opposition, there is still to be
inquiry, “ and the court having regard to the conformity
of the bankrupt to the law of bankruptcy, and to his con¬
duct as a trader before as well as after his bankruptcy, and
whether the allowance of such certificate be opposed by
any creditor or not, shall judge of any objection against
allowing such certificate, and either find the bankrupt en¬
titled thereto and allow the same, or refuse or suspend the
allowance thereof, or annex such conditions thereto as the
justice of the case may require.” The form of the certifi¬
cate is calculated for still more emphatically bringing out
this judicial determination of the bankrupt’s moral rank, by
dividing certificates into three classes, first, second, and third.
The alternatives are, “ and I farther certify that his bank-
ruptcy has arisen from unavoidable losses and misfortunes,
and that he is entitled to, and I do award him, this certificate
as of the first class; or that his bankruptcy has not wholly
arisen from unavoidable losses and misfortunes, and that he
is entitled to, and I do award him, this certificate as of the
second class ; or that his bankruptcy has not arisen from un¬
avoidable losses or misfortunes, and that he is only entitled to,
and I do only award him, this certificate as of the third class.”
This arrangement, adding to the judicial function of de¬
ciding on particular disputed points, that of fixing the charac¬
ter and position in life of the citizen, has not been long
enough in force to let its effect be fully appreciated. From
a return to the House of Lords in May 1853 of the num¬
ber of certificates granted to bankrupts since the Consolida¬
tion Act of 1849, it appears that of a total number of 1513
certificates which had then been granted, 416 were first,
{19 second, and 378 third class certificates. There is said,
however, to be much difference of opinion among the com¬
missioners as to the principle on which bankrupts should be
classified; the first-class certificate being in many of the
country districts given as a matter of course in all ordinary
cases, while in London, certificates of the third-class have
been awarded in ordinary cases, without any intention of
conveying reflection or censure.
The establishment of the court of bankruptcy consists
of two lords justices, with five London commissioners, and
VOL. iv.
U P T C Y. 417
separate district commissioners in Manchester, Liverpool, Bank-
Birmingham, Leeds, Bristol, Exeter, and Newcastle. There ruPtcy-
are ten official assignees in London, and two or more in each
district, and the court has an accountant with a staff of re¬
gistrars, clerks, and other subordinate officers.
The main objects to which the vast amount of late legis¬
lation on bankruptcy has been directed, are the instanta¬
neous adjudication and publication of the debtq^s condition
as a bankrupt at the moment when this becomes properly ne¬
cessary, the equally instantaneous or immediate transference
of all his property into impartial and responsible hands, the
effective management of the property, its conversion into
cash with the greatest practicable rapidity, the detection, ex¬
posure, and, in flagrant cases, the punishment of any at¬
tempts by the bankrupt to conceal or withdraw property, or
unduly to favour particular claimants, a rapid and impartial
distribution of the funds, and finally, the restoration of the
bankrupt to society, with a character in the commercial world
adjusted to that of his conduct towards his creditors. It is
still a matter of complaint, that if these objects be effected
it is in a very costly manner, and that the multitudinous fees
incurred sweep away the greater part of the estate in petty
bankruptcies. The adoption of official assignees appears to
have been the only measure which has met with unqualified
approbation in the commercial classes, and in a “ Paper of
Observations” laid before the House of Lords in 1853, in re¬
lation to a bill for extending the system to Scotland, the value
of a control over elected assignees or trustees is shown in
the statement, that “ these new public officers commenced
their useful career under the able superintendence of the
commissioners, by recovering, as they were empowered by
the act, very large sums of money, amounting to four millions
sterling, from the former assignees under old bankruptcies.
For two millions and a half of that sum the official assignees
found rightful owners; one million and a half nearly for which
no owners can be found remain in the bank of England in¬
vested in three per cent, consols, and yielding about L.45,000
a-year.”
The Irish bankruptcy system has been modelled on that
of England, the changes of which it has followed from time
to time. It was in the year 1771 that the system was first
extended to that country, and the Irish statute importing
it (11th and 12th Geo. III. cap. 8) is an exact repetition
of the sections of various English statutes. It has been fol¬
lowed by several successive acts, and all were consolidated in
1849 by a measure immediately following the English act in
the statute-book (12th and 13th Viet. cap. 107). There were
formerly thirty commissioners to Ireland, but in 1836 one
salaried commissioner was appointed, and another was added
soon afterwards. The old phraseology is returned to, the
lord chancellor issuing a commission, and there are two offi¬
cial assignees. The provisions for carrying out arrange¬
ments with their creditors by debtors who are not traders
according to the English act of 1844, are incorporated in
the body of the measure, and this seems to have created a
doubt whether, since they are a portion of an act strictly ap¬
plicable to traders, they can be construed to include the class
of debtors for whom they were after the example of the
English act designed (see Clements On the Law of Bank¬
ruptcy in Ireland, p. 162). In the Irish act the distinction
of certificates into three classes according to the later Eng¬
lish arrangements has not been followed.
In Scotland the bankruptcy system, with the same general
object as that of England, has a totally different machinery
and nomenclature. That arrangement for the collection
and distribution of a trader’s insolvent estate, which in Eng¬
land receives the name of bankruptcy, is there called “seques¬
tration;” and the term “bankrupt”—which, to have a proper
legal signification, has the prefix “ notour,” or notorious—is
comprehensively applied to persons, whether traders or not,
whose insolvency has been rendered distinct and public, by
3 G
* y
> i
v
418
Bank¬
ruptcy.
BAN
BAN
legal steps for the enforcement of debts having advanced
against them to a certain point—for instance, by a writ
having been issued for imprisonment, or a permament at¬
tachment having been laid on property or effects. The
earliest arrangement for something like an equitable ad¬
justment of the claims of conflicting creditors was a feature
of the judicious policy of the revolution settlement, and dates
from the year 1691. A system, however, peculiarly adapted,
like that of England, to the estates of traders, was not adopt¬
ed until the year 1772; and, as it is obviously easier to
enlarge than to contract the influence of legal nomenclature,
it was necessary to abandon the use of the word bankruptcy,
already possessed of a broader signification, and to confer on
the narrower word “ sequestration” a new and wider meaning
coextensive with the operation of the act. The sequestration
system was revised in 1814 f54th Geo. III. cap. 13/), and
again in 1839 (2d and 3d Viet. cap. 42). The act of 1839 is
the leading sequestration act, though some of its operative
clauses were altered by a third act in the year 1853 (16th and
17th Viet. cap. 53). The chief object of the amending act
was to abbreviate the procedure, so that when the arrange¬
ments are satisfactorily conducted, the payment of the first
dividend and the bankrupt’s discharge may take place in six
months from the date of the sequestration. So far as it ap¬
plies to living debtors, the sequestration, like the English
bankruptcy, attaches only the estates of traders or specu¬
lators; but, by the act of 1839, the estates of a deceased
person may be sequestrated without reference to his occu¬
pation, and the process has been frequently adopted as a
method of distributing estates liable to complicated claims.
The sequestration issues from the Court of Session,
whence it is remitted to the sheriff of the county, who to
some extent fulfils the functions of the English commis¬
sioner. The system of official assignees is unknown in Scot¬
land. The estate passes first into the hands of the “interim
factor,” and next into those of the “trustee,” who acts in the
double capacity of administrator of the property, and judge
in the first instance of the claims of the individual creditors.
The interim factor, who was formerly elected, is by the act
of 1853 judicially nominated. The trustee is still chosen
by the creditors. His election often occasions a keen con¬
test, and the reports of decisions in the Court of Session
show many instances in which such competitions are fruit¬
ful in litigation. The battle-ground of such a question is
generally on the qualification of a creditor to give the vote
which he has offered. It may be objected by the sup¬
porters of the opposing candidate, that the debt set forth is
not a sufficient qualification for the vote, or that if it may
be in itself a foundation for a vote, the statutory requisites
have not been complied with in the method of stating it.
It appears to have been the fundamental design of the sys¬
tem, that if a creditor complied with certain simple forma¬
lities and swore to his debt, he was to be admitted as a
creditor for the preliminary operation of a vote, however
baseless his debts might afterwards turn out to be in the
fuller inquiry necessary to entitle him to a dividend. Credi¬
tors were thus to be taken at their word for the privilege of
voting, provided they complied with the proper formalities.
But whatever may have been the design of the founders of
the system, the keenness of the aspirants for the office of
trustee, and the practice of the courts of law, have together
made the competitions little clusters of litigation about the
debts of all the creditors who may have voted. In the act
of 1853 the litigation is at all events limited to the inferior
courts, and there are provisions intended to render the
forms of claims less complex. A feeling has however
arisen, especially among creditors out of Scotland, that the
eagerness of these contests points to objects inconsistent
with the impartial administration of the estate, and espe¬
cially to the interests of distant creditors who cannot easily
take a part in them ; and it is maintained that such powers
as those possessed by the trustee ought not to be committed
to an officer who owes his election to the superior influence v-
or tactics of a party among the creditors.
On this and other grounds, there have lately been very
urgent demands on the part of English merchants for a fun¬
damental alteration of the Scottish sequestration law, and its
closer adaptation to the English system; and a bill to ac¬
complish this object was, at their instance, introduced by
Lord Brougham in 1853. Undoubtedly there is no branch
of the law where, on account of the universality of its in¬
fluence, international uniformity is more important, nor is
there any where it is more easily obtained, since the whole
system is statutory and administrational, and has been sub¬
ject to many changes in either end of the island. In Eng¬
land the nomenclature has been so frequently altered, that
what was formerly a “commission” was lately a “fiat,’ and
is now a “petition and adjudication,” while the same thing in
Scotland is called the “interlocutor awarding sequestration.”
There is much essential confusion in the totally different
meaning of the word bankrupt in the two countries, and
besides other nominal differences, such as that of “ assig¬
nee,” and “ trustee ;” what is termed “ proving” a debt in
England is called “ ranking” it in Scotland, and the “ certi¬
ficate” of a bankrupt is called the “discharge” in a seques¬
tration.
Almost every civilized country in the world possesses its
code of bankruptcy, directed with more or less fulness to the
objects which have been described as the aim of our own
systems. In France a new bankruptcy law was inserted
into the code of commerce in the year 1838. One funda¬
mental peculiarity of the system there has been already re¬
ferred to. The possession of a tribunal of commerce at the
head of this, as of other departments of the mercantile law, is
another peculiarity of the organization in that country. The
faillite is declared by the court on the declaration which
an insolvent stopping payment is bound to make to the re¬
gistrar, on application by creditors as in this country, or
proprio motu of the court itself. The court appoints one
of its own members judge-commissioner, to perform func¬
tions corresponding with those of the official assignee in
England. Another officer called the syndic, who is com¬
pared to the English trade assignee, is also appointed by
the court, whence all the operations in the French system
issue. The creditors collectively have no selection of offi¬
cers, but they have, as in Britain, certain powers of general
action for their common interests, as by adopting a concor¬
dat with the debtor, authorizing the business to be carried
on, and the like. The portions of the code relating to this
head have been made accessible to the English reader in a
little work called The Law of France in relation to In¬
solvency and Bankruptcy, fyc., by Richard Miller, 1853.
It has been mentioned above that a general bankruptcy
system adopted by congress for the United States in 1841
was repealed in 1843, and each state in the union has now
its own system. Bv
BANKS, John, a dramatic writer in the time of Queen
Anne, was bred to the law, and belonged to the society of
Gray’s Inn; but he early quitted the study of the law for
the service of the muses. He wrote several tragedies, which,
though evincing considerable pathetic powers, have other¬
wise no great literary merit. One of these, the Alffon
Queens, was acted, by Queen Anne’s command, in 1706.
Banks, Sir Joseph, for upwards of forty years the
distinguished president of the Royal Society of London,
was born in Argyle Street, London, on the 1 t o e
ruary 1743. He was the only son of Mr William Banks,
a gentleman of considerable landed property, w rose a iei
had derived his fortune principally from successful prac¬
tice as a phvsician in Lincolnshire, who had on one occa¬
sion been sheriff of that county, and had for some years
represented Peterborough in parliament. The family was
Banks.
ban
!t had for SCTeral w-
lTVefr'TVTfeTR PfrtIcl[1!lr1s are known respecting the early
life of Mr Banks, which was passed principally at Revesby
hall, the seat of his father, in Lincolnshire. Hif eS
tion was for some years intrusted to a private tutor. He
was afterwards sent to Harrow school, and thence was re-
moved to Christ s College, Oxford. He there made con-
siderable proficiency in classical knowledge, but evinced
at the same time a very decided predilection for the pur¬
suits of natural history Botany, in particular, was^he
favourite occupation of his leisure houk The character
of Linnaeus excited his admiration; and the fame of that
il ustnous naturalist presenting itself to his youthful mind
as the noblest object of emulation, he devoted himself
with enthusiastic ardour and perseverance to the cultiva¬
tion of that fascinating science. An anecdote is told of
his being on one occasion, so intent in exploring ditches
uded ?P.ots ln search of rare plants, as to have ex-
e;Vhe susPlclons of some countrymen, who, conceiving
that he could have no innocent design, surprised him one
day, while he lay asleep, exhausted with fatigue, and
bi ought him as a thief before a magistrate, by whom,
ed bm1^ " StnCt reStigation’ so™ hberat-
neighbourhooT OCCaS,oned much amusement in the
At the age of eighteen he lost his father, and thus suc¬
ceeded to an ample inheritance at a period of life when
the attractions of pleasure too often operate with irresist¬
ible force. His attachments to science and to intellectual
enjoyments were fortunately sufficiently powerful to ena¬
ble him to resist the fascination; and the noble bent of
his ambition was happily fostered by the judicious con¬
duct of his mother, who added the effectual motive of her
encouragement, and gave the best direction to his youth¬
ful energy. J
Soon after the death of her husband, Mrs Banks re¬
moved with her family, consisting of her son and daugh¬
ter, from Lincolnshire, and was induced to fix her resi-
ence at Chelsea, as a spot affording peculiar advantages
or the pursuit of botany, in consequence of the numerous
gardens in the vicinity, appropriated to the cultivation of
curious plants of every description. The garden of Sir
Hans Sloane, bequeathed by him to the company of apo-
thecanes of London was among the number; and this, as
well as the Chelsea Botanic Garden, and various nursery
grounds in the neighbourhood, furnished our student with
abundance of objects of research.
will! TaS ;}b°ut th!s Period that he formed an acquaintance
with Lord Sandwich, contracted while enjoying together
trrr of Which they were both equally
nnint 1^° ^ fr!en,fsblP of thls nobleman, afterwards ap-
cm,rted ft °rr °f ^ admiralty> Mr Banks was, in the
ot bl* llfe’ lndebted for essential aid in the fur-
srfpmT °; hls numerous projects for the advancement of
Sr C k"°?e?ge- .Mr Banks was no s™ner of age
AT f e fitted the university, and undertook a voyage to
exnlr rUnd find Tand tKe Labrador coast, for the purpose of
brnno-hM the JJOtaiT of tbose unfrequented regions, and
of nlf 10me from thence valuable collections, not merely
Snh,tntS’ af° °f ,insects and other natural productions,
at through the interest of Lord Sandwich, then
moot l !Cat admiralty, he obtained from govern-
areat nnt'6 t° lmbarb in the ship commanded by the
ed to nh ga a Captain C°0k’ who had been commission-
and to fulfill he^tranSlt ,°f Venus in the Pacific °cean,
discovert^ USUal °bjeCtS °f a &eneral voyage of
turnS th ^ PreParatl0»s mado by Mr Banks for
present tliph ^eSt acco.unt the opportunities that might
P esent themselves during the voyage were commensu-
B A N
419
rate with the magnitude of the undertaking. He nro Bn t
videdhimseJf wBh the best instruments for makin/aHSL JoseV
kinds of observations, and for preserving specimens of
natural history He prevailed upon Dr Solander, a dis!
tinguished pupil of Linnaeus, who had lately become resi¬
dent in Lngland, and was zealously devoted to the pur
suits ot science, to become his associate in this enterprise.
He engaged draftsmen and painters to delineate all ob¬
jects of interest that did not admit of being transported
oi preserved ; and also other persons whose services mieht
in various ways be wanted in the execution of his de
signs.
The time we are speaking of forms a remarkable epoch
in the history of science, as being that in which several
contemporaneous expeditions for the promotion of scien¬
tific knowledge were made by the direction of the leading
sovereigns of Europe. The one intrusted to Captain Cook
lad for its object the alliance of navigation with astrono¬
my, from which the nation has since reaped such import¬
ant advantages. This was also the time when the em-
prejs Catharme of Russia ordered extensive expeditions
in biberia under the direction of the celebrated Pallas
the primary object of which was also the observation of
the transit of \ enus in that part of the world, but which
gave occasion to the great advancement of natural his-
ory, and the acquisition of magnificent collections of spe-
cimens. It v/as also at this period that Bougainville was,
y command of Louis XV., circumnavigating the globe
accompanied by Commerson, to whom science is indebt¬
ed for such rich accessions of knowledge. But not the
least among the valuable fruits of these researches ta
been the lesson they have imparted to mankind, how
much more imperishable is the glory that redounds to
princes and to nations from such conquests in the unex¬
plored regions of science, than from the unprincipled ex¬
tensions of empire or the barbarous triumphs of the sword.
Ihe voyages of Captain Cook, and the interesting dis¬
coveries that accrued from them, have so long been justly
esteemed an important accession to the fame of our coun-
try, that a portion of that reputation^nust be allowed to
descend to all those whose exertions contributed to their
success. Of this merit a considerable share must be ad¬
judged to Mr Banks, who brought home a splendid col¬
li , sPecimens> more particularly from Otaheite
New Zealand, and Australia. e.
1 his voyage occupied three years of the life of Banks •
and no sooner was he returned from it than, with una¬
bated ardour, we find him eager to undertake another of
equal extent. He had engaged his passage in the second
expedition under Captain Cook, and had made all the
necessary preparations for embarking, when he was sudt
denly obliged to relinquish his design in consequence of
the conduct of Sir Hugh Palliser.who, he di “coveredf
had been using all his influence with the admiralty to
thwart his views, and frustrate the accomplishment of all
2t0tC \ Jt 18 due. ‘V-116 memory of Cook to state,
that he took no part in this intrigue, but expressed his
uniform friendship for Banks, and his deep regret at being
deprived of his able co-operation. Disappointed in hi?
hopes, Mr Banks immediately directed his efforts to the
equipment of a ship at his own expense; and taking with
him Dr Solander, Dr Lind, Von Troil, a Swedish naturalist,
and others, who were to have been his companions in the
second expedition with Captain Cook, he sailed for Ice-
and in July 1772; and after exploring, during two months,
that interesting region of volcanoes, he returned enriched
with valuable specimens and still more valuable informa¬
tion respecting its productions.
The island of Staffa, the existence of which was at that
period scarcely known beyond the immediate neighbour-
420
banks.
Banks, hood, was visited by our travellers on their way^o ice- ™^mtejy^ sirJoseph.
Sir Joseph. iand, and its extraordinary groups of basaltic col Joseph Banks evinced an anxiety to diffuse over
tracted much of their attention. The account ot the, ^ ^ of the globe the productions of other climates,
together with the drawings taken on the sp , < .. ti1us he brought into Europe the seeds of the plants of
rally communicated by Mr Banks to Pennant, or pu the South Sea Islands, as he had already distributed to
tion among his works. I be information re cl ^ f , latter those of Europe. We are indebted to his ex-
tion among nis woiks. " Tr -r -i „ was af-
land was given to the world by M. Vonlroil, who was at
terwards appointed bishop of Linkioping. e ^
But a great part of the knowledge «Sult.ng from he
various travels of Mr Banks was commumca ed by htm
from time to time, in papers to the Roya Soaetj of Lon , „
don, of which he had been elected a fellow in year inhabitants the benefits we ourselves have de-
1766, and admitted in the following year, P^v11 rfved from the potato they formerly furnished. ^ Ihe flax
vovage with Captain Cook. He was a constant atte , , — xil.„ VaainraJ cmprinr in many
on the meetings of that society, and took a very active
nart in its proceedings. On the res,gnat,on of b.r John
Prirnde in the year 1778, Mr Banks was elected prest-
dentof the Royal Society, an honour which he continued
to enjoy till h'Jdeath. A fierce dispute having ari*en
speciing the superiority of pointed over blunt conducto
for lightning, it would appear that Sir John 1 ringle ia
the id fortune to differ in opinion from the men ^ in
power at court, who, to flatter the prejudices of the sove¬
reign, arrayed themselves in opposition to the discoveries
of Franklin, which, emanating from America, were sup¬
nosed to have necessarily a revolutionary character, it
was in vain that the honest president of the Roya o- .v r^, ^ oftPr no moiestation to the ves
ciety made an humble representation that Je prerog^- 11 ed in the expedition of discovery under Captain
tives of his office did not extend to he control of he laws ^ the COntrary, to furnish them with every re-
the latter those of Europe. We are indebted to his ex¬
ertions for many of the beautiful plants which adorn our
gardens and shrubberies. The sugar-cane of Otaheite was
by him transplanted into the colonies; and the bread-
fruit tree of the Pacific was introduced into the tropi¬
cal soil of America, destined perhaps to repay m a future
^    '  wooKroc have de-
The flax
nvea irom me yuuai-u  -y i;
brought from New Zealand, superior in many of its quali¬
ties to that of Europe, is among the presents he has made
us The black swan and the kangaroo are a™ong the
animals from Australia, for the introduction of which into
this country we are indebted to Sir Joseph Banks.
The establishment of the British colony in New South
Wales was one of the results of the expedition of Captain
Cook, to which the exertions of Sir Joseph Banks mainly
contributed; and who will venture to predict the impor -
ant consequences this event may have on the future des¬
tinies of that vast continent ot which it forms a part.
At the commencement of the American war the trench
kino-, Louis XVI., had issued general orders to his officers
^ . ii. rt' - o+inn tn trip VPfs-
of nature ; superior influence compelled him to retne from
a situation which he could not retain with honour amidst
the angry passions called forth during these philosophical
polemics. His successor was more fortunate, and enjoye
during his whole life the favour of the court; in proof of
which the title of baronet was conferred upon him in the
vpar 1781 In 1795 Sir Joseph Banks obtained also fiom
his majesty the order of the bath; and in 1797 he was
membCT of the pnvycc.no,
Cook, but, on the contrary, to furnish then, with every re-
qiiisite assistance in the prosecution of their objects, b
Joseph Banks, in the spirit of generous reciprocity, exert¬
ed himself successfully to obtain, that a perpetual immu¬
nity from the evils of war for those engaged in scientific
enterprises should be recognised, as it now is, as one of
the laws of civilized warfare. This virtuous principle,
which forms an honourable exception to the demoralizing
tendency of national animosities, was adhered to in t e
_  .i:*:™ wP T.a Pprmisp. orders being sent
appointed a member of the privy council. does “ot {he expedition of La Perouse, orders being sent
appear, however, that he mingled much in pol tics, though government, in time of war, to make every
he occasionally gave his opinion, when uRed such by R.e J the fate of that unfortunate navigator,
questions of public interest as involved subjects of s \ J , 1 id tbat might be required, in case the
Le. But to the honour of S,r Joseph Banks , ougH discovered. After the disastrous ter
survivors should" be discovered. After the disastrous ter-
certainiy lu ue iccAjiut-w, v.....,,     . , mination of the expedition under D Entrecasteaux, t e
his solicitude to retain the full influence he enjoyed with mination trie e p _ , .    tn
pprtainlv to be recorded, that, whilst he was unremitting in
hts sStude .0 retain ’the full influence he enjoyed w,.h —^fTIbSS^eto^apt^ed and brought to
those in power, he never made that influence subse e England Sir Joseph Banks exerted himself successfully
- selfish ambition, and invariably ex- S’? J P , deliverv, untouched, to the French
those in power, tie never maue uiat —Fnifland Sir Joseph Banks exertea nimseu
to the purposes of a selfish ambition, and invariably ex- ^^^P and delivery, untouched, to the French
erted it for the promotion of scientific objects, and the ‘ ent His motive for abstaining from the mspec-
encouragement of those who pursued them. He mat e g contents was, as he expressed in a letter to
the most generous use of his library and collections, which t o f t^ ^ of that knowledge, to the acquisition
were always open to every inquirer of respectability. T • b g0 eminent a botanist had devoted the best years
ample fortune enabled him to supply pecuniary assistance ^ sbould beCome alienated from its rightful owner,
to useful works and enterprises; and, what was often as different occasions collections addressed to the
effectually serviceable, he freely gave to those who sought ^ .^Xsels of Paris, and captured by British pri-
... -   ^ — vateerg were in uke manner restored and forwarded to
th^[r ^osq)h^Banks continued to fill the honourable office
of president of the Royal Society, the just reward of his
ardent zeal and unwearied exertions in the cause of
science, for a period of more than forty years; enjoying
he cor espondence and confidence of most of the disUn-
gulshed men of learning of this -d other nabons H
name was enrolled amongst the associates of almost evorj
academy and learned society m Europe. His house and
his table were ever open for the reception ^ eptertain
ment of the leading members of ^f^jn^nt/with
of foreigners eminent for their scientific attainments, w t
that spirit of liberality which is so conducive to the ix i
of interests and co-operation of effort®re^ t of gucb a
successful cultivation of knowledge.
it the benefit of his counsel and experience
As proofs of the unreserved manner in which he com¬
municated the scientific treasures he had amassed to
those capable of making a proper use of them, many works
on natural history may be mentioned which have been en¬
riched by the information derived from these collections,
and which even owe their existence to the encouragement
thus afforded to their authors. It was by their aid that
the celebrated Fabricius was enabled to prosecute his ex¬
tensive entomological researches. Broussonnet availed
himself largely of Sir Joseph Banks’s specimens of fishes
for his work on ichthyology. Botanists, in particular, de¬
rived the greatest assistance from the stores of his herba¬
rium. From this source it was that Gaertner obtained the
most valuable materials for his excellent history of fruits
and seeds. The admirable work of Mr Robert Brown, On
the Plants of New Holland, was conducted under the im-
BAN
Banks centre of union has often led to the destruction of that har-
II mony which should ever characterize men engaged in a com-
^ j mon pursuit, calculated to raise them above vulgar passions ;
and the want of such harmony has always proved highly
detrimental to the interests of science.
^Notwithstanding the liberality that marked the conduct
°1 „ Joseph Banks in his intercourse with men of science
of all countries, he had many bitter enemies; and his memory,
soon after his death, was assailed by virulent invective. Yet
his name will ever be remembered with gratitude by the
friends of science, whom he benefited while living, and for
whose use he bequeathed to the British Museum his books
and botanical collections, under the care of that most distin-
guished botanist Mr Robert Brown. It is, however, not a
little singulai that, among the whole of his bequests, there
is not one in favour of that society over which he had
presided for above forty years, and from his connection
with which he derived so much of the lustre which encom¬
passed him ; it would almost seem, indeed, as if he wished
to be forgotten by them, since there is not a single syl¬
lable in his will expressive of his own recollection of that
society.
Sir Joseph Banks was married, but had no family. Dur¬
ing many of the latter years of his life he was a great suf¬
ferer from the gout, which almost totally deprived him of
the use of his feet and legs. He died at his house in Soho
Square, on the 19th of March 1820, at the age of 77. He
was succeeded in the chair of the Royal Society for the re¬
mainder of the year by Dr Wollaston, and, at the ensuing
anniversary, by Sir Humphry Davy, names that will ever re¬
main illustrious in the annals of science. The only authen¬
tic particulars that have been yet published respecting the
life of Sir Joseph Banks are contained in the Eloge by Cu¬
vier, which was read to the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris on the 2d of April 1821, and published in the fifth vo¬
lume of the Memoirs of that academy. (p. m. r.)
Banks, Thomas, an English sculptor, whose fame rests
chiefly on his “ Caractacus taken prisoner to Rome
“ Achilles mourning the loss of Briseisand the monu¬
ment to the memory of Sir Eyre Coote in Westminster
Abbey. He died in 1805, at the age of 70. See Sculpture.
BANKS’S ISLAND, an island of New Zealand, of a
circular form, about 60 miles in circumference, and visible
at the distance of 12 or 15 leagues. It is of a broken irre¬
gular surface, and presents a barren appearance, though it
is inhabited. It is 15 miles from Tavai-Poenammoo. The
south point lies in Long. 186. 30. W\ Lat. 43. 32. S.
BANN, aconsiderable river of Ireland, rising in theMourne
Mountains, traversing Lough Neagh, and flowing into the
Atlantic. It is commonly described as two rivers separated
by Lough Neagh. The upper Bann has a N.W. course
from its source to Lough Neagh, and is navigable for ves¬
sels of 50 tons to its junction with the Newry canal, a little
above Portadown. The lower flows in a northern direc¬
tion, and is navigable up to Coleraine for vessels of 200
tons ; but the bar at its mouth renders it difficult of access
in rough weather. Measured in a direct line, the upper Bann
is about 35 miles long, and the lower 30 miles.
BANNER, denotes either a square flag, or the principal
standard of a prince or state. We find a multiplicity of
opinions concerning the etymology of the word banner ;
some deriving it from the Latin bandum, a band or flag;
others from the word bann, to summon the vassals to ap¬
pear in arms ; others, again, from the German ban, a field
or tenement, because landed men alone were allowed a ban¬
ner ; a,nd finally, there are persons who think it a corrup-
tion of panniere, from pannus, cloth, because banners were
originally made of cloth.
i an ancient order of knights, or feudal
ords, who led their vassals to battle under their own flag or
ban
banner, when summoned by the king. Bannerets are also
called by ancient writers milites vexilliferi, and vexillarii
banerarii, bannarii, banderisii, &c.
Anciently there were two kinds of knights, great and
little ; the first, called bannerets, composed of the upper, and
the second, called bachelors, of the middle nobility. The
banneret was allowed to march under his own flag, whereas
the bachelarius eques followed that of another.
Banneret, according to Spelman, was a middle order be¬
tween a baron and a simple knight. Hence he was some¬
times callen vexillarius minor, to distinguish him from the
greater, that is, from the baron, to whom alone properly be¬
longed jus vexilli, or privilege of the square flag. Hence
the banneret was also called bannerettus, quasi baro minor;
a word frequently used by English writers in the same sense
as banneret was by the French, though neither of them occur
before the time of Edward II.
Some are of opinion that bannerets were originally per¬
sons who had a portion of a barony assigned them, and en¬
joyed it under the title of baro proximus, with the same
prerogatives as the baron himself. Others, again, find the
origin of bannerets in France, in Britanny, or in England ;
attributing the institution to Conan, lieutenant of Maximus,
who revolted with the Roman legions in England, and de¬
prived Gratian of the empire, A. r>. 383. According to them,
he divided England into forty cantons, and among these
cantons distributed forty knights, to whom he gave power of
assembling, on occasion, under their several banners, as
many effective men as were to be found in their respective
districts; whence they are called bannerets. It appears,
however, from Froissart and others that, anciently, such of
the military men as were rich enough to raise and subsist a
company of armed men, and had a right to do so, were called
bannerets ; not, however, that these qualifications rendered
them knights; they were only bannerets, and the appella¬
tion of knight was added because they were simple knights
before.
Bannerets were second to none but knights of the garter.
They were reputed the next degree below the nobility, and
were allowed to bear arms with supporters. In France, it
is said, the dignity was hereditary ; but in England it died
with the person who gained it. On the institution of baro¬
nets by King James I. the order dwindled, and at length
became extinct. The last banneret created was Sir John
Smith, who received the dignity after Edgehill fight, for
his gallantry in rescuing the standard of Charles I.
BANNISTER, John, one of the most eminent come¬
dians of the British stage, was born in London in 1760.
After a distinguished and honourable career, in 1815 he
left the stage, and enjoyed in his retirement the esteem and
admiration of all who had the pleasure of his acquaintance.
His death took place on the 8th November 1836.
BANNOCKBURN, a village of Scotland, on the Ban¬
nock, an affluent of the Forth, three miles south of Stirling. In
1851, its population amounted to 2627, principally employed
in the manufacture of tartans and carpets. Here, on the
24th of June 1314, was fought the memorable battle of Ban¬
nockburn, which secured the independence of Scotland, and
established Bruce upon the throne. A fragment of the “bore
stone” in which the royal standard was placed, is still to be
seen, protected from the depredations of strangers by an iron
frame-work. At Sauchieburn, in the neighbourhood, James
III. was defeated by his subjects in 1488. See Scotland.
BANQUETING Room or House. The ancient Romans
supped in the atrium, or vestibule, of their houses; but in
after-times magnificent saloons or banqueting-rooms were
built, for the more commodious and splendid entertainment
of their guests. Lucullus had several of these, each distin¬
guished by the name of some god; and there was a particular
rate of expetise appropriated to each. Plutarch relates with
421
Bannister
II
Banquet¬
ing.
422
BAN
Bantam
what magnificence he entertained Cicero and Pompey, who
T, " went with a design to surprise him, by only telling a slave
Bapaome. wj)0 wajte(j? t}iat the cloth should be laid in the Apollo. The
Emperor Claudius, among others, had a splendid banqueting-
room named Mercury. But everything of this kind was
outdone by the lustre of the celebrated banqueting-house ot
Nero, called domus aurea, which, by the circular motion o
its partitions and ceilings, imitated the revolution ot the
heavens, representing the different seasons of the year, which
changed at every service, and showered down flowers, es¬
sences, and perfumes, on the guests. . . c
BANTAM, a decayed town of Java, formerly capital ot
a district of the same name, at the north-western extremity
of the island, situated on the Bay of Bantam, near the mouth
of a river which falls into the bay. It was once a large, rich,
and flourishing city, but now exhibits nothing except ruins,
the memorials of its departed greatness. It is about hi mi es
west from Batavia, and is situated on a low, swampy beach,
surrounded by jungle, and intersected with stagnant streams,
so that its climate is even more unhealthy than that ot 15a-
tavia. After Batavia surrendered to the British arms in 1 oil,
this kingdom was in a state of great distraction, the British
government of Batavia accordingly interfered in favour of the
rightful heir, and restored him to the throne. In former
times Bantam was a free port, open to the commerce of all
nations. In 1683 the trade was monopolized by the Dutch,
who erected Fort Spielwyk, to shut out all other merchants.
This odious policy excited great discontents among the people,
who were always the bitter enemies of the Dutch ; but they
were unable to shake off the yoke of their oppressors, who,
about the year 1742, had succeeded in completely establish¬
ing their authority. The Bay of Bantam was formerly a
commodious retreat for vessels; but it is now so choked up
with daily accessions of new earth washed down from the
mountains, as well as by coral shoals extending a consider¬
able way to the eastward, that it is inaccessible to vessels ot
any considerable burden. Prior to the Dutch conquest,
Bantam was a powerful state, the sovereign of which ex¬
tended his conquests in the neighbouring islands of Borneo
and Sumatra. It was abandoned by the Dutch in 1817,
for the more elevated station of Ceram, seven miles inland,
and it is now a miserable village. Long. 106. 3. E. Lat.
6. 4. S. •
B ANTRY, a small seaport of Ireland, on Bantry Bay, in
Lat. 51. 39. N. Long. 9. 24. W. The trade of this port,
formerly considerable, is now almost confined to the expoit-
ation of grain. The pilchard fishery was once very produc¬
tive, but that fish has deserted the coast. The population,
which in 1831 was 4276, had decreased in 1851 to 2935.
Bantry Bay, an inlet of the sea, on the S.W. coast of
Ireland, in the county of Cork, about twenty-five miles
long by four to six broad, having from ten to thirty or forty
fathoms of water, surrounded by high mountains, and in¬
dented by creeks and inlets. It affords a very fine harbour
forshipping, andcontains two small islands, Bear and Whiddy.
In 1796 a French fleet anchored here with a view of invad¬
ing Ireland, and landed eight men, who were, immediately
taken prisoners. The fleet soon after left the coast. Long.
9. 24. to 9. 45. E. Lat. 51. 30. to 51. 40. N.
BAOBAB {Adansonia digitatd), the largest of trees,
measuring sometimes thirty feet in diameter; but its height
is not in proportion. It inhabits the western side of Africa,
and is cultivated in Egypt and Abyssinia. The largest are
at Senegal.
BAPAUME, a fortified town in France, capital of a can¬
ton in the department of Pas de Calais, 15 miles S.S.E. of
Arras. It is neat and well built, has a parish church, hos¬
pital, communal college, and a fountain supplied with water
by an artesian well. Its manufactures of lace, woollens,
cottons, and fine thread, are considerable. Pop. 2973.
Baptist
BAP
BAPHOMET, the imaginary symbol or idol which the Baphomet
Templars were accused of worshipping in their secret rites.
See Templars. The term is supposed to have been a cor-
ruption of the name Mahomet. On this subject, the learned
Von Hammer has written a dissertation, in which he revives
the old charge against the Templars. The word, according
to his interpretation, signifies the baptism of Metis or of fire.
This was replied to by M. Raynouard, in the Journal des
Savans, March 1819.
BAPTISM, in matters of religion, the ceremony or sa¬
crament by which a person is initiated into the Christian
church. The word is drived from the Greek fiatfrity, a
frequentative form of (3a<irrw, to dip or wash. Baptism is
known in ecclesiastical writers by divers other names
and titles. Sometimes it is called palingenesia, or rege¬
neration; sometimes salus, or life and salvation; some¬
times (ffigocyii, signaculum Domini, and signaculum Jidei,
ov the seal of faith; sometimes absolutely mysterium, and
sacramentum; sometimes the sacrament of faith ; sometimes
viarticum, from its being administered to departing per¬
sons ; sometimes sacerdotium laid, or the lay priesthood,
because allowed, in cases of necessity, to be conferred by
laymen; sometimes it is called the great circumcision, be¬
cause it was imagined to succeed in the room of circum¬
cision, and to be a seal of the Christian covenant, as circum¬
cision was the seal of the covenant made with Abraham.
In respect that baptism had Christ for its author, and not
man, it was anciently known by the name of dwgov and
yaQidfjja Kvoiov, the gift of the Lord; sometimes it was sim¬
ply called dugov, without any other addition, by way of
eminence, because it was both a gratuitous and singular
gift of Christ. In reference to the making men complete
members of Christ’s body, the church, it had the name of
riXuuffis, and rsXs/J], the consecration and consummation,
because it gave men the perfection of Christians, and a
right to partake of to rsXs/ov, which was the Lords Supper.
It had also the name of and pverayayyicc, the ini¬
tiation, because it was the admission of men to all the
sacred rites and mysteries of the Christian religion.
Baptism has been supposed by many learned authors
to have had its origin in the Jewish church, in which, as
they maintain, it was the practice long before Christ s
time to baptize proselytes or converts to their faith, as
part of the ceremony of admission; and this practice,
according to some, obtains among them to this day, a
person turning Jew being first circumcised, and, when
healed, bathed or baptized in water, in presence of the
rabbin, after which he is reputed a good Jew. Others,
however, insist that the Jewish proselyte baptism is not
by far so ancient; and that John the Baptist was the first
administrator of baptism among the Jews. Ot this opi¬
nion were Deylingius, J. G. Carpzovius, Boernerus, Werns-
dorfius, Zeltnerus, Owen, Knatchbull, Jennings, Gill, and
others. . .
Grotius is of opinion that the rite of baptism derives
its origin from the time of the Deluge, immediately after
which, he thinks, it was instituted in memory of the world
having been purged by water. Some learned men thiniv
it was added to circumcision soon after the Samaritan
schism, as a mark of distinction to the orthodox Jews.
Spencer, who is fond of deriving the rites of the Jewish
religion from the ceremonies of the Pagans, lays it down
as a probable supposition, that the Jew's received the bap¬
tism of proselytes from the neighbouring nations, who
were wont to prepare candidates for the more sacred
functions of their religion by a solemn ablution, that, y
this affinity of sacred rites, they might draw the Gentiles
to embrace their religion, and that the proselytes, in the
gaining of whom they were extremely diligent, might the
more easily comply with the transition from Gentihsm to
BAPTISM.
423
yte God having enjoined only the rite of circumcision to hell! Pelagius and hi followers Thn d ?y,mUSt-g<!
SSlSi
Zrr;rrie! ^iis° hilSistlf
ping the whole bodv in ’ ti h 1 P1urified1by dlP- that of the minister, or where any unavoidable accident
P P me whole body m water. The same learned writer rendered baptism absolutely impossible, Hincmar and
r» J oauic letuneu writer
adds, as a further confirmation of his opinion, that the cup
of blessing, added to the paschal supper, seems likewise
to have been derived from a pagan original; as the Greeks
at their feasts had one cup called ,ror^o„ a7«3oy
the cup of the good demon or god, which they drank at
the conclusion of their entertainment when the table was
removed. Since, then, a rite of Gentile origin was added
to one of the Jewish sacraments, namely, the passover,
there can be no absurdity, he thinks, in supposing that
baptism, which was added to the other sacrament, namely
circumcision, might be derived from the same source. Iri
the last place, he observes, that Christ, in the institution
ol his sacraments, paid a peculiar regard to those rites
which were borrowed from the Gentiles; for, reiectino-
circumcision and the paschal supper, he adopted into his
religion baptism and the sacred cup; thus preparing the
way for the conversion and reception of the Gentiles into
his church.
The design of the Jewish baptism, if baptism was prac¬
tised by them, is supposed to have been to import a reo-e-
neration, whereby the proselyte was rendered a new man,
and from being a slave became free. The effect of it was, to
cancel all former relations ; so that those who were before
akin to the person, after the ceremony ceased to be so. It
is to this ceremony Christ is supposed to have alluded, in
his expression to Nicodemus, that it was necessary that
he should be born again, in order to become his disciple.
Ihe necessity of baptism to salvation is grounded on these
two sayings of our Saviour, “ He that believeth, and is bap¬
tized, shall be savedand “ Except a man be born of water
and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God."
others made an exception, holding that the child might
m that case be saved without baptism.
The receiving of baptism is not limited to any time, nor
to any age of life. Some contend for its being administered
like circumcision, precisely on the eighth day, as Gregory
Nazianzen; while others would have it deferred till the
child is three years of age, and able to hear the mystic
words, and make answer thereto, though he do not under¬
stand them. In the canon law we find divers injunctions
against deferring the baptism of infants beyond certain
days, as the ninth, thirtieth, and thirty-seventh, some of
them involving pecuniary forfeitures in case of disobe¬
dience.
. Salmasius, and Suicerus after him, deliver it as authen¬
tic history, that for the first two ages no one received bap¬
tism who was not first instructed in the faith and doc¬
trine of Christ, so as to be able to answer for himself that
he believed; and this by reason of the words, “ He that
believeth and is baptizedwhich in effect is to sa)', that
J1,? !nfant> for the first two ages, was ever admitted to
Christian baptism. They own, however, that pasdobap-
tism afterwards came in, upon the opinion that baptism
was necessary to salvation. But Yossius, Dr Forbes, Dr
Hammond, Mr Walker, and especially Mr Wall, who has
exactly considered the testimony and authority of almost
every ancient writer who has said any thing upon this
subject, endeavour to evince that infants were baptized
even in the aposrtolical age; and it is certain that Ter-
tullian pleads strongly against giving baptism to infants ;
which at least show's that there was some such practice
in^his age,^though he disapproved of it. But the ordinary
rhfdpTmpn k ^ Pro<;uring ltl was impracticable, ex- from Judaism and Gentilism, who, before they could be
tt„ Some frw „f fl! f’6, b°peS 0t' eter”al Salva- admitted t0 ba!’tism’ «« obliged to spend some time in
tion. borne few of them, indeed, are prettv severe unon tho statP nf „ *1:^. 1 p , •1 mf 1.n
tmn. Some few of them, indeed, are pretty severe upon
infants dying without baptism; and others seem also, in
general terms, to deny eternal life to adult persons dying
unbaptized. But when they interpret themselves, and
speak more distinctly, they make some allowances, and
specially except several cases in which the want of bap¬
tism may be supplied by other means. Such is mar¬
tyrdom, which, commonly goes by the name of “ second
baptism in men s own blood” in the writings of the ancients,
because of the power and efficacy it was thought to have
in saying men by the invisible baptism of the Spirit, with¬
out the external element of water. Faith and repentance
were also esteemed a supplement to the want of baptism,
in such catechumens as died whilst they were piously pre-
panng themselves for baptism. Constantly communicating
with the church was also thought to supply the want of very flagrant crimes had been committed,
baptism to persons who had been ndmiti-fwl tn 1,-. *ko  -r- .1 , , , ’
, . —   w me want ui
baptism to persons who had been admitted to communion
on a presumption of their having been duly baptized,
though the contrary afterwards appeared. For infants
f ying without baptism, the case was thought more dan-
gerous; as here, no personal faith, repentance, or the
1 e, could be pleaded, to supply the defect, and to wash
away original sin. On this account, they who spoke most
favourably of them, as Gregory Nazianzen, and Severus,
bishop of Antioch, only assigned them a middle state,
neither in heaven nor hell. But the Latins, as St Augus¬
tin, Tulgentius, Marius Mercator, and others, who never
the state of catechumens, to qualify them for making their
professions of faith and a Christian life, in their own per¬
sons; for, without such personal professions, there was
01 dinarily no admission of them to the privilege of bap-
tism. Ihose baptized in their sick beds were called c/i-
nici, and held in some reproach, as not being reputed
good Chiistians; and hence we meet with several censures
of clinic baptism in councils and ecclesiastical writers. But
this clinic baptism was not sufficient to qualify the person,
in case of recovery, for ordination. Some had their baptism
put off by way of punishment, when they fell into gross
and scandalous^ crimes, which were only to be expiated by
a long course of discipline and repentance. This sometimes
included five, ten, twenty, or more years; in particular
cases the whole of life to the very hour of death, when
VPTV flaornrit Privrmc horl  . j
In the earliest ages of the church, there was no stated
time or place for the reception of baptism. Afterwards,
Faster, Whitsuntide, and Epiphany, became solemn sea¬
sons, out of which baptism was not administered, except
in cases of necessity. The catechumens who were to re¬
ceive it at these times were called competentes; and it is
to these that St Cyril addresses his catecheses. In the
apostolical age, and some time after, before churches and
baptisteries were generally erected, they baptized in any
place where they had convenience; for example, John
baptized in Jordan, Philip baptized the eunuch in the
V
424
baptism.
Baptism, wilderness, and Paul baptized the jailer in his own house.
^But in after-ages baptisteries were built adjoining to the
churches; and then rules were made that baptism s'10^lcl
ordinarily be administered nowhere except in these build¬
ings. Justinian, in one of his novella, refers to ancien
laws appointing that none of the sacred mysteries 0
church should be celebrated in private houses. Men
might have private oratories for prayer in their ow
houses; but they were not to administer baptism or the
eucharist in them, unless by a particular license from the
bishop of the place. Such baptisms are frequently con¬
demned in the ancient councils, under the name craga^-
rtff/jMra, baptisms in private conventicles.
As to the attendant ceremonies and manner of baptism
in the ancient church, the person to be baptized, if an
adult, was first examined by the bishop or officiating
priest, who put s-mie questions to him ; as, first, whethe
he abjured the devil and all his works, and, second y,
whether he gave a firm assent to all the articles of Bie
Christian faith ; to each of which he answered in the affir¬
mative. If the person to be baptized was an infant, these
interrogatories were answered by his sponsores or god¬
fathers? Whether the use of sponsors was as old as the
days of the apostles is uncertain ; the probability is it was
not, since Justin Martyr, speaking of the method and form
of baptism, says not a word of them. After the questions
and answers, followed exorcism, the manner and end of
which was this : The minister laid his hands on the per¬
son’s head, and breathed in his face, implying thereby the
driving away or expelling of the devil, and preparing the
convert for baptism, by which the good and holy spirit
was to be conferred upon him. After exorcism followed
baptism itself. And, first of all, the minister, by prayer,
consecrated the water for that purpose. Tertulhan says,
“ any waters may be applied to that use; but then Cou
must be first invocated ; on which the Holy Ghost present¬
ly comes down from heaven, and moves upon them, and
sanctifies them.” The waters having been consecrated
the person was baptized “ in the name of the bather, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost;” by which “ dedica¬
tion of him to the blessed Trinity, the person, says
Clemens Alexandrinus, “ is delivered from that corrupt
trinity, the devil, the world, and the flesh. In perform¬
ing the ceremony of baptism, the usual custom, except
in clinical cases, or where there was scarcity of water,
was to immerse the whole body. Thus St Barnabas,
describing a baptized person, says, “ We go down into
the water full of sin and filth, but we ascend bearing
fruit in our hearts.” And this practice of immersing the
whole body was so general, that we find no exception
made from respect either to the tenderness of infants or
the bashfulness of the other sex, unless jn case of sick¬
ness or disability. But, to prevent any indecency, men
and women were baptized apart; to which end, either
the baptisteries were divided into two apartments, one for
the men, the other for the women, as Bingham has ob¬
served ; or the men were baptized at one time and the
women at another, as is shown by Vossius, from the Ordo
Romanus, Gregory’s Saeramentarium, and other authori¬
ties. Add to this, that there was anciently an order of
deaconesses, one part of whose business was to assist at
the baptism of women. These precautions, however, ra¬
ther indicate a scrupulous attention to delicacy, than im¬
ply any indecency in the circumstance of immersion itself.
From the circumstance of candidates being immersed,
however, there is no reason to infer that immersion was
made in a state of nudity. The present Baptists never
baptize naked, though they always immerse. After im¬
mersion followed the unction ; by which, according to St
Cyril, was signified that they were now cut off from the
wild olive, and were ingrafted into Christ, the true olive
tree ; or else to show that they were now to be champions
for the gospel, and were anointed thereto, as the old ath-
letae were for their solemn games. With this anointing
was joined the sign of the cross, made upon the forehead
of the person baptized; which being done, he had a white
garment given him, to denote his being washed from the
defilements of sin, or in allusion to that of the apostle,
“ As many as are baptized in Christ have put on Christ.
From this custom the feast of Pentecost, which was one
of the annual seasons of baptism, came to be called White-
sunday or Whitsunday. The garment in question was
afterwards laid up in the church, that it might be an evi¬
dence against such persons as violated or denied that faith
which they had owned in baptism. When the baptism
was performed, the person baptized, according to Justin
Martyr, “ was received into the number of the faithful,
who then sent up their public prayers to God for all men,
for themselves, and for those who had been baptized.. .
The ordinary ministers, who had the right of adminis¬
tering this sacrament, that is, of applying the water to the
body, and pronouncing the formula, were presbyters or
bishops ; but on extraordinary occasions laymen were ad¬
mitted to perform the same.
The present form of administering baptism in the
church of Rome is as followsWhen a child is to be
baptized, the persons who bring it wait at the door of the
church for the priest, who comes thither in his surplice
and purple stole, attended by his clerks. He begins with
questioning the godfathers, whether they promise, in the
child’s name, to live and die in the true Catholic and
Apostolic faith, and what name they would give the child.
Then follows an exhortation to the sponsors; after which
the priest, calling the child by its name, asks, “ What dost
thou demand of the church?” The godfather answers,
“ Eternal life.” The priest proceeds : ‘‘ If you are desir¬
ous of obtaining eternal life, keep God s commandments,
thou shalt love the Lord thy God,” &c.; after which he
breathes three times in the child’s face, saying, “ Come
out of this child, thou evil spifit, and make room for the
Holy Ghost.” Then he makes the sign of the cross on
the child’s forehead and breast, saying, “ Receive the sign
of the cross on thy forehead and in thy heart;” upon
which, taking off his cap, he repeats a short prayei, and
laying his hand gently on the child’s head, repeats a se¬
cond prayer; then he blesses some salt, and putting a
little of it into the child’s mouth, pronounces these words,
“ Receive the salt of wisdom.” All this is performed at
the church door. The priest, with the godfathers and
godmothers, coming into the church, and advancing to¬
wards the font, repeat the apostles’ creed and the Lord s
prayer. Arrived at the font, the priest exorcises the evil
spirit again; and taking a little of his own spittle, with
the thumb of bis right hand rubs it on the child s ears
and nostrils, repeating, as he touches the right ear, the
same word, Ephatha, be thou opened, which our Saviour
made use of to the man born deaf and dumb. Lastly, they
pull off its swaddling-clothes, or strip it below the shoul¬
ders, during which the priest prepares the oil. The spon¬
sors then hold the child directly over the font, observing
to turn it due east and west; whereupon the priest asks
the child, “ whether he renounces the devil and all nis
works and the godfather having answered in the affirm¬
ative, the priest anoints the child between the shoulders
in the form of a cross ; then taking some of ^ consecrat¬
ed water, he pours part of it thrice on the childs head, at
each perfusion calling on one of the persons 0 0 y
Trinity. The priest concludes the ceremony of baptism
with an exhortation. It may be added, that the Romish
church allows midwives, in cases of danger, to baptize a
B A P T I S M.
baptism, cliild before it comes entirely out of its mother’s womb;
but it is to be observed, that as some part of the body of
the child must appear before it can be baptized, it is bap¬
tized on that which first appears: if it be the head, it is
not necessary to rebaptize the child; but if only a foot or
hand appears, baptism must be repeated. A still-born
child thus baptized may be buried in consecrated ground.
The Greek church differs from the Homish as to the rite
of baptism, chiefly in performing it by immersion, or
plunging the infant all over in the water.
The forms of administering baptism among us being
too well known to require a particular description, we shall
only mention one or two of the more material differences
between the form as it stood in the first liturgy of King
Edward, and that in the English Common Prayer Book
at present. First, the form of consecrating the water did
' not make a part of the office in King Edward’s liturgy, as
it does in the present, because the water in the font was
changed and consecrated but once a month. The form
itself likewise was something different from that now used,
and was introduced with a short prayer, that Jesus Christ,
upon whom (when he was baptized) the Holy Ghost came
down in the likeness of a dove, would send down the same
Holy Spirit, to sanctify the fountain of baptism ; which
prayer was afterwards left out at the second review. By
King Edward’s first book the minister was required to
dip the child in the water thrice; first, the right side;
secondly, the left; and, lastly, the face toward the foot.
This triple immersion was a very ancient practice in the
Christian church, and used in honour of the Holy Trinity;
though some later writers say that it was done to repre¬
sent the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ, together
with his three days’ continuance in the grave. But after¬
wards, when the Arians made an improper use of it, per¬
suading the people that it denoted a distinct substantiality
of the three persons in the Trinity, the orthodox left it off
and used only one single immersion.
By the first common prayer of King Edward, after the
child was baptized, the godfathers and godmothers were
to lay their hands upon it, and the minister was to put on
him the white vestment, commonly called the chrysome,
and to say, “ Take this white vesture as a token of the
innocency which, by God’s grace, in this holy sacrament
of baptism, is given unto thee, and for a sign whereby
thou art admonished, so long as thou livest, to give thy¬
self to innocence of living, that after this transitory life
thou mayest be partaker of the life everlasting.” As
soon as he had pronounced these words he was to anoint
the infant on the head, saying, “ Almighty God, the fa¬
ther of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath regenerated thee
by water and the Holy Ghost, and hath given unto thee
remission of all thy sins, may he vouchsafe to anoint thee
with the unction of his Holy Spirit, and bring thee to the
inheritance of everlasting life.”
The custom of sprinkling children instead of dipping
them in the font, which at first was allowed in case of the
weakness or sickness of the infant, has so far prevailed
that immersion is now quite excluded. What principal¬
ly tended to confirm the practice of affusion or sprink¬
ling was, that several of our Protestant divines flying into
Germany and Switzerland during the bloody reign of
Queen Mary, and returning home when Queen Elizabeth
came to the crown, brought back with them a great zeal
for the Protestant churches beyond sea where they had
been sheltered and received; and having observed that
at Geneva and other places baptism was administered by
sprinkling, they thought they could not do the church of
England a greater piece of service than by introducing a
practice dictated by so great an authority as Calvin. This,
together with the coldness of our northern climate, was
yol. iy.
425
what contributed to banish entirely the practice of im- Baptism,
mersing infants in the font.
The different notions which have been entertained con¬
cerning the effects of baptism, it would be endless to enu¬
merate. The Remonstrants and Socinians reduce baptism
to a mere sign of divine grace. The Romanists, on the
contrary, exalt its power, holding, that thereby all sin is
entirely taken away by it; that it absolutely confers jus¬
tification, and consequently grace ex opere operato. Some
also speak of an indelible character impressed on the soul
by it, called character dominicus, and character regius;
but others hold this a mere chimera, maintaining that the
spiritual character conferred in regeneration may easily
be effaced by mortal sins. Dodwell contends that it is by
baptism that the soul is made immortal, and that those
who die without it cannot rise again; but he limits this
effect to episcopal baptism alone. From the effects ordi¬
narily ascribed to baptism, even by ancient writers, it
would seem that the ceremony is as much of heathen as
Jewish origin, since Christians do not restrain the use of
it, like the Jews, to the admission of new members into
the church, but hold, with the heathens, that it contains
a virtue for remitting and washing away sins. The Brah¬
mins are still said to baptize with this latter view at cer¬
tain seasons in the river Ganges, to the waters of which
they ascribe a cleansing or sanctifying quality; and hence
it is that people flock from all parts, even of Tartary,
in expectation of being thus eased of their load of sins.
But in this point many Christians seem to have gone be¬
yond the folly of the heathens. It was only the smaller
sins of infirmity which these latter held to be expiable by
washing; for crimes of a blacker dye, they allowed, no
water could efface, no purgation discharge them. The
Christian doctrine of a total remission of sins by baptism
could not fail, therefore, to scandalize many amongst the
heathen, and furnished the apostate Julian with an occa¬
sion for ridiculing Christianity itself: “ Whoever,” says he,
“ is guilty of rapes, murders, sacrilege, or any abominable
crime, let him be washed with water, and he will become
pure and holy.”
In the ancient church, baptism was frequently confer¬
red on Jews by violence ; but the church itself never seems
to have allowed of force on this occasion. By a canon of
the fourth council of Toledo, it is expressly forbidden to
baptize any one against his or her will. That which looks
most like force in this case is to be found in two orders
of Justinian; one of which appoints the heathen, and the
other the Samaritans, to be baptized, with their wives and
children and servants, under pain of confiscation. By the
ancient laws, baptism was not to be conferred on image-
makers, stage-players, gladiators, aurigcc or public drivers,
magicians, or even strolling beggars, until they quitted
such professions. Slaves were not allowed the privilege of
baptism without the testimony and consent of their mas¬
ters ; excepting the slaves of Jews, heathens, and here¬
tics, who were not only admitted to baptism, but, in conse¬
quence of the rite, had their freedom conferred on them.
Baptism by Fire, spoken of by John the Baptist, has given
rise to much conjecture. The generality of the fathers
held that believers, before they enter paradise, must pass
through a certain fire, which is to purify them from all
pollutions remaining unexpiated. But some, with St Basil,
understand it of the fire of hell; others, of that of tribu¬
lation and temptation; while a few, with St Chrysostom,
will have it to denote an abundance of graces. Some
suppose it to mean the descent of the Holy Ghost on the
apostles, in the form of fiery tongues ; others maintain, that
the word fire here is an interpolation, and that we are only
to read the text, “ He that shall come after me will bap¬
tize you with the Holy Ghost.”
3 H
426
BAP
BAP
Baptism.
The ancient Selucians and Hermians, understanding the
passage literally, maintained that material fire was neces¬
sary in the administration of baptism. But we do not
find how or to what part of the body they applied it, or
whether they were satisfied with obliging the person bap¬
tized to pass through the fire. Valentinus rebaptized all
who had received water-baptism, and conferred on them
the baptism of fire.1 Heracleon, cited by Clemens Alex-
andrinus, says that some applied a red-hot iron to the
ears of the person baptized, as if to impress some mark
upon him. . ..
Baptism of the Dead, a custom which anciently prevail¬
ed among some people in Africa, of giving baptism to the
dead. The third council of Carthage speak of it as a thing
which ignorant Christians were fond of. Gregory Nazian-
zen also takes notice of the same superstitious opinion pi e-
vailing among some who delayed to be baptized. In his
address to this kind of men, he asks, whether they stayed
to be baptized after death. Philastrius also notices it as
the general error of the Montanists or Cataphrygians, that
they baptized men after death. The practice seems to
have been grounded on a vain opinion, that when men
had neglected to receive baptism in their life-time, some
compensation might be made for this default by receiving
it after death. i . .
Baptism of thp dead was also a sort of vicarious bap¬
tism, formerly in use, when, in the case of a person dying
without baptism, another was baptized in his stead., rhis,
St Chrysostom tells us, was practised among the Marcionites
with a great deal of ridiculous ceremony. \\ hen a catechu¬
men happened to die, they hid a living man under the bed
of the deceased : then coming to the dead man, they asked
him whether he would receive baptism ; and he making no
reply, the other answered for him, and said he would be
baptized in his stead ; and so they baptized the living foi
the dead. Epiphanius assures us the like was also prac¬
tised amongst the Corinthians. This practice they pretend¬
ed to found on the Apostle’s authority, alleging that text
of St Paul for it, “ If the dead rise not at all, what shall
they do who are baptized for the dead ?” a text which
has given occasion to a great variety of different systems
and explications. Vossius enumerates no less than nine
different opinions among learned divines concerning the
sense of the phrase, being “ baptized for the dead.
Hypothetical Baptism was that formerly administered
in certain doubtful cases, with the formula, “ If thou art
baptized, I do not rebaptize ; if thou art not, I baptize
thee in the name of the Father,” &c. This sort of bap¬
tism, enjoined by some ancient constitutions of the Eng¬
lish church, has now fallen into disuse.
Solemn Baptism was that conferred at stated seasons.
Such, in the ancient church, were the paschal baptism,
and that at Whitsuntide. This is sometimes also called
general baptism.
Lay Baptism we find to have been permitted both by
the common prayer-book of King Edward and by that of
Queen Elizabeth, when an infant is in immediate danger
of death, and a lawful minister cannot be had- This was
founded upon the mistaken notion of the impossibility of
salvation without the sacrament of baptism; but after¬
wards, when they came to have clearer notions of the sa¬
craments, it was unanimously resolved, in a convocation
held in the year 1575, that even private baptism, in a case
of necessity, was only to be administered by a lawful
minister.
Baptism is also applied abusively to certain ceremo¬
nies used in giving names to things inanimate. The an¬
cients knew nothing of the custom of giving baptism to Baptismal
inanimate things, as bells, ships, and the like, by a super- Vow
stitious consecration of them. The first notice we have ■ .
of this is in the capitulars of Charles the Great, where it v
is mentioned with censure ; but afterwards it crept by de¬
grees into the Roman offices. Baronius carries its anti¬
quity no higher than the year 968, when the great bell of
the church of Lateran was christened by Pope John III.
At last it grew to such superstitious height as to form a
ground of complaint in the Centum Gravamina of the
German nation, drawn up in the public diet of the empire
held at Nuremberg in the year 1581 ; where, after de¬
scribing the ceremony of baptizing a bell, with godfathers,
who made responses as in baptism, and gave it a name, and
clothed it with a new garment as Christians were used to
be clothed withal, and all this to make it capable of driv¬
ing away tempests and devils, they conclude against it
as not only a superstitious practice, but contrary to the
Christian religion, and a mere seduction of the simple
people.
BAPTISMAL Vow or Covenant, a profession of obe¬
dience to the laws of Christ, which persons in the ancient
church made before baptism. It was an indispensable
part of the obligation on catechumens before they were
admitted to the ceremony of regeneration. The vow was
made by turning to the east, for what mystical reason is
not well agreed on.
Baptismal Presents, in use in Germany, were made by
the sponsors to the infant, and consisted of money, plate,
or even sometimes fiefs of lands, which by the laws of the
country were to be kept for the child until he became of
age; the parents having only the trust, not the right of
disposing of them.
BAPTISTE, or Jean Baptiste Monnoyer, a painter
of flowers and fruit, was born at Lisle in 1635, and educated
at Antwerp. It was his first intention to become a painter
of history; but finding that his genius more strongly inclined
him to the painting of flowers, he applied his talents to those
subjects, and in that style became one of the greatest mas¬
ters. His pictures are not so exquisitely finished as those
of Van Huysum, but his composition and colouring are in
a bolder style. He was employed by William HI. to de¬
corate Kensington Palace. He died in 1699, leaving a son,
Anthony, who followed his father s profession, and had great
merit.
BAPTISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a denomination
of Christians, distinguished from other Christians by their
particular opinions respecting the mode and the subjects
of baptism.
Instead of administering the ordinance by sprinkling,
they maintain that it ought to be administered only by
immersion. Such, they insist, is the import of the word
fiairnZ'U; so that a command to baptize is a command
to immerse. And thus it was understood by those who
first administered it. John the Baptist and the apostles
of Christ administered it in Jordan and other rivers and
places where there was much water. Both the adminis¬
trators and the subjects are described as going down into
and coming up again out of the water; and the baptized
are said to be buried in baptism, and to be raised again,
which language could not, they say, be properly adopted
on supposition of the ordinance being administered in any
other manner than by immersion. Thus also, they affirm,
it was in general administered in the primitive church ;
thus it is now administered in the Russian and Greek
church; and thus it is at this day directed to be admi¬
nistered in the church of England to all who are thought
1 Bis docuit tingi, transducto corpore fiamma. (Tertull. Carm. contr. Marc. lib. i.)
BAP
Baptists, capable of submitting to it in this manner. With regard
to the subjects of baptism, the Baptists say that this or¬
dinance ought not to be administered to children or in¬
fants at all, nor to grown up persons in general; but to
adults only of a certain character and description. Our
Saviour s commission to his apostles, by which Christian
baptism was instituted, is to go and teach all nations, bap¬
tizing them; that is, say they, not to baptize all they
meet with, but first to instruct them, to teach all nations,
or to preach the gospel to every creature, and whoever
receives it, him to baptize in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. To such persons,
and to such only, baptism appears to have been adminis¬
tered by the apostles and the immediate disciples of
Christ. They are described as repenting of their sins,
as believing in Christ, and as having gladly received the
word. Peter acquaints those who were converted by his
sermon, that without these qualifications he could not have
admitted them to baptism; Philip holds the same language
in his discourse with the Ethiopian eunuch; and Paul
treats Lydia, the jailer, and others, in the same manner.
Without these qualifications Christians in general think
it wrong to admit persons to the Lord’s supper; and for
the same reasons, without these qualifications, or at least
a profession of them, the Baptists think it wrong to admit
any to baptism. Wherefore they withhold it, not only
from the impenitently vicious and profane, and from infi¬
dels, who have no faith, but also from infants and children,
who have no knowledge, and are incapable of every action
civil and religious. They further insist that all positive
institutions depend entirely upon the will and declaration
of the founder; wherefore, that reasoning by analogy from
abrogated Jewish rites is to be rejected, and the express
commands of Christ respecting the mode and subjects of
baptism ought to be our only rule.
The Baptists in England form one of the denominations
of Protestant dissenters. They separate from the esta¬
blishment for the same reasons as their brethren of the
other denominations do ; and an additional motive is de¬
rived from their particular tenets respecting baptism. The
constitution of their churches, and their mode of worship,
is congregational or independent; and in the exercise of
it they are protected, in common with other dissenters,
by the act of toleration. Before this act they were liable
to pains and penalties as nonconformists, and often for
their peculiar sentiments as Baptists. A proclamation was
in fact issued out against them, and some of them were
burnt in Smithfield in 1538. They bore a considerable
share in the persecutions of the seventeenth and preced¬
ing centuries, and, as it should seem, in those of even an
earlier date; for among the Lollards and the followers
ofWickliffe there were several who disapproved of infant
baptism, and there were many of this persuasion among
the Protestants and reformers abroad. In Holland, Ger¬
many, and the North, they went by the names of Anabap¬
tists and Mennonites; and, in Piedmont and the south,
they were found among the Albigenses and Waldenses.
The Baptists subsist under two denominations; the
Particular or Calvinistical, and the General or Arminian.
The former is by far the most numerous. Some of both
denominations allow of mixed communion, that is, with per¬
sons who have been sprinkled in their infancy, and there¬
fore unbaptized in the view of the Baptists. Others, again,
disallow it; and a few of them observe the seventh day
of the week as the Sabbath, apprehending the law that
enjoined it not to have been repealed by Christ or his
apostles. But a difference of opinion respecting these and
other matters is not peculiar to the Baptists, being com¬
mon to all Christians, and to all bodies of men who think
and judge for themselves.
BAR 427
BAPTISTERY, in ecclesiastical language, the name of Baptistery
a place in which the ceremony of baptism is performed. II
In the ancient church it was one of the exhedrae or build- Bar-le-
ings distinct from the church itself, and consisted of a
porch or anti-room where the persons to be baptized made
their confession of faith, and an inner apartment where the
ceremony of baptism was performed. Thus it continued
till the sixth century, when the baptisteries began to be
taken into the church-porch, and afterwards into the
church itself. The ancient baptisteries were commonly
called (pwrufTrjPtct, photisteria, or places of illumination, be¬
cause they were the places of instruction preceding bap¬
tism ; and in these the catechumens seem to have been
trained up, and instructed in the first rudiments of the
Christian faith.
Those baptisteries were anciently very capacious, be¬
cause the stated times of baptism returning but seldom,
there were usually great multitudes to be baptized at the
same time; and also because the manner of baptizing by
immersion or dipping under water made it necessary to
have a large font. In Venantius Fortunatus it is called
aula baptismatis, the large hall of baptism ; which was in¬
deed so large, that we sometimes read of councils meet¬
ing and sitting therein. This hall, or chapel, was always
kept shut during Lent, and the door sealed up with the
bishop’s seal, not to be opened till Maunday-Thursday.
The baptistery was always reputed a sacred place. In the
Roman order baptisteries were built of a round figure,
and distinguished with the image of St John the Baptist,
while over the basin or font was a figure of a dove in gold
or silver, to represent the Holy Ghost.
The name baptistery is sometimes also given to a kind
of chapel in a large church, which served for the same
office. It is an observation of some learned men, that an¬
ciently there was but one baptistery in a city, namely, at
the bishop’s church; and that afterwards they were set
up in parish churches, with the special allowance, how¬
ever, of the bishop.
BAR, in courts of justice, denotes an inclosure made
with a partition of timber, where the counsel are placed to
plead causes, and where prisoners are brought to answer
to indictments, &c. It corresponds to what among the Ro¬
mans was denominated tribunal. The French call it barre
d'audience. In England, lawyers who are called to the
bar, or licensed to plead, are termed barristers, an appel¬
lation equivalent to licentiate in other countries.
Bar, in Heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fess, but
much less. See Herardry.
Bar, in Music, a stroke drawn perpendicularly across
the lines of a piece of music, including between each two
a certain quantity or measure of time, which is various
as the time of the music is either triple or common. The
use of bars is not to be traced higher than 1574 ; the time
when the English translation of Adrian le Roy’s book on
the Tablature was published, and it was not until some time
after that the use of bars became general. Barnard’s cathe¬
dral music, printed in 1641, is without bars ; but bars are to
be found throughout in the Ayres and Dialogues of Henry
Lawes, published in 1653 ; from which it may be conjec¬
tured that we owe this improvement to Lawes.
Bar, in Hydrography, denotes a bank of sand or other
matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a manner choked
up. The term is also used for a strong beam wherewith
the entrance of a harbour is secured ; but this is more com¬
monly called boom.
B AR-le-Duc, or Bar-sur-Ornain, atown of France, de¬
partment of Meuse, and capital of an arrondissement of the
same name. It occupies the declivity and base of a hill, on
the river Ornain, a tributary of the Marne, 125 miles E. of
Paris. Lat. 48.46.8. N. Long. 5.9.47. E. It has a college,
428
BAR
BAR
Bar-sur-
Aube.
Baralipton.
normal school, society of agriculture and arts, and public
library. By the Ornain a considerable traffic is maintained
in wood, wine, wool, &c. The manufactures of cotton stuffs,
hats, hosiery, leather, and confections, are considerable.
Pop. in 1851, 14,303, The arrondissement contains 8 can¬
tons and 128 communes ; pop. 86,358.
B AR-sur-Aube, an arrondissement of the department of
the Aube, in France, comprehending 4 cantons and 88 com¬
munes. Area, 410 square miles. Pop. in 1851, 44,347. 4 he
chief place is the city of the same name, in a picturesque
district, the wine of which is much esteemed. Pop. 4380.
Long. 4. 44. E. Lat. 48. 13. N.
BAR-sur-Seine, an arrondissement of the department of
the Aube, in France, comprehending 5 cantons and 85 com¬
munes. Area, 357 square miles. Pop. in 1851 53,447.
The chief place of the same name has a population of 2656
persons, employed in manufactures and the wine trade. In
the middle ages this was a place of considerable importance.
Long. 4. 24. E. Lat. 48. 5. N.
BARA, the name of a festival formerly celebrated with
much magnificence at Messina, and representing the assump¬
tion of the Virgin. Though used as the general denomina¬
tion of this festival, bara signifies more particularly a vast
machine 50 feet high, at the top of which a young girl of
fourteen, representing the Virgin, stood upon the hand of
an image of the Saviour.
BARABA, a steppe or tract of land in Siberia, lying be¬
tween the rivers Irtisch and Obi, in the province of 1 obolsk.
The soil is excellent for tillage, and part of it might also be
laid out in meadows and pastures. It is interspersed with
forests, and a great number of lakes which abound with a
species of carp called by the people karawschen; and the
country produces great numbers of elks, deer, foxes, ermines,
and squirrels. Between the Irtisch and Obi are some rich
copper mines, particularly on a mountain called Pictowa,
from the picta or white firs that grow upon it. 1 he ore,
besides being rich in copper, yields a considerable portion
of silver; and this, again, affords as much gold as makes a
sufficient return for the trouble and expense of extracting it.
The native population of this country are called Barabinzians.
BARA CO A, a seaport town in the N.E. of Cuba. Long.
74. 30. W. Lat. 20. 22. N.
BARAHAT, a town of Northern Hindustan, situated
among the Himalaya Mountains in the native state of Gurwhal.
This town was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1803 ;
and from the houses having been built of large stones with
slated roofs, the calamity was greatly aggravated. From its
central position, it maintains a free communication with all
parts of the hills, and those who make the pilgrimage to
Gangautre generally halt here and lay in a stock of provisions
for their journey. In the neighbourhood there is a curious
trident, set up no doubt in honour of Siva, of whom, according
to Hindu mythology, it is the proper equipment. The
pedestal is of copper, the shaft of brass about 12 feet, and
the forks about 6 feet in length. There is no tradition to
show the origin of this curious relic of antiquity ; and al¬
though it bears a legible inscription which most probably
contains the information, no one has yet succeeded in deci¬
phering the characters. The temple in which it was for¬
merly inclosed was destroyed by the earthquake of 1803.
The town is in Lat. 30. 43. Long. 78. 29. (e. t.)
BARALIPTON, in the Old Logic, a term denoting a syl¬
logism of the first indirect mode of the first figure. Hence
a syllogism in baralipton is when the first two propositions
are universal affirmatives, the third a particular affirmative,
^^nd the middle term the subject in the first proposition, and
the predicate in the second. For example,
Ba. Every evil ought to be feared;
ra. Every violent passion is an evil;
lip. Therefore something that ought to be feared is a
violent passion.
BARANGI, officers among the Greeks of the lower em- Barangi
pire. Cujacius calls them in protectores, while others II
give them the name of securigeri. It was their business to ^aratl^re-
keep the keys of the city gates where the emperor resided.
BA RAN Y A, a province in the Austrian kingdom of Hun¬
gary, extending over 1960 square miles. It lies at the S.E.
angle formed by the Danube and the Drave, and compre¬
hends one city, 11 market-towns, and 341 villages, with about
260,000 inhabitants. The greater part of the land is fertile,
but a portion of it is marshy and unhealthy. The chief pro¬
ducts are corn, wine, flax, tobacco, aud potash. I here are
some valuable quarries of marble and millstones, and many
mines of fossil coal. It is subdivided into six circles. The
capital is Fiinfkirchen.
BARANZANO, surnamed Redemptus, an eminent na¬
tural philosopher, born in Piedmont in 1590, was a Barna-
bite monk. His principal works are Campus Philosophicus ;
Uranoscopia ; Nova; Opiniones Physica. He was greatly
esteemed by Lord Bacon, with whom he corresponded. He
died at Montargis in 1622.
BARATARIA, an island in the Gulf of Mexico, at the
entrance of the bay of the same name.
BARATHRUM (J3dpa9pov, also called dpvypa) in Anti¬
quity, a deep dark pit at Athens, lined with sharp spikes,
into which malefactors were cast. The KedSas or KaidSas
at Sparta was similar.
BARATIERE, or Barettier, John Philip, an extra¬
ordinary instance of the early and rapid expansion of the
mental faculties. This surprising genius was the son of
Francis Baratiere, minister of the French church at Schwa-
bach, near Nuremberg, where he was born on the 10th
January 1721. The French was his mother tongue ; but
in consequence of his father talking Latin to him, it became
as familiar to him as his native idiom ; and at four years of
age, without knowing the rules of grammar, he talked French,
Latin, and High Dutch, without mixing or confounding the
respective languages. About the middle of his fifth year he
acquired Greek in like manner ; so that in fifteen months he
perfectly understood all the Greek books in the Old and New
Testament, which he readily translated into Latin. When
he was five years and eight months old, he entered upon
Hebrew, and in three years became so expert in the Hebrew
text, .that from a Bible without points he could give the
sense of the original in Latin or French, or translate extem¬
pore the Latin or French versions into Hebrew, almost word
for word ; and he also acquired by heart all the Hebrew
psalms. He composed at this time adictionary of rare anddiffi-
cult Hebrew words, with critical and philological observations;
and, about his tenth year, amused himself lor twelve months
in reading the rabbinical writers. With these he intermixed
the study of the Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic ; and acquired a
taste for divinity and ecclesiastical antiquity, by studying the
Greek fathers, and the councils of the first four ages of the
church. In the midst of these occupations a pair of globes
having come into his possession, he was able in eight or ten
days’ time to resolve all the problems on them ; and in about
three months (January 1735) devised his project for the dis¬
covery of the longitude, which he communicated to the Royal
Society of London and the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Berlin. In June 1731 he was matriculated in the university
of Altorf; and at the close of the year 1 732 he was pre¬
sented by his father at the meeting of the reformed churches
of the circle of Franconia, which, astonished at his wonder¬
ful talents, admitted him to assist in the deliberations ol the
synod ; and in order to preserve the memory of so singular
an event, it was ordered to be registered in their acts. In
1734 the margrave of Brandenburg-Anspach granted this
young scholar the use of whatever books he wanted fiom
the Anspach library, together with a pension of fifty flonns,
which he enjoyed for three years. His father having received
a call from the French church at Stettin in Pomerania,
BAR
Barbacan young Baratiere was, on the journey, admitted master of arts,
|| with universal applause, at the university of Halle. While
Barbadoes. at Berlin he was honoured with several conversations with
the king of Prussia, and received into the Royal Academy.,
Towards the close of his life he acquired a taste for the study
of medals, inscriptions, and antiquities, which he relieved
with metaphysical inquiries, and investigations in experi¬
mental philosophy. He wrote several essays and disserta¬
tions ; made astronomical remarks and laborious calcula¬
tions ; prepared materials for a history of the heresies of the
Anti-trinitarians, and of the Thirty Years’ War in Germany ;
and, lastly, wrote a treatise, which appeared in 1740, on the
succession of the bishops of Rome. The final work he en¬
gaged in, and for which he had accumulated large materials,
was Inquiries concerning Egyptian Antiquities. But the
substance of this blazing meteor was now almost exhausted.
He had always been weak and sickly, and he died on the
5th October 1740, aged 19 years, 8 months, and 16 days.
He published eleven different pieces, and left twenty-nine
manuscripts on various subjects, the contents of which may
be seen in his biography by Formey, Utrecht, 1741.
BARBACAN, or Barbican, a kind of watch-tower, or
outer defence of a city or castle, used especially as a fence
to the city or walls : also an aperture made in the wall of a
fortress to fire through upon the enemy. It is also used to
denote a fort at the entrance of a bridge or the outlet of a
city, having a double wall with towers.
History. BARBADOES, or Barbados, is one of the West India
islands belonging to Britain, and the oldest of her settle¬
ments in that part of the world. The exact date of its
discovery is unknown, but it was probably not later than
the early part of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese
are supposed to have been the first Europeans that visited
this island, as it lay almost directly in their course to and
from Brazil. They, however, had not regarded it as holding
forth sufficient inducements for colonizing, as when first
visited by the English in 1605 it was destitute of inhabitants,
and covered with thick forests. The first English vessel
that arrived there was the “ Olive Blossom,” the crew of
which took possession of the island in the name of King James,
by erecting a cross upon the spot wdiere Jamestown was
afterwards built, and cutting upon the bark of a tree that
stood near, “ James K. of E. and this island,” James king of
England and this island. The favourable accounts which
Sir William Courteen, a London merchant, afterwards re¬
ceived of the island from one of his ships that had touched
there, induced him to attempt a settlement. He accordingly
fitted out two large vessels under the protection of Lord
Ley, afterwards Earl of Marlborough, who had obtained a
grant of this island from James I. One only of these ships
arrived at its destination on 17th February 1625, and landed
40 English, and 7 or 8 negroes, who laid the foundation of
a town, which, in honour of their sovereign, they called
Jamestown.
The Earl of Carlisle, who had previously obtained from
James I. a grant of all the Caribbean islands, disputed with
Marlborough the possession of Barbadoes. This wras at
length settled by Carlisle agreeing to pay to Marlborough
and his heirs an annuity of L.300, on which the island was
made over to him by patent, dated 2d June 1627. Cour¬
teen was displeased at this arrangement, and accordingly
applied to the Earl of Pembroke, who, during the tempo¬
rary absence of Carlisle, obtained a grant of the island from
Charles I. in 1628. On his return, however, Carlisle ob¬
tained the revocation of Pembroke’s patent, and his own re¬
instatement in the possession. The insecure nature of his
tenure now induced the earl to offer his lands in Barbadoes
for sale, stipulating that each settler should pay him 40 lb. of
cotton annually. On this condition a company of nine Lon¬
don merchants obtained a grant of 10,000 acres. They ac¬
cordingly nominated as governor Charles Wolferstone, a na-
BAR 429
tive of Bermuda, who, with 64 settlers, to each of whom Barbadoes.
were allotted 100 acres, set out for Barbadoes, where they
arrived in July 1628. The new colonists settled to the wind¬
ward of the former settlers, and founded Bridgetown. The
Pembroke men refused to submit to the authority of Lord
Carlisle, in consequence of which disputes arose between
them, which at length had to be referred to the two earls.
These appealed to the king, who issued a second patent,
dated 7th April 1629, confirming Carlisle as proprietor of
the island. During the civil war that raged in England, a
great number of families attached to the royal cause took
refuge in Barbadoes. About the year 1647, Lord Carlisle,
son of the original patentee, entered into an agreement with
Francis Lord Willoughby, in terms of which the latter was to
receive all the profits arising from the colony for twenty-one
years, upon condition of paying one-half to the earl. This
agreement received the sanction of the king, and Lord Wil¬
loughby was appointed governor of Barbadoes, and the other
Caribbee islands. He accordingly arrived in Barbadoes in
May 1650, where his first step was to convene the legisla¬
ture, and to proclaim His Majesty’s right to the dominion of
the island. Soon after this the parliament sent out a strong
force against the colony, under the command of Sir George
Ayscue, and prohibited all foreign vessels from trading
w ith the English colonies. Several attempts were made to
get possession of the island, but without success, until a part
of the inhabitants declared for the commonwealth, on which
Lord Willoughby was obliged to treat for peace. Upon the
restoration of the king, Lord Willoughby was again appointed
governor, but, from the number of claimants on the island,
the planters were apprehensive that the validity of their rights
might sooner or later be disputed, and accordingly applied to
His Majesty to have the grant to the Earl of Carlisle declared
void. Carlisle, wdio died about this time, had bequeathed
his West India possessions to the Earl of Kinnoul. Be¬
sides Lord Willoughby’s claim for the moiety of the revenue
during the remaining years of his lease, the creditors of the
Earl of Carlisle now put in claims to a large amount, and the
heirs of the Earl of Marlborough claimed the arrears of their
annuity of L.300, which had never yet been paid. To sa¬
tisfy these claims, Mr Kendall, in name of the planters, of¬
fered to consent to a tax of 4^ per cent, on all the exported
produce of the island. An immediate settlement of the
claims of the Earl of Kinnoul and the heirs of the Earl of
Marlborough was proposed, and the division equally be¬
tween Lord Willoughby and the earl’s creditors of the net
revenue during the remaining years of his lordship’s lease,
after which period, the remainder, after deducting as much
as His Majesty should consider necessary for the support of
the governor, was to be divided among the creditors. On the
settlement of their claims, the whole revenue was to be at
the disposal of the crown. The inhabitants of the island, how¬
ever, denied the authority of Mr Kendall to offer the 4^ per
cent., and at first refused to agree to it, but were at length
induced to comply. This tax, for a long period, pressed
heavily upon the planters of Barbadoes, and it was only re¬
pealed in the reign of Her present Majesty (1838). A fruit¬
less attempt to get possession of this island was made in 1665
by the Dutch, under the command of Admiral De Ruyter.
Bridgetown was nearly destroyed by fire in 1668, but was
afterwards rebuilt in a more substantial manner. In 1669,
the governor of Barbadoes was appointed governor-in-chief
of all the Caribbee islands to the windward of Guadaloupe.
An awful hurricane devastated the island in 1675. The
following year a plot among the negroes to take possession
of the island, was discovered in time to prevent much
bloodshed. Two great fires in 1766 and 1767 nearly re¬
duced Bridgetown to ashes. A tremendous hurricane in
October 1780 destroyed almost every building on the island,
and killed many of the inhabitants. The loss of human
life has been estimated at 4326 souls, and of property at
430
BARBADOES.
Barbadoes. L.1,320,564. According to Poyer, however, 3000 persons
perished, and the loss of property amounted to L. 1,018,928.
Between that and the last great hurricane of 1831, there
were several others, the severest of which was that of Octo¬
ber 1819, but these were less disastrous. The dreadful hur¬
ricane which desolated the island in August 1831 exceeded
in violence any of the former. The number of persons who
lost their lives is said to have amounted to upwards of 2000,
and by some to upwards of 5000; and the loss of property to
nearly L.1,602,800. There was an insurrection of the ne¬
groes in 1816, which involved a great sacrifice of life, and
much destruction of property.
Physical Barbadoes is the most eastern of the Caribbee islands,
description lying 78 miles due E. of the island of St Vincent, between
Lat. 13. 2. and 13. 19. N., and Long. 59. 26. and 59. 39.
W. It presents almost the form of an irregular triangle;
its greatest length in a direction N. by W. is nearly 21 miles,
and its extreme breadth from E. to W. is 14^ miles. Its
circumference, excluding the sinuosities of the bays, is 55
miles, and its area 106,470 acres, or about 166 square miles.
In size, and in some measure in its outline, it bears a con¬
siderable resemblance to the Isle of Wight. It is almost
encircled by coral reefs, which, in some parts, extend sea¬
ward for nearly three miles, and prove very dangerous to
navigation.
Notwithstanding its small extent, Barbadoes presents con¬
siderable variety of surface, as valley, hill, table-land, &c.
A deep valley running almost due E. from Bridgetown di¬
vides the island into two parts, of which the northern is by
much the larger. Near the centre of the latter Mount Hil-
laby, the highest point of the island, rises to the height of
1147 feet. From the west coast the ground rises in distinct
successive terraces, interrupted by ravines, to the central
ridge ; from which, and principally from Mount Hillaby,
hills of a conical form radiate in a north-eastern direction
toward the sea-shore: these are rugged and worn by the
heavy rains and torrents which pour down their sides.
Geology. The north, west, and south parts of the island consist of
rocks of coralline limestone, with beds of calcareous marl,
containing numerous recent shells of various species : the
east is composed of strata of siliceous sandstone, intermixed
with ferruginous matter, calcareous sandstone passing into
siliceous limestone, dilferent kinds of clay, selenite, earthy
marls, frequently containing minute fragments of pumice,
strata of volcanic ashes, seams of bitumen, and springs of
petroleum.
The rivers are all small, except during the rainy season,
when they are much increased. There are several chaly¬
beate springs, the principal of which are the Spa and the
Cheltenham, so called from the fancied resemblance of their
waters to the celebrated mineral springs of that name in
Europe. Ihese springs contain chiefly iron, carbonic acid,
and fixed alkali, in different proportions. The “ Boiling
Spring” is a small spot where carburetted hydrogen escapes;
and when the shallow excavation is filled with water, it has
the appearance of being in a boiling state, though its tem¬
perature is not in the least changed. On the application of
a flame, it burns with a whitish light.
Climate. Barbadoes is considered to be one of the healthiest islands
of the West Indian archipelago. The climate, though warm,
is very salubrious. In the forenoon, the mean temperature
during the year is about^SO0, and in the afternoon 820Fahr.;
the minimum being 75°, and the maximum 87°.
Population Soon after its first settlement in 1625, the accounts of its
great fertility attracted many immigrants from the mother
country; and during the civil war in England, great num¬
bers took refuge there. The accounts of its progress, how¬
ever, are so contradictory, that they cannot be relied upon.
In the report of the privy council in 1788, the population
of the preceding year is stated to have been 16,127 whites,
2229 free coloured, and 64,405 negroes. According to
the census of 1844, it contained 122,198 inhabitants, of Barbadoes.
whom 56,004 were males, and 66,194 females. This census,
however, had been very carelessly taken, and the governor
stated in his despatch, that the population was not less
than 130,000. Even according to the census, there were
734‘8 persons to each square mile, a denseness of popula¬
tion exceeding that of China. According to a census taken
on the 25th of June 1851, the population (exclusive of the
troops) was 135,939, of whom 62,272 were males, and 73,667
females ; 15,824 white, 30,059 coloured, and 90,056 black.
This gives 817*4 inhabitants to each square mile; yet not¬
withstanding this, it is stated in the government report, that
so long as the seasons continue favourable, there is abun¬
dance for all its present population, and that “ unless there
should happen some material change for the worse in the
returns of property here, the demand for labour will always
rather exceed the quantity offering in the market than the
contrary.”
The island is divided into eleven parishes or districts,
the area and population of which, according to the last-men¬
tioned census, were as follows :—
Area.
St Michael  9,580
Christ Church... 14,310
St Philip  15,040
St George  10,795
St John  8,600
St Thomas  8,500
St Peter  8,330
St Joseph  6,010
St Lucy  8,725
St James  7,800
St Andrew  8,780
106,470
rOPUliATlOlN IN
Male. female. Total.
16,071 21,395 37,466
7,259 8,516 15,775
6,550 7,348 13,898
5,384 5,876 11,260
4,235 4,660 8,895
4,679 5,131 9,810
4,477 5,329 9,806
3,321 3,687 7,008
3,849 4,571 8,420
3,168 3,716 6,884
3,279 3,438 6,717
62,272 73,667 135,939
Bridgetown the capital, in the parish of St Michael, con¬
tained 20,026 inhabitants.
The Church of England is the established form of re- Religion,
ligion. The bishop has an income of L.4000; and in
1851 there were eleven rectors, who, besides a glebe and
parsonage, and compensation in lieu of marriage and burial
fees, had each a stipend of L.320; 18 curates at L.150; and
two legislative chaplains. The dissenting bodies are not
numerous, the Wesleyans and Moravians alone having mis¬
sions here. The former have 8 churches, 4 preaching sta¬
tions, with 3 missionaries, 14 local preachers, and about 2000
members ; and the latter have 4 stations and 5 missionaries.
There is a small Roman Catholic chapel, with one priest, prin¬
cipally for the soldiers of the garrison, the other adherents
probably not exceeding 35 or 40. The Jews have a very
handsome synagogue, erected in 1833 ; the congregation,
however, numbers only about 70.
Attached to almost all the churches and chapels there are Education.
Sunday-schools. Connected with the Established church are
about 60 day-schools, almost all primary, in several of which
the children are both clothed and fed. Harrison’s free school
was established in 1733 for the education of 24 poor chil¬
dren. Thecentral school of Bridgetown M?as founded in 1819
for the maintenance and education of poor white children ;
and in 1846 it had 80 boarders and 71 day-scholars. The
private schools are very numerous. The island is indebted
to the munificence of General Codrington for the grammar
school and college which bear his name. The course of
studies pursued there embraces the classics, logic, mathe¬
matics, physics, surgery, theology, &c.
A small public library has been formed, which seems to Public
be fully appreciated by the people; and the trustees ac- *nstl u 10n
cordingly have been encouraged to make exertions for
its enlargement. There are also a literary and several agri¬
cultural societies. A general hospital was opened in 1844,
and is attended gratuitously by six medical practitioners of
Commerce.
f Covern-
ment.
BAR
Barbara the first standing. There are also a leper and a lunatic asy¬
lum, an alms-house, and a number of charities for widows and
orphans; and in Bridgetown a common jail, besides three
houses of correction in the rural districts.
The chief staple articles produced in Barbadoes for ex¬
port are sugar, arrow-root, aloes, and cotton. The following
table gives the value of the imports and exports for the years
1849, 1850, and 1851
Imports. Exports. Tonnage.
1849, L.591,478 L.791,740 85,731
1850, 734,358 831,534 96,381
1851, 789,977 887,627 95,272
Carlisle Bay, the port or harbour of Barbadoes, forms an open
roadstead, which is much exposed to the wind when blow¬
ing from the S. and S.W. It is spacious, and capable of
containing upwards of 500 vessels of all sizes. It affords,
however, no protection during gales; and at such times
vessels at anchor generally prefer putting to sea, to running
the risk of being driven ashore.
The local government consists of a governor-in-chief, as¬
sisted by a council and a house of assembly. The council
consists of twelve members, appointed by mandamus of the
sovereign, generally upon the recommendation of the gover¬
nor, and holding office during the royal pleasure. The house
of assembly is composed of 24 delegates, elected annually
by the body of the people, two for each parish and two for
the city of Bridgetown. The courts for the administration
of civil justice are, the court of chancery, the court of com¬
mon pleas, the court of exchequer, the court of ordinary,
the court of admiralty, the court of error, and the court of
escheat. The criminal courts are the court of grand sessions
and the court of admiralty sessions. F or dealing summarily,
both in civil and criminal cases, police magistrates are ap¬
pointed.
See Foyer’s History of Barbadoes ; Schomburgk’s His¬
tory of Barbadoes, 1848; Colonial Reports, &c.
BARBARA, in the Old Logic, the first mode of the first
figure of syllogisms. A syllogism in barbara is one of which
all the propositions are universal affirmatives, the middle term
being the subject of the first proposition, and the predicate
in the second.
Bar. All wicked men are miserable ;
ba. All tyrants are wicked men ;
ra. Therefore all tyrants are miserable.
BARBARIAN, a name given by the ancient Greeks and
Romans to all who were not of their own country, or were
not initiated in their language, manners, and customs. In
this sense the word signified with them a foreigner ; not, as
among us, a rude or uncivilized person.
BARBARISM, in a general sense, a rudeness of language
or behaviour.
Barbarism, in Grammar, an offence against the purity
of style or language, or a form of speaking or writing con¬
trary to the true idiom of any particular language.
BARBAROSSA, Arucii and Hayrabdin, two famous
corsairs in the sixteenth century, sons of a potter in the
Isle of Lesbos. Having taken to piracy, they carried on
their depredations with such success, that they soon be¬
came possessed of twelve galleys besides smaller vessels.
Of this fleet Aruch, the elder brother, called Barbarossa
from the redness of his beard, was admiral, and Hayraddin
the second in command. They called themselves the “friends
of the sea,” and the “ enemies of all who sailed upon it
and their names became terrible from the straits of the Dar¬
danelles to those of Gibraltar. They acquired territorial
power in 1516, in consequence of an unwise application
made to them by Eutemi, ruler of Algiers, for assistance
against the Spaniards. Aruch, leaving his brother to com¬
mand the fleet, carried 5000 men to Algiers, where he was
hailed as a deliverer; but having secretly murdered the prince
he had come to aid, he caused himself to be proclaimed king.
BAR 431
To this usurpation he added the conquest of Tremecen, when Barbary
his exploits and piracies induced the Emperor Charles V. II
to furnish the Marquis de Comares, governor of Oran, with Barbaul<1-
troops to put him down ; and in the contest which ensued
he was defeated and killed near Tremecen, a.d. 1518. His
brother, Hayraddin, known also by the name of Barbarossa,
assumed the sceptre at Algiers with the same abilities, and
with better fortune ; for the Spaniards being too much em¬
ployed in Europe to give him any disturbance, he regulated
the interior police of his kingdom with great prudence, carried
on his naval operations with vigour, and extended his con¬
quests on the continent of Africa. He put his dominions
under the protection of the Grand Signior, Suleiman the
Magnificent, and obtained the command of the Turkish fleet.
With so powerful a protector he acquired the kingdom of
Tunis, in a manner similar to that by which his brother ob¬
tained Algiers. See Algiers.
BARBARY, the general designation of that part of
Northern Africa which is bounded on the E. by Egypt, W.
by the Atlantic, S. by the Sahara, and N. by the Mediter¬
ranean ; comprising the states of Marocco, Algeria, Tunis,
and Tripoli. See Africa, Algiers, Marocco, Tripoli,
Tunis, &c.
B ARBASTRO, a city of Spain, in the province of Hu-
esca, on the River Vero, near its junction with the Cinca. It
is fortified, and has a cathedral and seven other churches,
with several hospitals. Pop. 6200, chiefly employed in tan¬
ning and currying leather. Long. 0. 20. W. Lat. 41. 54. N.
BARBATELLI, Bernardino, otherwise called Po-
chetti, a painter of fruit, animals, and flowers, was born at
Florence in 1542. He was the disciple of Ridolfo Ghir-
londaio at Florence. His touch was free, light, and delicate,
and his colouring true. The historical subjects also which
he designed from sacred or profane authors were much ad¬
mired. He died in 1612.
BARBAULD, Anna Letitia, was born at Kibworth,
in Leicestershire, on the 20th June 1743. She was the
daughter of the Rev. John Aikin, LL.D., a minister of the
Presbyterian denomination, who had a private seminary at
Kibworth, and removed in 1758 to Warrington, in Lanca¬
shire, to superintend the public academy in that place. His
daughter was remarkable for the abilities she displayed at a
very, early age; and, beside the usual female accomplish¬
ments, she soon acquired a knowledge of the Latin and
Greek tongues. She was distinguished in the literary so¬
ciety of Warrington for the variety of her attainments and
the elegance of her taste, which were rendered still more
attractive by her personal beauty, vivacity, and amiable dis¬
position. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Bar-
bauld, who was descended of a French Protestant family,
and had studied under her father. They opened a school
at Palgrave, in Suffolk, which they carried on successfully
during eleven years. Among the number of their pupils
were Sir William Cell and Lord Denman. Mrs Barbauld’s
Hymns in Prose, which are poetry in everything but metre,
were composed for the instruction of her pupils; as were
also the Early Lessons, one of the standard works for children,
published in 1775. Her Devotional Pieces appeared during
the same year. Besides various other literary productions,
she engaged with her brother, Dr Aikin, in the popular work
entitled Evenings at Home, which appeared in 1793. After
a sojourn of two years on the continent with her husband
to recruit their health, Mr Barbauld accepted an invitation
to become the pastor of a dissenting congregation at Hamp¬
stead, where they resided from 1787 till 1802. They then
took up their residence at Stoke-Newington, in consequence
of Mr Barbauld’s having accepted a similar charge at New¬
ington Green. Mrs Barbauld lost her husband in 1808 ;
and her brother, Dr Aikin, died in 1822. Her own death
followed on the 9th March 1825. She left no children.
Her collected works, with a memoir of her life by her niece,
432
Barbe
II
Barbe-
zieux.
BAR
BAR
Miss Lucy Aikin, were published soon after her death, in
2 vols. 8vo.
BARBE, Barb, or Barde, is an old word, denoting the
armour of the horses of the ancient knights and soldiers, who
were accoutred at all points. It consisted of iron and leather,
and defended the neck, breast, and shoulders of the horse.
BARBER, one whose occupation it is to shave or trim
beards. In former times the barber’s craft was dignified
with the title of a profession, being conjoined with the art of
surgery. In France the barber-surgeons were separated
from the perruquiers, and incorporated as a distinct body in
the reign of Louis XIV. In England the barbers and surgeons
were not separated till the 18th of Geo. II. ihe func¬
tions of the barber-surgeon comprised the cure of wounds,
simple surgical operations, and blood-letting, together with
shaving, and the cutting and dressing of hair, technically
termed trimming. The barber’s shop in those days was a
favourite resort of idle persons ; and in addition to its attrac¬
tion as a focus of news, a lute, viol, or some such musical
instrument, was always kept for the entertainment of wait¬
ing customers. The barber’s sign consisted of a striped
pole, from which was suspended a basin, symbols the use of
which is still preserved. The fillet round the pole indicated
the ribbon for bandaging the arm in bleeding, and the basin
the vessel to receive the blood. The setting of fractured
limbs was confined to a distinct class of persons called bone-
set levs,
BARBERINI VASE. See Portland Vase.
BARBERINO, Francesco da, called by some authors
Francesco Tafani, one of the best poets of his age, was
born at Barberino, in Tuscany, in the year 1264. His mo¬
ther was a native of Florence; and he settled in that city,
where he followed the profession of the law, and became
distinguished for the beauty of his poetry. The greater
part of his works are lost; but that which is entitled Docu-
menti d’Amove, a moral poem calculated to instruct those
in their duty who have a regard for glory, virtue, and eter¬
nity, has had a better fate. It was published at Rome in
quarto in 1640, by Frederic Ubaldini, who prefixed a life
of the author; to which he added a glossary to explain the
obsolete words it contains. Barberino died in 1348.
Barberino, a town of Tuscany, in Italy, situated at the
foot of the Apennines. Lat. 43. 33. N. Long. 11. 18. E.
BARBERRY, Oxyacanthus, a spiny, shrubby plant, of
the genus Berberis, which produces a berry, used in con¬
serves, &c. The bark, especially that of the root, affords a
fine yellow dye. It is remarkable for the irritability of its
stamens.
BARBEYRAC, Jean, the son of Charles Barbeyrac a
distinguished physician of Montpelier, was born at Beziers
in Lower Languedoc, in 1674. He was successively pro¬
fessor of belles lettres at Berlin, of law and history at Lau¬
sanne, and of public law at Groningen. His death took
place in 1729. He translated into French the two cele¬
brated works of Pufendorf, his Law of Nature and Nations,
and his Duties of a Man and a Citizen ; to both of which he
added excellent notes, and to the former an introductory
preface. He translated also Grotius’s treatise De Jure
Belli ac Pads, with large and excellent notes ; several of
Tillotson’s Sermons ; Cumberland’s treatise on the Law of
Nature ; and various other works. He compiled a supple¬
ment, in five vols. folio, to the collection of treatises named
Grand Corps Diplomatique; and was the author of an
original work entitled Traite de Jeu, 2 vols. 8vo.
BARBEZIEUX, an arrondissement of the department
of Charente, in France, extending over 400 square miles, and
comprehending six cantons and eighty-seven communes,
with 56,557 inhabitants. The town from which it takes its
name is in a mountainous situation. Pop. in 1851, 3516. It
Long. 0. 11. W. Lat. 45. Barbieri
is famous for its truffled capons
29. N.
BARBIERI, Giovanni Francesco (otherwise called
Guercino, from his squinting), an eminent historical painter,
was born at Cento, a village not far from Bologna, in 1590. At
first he was a disciple of Benedetto Gennari; but he afterwards
studied in the school of the Caracci, though he did not adopt
the manner of that famous academy. He seemed to prefer
the style of Caravaggio to that of Guido or Albano, imagining
it impossible to imitate nature truly, without the assistance
of strong lights and shadows; and on that principle the
light was admitted into his atelier from above. His taste
in design was natural, easy, and frequently grand. Towards
the decline of his life he observed that the clearer and
brighter style of Guido and Albano had attracted the admi¬
ration of all Europe; and he, accordingly, altered his manner,
even against his own judgment. But he apologized for this
conduct by declaring that formerly he had painted for fame
and to please the judicious, but that now he painted to
please the ignorant and enrich himself. He executed no
fewer than 106 altar-pieces for churches, and 144 historical
pictures, besides numerous works in fresco. His best per¬
formance is the history of Sta. Petronilla, which is considered
one of the ornaments of St Peter’s at Rome. He died in
1666.
Barbieri, Paolo Antonio, da Cento, painter of still life
and animals, was the brother of Guercino, and born at Cento
in 1596. He chose for his subjects fruits, flowers, insects,
and animals, which he painted after nature with a lively
tint of colour, great tenderness of pencil, and a strong cha¬
racter of truth and life. He died in 1640.
BARBITOS (Bap/Un-os), an ancient stringed instrument
of music, said to have been invented by Anacreon. It re¬
sembled the lyra, but greatly exceeded it in the number
of its strings. Yet Anacreon himself indiscriminately uses
the two names for this instrument in his first ode.
Barbour.
'A /3ap/jtros Se ^opSais
*Eporra yotvov fx1^-
   Xvprj 8e
’Eptaras avre^covet.
BARBOUR, John, the contemporary and in some re¬
spects the rival of Chaucer, is the author of a poem which
may justly be described as a national work c it relates the
exploits of a very heroic monarch, whose memory is still
cherished by his countrymen, and it displays so conspicuous
a union of talent and patriotism, that, after the lapse of nearly
five centuries, it has not ceased to attract an uncommon de¬
gree of attention. The orthography of this poet’s name is
very unsettled; it is to be found under the different forms of
Barber, Barbere, Barbar, Barbare,and Barbour. It evidently
belongs to that very numerous class of names originally de¬
rived from trades or occupations; but as Barbour appears to
have been the ancient orthography of the word denoting this
particular trade, there is sufficient propriety in adhering to the
form now so generally adopted, and writing the name Bar¬
bour instead of Barber. Those authors who aver that he was
born at Aberdeen, and educated in the abbey of Aberbro-
thick, seem to have substituted conjecture for evidence: no
document which can enable us to ascertain the place of his
birth or education has yet been discovered. His birth has
been referred to the year 1316. When he describes the per¬
son of Randolph, says Lord Hailes, he seems to speak from
personal observation; and as Randolph died in 1331 and Bar¬
bour in 1396, the poet, if we suppose him to have reached the
a-e of 80, would have been 15 years old at the period of that
illustrious warrior’s death.1 This however is but a vague
calculation, resting on no solid basis for he neither professes
to describe the person of Randolph from actual observation,
* Hailes’s Annals of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 3.
BARBOUR.
Harbour, nor is his description so minute and graphic as to justify
the inference that he must have acquired his knowledge
in this manner. It has been suggested by Dr Jamie¬
son, that the strongest presumption of his having been
born at so early a period, is to be found in the circum¬
stance of his being a dignitary of the church in the year
1357. If we suppose him to have been born in 1316, he
may have obtained this preferment about the age of for¬
ty; and the same learned writer remarks that it must
have required very powerful interest to obtain it at a
much earlier period. We are not however sufficiently
acquainted with the details of his personal history, to be
enabled to estimate the probability of his rapid promo¬
tion ; but, according to the canon law, he could be regu¬
larly appointed an archdeacon at the age of twenty-five.1
We must therefore be content to leave’ conjectural dates
as we found them, without attempting to decide whether
he was born in 1316, 1326, or 1330; but more authentic
notices of this venerable archdeacon have fortunately been
preserved. On the 13th of August 1357, Edward III.,
on the application of the Scottish king, granted Barbour
a safeconduct to visit the university of Oxford, accom
panied by three students.2 This instrument expressly
mentions that they are to repair thither for the purpose
of study, and of performing scholastic exercises; and it
has been stated by a distinguished ornament of the uni¬
versity that Barbour studied there during the years 1357
and 1365.3 But as the safeconduct describes him as
archdeacon of Aberdeen, we cannot so easily admit that
he comes under the common denomination of an academi¬
cal student, if by this term we understand a person sub¬
jected to college discipline, and following a prescribed
course of study; nor is it unreasonable to conclude that
the scholastic exercises were solely to be performed by
the three scholars who accompanied him. That he com¬
pleted his studies in this celebrated university, is how¬
ever sufficiently probable, though it must apparently have
been at an earlier period of life. We may venture to in¬
fer, that on the present occasion he repaired to Oxford,
as many individuals still repair to it, for the purpose of
conferring with learned clerks, and of consulting books
which he had no opportunity of consulting at home; and
such a document may therefore be regarded as an ho¬
nourable testimony of his love of learning. Nor is it the
only document of this kind. There is another safecon¬
duct, dated on the 6th of November 1364, and authoriz¬
ing the archdeacon of Aberdeen to visit England with
four horsemen, in order to study at Oxford or elsewhere,
as he may judge expedient ;4 and a third, dated on the
30th of November 1368, authorizes him to travel through
England with two servants and two horses, on his way
towards France.for the same purpose of study.5 * * On the
13th of September 1357, the bishop of his diocese had
nominated him one of the commissioners who were to
meet at Edinburgh, to deliberate concerning the ransom
433
of the captive kingbut as he must then have received Barbour,
his passport for Oxford, it is conjectured that this nomi-
nation was only intended as a compliment, and that the
actual duty was to devolve on a coadjutor, who is named
in the same instrument. On the 16th of October 1365
Edward had granted him permission to travel through
England, with six companions on horseback, towards St
Denis and other sacred places J an expression which
seems to indicate that the object of his expedition was of
a religious nature. After an interval of several years, his
name occurs in another authentic record; namely, in the
list of the auditors of exchequer, appointed on the 18th
of February 1373, or, according to our present computa¬
tion, 1374. Here he is described as archdeacon of Aber¬
deen, and “ clericus probacionis domus domini nostri Re¬
gis and in the same commission we find the name of
Sir Hugh Eglintoun.8
About this period, he was engaged in the composition
of the work which has transmitted his name to posterity;
for it appears from his own statement that in the year
1375 his work was more than half-finished.9 Dr Henry
has stated, but apparently without any competent autho¬
rity, that it was undertaken at the request of David II.,
the son and successor of the heroic monarch whose ac¬
tions the author commemorates; and that a considerable
pension was granted to him as an encouragement to pro-
secute this design.10 It is to be recollected that David
died in 1371, several years before Barbour had written
one half of his poem. The history of his pension was in¬
volved in much obscurity, which has at length been re¬
moved by the researches of Dr Jamieson. Hume of Gods-
cioft had affirmed that his merit as the author of this
poem was rewarded by a pension from the exchequer
during his life, that he transferred this pension to the
hospital of Aberdeen, and that it still continued to be
paid in his own lifetime.11 The terms of this statement
are evidently at variance with each other; but the fact of
his having received a pension, or rather two different pen¬
sions, from the crown, rests on unquestionable authority;
and this fact cannot but be regarded as creditable to the
government of his country, nor must the extent of such
liberality be estimated by so fallacious a standard as the
present value of money. At a much later period, Hector
Boyce enjoyed a revenue of forty marks, as principal of
King’s College, Aberdeen. Barbour’s pensions consisted
of ten pounds payable from the customs of Aberdeen,
and twenty shillings payable from the rent of the lands
and fisheries which that city held of the crown.12 The
first was merely an annuity for his life, but the other was
granted to him and his assignees, with an express permis¬
sion to dispose of it in mortmain ; and it appears from the
records to have been granted by Robert II. as a reward
for the composition of his historical poem.13 This sum he
did not bequeath to the hospital, but to the dean and
chapter of Aberdeen, under the condition that they
2 liymer, Fcedera, tom. vi. p. 31. Rotuli Scotia:, tom. i. p. 808.
s Rotuli Scotice, tom. i. p. 926.
7 liymer, tom. vi. p. 478. Rotuli Scotice, tom. i. p. 897-
1 Decretales Gregorii IX. lib. i. tit. vi. cap. vii. §. 2.
3 Warton’s Hist, of English Poetry, vol. ii. p. 154. Price’s edit.
4 Rotuli Scotice, tom. i. p. 886.
6 liymer, Fcedera, tom. vi. p. 39.
8 Accounts of the Great Chamberlains of Scotland, vol ii. p. 19.
9 And in the tyme of the compiling
Off' this buk, this Robert wes king,
And off his kynrik passit was
Fy ve yer; and wes the yer off grace
A thousand, thre hundyr, sevynty
, And fyve, and off his eld sixty. (Barbour’s p. 274, Jamieson’s edit.-)
j j -Henry s Hist, of Great Britain, vol. iv. p, 472. 1
i Hume’s Hist- of the Houses of Douglas and Angus, p. 31. Edinb. 1644, fol.
la Acc.ounts 0ft;he Great Chamberlains of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 128. 153—With respect to these pensions, many subsequent entries occur.
ibul. vol. iii. p. 269. Jamieson’s Memoir of the Life of Barbour, p. viii.
vol. xv% 3 i
434 BARBOUR.
Barbour, should say a yearly mass for the repose of his soul.1 His
larger pension seems likewise to have been conferred by
the same king; and although this circumstance has not
been traced in any record, it was probably conferred for
the same reason.
Although the Bruce is the only work of Barbour that
is known to be extant, it is not the only work of which
he was the author. He appears to have written another
book, doubtless in rhyme, comprising a genealogical his¬
tory of the kings of Scotland, and deducing their origin
from the Trojan colony of Brutus.2 We may venture to
conclude that his principal materials were drawn from
very dubious sources; but although the historical value
of this production may not have been very conspicuous,
it would undoubtedly have been regarded as a curious
relique of the literature of the middle ages. The exist¬
ence of such a work is fully established by various pas¬
sages in Winton’s chronicle.
This Nynus had a sone alsua,
Sere Dardane lord of Frygia.
Fra quham Barbere sutely
Has made a propyr Genealogy,
Tyl Robert oure secownd kyng,
That Scotland had in governyng.3
Of Bruttus lyneage quha wyll her,
He Ink the tretis of Barbere,
Mad in-tyl a Genealogy
Rycht wele, and mare perfytly
Than I can on ony wys
Wytht all my wyt to yowe dewys.4
It is apparently the same book which the prior of Loch-
leven repeatedly quotes under the title of the Brute ; and
we agree with Dr Jamieson in thinking it highly probable
that this book is quoted by Barbour himself in the subse¬
quent passage.
Als Arthur, that throw chevalry
Maid Bretane maistres and lady
Off twelf kinrykis that he wan;
And alsua, as a noble man,
He wan throw bataill Fraunce all fre,
And Lucius Yber wencusyt he,
That then of Rome was emperor
Bot yeit, for all his gret valour,
Mordreyt his systir son him sle>
And gud men als ma than inew,
Throw tresoune and throw wikkitnes;
The Broite beris thairoff wytnes.5
The archdeacon, as has already been hinted, died in
1396 ;6 and as he had enjoyed his preferment for at least
thirty-nine years, he must evidently have reached an ad¬
vanced period of life. His character, if we may be allow¬
ed to form a conjecture from the general strain of his
work, was of an amiable kind ; and his name has long been
respected by his countrymen. The earliest edition of the
Bruce which has hitherto been traced was published at
Edinburgh in 1616; but, as Patrick Gordon, whose poem
was licensed in 1613, describes it as “ the old printed
book,”7 there is reason to believe that the first impression
is of a much earlier date. Several other editions appear- Barbour,
ed in the course of the seventeenth century; “ and there
are many later editions of no value, published by different
booksellers, to answer the demand of the common people
for this book ; which, to the credit of their good sense, is
very great.”8 A more elaborate edition was at length pub¬
lished by Mr Pinkerton, from a manuscript in the Advo¬
cates Library; but as the transcript was neither execut¬
ed by himself, nor under his immediate inspection, many
gross inaccuracies were suffered to escape.9 After an
interval of thirty years, another edition, the best that has
yet appeared, was published by Dr Jamieson from a more
careful collation of the same manuscript.10 This appears
from the colophon to have been transcribed in 1489, by
John Ramsay, who is supposed to be the same person that
was afterwards prior of the Carthusian monastery at Perth.
The transcript was executed at the request of Simon
Lochmalony, vicar of Moonsie; and thus every individual
more immediately concerned, the poet, the copyist, and
his employer, belonged to the church.
When we endeavour to appreciate the literary merit of
Barbour, we must at the same time endeavour to transport
ourselves to the remote and unrefined age in which he
lived ; we must recollect the general barbarism of many
preceding centuries, the difficulty of acquiring liberal
knowledge, the rude and grotesque taste of almost all his
contemporaries. When all these circumstances are duly
considered, his poem will be found entitled to an ample
share of our approbation. Fortunate in the choice of a
subject, he has unfolded a series of remarkable events,
and has diffused over a very long narrative that lively in¬
terest which an ordinary writer is incapable of exciting.
Here we are not to expect the blandishments of modern
poetry : the author stands conspicuous amid the ruins of
time, and, like an undecayed Gothic tower, presents an
aspect of majestic simplicity. The lively strain of his nar¬
rative, the air of sincerity which he always exhibits, his
earnest participation in the success or sufferings of his
favourite characters, as well as the splendid attributes of
the characters themselves, cannot fail of arresting the at¬
tention of every reader familiarly acquainted with the lan¬
guage in which he writes. The age of the great King
Robert was the age of Scottish chivalry, and the monarch
himself presented the most perfect model of a valiant
knight. Whatever inconsistencies may have appeared in
his early conduct, the best portion of his life was undoubt¬
edly spent in the exercise of heroic valour or of political
wisdom. Such a hero and such a crisis were a most
fortunate selection; and although the intrinsic merit of
the poet is very conspicuous, yet the attraction of the
poem is partly to be ascribed to his judicious choice of a
subject.
Barbour was evidently skilled in such branches of know¬
ledge as were then cultivated, and his learning was so well
regulated as to conduce to the real improvement of his
mind: the liberality of his views, and the humanity of his
1 Accounts, vol. ii. p. 402.
2 With respect to the story of the Trojan origin of another nation, “ Ueber die Sage von der Trojanischen Abkunft der Franken,”
some curious notices may be found in W. C. Grimm’s Adtdanischc Hddenlieder, Balladen, und Mdrchen, S. 431. Heidelberg, 1811, 8vo.
5 Winton’s Cronykil of Scotland, vol. i. p. 26.
4 Hid. vol. i. p. 54—Another early poet mentions Barbour as the author of different works.
Master Barbour, quhilk was a worthi clerk,
He said the Bruce amang his othir werk. (Henry’s Wallace, p. 353.)
8 Barbour’s Bruce, p. 20. 6 Chartulary of Ahadecn, f. 115.
7 Gordon’s Famovs Historie of the renouned and valiant Prince Robert, surnamed the Brvse, King of Scotland. l)ort, 1615, 4to.
8 Pinkerton’s List of the Scottish Poets, p. Ixxxiii.
9 The Bruce; or, the History of Robert I. King of Scotland : written in Scottish verse by John Barbour. The first genuine edition,
published from a manuscript dated 1489 ; with notes and a glossary by J. Pinkerton. Lond. 1790, 3 vols. 8vo.
10 The Bruce and Wallace; published from two ancient manuscripts preserved in the Library of the Faculty of Advocates: with notes,
biographical sketches, and a glossary. Edinb. 1820, 2 vols. 4to.
BARBOUR.
^Barbour, sentiments, appear occasionally to have been unconfined
by the narrow boundaries of his own age. He has drawn
various illustrations from ancient history and from the
stories of romance, but has rarely displayed his erudition
by decking his verses with the names of ancient authors:
the distichs of Cato,1 and the spurious productions of
Dares Phrygius and Dictys Cretensis are the only pro¬
fane books to which he formally refers. He has borrowed
more than one illustration from Statius, who was the fa¬
vourite classic of those times, and who likewise appears to
have been the favourite of Barbour: the more chaste and
elegant style of Virgil and Horace was not so well adapt¬
ed to the prevalent taste, as the strained thoughts and
gorgeous diction of Statius and Claudian. The manner in
which he has incidentally discussed the subject of astro¬
logy and necromancy, maybe specified as not a little cre¬
ditable to his good sense. It is well known that these
branches of divination were assiduously cultivated during
the ages of intellectual darkness. I he absurdity of astro¬
logy and necromancy he has not openly attempted to ex¬
pose ; for as the opinions of the many, however unfound¬
ed in reason, must not be too rashly stigmatized, this
might have been too bold and decided a step. Of the
possibility of predicting events he speaks with the caution
of a philosopher ; but the following passage may be con¬
sidered as a sufficient indication of his deliberate senti¬
ments :
And sen thai ar in sic wenyng,
For owtyne certante off witting,
Me think quha sayis he knawis thingis
To cum, he makys’ gret gabingis.2
To form such an estimate, required a mind capable of re¬
sisting a strong torrent of prejudice; nor is it superfluous
to remark, that in an age of much higher refinement, Dry-
den suffered himself to be deluded by the prognostications
of judicial astrology.3 It was not however to be expect¬
ed that Barbour should on every occasion evince a decid¬
ed superiority to the general spirit of the age to which he
belonged. His terrible imprecation on the person who
betrayed Sir Christopher Seton, “ In hell condampnyt mot
he be ! ought not to have been uttered by a Christian
priest. His detestation of the treacherous and cruel King
Edward induced him to lend a credulous ear to the re¬
port of his consulting an infernal spirit. The misfortunes
which attended Bruce at almost every step of his early
progress, he attributes to his sacrilegious act of slaying
Comyn at the high altar. He supposes that the women
and children who assisted in supplying the brave defenders
435
of Berwick with arrows and stones, were protected from Barbour,
injury by a miraculous interposition. Such instances of'
superstition or uncharitable zeal are not to be viewed as
marking the individual: gross superstition, with its usual
concomitants, was the general spirit of the time ; and the
deviations from the ordinary track are to be traced in
examples of liberal feeling or enlightened judgment.
His encomium on political freedom is distinguished by
a manly and dignified strain of sentiment:
A ! fredome is a noble thing !
Fredome mayss a man to haiff liking
Fredome all solace to man giffis:
He levys at ess that frely levys.
A noble hart may haiff nane ess,
Na ellys nocht that may him pless,
Gyff fredome failyhe; for fre liking
Is yharnyt our all othir thing.
Na he that ay hass levyt fre,
May nocht knaw weill the propyrte,
The angyr, na the wrechyt dome
That is cowplyt to foule thyrldome.
Bot gyff he had assayit it,
Than all perquer he suld it wyt,
And suld think fredome mar to pryss
Than all the gold in warld that is.-®
from the satisfaction with which the poet seems to
contemplate any example of the gentler virtues, we mav
venture to draw a favourable inference respecting the na¬
tive benevolence of his disposition. The subsequent pas¬
sage cannot be passed without particular notice : the an¬
nals of heroes furnish but few instances of so pleasing a
nature, whether it be that heroes seldom stoop to actions
of mere benevolence,5 or that their historians do not think
it of much importance to transmit such actions to poste¬
rity.
The king has hard a woman cry ;
He askyt quhat that wes in hy.
“ It is the layndar, Schyr,” said ane,
“ That her child-ill rycht now has tane,
“ And mon leve now behind ws her;
“ Tharfor scho makys yone iwill cher.”
The king said, “ Certis it war pile
“ That scho in that poynt left suld be ;
“ For certis I trow thar is na man
“ That be ne will rew a woman than.”
Hiss ost all thar arestyt he,
And gert a tent sone stentit be,
And gert hyr gang in hastily.
And othyr wemen to be hyr by,
Quhill scho wes deliuer, he bad,
And syne furth on his wayis raid :
And how scho furth suld caryit be,
Or euir he furth fur, ordanyt he.
1 And Catone sayis ws in his wryt,
rpi • .. . „ That to fenyhe foly quhile is wyt. (Barbour’s JSruce, n. 13.1
s passage evidently refers to the collection of distichs which bears the name of Dionysius Cato whom Chnnrpr n «•
w as Mr w-r,'m ™ts' t"at he ™
Insipiens esto quum tempus postulat aut res:
This t-n . . Stultitiam simulare loco, prudentia summa est. (Catonis Disticha, lib. ii. 18.1
German French ^dTnSm U* eSf1timation durfin^ thf fliddle a^s.’ and Jt been translated into Greek, Anglo-Saxon,
. “ ’ jHcn, and English. It comprehends a series of moral lessons, which are often conveyed with a r-nnsirWahla
ness and compression. The author possesses so much purity of diction, that Joseph Scalieer s’unnoses be eannnt have fl ^ • h i
subsequently to the reign of Commodus or Severus; and Hem Cannegieter, who was alike conversant with SoWy and the
tKe^ol ^Tc f ^ Roma?. J“risP™deJce> to prove that this poePt must* least have preckel
become
as not competent for a husband to dismiss his wife, merely because he did not find her agreeable (Codex TheoAnsin-n' uk ••• P, °
smauZAK the Gr“k Ters,on5 °f PI“udes “d <*-
4 Barbour,’ p. 10. * Johnson’s Lives of English Poets, vol. ii. p. 109.
3 0< yx/i rigwt( 
Kaxavt lroiy.oi » ivi^yiruv. (Menandri Fragmenta, p. 158. edit. Meineke.)
436
Barbour.
 '
BAR
the general merit of the two poets is equal. Chaucer has Barbour
attempted a great variety of subjects, and, for the most ||
part, with eminent success. His measures are also varied; harbuda.
and, if we compare his versification with that of preced-
ing poets, or indeed with that of his immediate successors,
it will be found entitled to high commendation. He re¬
formed the taste and improved the language of his native
country. The merit of Barbour, though more circum¬
scribed, is yet so eminent as to entitle him to a very ho¬
nourable place in the history of British poetry.
The style of this poet is distinguished by its terse¬
ness, and he often exhibits a happy brevity of expression.
His work contains a greater proportion of French idioms
than we discover in the writings of the preceding Scottish
poets, though their positive number is far from being con¬
siderable. Fiction is not inseparably connected with verse.
The historical merit of Barbour’s poem has been admit¬
ted by very competent judges; and, among others, Lord
Hailes has repeatedly acknowledged the general fidelity
of his narrative. King Robert died in 1329; and, as Bar¬
bour was employed in writing his poem within forty-six
years from that period, he must have enjoyed many op¬
portunities of collecting information. He might himself
have conversed with warriors who fought at Bannock¬
burn ; and on one occasion he quotes the authority of
a valiant knight, Sir Allan Cathcart, who was personal¬
ly engaged in a particular exploit which he is about to
relate.
BAR
This wes a full gret curtasy,
That swilk a king, and sa mighty,
Gert his men duell on this maner
Bot for a pouir lauender.1
Barbour seems to have been acquainted with those
nicer springs of human action which elude vulgar obser¬
vation ; he catches the shades of character with a delicate
eye, and sometimes presents us with instances of nice dis¬
crimination. His work is not a mere narrative of events ;
it contains specimens of that minute and distinct delinea¬
tion which marks the hand of a skilful artist. An illus¬
tration of this remark may perhaps be found in the fol¬
lowing incident. When Bruce has with his single arm
defended a narrow pass against a party of two hundred
Gallovidians, his soldiers are represented as flocking around
him with the same eager curiosity as if they had never
had another opportunity of seeing him.
Syk wordis spak thai of the king,
And for his hey wndertaking
Farlyit, and yarnyt hym to se,
That with hym ay wes wont to he.2
In the opinion of an exquisite critic, Barbour has adorn¬
ed the English language by a strain of versification, ex¬
pression, and poetical imagery, far superior to the age.3
And Dr Nott remarks that he “ had given his country¬
men a fine example of the simple energetic style, which
resembled Chaucer’s best manner, and wanted little to
make it the genuine language of poetry.”4 The best me¬
thod of estimating the merit of his versification, will be
to compare it with that of some English poet who flou¬
rished about the same period; and, if placed in competi¬
tion with the versification of Chaucer, Gower, or Lydgate,
the most celebrated English poets of that era, it must cer¬
tainly be admitted to appear with sufficient advantage.
Although a general conclusion cannot safely be drawn
from a particular instance, it may yet be worth while to
compare the following quotations from Chaucer and Bar¬
bour :
The byrdes that han lefft her songe,
Whyle they han suffred colde full stronge
In wethers grylle, and derke to syght,
Ben in May, for the sunne bryght,
So glad that they shewe in syngyng
That in her herte is suche lyking,
That they mote syngen and ben lyght:
Than doth the nyghtyngale her myght
To maken noyse and syngen blythe;
Than is blysfull many a sythe
The chelaundre and the popyngay;
Than yonge folke entenden aye
For to ben gay and amarous,
The tyme is than so sauorious.5
This wes in ver, quhen wynter tid,
With his blastis hidwyss to bid.
Was our drywyn, and' byrdis smale,
As turturis and the nychtyngale,
Begouth rycht sariely to synge,
And for to mak in thair singyng
Swete notis, and sownys ser,
And melodys plesand to her;
And the treis begouth to ma
Burgeans, and brycht blomys alsua,
To wyn the helyng oft their hewid,
That wykkyt wyntir had thaim rewid.6
Here the versification of Barbour is certainly not inferior
to that of Chaucer; but we have no intention to aver that
A knycht, that then wes in his rowt,
Worthi and wycht, stalwart and stout,
Curtaiss and fayr, and off gud fame,
Schyr Alane off Catkert by name,
Tauld me this taile, as I sail tell.7
Of the general merit of Barbour’s work, so favourable
an estimate has been formed by Mr Pinkerton, that it may
not be improper here to produce his testimony. “ Per¬
haps the editor may be accused of nationality, when he
says, that, taking the total merits of this work together,
he prefers it to the early exertions of even the Italian
muse, to the melancholy sublimity of Dante, and the amo¬
rous quaintness of Petrarca, as much as M. Le Grand does
a fabliau to a Provencal ditty. Here indeed the reader
will find few of the graces of fine poetry, little of the At¬
tic dress of the muse; but here are life, and spirit, and
ease, and plain sense, and pictures of real manners, and
perpetual incident, and entertainment. The language is
remarkably good for the time, and far superior in neat¬
ness and elegance even to that of Gawin Douglas, who
wrote more than a century after. But when we consider
that our author is not only the first poet, but the earliest
historian of Scotland, who has entered into any detail,
and from whom any view of the real state and manners of
the country can be had; and that the hero whose life he
paints so minutely, was a monarch equal to the greatest
of modern times; let the historical and poetical merits
of his work be weighed together, and then opposed to
those of any other early poet of the present nations in
Europe.”8 (D\1').
BARBUDA, one of the Caribbee islands, is 15 miles in
length by about 8 in breadth, presenting a very flat sur¬
face, covered to a great extent with forests of small trees,
in which excellent deer abound. Many varieties of very
fine shell and other fish are found on the coast, which is
1 Barbour, p. 320. * Barbour, p. 118. 3 War ton’s History of English Poetry, vol. ii. p- 154.
4 Nott’s Dissertation on the State of English Poetry before the sixteenth Century (p. cxc.), prefixed to the Works of Surrey and Wyatt.
Lond. 1815, 2 vols. 4to. t
4 Chaucer’s Romaunte of the Rose: Workes, f. cxxviii. edit. Lond. 1542, fol.
Barbour, p. 80. 7 Barbour, p. 183. 8 Pinkerton’s Preface to Barlour, p. x.
BAR
B A R
Barca
also frequented by large flocks of water-fowl. The part
of the island cultivated is fertile, but there is no sugar
arce o a. raised, nor are there any plantations of importance. The
' climate is very salubrious. Pop. about 1000. Long. 61.
46. W. Lat. 17. 36. N.
BARCA (the ancient Cyrenaica), a maritime district of
Northern Africa, forming the eastern portion of Tripoli,
and extending from the Gulf of Sert (the ancient Syrtes)
to Egypt, between Lat. 30° and 33° N. and Long. 20° and
25 E. Its name is derived from Barce or Barca, an ancient
city of Cyrenaica, and which probably was originallya Libyan
settlement, but afterwards colonized by Greeks from Cyrene,
about b.c. 560. This territory is traversed from east to west
by a mountain chain varying in height from 400 or 500 to
upwards of 1800 feet. A great part of Barca, particularly
towards the coast, is very fertile, abounding with excellent
pasturage, and producing large supplies of corn. The chief
town is Bengazi. See Cyrenaica.
BARCAROLLE (from the Italian barcarola, a barge¬
man), a popular song sung by the Venetian gondoliers.
BARCELONA, one of the four provinces into which the
ancient Spanish principality of Catalonia was divided in 1833.
It is bounded N.E. by Gerona, N.W. by Lerida, S.W. by
Tarragona, and S.E. by the Mediterranean. Area, about 220
square leagues. Pop. (1849) 533,695. See Catalonia.
Barcelona, capital of the above province, and formerly
the capital of Catalonia, is a strongly fortified city and sea¬
port on the shore of the Mediterranean, between the mouths
of the rivers Besos and Llobregat. Lat. 41. 22. N. Long. 2.9.
E. It stands in a plain of great fertility, which is covered
with villas and gardens. The Montjuich hills lie to the
west, and on the other side the view is bounded by the sea.
On the north-east the city is defended by the citadel, fortified
on Vauban’s plan ; and on the south-east by the fortress of
Montjuich, which occupies a commanding position. The
ramparts embrace about three-fourths of the town, forming
a terrace from which there is a magnificent view of the city
and its environs. A fine promenade called La Rambla di¬
vides the city into two parts, the high and the low town.
The buildings, chiefly of brick, are irregular, and usually
from four to five stories in height, with numerous windows
and balconies; and the fronts are occasionally decorated
with fresco-painting. The streets are generally narrow,
but some of the plazas or squares are handsome, especially
that of the Palacio, which contains the governor’s palace,
the exchange, and the custom-house. Among the more re¬
markable of the other public edifices, may be mentioned the
cathedral, an ancient and majestic building in the later
Gothic style ; the churches of Sta Maria del Mar, Stos Justo
y Pastor, and San Miguel; the Casa de la Diputacion, or
court of the chief justice, which contains the archives of
Aragon, a most precious collection of historical documents ;
the Casa Consistorial; the Palacio Real, or ancient palace of
the kings of Aragon ; the Palacio de la Reina ; the palace
of the marquises of Aitona; the theatre, and the prison. At
the highest part of the city, in the Calle del Paradis, are
some magnificent columns and other Roman remains, which,
however, are almost hidden by the surrounding buildings.
The public institutions of Barcelona are numerous and im¬
portant. I he university, originally founded in 1430, was
suppressed in 1714 by Philip V., and transferred to Cervera;
but it was restored in 1841, and is now in a flourishing con¬
dition. The education comprises languages, philosophy,
jurisprudence, and medicine. There are two academies of
literature and science, and several public libraries. The
luseo-Salvador, besides a fine collection of objects in na¬
tural history, contains a valuable library with a considerable
number of scientific MSS., and an archaeological collection
comprising a rich cabinet of coins and medals ; forming al¬
together the most complete establishment of its kind in
bpam. Besides this, there are two smaller museums, and
437
several colleges and educational seminaries. Among these Barcelona
is an admirable institution, with a most extensive scheme of II
education, comprehending arithmetic and mathematics Barclay-
modern languages, navigation, experimental philosophy and
chemistry, practical agriculture and botany, architecture,
painting, sculpture, engraving, mechanics, and commerce’.
This institution, which is liberally supported by the Board
of Trade, affords gratuitous instruction to upwards of 2000
pupils. Among the other important institutions are the
Casa de Caridad or house of industry, a foundling and
deaf and dumb institution, and several hospitals for the
sick. The Montes de Piedad, or pawnbroking establish¬
ments of Barcelona, are, in fact, mutual benefit societies.
The Monte de Piedad de N. Sra. de la Esperanza has this
peculiarity, that loans on deposits are made without interest
to necessitous persons. In 1849 the number of persons that
availed themselves of its benefits was 5686.
Barcelona is the see of a bishop, the seat of the captain-
general of Catalonia, and of an audiencia. It is an impor¬
tant military station, and possesses a naval arsenal, a cannon
foundry, and barracks. In a commercial point of view it is
the industrial centre of Catalonia. Its trade declined greatly
after the emancipation of the Spanish American colonies,
but afterwards revived ; and notwithstanding the disastrous
consequences of the French invasion, it is still the chief com¬
mercial emporium of Spain. According to Mr Ford, it is
the “ Manchester of Catalonia, which is the Lancashire of the
Peninsula.” The exports consist chiefly of wrought silks,
laces, ribbons, calicoes, hats, paper, soap, steel and iron¬
ware, fire-arms, &c. The chief imports are the produce of
America, consisting of cotton, sugar, coffee, cinnamon, in¬
digo, bees’ wax, horns, hides, &c. The number ef vessels
that entered its port in 1849 was 1896, with a tonnage of
140,369: of these 1372 were Spanish vessels. The har¬
bour is protected on the south by a mole, with a lighthouse
and a battery at its extremity. The depth of water within
the mole is from 18 to 20 feet; but a bar, which has fre¬
quently but ten feet of water, prevents the entrance of large
ships. There are consuls here from all the principal states
of Europe and America. Population by census of 1842,
121,815. Steamers ply regularly to Marseilles and Cadiz.
The Spaniards ascribe the founding of Barcelona to the
Carthaginians under Hamilcar Barca, after whom it was
called Barcino. It was the theatre of hostilities, both during
the Moorish sway in Spain, and in the wars subsequent to
that period. During the War of the Succession it adhered
to the house of Austria. The seizure of Montjuich, and the
subsequent capture of Barcelona by the Earl of Peter¬
borough, formed one of the most brilliant achievements of
that remarkable man. At the close of the war it was reluc¬
tantly reconciled to the dynasty of the Bourbons. At the
commencement of Buonaparte’s attempt to seize on the
government of Spain, the French troops obtained possession
of the fortress; and thus, during the continuance of that war,
the city was held in unwilling subjection to the enemies of
the cause which its inhabitants most zealously espoused.
Barceloneta, a large suburb to the S.E. of the city, con¬
tains 11,000 inhabitants. (Madoz, Diccionario de Espana.)
Barcelona, New, a seaport town, capital of the pro¬
vince of the same name, in Venezuela, South America,
founded in 1634. It stands on the left bank of the Ne¬
ver!, about three miles from the sea. The town is ill-built
and unhealthy, but has a considerable trade in horses and
cattle. Lat. 10. 6. 52. N. Long. 64. 47. W.
BARCLAY, Alexander, an English poet, generally be¬
lieved to have been a native of Scotland, though most of his life
was spent in England. He is said to have been partly edu¬
cated in the university of Oxford, and on one occasion makes
an allusion to what he had observed at Cambridge. He spent
some of his earlier days at Croydon in Surrey; and in 1508 he
was a prebendary of the collegiate church of St Mary Ottery
438
BARCLAY.
Barclay, in Devonshire. He afterwards became a Benedictine
monk of the monastery of Ely, and at length assumed the
habit of St Francis at Canterbury. Having survived the
dissolution of the monasteries, he became successively
vicar of Much-Badew in Essex, and, in 1546, of Wokey
in Somersetshire ; and was finally presented by the dean
and chapter of Canterbury to the rectory of All-Saints in
Lombard-street. As he retained some of his preferments
in the reign of Edward VI., it is presumed that he must
have complied with the changes of the times. Having
reached a very advanced age, he died in the year
and was interred at Croydon.
Barclay wrote at a period when the standard of Eng is
poetry was extremely low; and, as excellence is always
comparative, this circumstance may partly enable us to
account for the high reputation which he enjoyed among
his contemporaries. If not entitled to the name of a poet,
he is at least a copious versifier. His most conspicuous
performance is the Ship of Fooles, first printed by Pinson
in the year 1509. The original design, and many of the
details, were derived from Sebastian Brandt,1 a civilian of
Strasburg, who in 1494 published a poem entitled Das
Narren Schyff'2 which was so well adapted to the taste of
the age that a Latin and a French version appeared in
1497, and another French version in 1498. Barclay pro¬
fesses to have translated “ oute of Laten, Frenche, and
Doche but to the original cargo he has added many fools
of English growth. Under the representation of a ship
freighted with fools of various denominations, the poet ex¬
poses the prevalent vices and follies of the age; and al¬
though, as Warton remarks, the poem is destitute of plot,
and the voyage of adventures,3 the general design was
found to possess many attractions. Another publication
of Barclay is the Mirrour of good Manners, translated from
the poem of Mancini Be quatuor Virtutibus. His Eglogues
chiefly excite curiosity as the earliest specimen of pasto¬
ral poetry in the English language, but their other atti ac¬
tions are not very powerful. They are of a more recent
date than Henryson’s Robene and Makyne, and are cer¬
tainly very inferior in poetical merit. Among his prose
works we find a version of Sallust s history of the war with
Jugurtha: it was twice printed by Pinson, and is an early
specimen of an English translation from the classics, (d.l)
Barclay, William, M. D. was the brother of Sir Pa¬
trick Barclay of Tolly,4 and was likewise related to his
learned namesake mentioned in the next article. This
latter fact is ascertained by the hendecasyllables subjoin¬
ed to his notes on Tacitus, and bearing the subsequent
inscription: “ Nobili et clarissimo viro Guil. Barclayo cog-
nato meo, pro explicate Taciti Agricola, Joannes Barclayus
Guil. F. scripsi.” The writer of these verses, we may
remark, must then have been only seventeen years of
age. Barclay prosecuted his studies in the university of
Louvain under Justus Lipsius, a great master of Roman
literature; and to him this distinguished professor has Barclay,
addressed two of his printed letters.5 He describes him-
self as A. M. and M. D.; but where he took those de¬
grees we are not informed. Having been appointed a
professor in the university of Paris, he there taught hu¬
manity for several years, and acquired a considerable share
of reputation by his talents and learning. He afterwards
visited his native country, where he appears to have fol¬
lowed the medical profession ; but it may be inferred from
Dempster’s brief notice, that, in consequence of his adhe¬
rence to popery, his situation was rendered uncomfort¬
able by the clergy, and having returned to France, he re¬
sumed his former occupation at Nantes in Bretagne.6 The
same literary historian mentions, that, at the period of his
writing, Barclay was residing in Scotland, and, according
to his information, was pursuing the practice of physic.
The following is a list of all the publications of Dr Bar¬
clay with which we are acquainted.
1. Guilielmi Barclayi Oratio pro Eloquentia. Ad v. cl.
Ludovicum Servinum, Sacri Consistorii Regii Consilia-
rium, et in amplissimo Senatu Parisiensi Regis Advoca-
tum. Paris. 1598, 8vo.
2. C. Cornelii Taciti Opera quae exstant, ad exemplar
quod J. Lipsius quintum recensuit. Seorsim excusi com-
mentarii ejusdem Lipsii meliores plenioresque cum curis
secundis, et auctariolo non ante adjecto. Guil. Barclayus
Praemetia quaedam ex Vita Agricolae libavit. Adjecti
sunt indices aliquanto ditiores. Paris. 1599, 8vo. Me¬
nage, in his Remarques sur la, Vie de Pierre Ayrault, p.
230, has ascribed these Prcemetia to the civilian, and the
same error has been committed by other writers.
3. Nepenthes, or the Vertves of Tabacco. By William
Barclay, Mr of Art, and Doctor of Physicke. Edinb.
1614, 8vo.—This tract is dedicated to the author’s nephew,
Patrick the son and heir of Sir Patrick Barclay of Tolly;
and the dedication is preceded by “ A merie Epistle of
the Author to the Printer,” who is no other than “ good
Master Hart.” To this worthy friend he makes the fol¬
lowing communication : “ If I find fauour in this essay, I
shal send you shortly, Godwilling, a scholasticall subiect,
and a curious litle worke, fit onely for those which aspire
to the top of Pindus. The one wil bring to your shop the
common sort of people, the other the most learned. At
the end of the tract he has inserted six little poems, the
first of which is addressed to Alexander Craig.
4. Guil. Barclayi, Amceniorum Artium, et Medicmae
Doctoris, Judicium de Certamine G. Eglisemmii cum G.
Buchanano, pro Dignitate Paraphraseos Psalmi ciiii. Non
violandi Manes. Adjecta sunt, Eglisemmii ipsum Judicium,
ut editum fuit Londini, typis Eduardi Aldsei, an. Dom.
1619; et, in gratiam studiosae juventutis, ejusdem Psalmi
elegans paraphrasis Thomae Rhaedi. Lond. 1620, 8vo.—-
Dr Eglisham, like a fair as well as a bold critic, exhibited
his own verses in competition with those of Buchanan,
1 Sebastian Brandt, doctor of laws, was born at Strasburg about the year 1458. He studied in the university of Base , aiJ ^
having publicly taught there, as well as in his native city, he became syndic of Strasburg, where he died in the year lo 0. ( aml
VUa: Germanorum Jurecomultorum et Politicorum, p. 5. edit. 1'rancof. ad Moen. 1706, fol.) He is extolled by his contemporary ri re-
mius as “ utriusque juris professor insignis, et tam in divinis Scripturis, quam aliis ssecularis literaturae disciphnis egregiedoc us, po-
eticam non mediocriter callens, ingenio subtilis, eloquio disertus, consilio ac actione pnecipuus.” (De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis, . ecu.
a. edit. Paris. 1512, 4to.) Plis writings embrace a considerable variety of subjects. We have a copy of one or his protessiona wor's,
entitled 7'itulorum omnium Juris tam Civilis quam Canonici Expositiones. Lugdum, 1608, 8vo.
2 See Dr Ebert’s Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexikon, Band i. S. 230.
3 Warton’s Hist, of English Poetry, vol. iii. p. 74. . . . .. -\
4 Dr Barclay has himself mentioned the place of his birth. “ Nam Collonia (sic castrum vocatur in quo primum terrain g )
sita est in littore quod ‘ tam vasto atque aperto mari pulsatur.’ Quo loco, ut obiter dicam, non pauca sunt vestigia veterum e orljpL
cum Anglis praesertim. Est in eodem littore, in territorio gentis Barclayame, portus quidam, qui nostra lingua Aula- leauen appe
tur.” (Prcemetia, p. 561.)
s Lipsii Epist. select, cent. iii. ep. xxxiii. Epist. cent, ad Germanos et Gallos, ep. Ivi. , „ . , , _
6 “ Inde in Scotiam profectus aliquantisper substitit, donee ministri illi Sathanae magna eum molestia aifacientes so um
coegerunt, qui in Galliis iterum docere bonas artes sustinuit Nanneti in Britannia Minore.” (Dempster. Hist, cc esias . en is c
torum, p. 120.)
i
BARCLAY.
42Q
Barclay, and had no reason to congratulate himself on the issue.
He was likewise assailed by another learned physician,
Arthur Johnston, who, in two sarcastic and elegant poems,
treated his case as one of decided insanity.
5. Guil. Barclaii, M. D. Poemata. Delitice Poetarum
Scotorum, tom. i. p. 137.—These poems only occupy four
pages and a half. fa
Barclay, William, LL. D. a distinguished civilian, was
born in Aberdeenshire in the year 1541. He spent the
early part of his life, and much of his fortune, at the
court of Mary queen of Scots, from whose favour he had
reason to expect preferment. In 1573 he went over to
France, and at Bourges commenced student of the civil
law under the famous Cujacius. He continued some years
in that seminary, where he took his doctor’s degree; and
was soon after appointed professor of the civil law in the
university of Pontamousson, recently founded by the duke
of Lorraine. That prince afterwards made him counsel¬
lor of state and master of requests. In the year 1581
Barclay married Anne de Malleville, a French lady, by
whom he had a son, who became a celebrated author, and
of whom the reader will find an account in the next arti¬
cle. This youth the Jesuits would gladly have received
into their society; but his father refused his consent, and
for that reason these disciples of Jesus soon contrived to
ruin him with the duke his patron. Barclay now embark¬
ed for Britain, where King James offered him a consider¬
able preferment, provided he would become a member of
the church of England ; but not chusing to comply with
this condition, he returned to France in 1604, and, soon
after his arrival, was appointed first professor of the civil
law in the university of Angers, where he died the year
following, and was buried in the Franciscan church.
Barclay was a man of superior talents, and still main¬
tains a conspicuous place among civilians.1 In his politi¬
cal opinions he was directly opposed to his illustrious
countryman Buchanan, and was a strenuous defender of
the rights of kings : his own speculations on the principles
of government are best known to some readers from an
incidental confutation by Locke, in his Treatises on Go¬
vernment. A list of his publications shall close this very
brief notice.
L De Regno et Regali Potestate, adversus Buchana-
num, Brutum, Boucherium, et reliquos Monarchomachos,
libri sex. Paris. 1600, 4to.—This volume contains, or
ought to contain, a portrait of the author, which however
has in many instances been transferred to the portfolio of
some collector.
2. In Titulum Pandectarum de Rebus creditis et Jure-
jurando Commentarii. Paris. 1605, 8vo.—This commen¬
tary is reprinted in Otto's Thesaurus Juris Romani,
tom. iii.
3. De Potestate Papae; an et quatenus in Reges et
Principes seculares jus et imperium habeat: Liber post¬
humus. Mussiponti, 1610, 8vo.—This work may likewise
be found in Goldasti Monarchia, tom. iii. p. 621. It was
translated into French ; and an English version is printed
with the treatise of Sheldon, Of the Lawfulness of the Oath
of Allegiance. Lond. 1611, 4to. Barclay’s two treatises,
De Regno and De Potestate Papce, have repeatedly been
printed in the same volume. Hanoviae, 1612, 8vo. Ha- Barclay
noviae, 1617, 8vo. * ..fa
Barclay, John, son of the eminent civilian mentioned
in the last article, was born at Pontamousson on the 28th
of January 1582. He was there educated in the College
of the Jesuits, and excited in his instructors so favourable
an opinion of his capacity, that they made an attempt to
entice him into their order; an attempt which was indig¬
nantly resisted by his father. At the age of nineteen, he
evinced his literary ambition by publishing annotations on
the Thebais of Statius. In 1603, when his father resign¬
ed his professorship in disgust, the young and aspiring
scholar accompanied him to London; and at the begin¬
ning of the following year he presented his Kalendce Ja-
nuaricE as a poetical offering to King James, to whom he
soon afterwards dedicated the first part of his work en¬
titled Euphormionis Lusini Satyricon. Both the father
and the son were willing to accept of employment, and no
doubt they both expected preferment. But, as Lord
Hailes has remarked, “ William Barclay was conscien¬
tiously attached to the church of Rome, and his son pro¬
fessed the religion of his forefathers. In those days a
pension bestowed upon a Scottish Papist would have been
numbered among the national grievances ; and the vulgar
would not have distinguished between favour shown to
genius or learning, and partiality for the opinions of the
person favoured. ”2 In the year 1604 they both returned
to France, and Dr Barclay was again placed in a situation
suited to his talents and learning, having been appointed
first professor of the civil law in the university of Angers.
His taste for external magnificence appears to have been
somewhat prominent: when he went to read his lecture,
he was dressed in a superb gown, with a massy chain of
gold about his neck, and was followed by his son and two
valets.3 4
The younger Barclay, whose hopes of advancement had
begun to revive, returned to England in 1605; but after
a further residence of twelve months, he still found him¬
self unsuccessful in his pursuit. His father died towards
the close of the same year; and he afterwards removed
to Paris, where he married Louise, the daughter of Mi¬
chael Debonnaire, “ Tresorier des Vieilles Bandes.” He
speedily fixed his abode in London, and there his wife
bore him a son and two daughters, William, Anne, and
Louise. M. de Peiresc, who was himself a man of
learning, and was very extensively connected with the
learned, found him in this metropolis in the year 1606,
and their acquaintance was succeeded by an intimate
friendship. During this year he published the second
part of his Satyricon, which he dedicated to the earl of
Salisbury; and likewise a brief narrative of the gunpowder
plot, bearing the title of Series patefacti divinitus Parri-
cidii, in ter maximum Regem Regnumque Britannice cogi-
tati et instructi. In 1610 he published an apology for his
Satyricon, which had excited so much resentment that he
found it necessary to attempt some palliatives and expla¬
nations. A tract was published at Paris in 1620, under
the title of Censura Euphormionis;4 and this was an¬
swered in a Censura Censures Euphormionis, written by
Pierre Musnier, canon of Vezelay.
1 See Dr Browne’s Remarks on the Study of the Civil Lara, p. 25. Edinb. 1828, 8vo.
Hailes’s Sketch of the Life of John Barclay, p. 2. 4to edit.
3 Menage, Remarques sur la Vie de Pierre Ayrault, p. 230.
4 “ On croit, pour le marquer icy en passant, que Se'ton, Ecossois, est i’auteur de ce petit livre.” (Menage, p. 233.) The writer
apparently alludes to Dr Seaton, a learned civilian, whom Tomasini enumerates among the eminent scholars of the age. (Parnassus Eu-
ganeus, sive de Scriptoribus ac Litcratis hujus JEvi Claris, p. 8. Patavii, 1647, 4to.) Balzac celebrated him in his Latin verses ; Scioppius
addressed the second epistle of his Paradoxa Literaria “ Guilhelmo Setonio Scoto Jurisconsultoand his name is mentioned with
much respect by various other writers of the same period. He is highly extolled in Sir Thomas Urquhart’s Discovery of a most exqui¬
site Je-wcl, p. 177. Lond. 1652, 8vo.
440
■Barclay.
B A K C L A Y.
During the same year, 1610, he published an able work
of his father, Be Potestate Papce, to which he prefixed a
preface of nine pages, concluding with a clear intimation
of his purpose to defend his father’s memory against any
unseemly attack. “ Quod si aliquis hoc opus re e ere
instituet, velim ne oratoria fraude tantum levia qusedam
carpat, in quibus nec ipse author multum subsidn po-
suerit; sed ipsam vim rationum excutiat, diluendi aut as-
serendi vitia accuset. Si quis aliter faxit, sciat Guihelmi
Barclaii cineres loqui posse.” It was not tic o^jec o
this treatise to controvert the spiritual supremacy of the
pope, which the author was ready to admit m Us most
orthodox sense; but while he acknowledged his power
and jurisdiction in things spiritual, he strenuously con¬
tended against his usurped power over sovereign princes
in things temporal. The work, which is written with
learning and ability, excited no small degree of at ten. ion ,
and it was soon attacked by Cardinal Bellarmin, one of
the most formidable defenders of the doctrines of the
church, and of the pretensions of its visible head. 1 he son
was anxious to evince that the ashes of his revered father
were yet capable of speaking. He had not neglected to
study the law under so excellent a preceptor; and as ie
was by no means diffident of his own abilities, he did not
shrink from a contest with so redoubtable an antagonist.
He accordingly published a large volume bearing the title
of Joannis Barclaii Pietas; sive publiccB pro Regibus ac
Principibus, ac private pro Guilielmo Barclaio Parente
Vindicice, adversus Roberti S. R. E. Cardinahs Bdlarmim
Tractatum de Potestate Summi Pontificis in Rebus lem-
poralibus. Parisiis, 1612, 4to. To this work the cardinal
did not himself reply, hut an answer was speedily published
under the name of Andrece Eudcemon-Johannis hpistola
monitoria ad Joannem Barclaium de Libro ab eo pro Paire
suo contra Robertum Bellarminum S. R. E. Cardinalem
scripto. Col. Agrip. 1613, 8vo.
In 1614 Barclay published at London his Icon Ammo-
rum, which forms the fourth part of his Satyricon. This
work is written with talent and vivacity, and may still be
perused with pleasure. It is, as Lord Hailes has correct¬
ly stated, a delineation of the genius and manners of the
European nations, with remarks, moral and philosophical,
on the various tempers of men. For the land of his fore¬
fathers the author has not failed to testify a sufficient de¬
gree of affection. He duly extols the antiquity of the
royal line, “ inclyto sceptro supra fidem et aetatem regno-
rum caeterorum.” Nor is the literary character of the
people left without its share of commendation. “ Ammi
illis in quaecunque studia inclinant, mirifico successu in-
clyti, ut nullis major patientia castrorum, vel audacia pug-
nae, et Musae nunquam delicatius habeant quam cum in-
ciderunt in Scotos.”1 Some of his sketches of the national
character are happy and graphic.
After a residence of ten years in England, Barclay
found himself without any sufficient inducement to prolong
his stay. To some extent or other, he had experienced
the bounty of the earl of Salisbury ; and although it does
not appear that he obtained any regular provision from the
king, we may perhaps suppose that he at least received
occasional gratuities; but his resources continued to be
scanty, and his situation precarious. Towards the close
of the year 1615 he proceeded to Paris, where he had the
pleasure of meeting his friend M. de Peiresc, and the ho¬
nour of being introduced by him to the keeper of the Barclay,
seals, Guillaume du Vair. Having been invited to Rome
by Pope Paul V., he there fixed his residence in the be¬
ginning of the ensuing year, and by the publication of his
next work he endeavoured to prove himself a worthy de¬
nizen of this pious city. The work to which we allude is
entitled Joannis Barclaii Parcenesis ad Sectaries, libri ii.
Romse, 1617, 8vo. “ It is probable,” says Lord Hailes,
“ that by this exhortation to the sectaries, he meant to
give evidence of his own orthodoxy, and to atone for the
liberties, almost heretical, which he had taken, as well
with the papal court, as with its most faithful adherents.
But that court, which had Cardinal Bellarmin for its
champion, required not the feeble and suspicious aid of
the author of Euphormion.—Although Barclay found
much civility at Rome, yet it does not appear that he ob¬
tained any emolument. Incumbered with a wife and fa¬
mily, and having a spirit above his fortune, he was left at
full leisure to pursue his literary studies. It was at that
time that he composed his Latin romance called Argenis.
He employed his vacant hours in the cultivating of a
flower-garden. Rossi (or Erythrseus) relates, in the tuigid
Italian "style, that Barclay cared not for those bulbous
roots which produce flowers of a sweet scent; and that
he cultivated such as produced flowers void of smell, but
having variety of colours. Hence we may conclude that
he was amongst the first of those who were infected with
that strange disease, a passion for tulips, which soon after
overspread Europe, and is still remembered under the
name of the Tufipo-mania. Barclay had it to that excess,
that he placed two mastiffs as centinels on his garden;
and, rather than abandon his favourite flowers, chose to
continue his residence in an ill-aired and unwholesome ha¬
bitation.” The preceding account of his success at Rome
is not reconcilable with that of Erythrseus, who avers that
from Cardinal Barberini he obtained riches as well as ci¬
vility ;2 3 but as these benefits are said to have been con¬
ferred after the cardinals elevation to the papal chair,
the narrative is liable to some degree of suspicion. Ihe
election of Urban VIII. did not take place till the year
1623, and Barclay was then beyond the reach of prefer¬
ment. It is not however probable that a writer of high
reputation, who had been invited by the pope, and was
caressed by cardinals, was left without some substantial
mark of favour. Bellarmin, whom he had formeily under¬
taken to refute, was so far from cherishing any resent¬
ment, that he honoured him with various marks of kindness.
Barclay died at Rome on the twelfth of August 1621,
in the fortieth year of his age. The disease which prov¬
ed fatal to him was the stone; a disease for which, in his
Satyricon, he had pronounced the plant called golden rod
to be a specific remedy. His remains were interied in
the church of S. Onufrio ; and at the church of S. Lorenzo,
on the road to Tivoli, his widow erected for him a monu¬
ment, with his bust in marble ; but on learning that Car¬
dinal Francesco Barberini had there erected a similar mo¬
nument in honour of his preceptor, she indignantly caus¬
ed the bust to be removed. The inscription on Barclay s
monument was soon erased ; but by whom, or for what rea¬
son, is not very clearly ascertained. There is however
no improbability in the reason assigned by Freherus, who
imputes this act to the vindictive feelings of the Jesuits,
an order of men very frequently subjected to his satire.
1 Joannis Barclaii Icon Animorum, p. 92. Lond. 1614, 8vo. . TTTtt •  ;n; „Hlitati et comraodo
2 u Q,ui deinde, ad Deo proximum, in terris, dignitatis locum evectus, Urbani VIII. nomine, non mod c , norarii jntimi
fuit; nam et divitias et opes ac gratiam contulit, tiliumque ejus majorem natu et pingui sacerdotio locup e™1'
cubicularii titulo cohonestavit.” (Erytlmei PinacotUeca, tom. iii. p. 79.) See likewise Imperialis Muscrwni P l cautiore
3 I'reheri The,at rum Vtrorum Eruditiona clarontm, tom. ii. p. 151")—“ Inscriptionem ac statuam, say
patres consilio sublatam ac deletam voluerunt.” (Imperialis Muswum Historicum, p. 171. Venet. lb4U, o-j
B A R C L A Y.
Barclay. At the time of his death, the romance of Argenis was
printing under the superintendence of Peiresc,1 and was
soon afterwards given to the public. Paris. 1621, 8vo.
Besides a son and two daughters born in England, Barclay
had a son who was born at Rome. His elder son is re¬
presented by Erythraeus as having obtained a rich benefice
from Urban VIII. With one of his sons Menage was ac¬
quainted at Paris in the year 1652; and, in his opinion,
“ ce n’estoit pas un grand personnage.” Like his father,
he was a writer of Latin verses, and at this period he there
printed an elegy. We are not aware that the descendants
of Barclay are at present to be traced either in France or
Italy.
This ingenious writer, who was thus arrested in the
middle of his literary career, left an unpublished history
of the conquest of Jerusalem by the Franks, and some
fragments of a general history of Europe. Erythrseus
informs us that he had himself transcribed a manuscript
tract of his, relating to the defection of M. Ant. de Do-
minis, archbishop of Spalato ; and that from his knowledge
of the national character, as well as of the disposition of
the king, the author foretold that he could not long re¬
main in England.
The ambition of Barclay was greater than his fortune;
nor did his propensity to satirize one class of individuals
prevent him from offering abject flatteries to another.
But at that period few men of letters knew how to blend
self-respect with a proper deference to their superiors in
the artificial scale of society. His personal character,
with an ample allowance for his vanity as an author, ap¬
pears to have been respectable. “ Some very indecent
descriptions in Euphormion,” as Lord Hailes has remark¬
ed, “ lead us to form an unfavourable conjecture as to
the manners of Barclay. There is however no proof that
he was a loose man; and indeed it is probable that he
wrote loosely because Petronius, whom he had chosen
for his model in satire, affected that style. Barclay en¬
tered into the married state at a very early period of life ;
and he appears to have continued the fond husband of his
Aloysia.... There is a presumption, at least, that he who was
a good son and a good husband, was also a virtuous man
in other respects; and if there had been any remarkable
blemish in the morals of Barclay, some of his numerous and
virulent adversaries would have pointed it out.” He ap¬
pears to have been subjected to considerable annoyance
in consequence of the jealousy of his wife; but in many
cases jealousy is a wayward passion, and proceeds from
the mere excess of affection, as well as from the know¬
ledge or suspicion of specific and painful facts.
Barclay was evidently a man of genius, and with a
vigorous imagination he united a competent share of
learning. His literary efforts were sufficiently varied;
quitting the regions of poetry and romance, he ventured
to discuss subjects of jurisprudence and theology. His
Latin poems exhibit marks of fancy and ingenuity, nor is
his skill as a versifier less conspicuous.2 The Satyricon
is formed on the model of Petronius, and includes occa¬
sional verses interspersed with the prose. The talent dis¬
played in this work would alone have been sufficient to
secure him a high reputation among the writers of the
age; but the fame of all his other productions has in a
great measure been eclipsed by that of his Argenis, which,
after tne lapse of two centuries, still finds readers and ad¬
mirers. “ Argenis, says Lord Hailes, “ is generally sup¬
posed to be a history under feigned names, and not a ro¬
mance. Barclay himself contributed to establish this opi¬
nion, by introducing some real characters into the work.
But that was merely to compliment certain dignitaries of
the church, whose good offices he courted, or whose power
he dreaded. The key prefixed to Argenis has perpe¬
tuated the error. There are no doubt many incidents in
it that allude to the state of France during the civil wars
in the seventeenth century; but it requires a strong ima¬
gination indeed to discover Queen Elizabeth in Hyanisbe,
or Henry III. of France in Meleander. On the whole,
Argenis appears to be a poetical fable, replete with mo¬
ral and political reflections.” This is a sober and cor¬
rect account of the work ; but Cowper has expressed his
approbation in more glowing terms. “ The work I mean
is Barclay’s Argenis; and, if ever you allow yourself to
read for mere amusement, I can recommend it to you
(provided you have not already perused it) as the most
amusing romance that ever was written. It is the only
one indeed of an old date that I ever had the patience to
go through with. It is interesting in a high degree,
richer in incident than can be imagined, full of surprizes,
which the reader never forestalls, and yet free from all
entanglement and confusion. The stile too appears to me
to be such as would not dishonour Tacitus himself.” In
another letter he expresses himself thus:—£< I have also
read Barclay’s Argenis, a Latin romance, and the best ro¬
mance that was ever written.”3 This romance was a spe¬
cial favourite with Cardinal Richelieu, and also with Leib¬
nitz, a much greater man than the cardinal.
Cowper appears to have been struck with the point and
vivacity of his style, which indeed are sufficiently distin¬
guishable; but for the purity of his Latin diction Barclay
is not entitled to equal commendation. Being probably
impelled by the rapid current of his fancy, he adopts a va¬
riety of words and idioms which well express his meaning,
but which nevertheless do not belong to the best ages of
Latinity. The distich of Grotius, engraved under Bar¬
clay s portrait, seems therefore to contain a compliment
which must not be too literally interpreted :
Gente Caledonius, Gallus natalibus, hie est
liomam Romano qui docet ore loqui.
Joseph Scaliger, whose literary judgments were fre-
quently severe, and not unfrequently capricious, mentions
Barclay’s Satyricon in terms of great disparagement; but
whether his censure is chiefly directed against the Lati¬
nity or against the general strain of the work, is not alto¬
gether certain.4 This book, whatever may be its demerits,
has passed through many editions, and has been translat¬
ed into the French and German languages.5 It has like¬
wise had the advantage of being illustrated with notes.
Lugd. Bat. 1674, 8vo. The fourth part, the Icon Animo-
rum, has repeatedly been printed in a separate form. One
edition bears this inscription: “ Joannis Barclaii Icon
Animorum, celeberrimi viri Augusti Buchneri notis, ad-
jecto rerum indice, illustrata.” Dresdse, 1680, 8vo. The
book soon appeared in an English dress: “ The Mirror of
Minds, or Barclay s Icon Animorum ; Englished by Tho.
May, Esq. Lond. 1633, 12mo. Of this translation there
is anothei edition in the same form; but the only copy
441
Barclay.
2 Gassendi Vita Nicolai Claudii Fabricii de Peiresc, p. 176. Paris. 1641, 4to.
PoetarZ^oTut^LmTTnc 161^ ^ ■ cT' ^ 12“°—His P°ems “*y likewise be found in the Delitice
Hr,m, m f cotorum, tom. i. p. 7b. bed quid Joanne Barclaio Scoto, etiam m hoc genere Musarum, exactius numemsiiw m.™
deque subhmius ?” (Borrichii Dissertates academicce de Poetis, p. 149. Francof. 1683, 4to.) ’ numerosius> et <luan-
4 u fY J’S Life 0fCo™Per-> vo1- i- P- 243> 247. 4t0 edit.
r. • . Guanti Euphormionem Barclaei faciam, ex eo cognoscere potes, quod vix sex folia eius Were notuerim ” Spnlirron*
1s ^7' LuSd' Bat- 16.27, 8vo.) See Colomesii Opuscula, p. 157, and Menage’s Remarques sur la Vie de Pierre Ayrault p. 233.
■yQ-^'raP Ue Universelle, tom. iii. p. 360. Ebert’s Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexikon, Band i. S. 137. 5 ^
3 K
442
Barclay.
BARCLAY.
to which we have access contains a mutilated title, and
we therefore cannot discover the date. Two French ^ver¬
sions had appeared in the course of one year. e
Pourtrait des Esprits de Jean Barclai, ^is en Fra -
cois.” Paris, 1625, 12mo. “ Le Tableau des Esprits de
^1. Jean Barclay: par lequel on cognoist les humeurs des
Nations, leurs advantages et defaux, les inebriations
hommes, tant a cause de leurs propres naturels que des
conditions de leurs charges. Nouvellement traduict de
Latin en Francois.” Paris, 1625, 8vo. The dedication
of the duodecimo is subscribed Nantevil de Boham, a
he has taken such liberties with the original, his work
can scarcely claim the name of a translation. ^ ^
German translation of a very recent date. Johan
Barklai’s Gemalde der menschlichen Cliaraktere nach er-
schiedenheit der Alter, Zeiten, Lander, Indmduen und
Stiinde: aus dem Latemischen ubersetzt, und
merkungen und geschichtlichen Nachweisungen beg^
von Anton Weddige, Pastor zu Lippborg. Munste^ 1821,
8vo. A continuation of the Satyncon had been publish¬
ed bv Claude Morisot, under the title of Ahtophih Vtn-
tatis Lachrymal; and Lord Hailes describes it as a master-
PieThe0editions and versions of the Argenis are much more
numerous. An edition with notes appeared under the
title of “ Joannis Barclaii Argenis, nunc primum illus-
trata” Lugd. Bat. et Roter. 1664, 8vo. This was fol¬
lowed in 1669 by a uniform edition of the continuation.
“ Archombrotus et Theopompus, sive Argemdis secunda
et tertia pars, ubi de Institutione Prmcipis. ^ notff’
which are not held in much estimation, were written b
Busrnot, a Benedictine who taught rhetoric m the abbey
of Tiron. Lord Hailes mentions a French translation
published at Paris, 1622, 8vo; and another with the sub-
sequent title now lies before us : “ L Argenis de Jean
Barclay: traduction nouvelle, ennclue de figures. Bans,
1625, 8vo. There are other two French versions of a more
recent date, one by the Abbe Josse, a canon of Chartres,
1732, 3 tom. 12mo; and another by M. Savin, Pans,
1776 2 tom. 8vo. Barclay’s romance soon appeared in
Spanish; and a copy of this rare version belongs to the
Astorga collection in the Advocates Library: ‘ Argenis,
por Don Joseph Pellicer de Salas y Tobar. A Don Anto¬
nio de Negro, Noble de la Seremssima Repubhca de Ge-
noua.” Madrid, 1626, 4to. Don Joseph has somewhat
unfairly excluded Barclay’s name from the title-page. An
English version was speedily published by Sir Robert Le
Grys and Thomas May, Esq. Lond, 1628,4to. And another
was executed by Kingsmill Long, Esq. Lond. 1636, to.
After a long interval appeared “ The Phoenix, or, the His¬
tory of Polyarchus and Argenis. By a Lady.” London, 1 iU,
4 vols. 12mo. The preface of this publication states that
“ the editor has made use of both the former translations
occasionally, and, whenever a doubt arose, had recourse to
the original.” Lord Hailes has judiciously enough suggest¬
ed that “ the lady would have done as well had she made
use of the original, and only consulted the translations
when any doubt arose.” The Argenis was at an early
period translated into German: “ Joan. Barclai Argenis,
verdeutscht durch Martin Opitzen.” Amsterdam, 164A,
12mo. In this country, the version of Opitz is extremely
rare ; and the only copy that has fallen under our inspec¬
tion belongs to the writer of the present notice. Another
German translation was published by J. Ch. L. Haken.
Berlin, 1794, 2 Bde. 8vo. An Italian version was exe¬
cuted by Francesco Pona; and this celebrated romance
has even been translated into the Polish, Swedish, and
Islandic languages. Among the northern manuscripts
in the Advocates Library there is a Saga af Argemde,
translated in the year 1694 by a schoolmaster named Ei-
narson.1 Iv
Barclay, Robert, one of the most eminent members of
the Society of Friends, was born at Gordonstown, in Moray¬
shire, in 1648. He was educated under an uncle at Paris,
where every effort was used without success to draw him over
to the Popish religion. In 1669 he joined the Quakers, and
distinguished himself by his zeal and abilities in defence of
their doctrines. In 1676 he published, in Latin, at Amster¬
dam, his Apology for the Quakers, which is the most cele¬
brated of his works, and esteemed the standard of the doctrine
of the Quakers. The Theses Theological, which were thefoun-
dation of this work, and addressed to the clergy generally,
were published before the Apology, and printed in Latin,
French, German, Dutch, and English. The dedication of
his Apology to King Charles II., is very remarkable for
the uncommon frankness and simplicity with which it is
written. Amongst many other extraordinary passages, we
meet with the following: “ There is no king in the world who
can so experimentally testify of God’s providence and good¬
ness ; neither is there any who rules so many free people,
so many true Christians ; which thing renders thy govern¬
ment more honourable, thyself more considerable, than the
accession of many nations filled with slavish and supersti¬
tious souls. Thou hast tasted of prosperity and adversity ;
thou knowest what it is to be banished thy native country,
to be over-ruled as well as to rule and sit upon the throne ;
and being oppressed, thou hast reason to know how hateful
the oppressor is both to God and man: if, after all those
warnings and advertisements, thou dost not turn unto the
Lord with all thy heart, but forget Him who remembered
thee in thy distress, and give thyself up to follow lust and
vanity, surely great will be thy condemnation.’ He tra¬
velled with the famous William Penn through the greater
part of England, Holland, and Germany, and was every¬
where received with the highest respect: for though both
his conversation and behaviour were suitable to his prin¬
ciples, there was so much liveliness and spirit in his dis¬
course, and such serenity and cheerfulness in his deport¬
ment, that he made himself agreeable to all sorts of people.
When he returned to his native country, he spent the re¬
mainder of his life in a quiet and retired manner. He died
at his own house at Ury, on the 3d of October 1690, in the
42d year of his age.
Barclay, John, M.D., a distinguished anatomist, was
born in Perthshire in 1760, and died at Edinburgh in 1826.
After the usual routine of parochial education, he completed
his academical course at the United College of St Andrews.
He subsequently studied divinity there, and was licensed as
a preacher by the presbytery of Dunkeld. Flaving re¬
paired to Edinburgh in 1789, as tutor to the family of Sir
James Campbell of Aberuchill, he began to give his atten¬
tion to the study of medicine, and particularly to anatomy,
both human and comparative. He became assistant tojFe
late Mr John Bell, and took the degree of M.D. in 1196,
after having defended an inaugural dissertation, De Anima,
seu Principio Vitali, a subject which occupied his maturer
powers toward the close of his life. Immediately after his
graduation, he repaired to London, and studied for some
time under the late Dr Marshall of Thavies Inn, at that
time a very distinguished teacher of anatomy in the metro¬
polis. Soon after his return to Edinburgh, he commenced
his lectures on anatomy in November 1797; and by his
. This translator of Barclay „aS “ Joh. Emarl, schola: ef ”
designate.” (Halfdani Einari Sciagraph™ Historic* Literancz Islands, p. 66. Havnue, 1777, )
writer of verse as well as prose.
BAR
Bar-coche- punctual attention to his engagements, and assiduous devo-
bas tion to the instruction of his pupils, he speedily attracted a
N ^ respectable audience, which continued gradually to increase
v ar ’ j in numbers until the period of his retirement, a short time
“~v before his death.
Of Dr Barclay’s professional writings, the earliest, we
believe, was the article Physiology, which he furnished for
the third edition of this work.
In 1803, six years after he commenced his career as a
teacher, Dr Barclay attempted a reform in the language of
anatomy, with a view to render it more accurate and pre¬
cise ; a task for which his acquirements as a classical scholar
rendered him peculiarly fit. Although the Nomenclature
which he published upon that occasion has not been ge¬
nerally adopted, we believe that the profession, with one
voice, acknowledges the importance of the object which he
had in view, and the talent and learning with which it was
executed.
In 1808, he published his Treatise on the Muscular Mo¬
tions of the Human Body, and in 1812 his Description of
the Arteries of the Human Body; a work displaying much
acute observation and laborious research, and which may
perhaps be considered the most practically useful of all his
writings. His last publication, completed only a few years
before his death, was An Inquiry into the Opinions, An¬
cient and Modern, concerning Life and Organization; a
work replete with learning and sound original criticism.
His introductory lectures, published after his death, contain
a valuable abridgment of the history of anatomy.
As a testimony of gratitude to the Royal College of Sur¬
geons of Edinburgh, Dr Barclay bequeathed to that learned
and public-spirited body his anatomical collection, now
known as the Barclayan Museum, which contains many va¬
luable specimens in comparative anatomy, and some of the
finest vascular preparations which are anywhere to be found.
B AR-C O CHEB AS, or B ar-cochab, a celebrated Jewish
impostor, in the second century, whose real name was Simeon.
See Jews and Palestine.
BARD, a word denoting a poet by profession. An¬
ciently bards were necessary persons at every festival and at
every solemnity. Their songs, which, by recording the
achievements of kings and heroes, animated the soul of the
hearer, were the entertainment of every warlike nation. We
have Hesiod’s authority, that in his time bards were as com¬
mon as potters or joiners, and as prone to envy :—
Bard, potter, joiner, beggar, ’tis decreed,
Bach with his kind shall never be agreed.
Cicero tells us that anciently at Roman festivals the virtues
and exploits of their great men were celebrated in song.
The same custom prevailed in Peru and Mexico, as we learn
from Garcilaso and other authors. But in no part of the
world did the profession of bard appear with such lustre as
in Gaul, in Britain, and in Ireland. Wherever the Celtae
or Gauls are mentioned by ancient writers, we seldom fail
to hear of their druids and their bards, the institution of which
two orders was the capital distinction of their manners and
policy. The druids were their philosophers and priests, the
bards their poets and recorders of heroic actions ; and both
these orders of men seem to have subsisted among them as
chief members of the state from time immemorial. The
Celtae possessed, from very remote ages, a regular system of
discipline and manners, which appears to have had a deep
and lasting influence. Ammianus Marcellinus expressly de¬
clares, that there flourished amongst them the study of the
most laudable arts, introduced by the bards, whose office it
was to sing in heroic verse the gallant actions of illustrious
men ; and by the druids, who lived together in colleges or
societies after the Pythagorean manner, philosophizing upon
the highest subjects, and maintaining the immortality of the
soul. Though Julius Caesar, in his account of Gaul, does
not expressly mention the bards, yet it is plain that under
BAR 443
the title of druids he comprehends that whole college or Bardas
order, of which the bards, who, it is probable, were the dis- II
ciples of the druids, undoubtedly made a part. According ^ardili-
to his account, the druidical institution first took its rise in
Britain, and passed from thence into Gaul; so that they who
aspired to be thorough masters of that learning were wont
to resort to Britain. He adds, too, that such as were to be
initiated among the druids were obliged to commit to me¬
mory a great number of verses, insomuch that some em¬
ployed twenty years in this course of education ; and that
they did not think it lawful to record these poems in writing,
but handed them down by tradition from race to race.
So strong was the attachment of the Celtic nations to
their poetry and their bards, that amidst all the changes of
their government and manners, even long after the order of
the druids had been extinct, and the national religion altered,
the bards continued to flourish, not as a set of strolling song¬
sters, like the Greek dotSot or rhapsodists in Homer’s time,
but as an order of men highly respected in the state? and
supported by a public establishment. According to the
testimonies of Strabo and Diodorus, they existed before the
age of Augustus Caesar ; and we find them flourishing under
that sovereign, and exercising the same functions as of old,
in Ireland and in the north of Scotland, almost down to our
own times. It is well known that, in both these countries,
every regulus or chief had his own bard, who was considered
an officer of rank and consequence in his little court.
The bards, as well as the druids, were exempted from
taxes and military services, even in times of the greatest
danger ; and when they attended their patrons in the field
to record and celebrate their great actions, they had a guard
assigned them for their protection. At all festivals and pub¬
lic assemblies they were seated near the person of the king
or chieftain, and sometimes even above the greatest no¬
bility and chief officers of the court. Nor was the profes¬
sion of the bards less lucrative than it was honourable. For,
besides the valuable presents which they occasionally re¬
ceived from their patrons when they gave them uncommon
pleasure by their performances, they had estates in land al¬
lotted for their support. Nay, so great was the veneration
which the princes of these times entertained for the per¬
sons of their poets, and so highly were they charmed and
delighted with their tuneful strains, that they sometimes par¬
doned even their capital crimes for a song.
BARDAS, the brother of the Empress Theodora, and
uncle of the famous Photius. He is said to have had no good
quality besides that of loving the sciences and polite litera¬
ture, which he established in the eastern empire ; for other¬
wise he was treacherous, cruel, and ambitious. In the year
856 he assassinated Theoctistus, general of the Emperor
Michael’s forces, and obtained his post. At length he caused
the disgrace of the Empress Theodora; and when St Ig¬
natius, patriarch of Constantinople, reproached him for his
vices, he had the prelate deposed, in 858, in order to make
room for Photius. Bardas was assassinated by Basilius the
Macedonian in 866.
BARDESANES, a Syrian of Edessa, in Mesopotamia,
born about a.d. 154. After his conversion to Christianity
he became eminent for his zeal against heretics, and wrote
many books against them. He at first embraced the errors of
Valentinus, but afterwards laboured to refute them. His
followers, who were called Bardesanists, went further than
their master, and denied the incarnation of Christ, and the
resurrection. His dialogues against Marcion, and his trea¬
tise On Fate, are much commended. (Euseb. iv. 30 ; Je¬
rome, c. xxxix.)
BARDILI, Christoph Gottfried, a German meta¬
physician, distinguished by his opposition to the system of
Kant, was born at Blaubeuren in Wurtemburg, in 1761, and
died at Stuttgard in 1808. Of his numerous works the prin¬
cipal is his Elements of Logic (Grundriss der ersten Logik,
444 BAR
Bardsey &c.) Stuttgard 1800; in which he has developed his own
II peculiar views.
Baretti. BARDSEY, a small island on the Welsh coast, at the
' ^ v ^ northern extremity of Cardigan Bay. It is 2% miles long by
1 in breadth, with an area of about 370 acres, of which one-
third is hilly. The island produces barley and oats. Pop. 90.
Its only harbour is on the S.E. side, and admits vessels of
40 tons. The lighthouse has a fixed light 129 feet above
high water, in Lat. 52. 45. N. Long. 4. 47. W.
BARiXjiES, a small town situated between two moun¬
tain chains in the department of Hautes Pyrenees in France,
celebrated for its warm sulphurous springs. Their tempera¬
ture varies from 24° to 36° Reaumur. Upwards of a thousand
visitors annually repair to the baths, most of them military
men, the benefit of the waters being granted to the army at
the expense of government. Their chief value is in cuta¬
neous diseases.
BAREILLY, a large and populous city of Hindustan,
and the capital of a district of the same name, is situated on
the left bank of the Jooah, a tributary of the Ramgunga.
It is a place of some importance with respect both to com¬
merce and manufactures, and, according to the census taken
in 1848, has a population of 92,208. The cantonment for
the troops is at the south side of the town, and forms the head¬
quarters for the military division of Rohilcund. Elevation of
Bareilly above the sea, 470 feet. Distance from Delhi 152
miles, from Calcutta 788. Lat. 28. 22. Long. 79. 28.
The district of Bareilly is bounded on the N. by Ku-
maon; on the E. by Oude and Shahjehanpore ; on the S.
by Budaon, and on the W. by the native state of Rampore
and the British district of Moradabad. Its principal rivers
are the Gogra, the Western Ramgunga, the Gurrah, and
the Goula. The area is 2937 square miles. There are only
two cities in the district, viz. Bareilly and Pilleebheet;
Aoulah, formerly a larger place than Bareilly, being now in
ruins. According to official return, the population amounts
to 1,143,657, of which number 883,795 are Hindus, and
259,862 Mahometans and others not Hindu. In summer,
notwithstanding the high latitude of Bareilly, the heat is
intense ; but in winter, water sometimes freezes in the tents.
After the devastation of Rohilcund in 1774 by Surajah
Dowlah the vizier of Oude, aided by the British troops, the
country became a complete waste. Subsequent disturbances
called for the renewed interference of the British, and in
1796 the Rohillas were again defeated by the troops under
the command of Sir Robert Abercrombie. These events
resulted in the transfer of the district of Bareilly to the
vizier, by whom in 1802 it was ceded to the East India
Company, in commutation of the annual payment agreed to
be made to the British government for the maintenance of
a subsidiary military force.
The city of Bareilly was in 1816 the seat of a serious
outbreak against the British government, which for a time
threatened disastrous consequences. It originated in dis¬
content created by certain fiscal arrangements, but was
speedily converted by Mahometan fanaticism into a reli¬
gious quarrel. It was however happily suppressed; but
not without a conflict between the government troops and
the insurgents, which was followed by the dispersion of the
latter. (e. t.)
BARETTI, Giuseppe, a native of Turin, was born in
1716. He came to London in 1751, where he became
known by the publication of his Italian Library, and ob¬
tained the appointment of secretary to the Royal Academy,
which he retained till his death in 1786. He was the au¬
thor of an excellent Italian and English grammar, and a
valuable dictionary of the same languages; and he after¬
wards compiled a Spanish and English dictionary. He had
the misfortune, in a brawl in the streets of London, to stab
a man, who died of the wound. He was tried for his life;
^nd defended himself with great ability. He proved that
BAR
the homicide had been committed in self-defence from an Barfleur
unprovoked attack; and was acquitted by the jury. On II
this trial Dr Johnson, Garrick, and Burke, gave favourable ®ark*
testimony to his character, and spoke of him as intimately
known to them.
BARFLEUR, an ancient town of Normandy, in France,
now in the department of Manche, 15 miles E. of Cher¬
bourg. It was ruined and had its harbour filled up by the
English in 1346. Cape Barfleur has a lighthouse 271 feet
above the sea, in Long. 1. 16. W. Lat. 49. 40. N.
BARGE {bargie, Dutch, from barga, low Latin), a
boat of state or pleasure, sometimes furnished with elegant
canopies and cushions, equipped with a band of rowers, and
decorated with flags and streamers. There are likewise
barges of a smaller kind for the use of admirals and captains
of ships of war. These are of a lighter frame, and may be
easily hoisted into and out of the ships to which they be¬
long. See Boat.
BARI, Terra di, a province of the kingdom of Naples,
bounded on the N. by the Adriatic, E. and S.E. by the pro¬
vince of Otranto, S.W. by Basilicata, and W. by Capita-
nata. It has an area of 1782 geographical square miles,
and is divided into 3 districts and 53 communes. Pop. in
1845, 491,331. Except in the S. and S.W., where branches
of the Apennines occur, the surface is generally level.
The only considerable river is the Ofanto ; this province,
however, is the best cultivated in the kingdom, producing
abundance of grain, flax, tobacco, cotton, wine, oil, almonds,
&c. Swine, asses, goats, and sheep with a very fine wool,
are numerous ; and the salt and nitre works form important
branches of industry.
Bari, the ancient Barium, capital of the above province,
is situated on a tongue of land projecting into the Adriatic,
in Lat. 41. 7. 41. N. Long. 16. 52. 16. E. The town is
strongly fortified, but the houses are generally mean, and
the streets narrow and filthy. It is the seat of an arch¬
bishopric, and has a cathedral, several parish churches, an
old priory founded in 1087, a college for the education ot
nobles, a lyceum, a diocesan seminary, a theatre, arsenal,
and several hospitals. The manufactures comprise cotton
goods, cloth, hats, soap, glass, &c.; and the liquor called
“ acqua stomachica” is prepared here. The roads afford
good anchorage, with a depth of from 16 to 18 fathoms, but
the port is accessible to small vessels only. Pop. 20,000.
BARILLA, the commercial name of an impure carbonate
of soda, which is produced by the incineration of several
marine and other plants inhabiting the shores of Spain
and the Levant, especially those of the genus Salsola, which
for this purpose are extensively cultivated in the huerta of
Murcia, and other places on the eastern shores of Spain.
Barilla is largely used in the manufacture of glass and soap,
and in bleaching. Kelp is an inferior alkali prepared from
certain kinds of sea-weed in a similar manner. The manu¬
facture of barilla was introduced into Europe by the Sara¬
cens, who called it kali; whence, by the addition of the
Arabic prefix al, came the term alkali. Since the intro¬
duction of artificial soda (soude factice), the importation of
barilla has greatly declined. (M‘Culloch’s Com. Diet?)
BARK, the exterior part or skin of trees. Several kinds
of barks are met with in commerce, some being used ex¬
clusively and largely in the arts, others only in medicine, and
a third class as spices. The chief barks met with in com¬
merce are oak bark, mimosa or wattle bark; larch, willow,
and alder barks, all chiefly, if not entirely, used in the pro¬
cess of tanning ; quercitron bark, used in the production of
a yellow dye ; cork bark, for the manufacture of corks for
bottles, &c.; Peruvian or cinchona bark, cascarilla, and some
other barks used in medicine. From the Peruvian bark is
prepared the valuable medicine sulphate of quinine, so effi¬
cacious in the cure of agues, &c. The other barks occur¬
ring in commerce are classed under the head of spices, being
BAR
Bark the cinnamon and cassia barks. With the exception of cin-
II namon and cassia, barks now pay no import duty. The
Bar ow^ quantity of bark for tanners’ or dyers’ use imported in 1852
was 403,930 cwt. Of mimosa or wattle bark, both in its
crude state and in the form of extract, we possess no cer¬
tain information, the custom-house not having published
separate and distinct accounts of the imports of each since
1832. In that year, however, the imports of this bark
amounted to 28,410 cwt., and have been increasing since
that period. Of quercitron bark, the average consumpt
amounts to somewhere about 23,000 or 24,000 cwt. an¬
nually. In 1852 the quantity of cinchona bark imported
amounted to 18,206 cwt., of which 10,092 were re-exported.
The quantity of cork bark imported in 1850 amounted to
60,696 cwt. The quantity of cassia bark imported in 1852
amounted to 496,833 lb. It pays an import duty of Id. per
lb. The quantity of cinnamon imported into this country
in 1852 amounted to 541,888 lb. Cinnamon pays a duty
of 2d. per lb. In 1853 the distinctive colonial and foreign
duties were equalized.
Bark, in Navigation, a general name given to small
ships ; it is, however, peculiarly appropriated by seamen to
those which carry three masts without a mizentopsail. Our
northern mariners who are trained in the coal-trade apply
this distinction to a broad-sterned ship which carries no or¬
namental figure on the stern or prow.
BARKER, Robert, the inventor of the modern pano¬
rama, and a painter by profession, was born at Kells, in Ire¬
land, in 1740. The first picture of this kind was a view of
Edinburgh, which was first exhibited by Mr Barker in that
city in 1788. Barker died at London in 1806, having re¬
alized a considerable fortune by his invention.
BARKER’S MILL. See Hydrodynamics.
B ARKING, a market-town of England, county of Essex,
7 miles E.N.E. of London, on the river Roding, not far
from the Thames. It was celebrated for its nunnery, one
of the oldest and richest in England, founded about 670,
the abbess of which was a baroness ex officio. The church
of St Margaret is an ancient edifice of considerable beauty,
with some curious monuments. It has also an ancient mar¬
ket-house and an embattled gateway. Pop. in 1851, 4930,
principally engaged in fishing and the cultivation of vege¬
tables for the London market.
BARL7EUS, or Baerle, Gaspar, professor of philo¬
sophy at Amsterdam, and one of the best Latin poets of the
seventeenth century, was born in 1584. There was scarcely
any event of importance while he lived that was not cele¬
brated by him, when reasons of state opposed no obstacle
to it. He was a great defender of Arminius, and showed
his abilities in history by his relation of what passed in
Brazil during the government of Count Maurice of Nassau,
published in 1647. He died in 1648.
BARLETTA, a fortified seaport town of Naples, pro¬
vince of Terra di Bari, 33 miles N.W. of Bari. Lat. 41.
19. 26. N. Long. 16. 18. 10. E. The town is well built
and handsome, the houses large, and the streets wide and
well paved. It has a fine Gothic cathedral with a lofty spire,
a number of churches and convents, an orphan asylum, col¬
lege, theatre, and a colossal statue of the Emperor Heraclius.
The harbour is formed by a mole on which a lighthouse
is erected, and it is commanded by the citadel. It is only
capable of admitting small vessels, but has a considerable
trade in grain, wine, oil, fruit, salt, &c. Pop. 20,000.
BARLEY. See Agriculture and Brewing.
Barley-Corn is used to denote a measure, containing in
length the third part of an inch. The French carpenters
also use barley-corn, grain d’orge, as equivalent to a line,
or the twelfth part of an inch.
BARLOW,Francis,an English painter,born in Lincoln¬
shire about 1626. On his coming to London he was placed
with a portrait painter ; but his genius led him chiefly to the
BAR 445
drawing of birds, fishes, &c. There are six books of animals Harlow.
from his drawings ; and he painted some ceilings with birds ^ >
for noblemen and gentlemen in the country. His etchings
are numerous, but his best work is his illustrations of TEsop.
He died in 1702. There is something pleasing in the com¬
position and manner of this painter, though neither is ex¬
cellent. His drawing is indifferent, nor does he characterize
any animal justly. His birds in general are better than his
beasts.
Barlow, Joel, an American literary and political cha¬
racter of considerable note, was born in the year 1756, in
the village of Reading, in Connecticut, the youngest often
children. His father died when he was yet a boy ; and he
was sent to the college of Newhaven, in his native state, in
1774. In the course of the prescribed exercises of compo¬
sition he discovered a taste for poetry, and two productions
crept into public view, one entitled The Prospect of Peace ;
the other An Elegy on the Death of Mr Hosmer, member
of the American congress. It appears that Mr Barlow was
destined for the clerical profession ; and that his friends so¬
licited and obtained for him the appointment of chaplain to
a militia company of Massachusetts, the functions of which
he performed till the peace.
At the conclusion of peace between the United States
and Great Britain, he abandoned the ecclesiastical life, and
settled at the village of Hartford, where, two years after¬
wards, he published the poem entitled The Vision of Co¬
lumbus.
After quitting the service of the church, he appears for
some time to have practised law ; but in 1788 he abandoned
that profession likewise, and came to Europe as the agent
of the Scioto Land Company, a fraudulent association, of
whose real character and designs he was ignorant.
Having during this period become deeply interested by
the events of the French revolution, he published, in the
years 1791 and 1792, several political pieces of a republican
character, and in 1793, from motives of curiosity, accom¬
panied the four commissioners of the National Convention
who were sent to Mont Blanc to organize that department.
Objects of a commercial nature at length drew him to
Hamburg, and afterwards to the coast of Africa, where he
received the commission of consul-general of the United
States, with instructions to enter into and conclude treaties
with the Barbary powers for the purpose of procuring the
ransom of the American citizens who were detained as
slaves in those countries. The execution of this commis¬
sion was prompt and successful ; and, after residing for
some time in Paris, to which he returned from Barbary, he,
in 1805, proceeded to America, and purchased a neat habi¬
tation in the territory of Columbia, the seat of the general
government, to which he gave the name of Kalorama,
Here he formed an acquaintance with certain influential
members of Congress, to whom he greatly recommended
himself by the publication of a short sketch of a plan of
national education, and an address to the citizens of Wash¬
ington upon occasion of one of the anniversaries of Ameri¬
can independence. He now also published the superb
quarto edition of his national poem, to which he finally gave
the name of The Columbiad. Having returned to the Unite-
States, in 1811 he received the appointment of minister-
plenipotentiary to the court of France. This nomination
met with powerful opposition in the senate, and passed only
by a small majority.
The great object of his mission was to obtain compensa¬
tion for the American property confiscated in virtue of the
Berlin and Milan decrees. This arrangement was to be
regulated in a manner the least onerous to the French trea¬
sury. American ships and cargoes were, at the same time,
to be freed from unjust detention, and a new commercial
treaty was to be formed on principles of national justice and
reciprocity.
4
446
Barlow
I!
Barmen.
BAR
In pursuit of this object he followed the Emperor Napo¬
leon to Wilna in the memorable winter of 1812 ; but this
diplomatic journey was without advantage, and the failure
was the more mortifying, as it was undertaken without t ie
advice or instructions of the American government. r
Barlow was returning to Paris, when he was seized with a
violent inflammatory disease, of which he died on the 2bth
of December, in the fifty-eighth year of his age ; and was
interred at Zarnowitch, an obscure village near Cracow.
Barlow, Thomas, was born at Orton in Westmoreland,
in 1607. He was appointed fellow of Queens College, Ox¬
ford, in 1633, and two years after chosen reader of meta¬
physics to the university. He was keeper of the Bod cian
library, and in 1657 was chosen provost of Queen s College.
After the restoration of Charles II. he was nominated one
of the commissioners for restoring the members unjustly
expelled in 1648. He wrote at that time The Case of lo-
leration in Matters of Religion, to Mr R. Boyle. In 16
he was made bishop of Lincoln. After the popish p ot he
published several tracts against the Roman Catholic religion,
in which he showed an uncommon extent of learning, and
skill in polemical divinity. Nevertheless^ when the Duke of
York was proclaimed king, with expressions of affection tor
His Majesty he veered towards popery ; but after the Ce-
volution he as readily voted that the king had abdicated Ins
kingdom, and zealously excluded from their benefices such
of the clergy as refused the oaths. He died at Buekden, in
Huntingdonshire, on the 8th of October 1691, in the 8oti
year of his age. „ , , ,
Barlow, William, bishop of Chichester, descended^
of an ancient family in M ales, was born in the county of
Essex. In his youth he favoured the Reformation, and tra¬
velled into Germany to be instructed by Luther and other
preachers of the new doctrine. He was one of those who,
in the transition state of religious opinion in England, veered
as the wind blew from the court. In early youth a Protes¬
tant, when lured by the possession of rich priories, he was
a Papist. In consequence of the readiness with which he
resigned these, he was a favourite with Henry VIIL, who,
in 1547, made him bishop of Bath and Wells. On the ac¬
cession of Edward VI., he found it convenient to return to
his first faith. When Mary succeeded to the crown, he was
not prepared for another turn, and was consequently depi ived
of his bishopric, and imprisoned in the Fleet, where he con¬
tinued for some time. At length he found means to escape,
and joined the English Protestants in Germany. M hen
Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne, he was raised to the
see of Chichester, and soon after made first prebendary of
the collegiate church of Westminster. He died in 1568,
and was buried in the cathedral of Chichester. His five
daughters were all married to bishops. He wrote a book
upon Cosmography, and several other works.
Barlow, William, an eminent mathematician and divine,
the son of the bishop of Chichester, was born in Pembroke-
shire, whilst his father was bishop of St David’s. In 1560
he was entered a commoner of Baliol College, Oxford; and
in 1564 took a degree in arts, after which he left the uni¬
versity and went to sea, but in what capacity is uncertain.
While at sea he acquired considerable knowledge in the art
of navigation. About the year 1573 he entered into orders,
and became prebendary of Winchester, and rector of Eas¬
ton, near that city, and in 1614 he was appointed archdeacon
of Salisbury. He was the first English writer on the nature
and properties of the magnet, on which he published several
treatises. Barlow died in the year 1625, and was buried in
the church at Easton.
BARM, or Yeast. See Baking and Brewing.
BARMEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia, in the government
of Dusseldorf, and circle of Elberfeld. It is a long straggling
town, stretching along the northern valley of the Wupper,
and is formed of the town of Gemarke and several villages.
Barnard-
Castle.
BAR
Its manufactures are very extensive, and similar to those Barmouth
of the contiguous town of Elberfeld; which see. Pop.
in 1849, 35,984.
BARMOUTH, a small market-town in the county of
Merioneth, North Wales. It is the only port in that divi¬
sion of the Welsh coast, and is much frequented in the sum¬
mer as a bathing-place. The picturesque scenery in the
neighbourhood largely contributes to its attractions.
BARNABAS, St, one of the earliest apostles of Chris¬
tianity, was born in Cyprus, and descended of the tribe of
Levi. His proper name was Joses or Joseph, to which, after
his conversion to Christianity, the apostles added that of
Rarnabas, signifying either “ the son of prophecy” or “ the
son of consolation.” He was educated at Jerusalem under
Gamaliel. The time of his conversion is uncertain ; but he
is generally supposed to have been one of the seventy dis¬
ciples chosen by our Saviour himself.
At Antioch Paul and Barnabas, in consequence of differ¬
ing about the propriety of taking with them Mark as their
minister on their second evangelizing journey, separated.
The subsequent travels and acts of Barnabas are not related
in the Acts of the Apostles. Some say that he went into
Italy and founded a church at Milan. It is generally believed
that he suffered martyrdom at Salamis, where some Jews
from Syria set upon him as he was disputing in the syna¬
gogue, and stoned him to death. He was buried in a cave
near that city by his kinsman Mark, whom he had taken
along with him. The remains of his body aie said to have
been discovered in the reign of the Emperor Zeno, together
with a copy of St Matthew’s Gospel, written with his own
hand, and lying on his breast. Jhe festival of St Barna¬
bas is celebrated on the 11th of June.
Barnabas, Epistle of, an apocryphal work ascribed to
Barnabas, and frequently cited by Clement of Alexandria
and by Origen. It was first published in Greek, from a
copy of Father Hugo Menard, a Benedictine monk. An
ancient version of it, nearly a thousand years old, was found
in a manuscript of the abbey of Corbey. Vossius published it
in the year 1646, together with the epistles of St Ignatius;
and it has been several times reprinted.
Barnabas, Gospel of, an apocryphal work ascribed to
Barnabas, wherein the history of Jesus Christ is related in a
manner very different from the account given us by the tour
evangelists. The Mahometans possess this gospel in Ara¬
bic, and it corresponds very well with those traditions wdnch
Mahomet followed in his Koran. It was probably a for¬
gery of some nominal Christians, and afterwards altered and
interpolated by the Mahometans, the better to serve their
purpose. It has been translated into Italian, Spanish, and
English.
BARNABITES, a religious order founded in the six¬
teenth century by three Italian gentlemen who had been
advised by a famous preacher of those days to read care¬
fully the epistles of St Paul. Hence they were called
Clerks of St Paul, and also Barnabites, because they per¬
formed their first exercise in a church of St Barnabas at
Milan. Their habit was black, and their office to instruct,
catechize, and serve in mission.
BARNACLE. See Bernicle.
BARNACLES, in Farriery, an instrument, composed
of two branches joined at one end with a hinge, to put
a horse’s nose when he will not stand quietly to be s 10 ,
bled or dressed.
BARNARD-CASTLE, a market-town in the parish of
Gainford and Darlington Ward, county of Durham, 247
miles from London, on the banks of the Tees. 1 he corn-
market, which is one of the largest in the north of England,
is held on Wednesday. The town consists chiefly of one
long and spacious street, the chief ornament of which is a
handsome octagonal market-cross. Its principal manufac¬
tures are carpets and thread. Pop. in 1851, 4357. I his
BAR
BAR
447
Barnaul
Barn¬
staple.
town derives its name from a castle founded about the year
1180 by Barnard Baliol, an ancestor of the competitor with
Bruce for the Scottish crown. The remains of the castle
extend over a space of more than six acres.
BARNAUL, a mining town of Siberia, situated on a river
of the same name, near its junction with the Obi. It is the
capital of an extensive mining district, and the seat of a
board of administration. Large quantities of gold, silver,
copper, and iron ores are smelted here. Pop. about 10,000.
BARNES, Joshua, an eminent English scholar, was
born about the middle of the seventeenth century. In 1695
he was chosen queen’s professor of Greek, a language which
he wrote and spoke with the utmost facility. His first pub¬
lication was a whimsical tract entitled Gerania, or a new
discovery of the little sort of people called Pygmies. He
also wrote a Life of Edward III., in which he introduces
his hero making long and elaborate speeches, besides se¬
veral other books, particularly Sacred Poems ; the Life of
Oliver Cromivell the Tyrant; some dramatic pieces; a
poetical paraphrase on the history of Esther, in Greek verse,
with a Latin translation, &c. He also published editions
of Euripides, Anacreon, and Homer’s Uliad and Odyssey,
with notes and a Latin translation. He wrote with even
greater facility in Greek than in English, and yet he is gene¬
rally allowed not to have understood the niceties of that
language. He died in 1712, in the 58th year of his age.
BARNET, or Chipping Barnet, a market-town in the
hundred of Caisho, and county of Hertford, 11 miles from
London, on the great northern road. Near it, in 1471, was
fought the decisive battle between the houses of York and
Lancaster, in which the great Earl of Warwick fell. The
market, held on Monday, is large ; as it has great cattle
fairs. Pop. of parish in 1851, 2380.
BARNEVELDT, Jan d’Olden, a celebrated Dutch
statesman, and one of the founders of the civil liberty of
Holland, was born at Amersfoort in 1547. His patriotic
zeal having led him to limit the authority of Maurice Prince
of Orange, the second stadtholder of Holland, the partisans
of that prince falsely accused him of a design to deliver his
country into the hands of the Spanish monarch. On this
absurd charge he was tried by 26 commissaries deputed
from the Seven Provinces, condemned, and beheaded at the
Hague in 1619. His sons, William and Rene, with the view
of avenging their father’s death, formed a conspiracy against
the stadtholder, which was discovered. William fled, but
Rene was taken and condemned to die ; which fatal circum¬
stance has immortalized the memory of his mother, of whom
the following anecdote is recorded. She solicited a pardon
for Rene; upon which Maurice expressed his surprise that
she should do that for her son which she had neglected for
her husband. To this remark she replied with indignation,
“ I would not ask a pardon for my husband, because he was
innocent; I solicit it for my son because he is guilty.”
BARNSLEY, or Black Barnsley, a town in the parish
of Silkstone, of the wapentake of Staincross, in the West
Riding of Yorkshire, 171 miles from London. It formerly
had considerable manufactures in iron, but it has of late
years become the seat of extensive factories of linen and
other cloth. The trade has been greatly increased in conse¬
quence of the extension of canal navigation, which connects
the town with Wakefield, and the other canals and navigable
rivers which unite at that place. There is a large market
every Wednesday for cattle and corn. Pop. in 1851, 13,43 (.
BARNSTAPLE, a market, seaport, and borough town
of England, county of Devon, 34 miles N.W. of Exeter.
It is a handsome and well-built town, standing on the river
Taw, 6 miles from its mouth. This stream, which is only
navigable for small craft, is here crossed by an ancient stone Barnstaple
bridge of 16 arches. The town was incorporated in the li
reign of Henry I., and is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, Baroc<i-
and 18 councillors. It has returned two members to par-
liament since the time of Edward I. The woollen trade,
for which it was once famous, has now much declined; but
it has extensive potteries and tanneries, See. The public
buildings and institutions include a large church, guildhall,
theatre, free grammar school, mechanics’ institute, national <
and charity schools, an infirmary, and dispensary. The
poet Gay was born in the vicinity, and received his educa¬
tion at the grammar school here. Pop. in 1851, 11,371.
Barnstaple, a seaport town, and capital of the county of
the samename, in the state of Massachusetts, North America.
It is situated on the south side of a bay of the same name,
which opens into Cape Cod Bay. In 1848 it had 64,309
tons of shipping, of which about 30,000 tons were employed
in the coasting trade, and about 16,000 in the cod and mack¬
erel fisheries. Pop. 4301.
BARO, or Baron, Peter, professor of divinity in the
university of Cambridge in the sixteenth century, was born
at Estampes, in France, and educated in the university ot
Bourges, where he was admitted'a licentiate in the law;
but being of the Protestant religion, he was obliged to leave
his native country in order to avoid persecution. After re¬
siding some time at Geneva, he came to England, and was
kindly received by Lord Burleigh. He afterwards settled
at Cambridge, and, by the recommendation of his noble pa¬
tron, in 1574 was chosen Lady Margaret’s professor there.
For some years he enjoyed his professorship in quiet; but a
restless faction was at last raised against him by his oppos¬
ing the doctrine of absolute predestination ; and this ren¬
dered his situation so uncomfortable that he chose to leave
the university and settle in London. He wrote In Jonam
Prophetam Prcelectiones xxxix.; De Prcestantia et Digni-
tate Divina Legis ; and some other treatises. He died in
London about the year 1600.
BAROCCHIO, or Barozzi, Giacomo da Vignola, a
celebrated architect, born at Vignola, in the Modenese ter¬
ritory, in 1507. He succeeded Michael Angelo as the ar¬
chitect of St Peter’s, and executed various portions of that
fabric, besides a variety of works in Rome and other parts
of Italy. He is the author of an excellent work on the Five
Orders of Architecture. His character as a man was worthy
of his genius ; for to his extensive acquirements and exqui¬
site taste was superadded an amenity of manners and dis¬
position, and a noble generosity, that won the affection and
admiration of all who knew him. Da Vignola died in 1573,
at the age of sixty-six.
BAROCCI, or Baroccio, Frederigo, a celebrated
painter, born at Urbino, where the genius of Raphael in¬
spired him. In his early youth he travelled to Rome, where
he painted in fresco. He then returned to Urbino, and
giving himself up to intense study, acquired great fame as
a painter, particularly of religious subjects. He also etched
from his own designs a few prints, which are highly finished,
and executed with great softness and delicacy. He died at
Urbino in 1612, aged 84.
BARO CO, in the Old Logic, a term given to the fourth
mode of the second figure of syllogisms. A syllogism in
baroco has the first proposition a universal affirmative, but
the second and third particular negatives, and the middle
term is the predicate in the first two propositions. For ex¬
ample,
Nullus homo non est bipes :
Non omne animal est bipes :
Non omne animal est homo.
448
BAROMETER.
-Barometer. Our dictionaries contain such an account of the disco-
very and construction of this most valuable instrument, as
can be drawn from the popular treatises of natural philo¬
sophy in the English language. But, unfortunately, the
compilers of elementary works have seldom taken the
trouble to remount to the original sources of information,
and have frequently, by substituting their own fancies, or
servilely copying the mistakes of others, contrived to dis¬
figure egregiously the relation of facts, and the history of
the progress of invention. We purpose, therefore, as far
as our limits will admit, to discuss the subject with more
careful research; but, passing rather lightly over the de¬
scription of the different kinds of barometers and other
practical details, to dwell more especially on the succes¬
sive steps which led to the fine discovery of atmospheric
pressure and its application to physical science.
Opinions The opinions entertained by the ancients concerning
of the physical subjects appear at best only splendid visions,
ancients; They speculated boldly in cosmological theories, but were
easily satisfied with those conclusions which merely soothe
the fancy. Many of the philosophical notions adopted in
remote ages have, however, left a durable impression in
the structure of language, and still continue to exercise a
visible influence in moulding the current sentiments of
mankind. The early sages of Greece distinguished matter
into the four primary elements, of earth, water, air, and
Jire, which, by their various combinations, were supposed
to produce the animated spectacle of the universe. With
these elements were associated corresponding qualities,
in a binary conjunction ; hot and cold, dry and moist.
Earth and water were considered as ponderous and inert;
but air andj£re, endued with elastic virtue, were imagin¬
ed to possess lightness and activity. Fire, though extract¬
ed from all bodies by the operations of nature or of art,
was yet conceived to be derived, by invisible emanation,
from that diffuse lambent fluid which, under the name of
JEther, occupied the highest heavens, and furnished the
substance and nutriment of the celestial bodies. While
the earthy matter would, therefore, naturally settle to¬
wards the centre, and the aqueous fluids roll along the
surface of the solid globe, the air and fire soared aloft;
the former occupying the whole of the region below the
moon, and the latter streaming through the boundless ex¬
tent of space. This sublunary scene is exposed to inces¬
sant change, calamity, and decay; but above it was sup¬
posed to reign a perpetual calm, the seat of bliss, and of
divine and imperishable essence.
Aristotle and some other philosophers, viewing cether as
altogether distinct from culinary Jire, were disposed to
consider it as a fifth element, of a pure, divine, and incor¬
and of the ruptible nature; an opinion which afterwards gave occa-
schoolmen. sion to the famous Quinta Essentia, or Quintessence of the
schoolmen. The alchemists, who sprung up nearly about
the same benighted period, in adopting these notions,
modified them to suit their own peculiar views. To the
elements commonly received, they joined the active aux¬
iliaries of mercury and sulphur. For quintessence they
substituted spirit and elixir ; the former, drawn off by the
application of fire, being conceived to represent the ani¬
mating principle of each body; while the latter, extract¬
ed by the combined action of heat and moisture, was sup¬
posed to exhibit its concentrated and most select quali¬
ties.
Some of the ancient cosmologists imagined a vacuum
beyond the shining expanse of aether, destined to receive
the exhalations from this netherworld. Others denied Barometer,
the existence of a separate void, but admitted small va-
cuities interspersed through bodies. Aristotle, however, Physical
maintained the necessity of a plenum, asserting that our tenets of
idea of space or extension is inseparable from that of^stot e*
body. To this principle he ascribed the suspension of
water in a tube, when the finger is applied to shut the
upper end. Yet the very contempt in which that philo¬
sopher, from a consciousness of his own superiority, was
accustomed to hold the received opinions, might have led
him to take juster views. He rejected the notion that
air has levity inherent in its nature; nor would he admit
the more plausible idea, that a fluid so easily moved must
possess the quality of perfect indifference, and be neither
light nor heavy. Aristotle not only maintained that air
is ponderous, but did not scruple to appeal to direct ex¬
periment in support of this assertion. A bladder, he says,
will be found to gain some weight, on being blown or
filled with air. But this was evidently a mere random
assertion, betraying his ignorance of the constitution of
fluids. A bag filled with air, and suspended in a like me¬
dium, it is obvious, from the laws of hydrostatics, must
weigh exactly the same as before. If it be alleged that,
in blowing up the bladder, a portion of air would be in¬
troduced immediately from the lungs, and containing
therefore a small admixture of carbonic acid gas, which is
specifically heavier than the common atmospheric fluid;
the additional weight, amounting scarcely perhaps to a
grain, would be too minute to be detected by any of the
jewellers’ balances constructed in ancient Greece.
The mutual opposition of the leading philosophical sects
of antiquity had, in general, most fatally discouraged the
application of mathematical reasoning to the system of
the material world. The Academicians, or the disciples
of Plato, who cultivated geometry with ardour and bril¬
liant success, were disposed to regard that science as a
pure intellectual contemplation ; and resigning themselves
to the illusion of their lofty dreams, they turned with dis¬
dain from the investigation of individual facts and all the
vulgar realities of life. The mind of Aristotle was of a
more sober and practical cast; acute, profound, and discri¬
minating, it ranged with incredible industry over an im¬
mense field of inquiry. That judicious philosopher re¬
commended a careful and constant appeal to external ob¬
servation, as the only sure ground on which to erect the
structure of physics; but unfortunately his scholars ne¬
glected too much the study of mathematics, the most
powerful instrument for conducting physical research.
The precepts of Aristotle, though excellent in some re¬
spects, were hence in the sequel unproductive of any ge¬
nuine fruit. On the contrary, the weight of his opinions,
during a long course of ages, repressed the efforts of hu¬
man genius.
It must be gratefully acknowledged, that the alche-Modern
mists, styled also philosophers by fire, were the first among experi-
the moderns who dared to explore new paths ot science.menta 18 !>-
Their projects were, indeed, highly chimerical, but they
had the merit at least of setting the example of investi¬
gating the properties of matter by actual experiment.
They likewise formed associations among individuals for
the more effectual prosecution of such researches. Hence
the origin of that obscure sect known by the fanciful
title of Rosicrucians, who sprung up in Germany, and in¬
sensibly spread their influence over the Continent. Those
principles were afterwards transplanted into the matured
51
BAROMETER.
449
Barometer, soil of Italy, where philosophy, succeeding to the cultiva- than water, being about the double of the true estimate • TWnnWpr
tion of letters, wore a more attractive garb. Baptista an error probably arising from some imperfection of the
Porta, a Neapolitan nobleman, who flourished about the valve that confined the air within the ball. n—
latter part of the sixteenth century, was particularly dis- After he had, by such researches, acquired celebrity in
languished by his zeal in promoting such pursuits. Hav- the scientific world, Galileo accepted an invitation, with a
ing spent many years in travelling over Europe to gain very handsome appointment, from Cosmo de’ Medici • and
informatmn respecting natural objects, he invited a few devoting himself intensely to astronomical observations
individuals of a congenial taste to assemble at stated times aided by the telescope, which, from an obscure hint he
in his house, and assist him in making new experiments, had recently constructed, yet occasionally unbendino-’ his
Ihese meetings, however, gave umbrage to the watchful mind with elegant recreation, he spent almost the whole
jealousy of the clergy, and they were soon suppressed by of the evening of his life at the villa of Arcetri, near
a mandate from the court of Rome. But the example Florence, in a style of comfort and even splendour. But
was imitated in other parts of Italy, where the papal au- while occupied with those delightful pursuits, exploring
thonty enjoyed less respect; and academies for the pro- the planetary phases, and discovering new worlds, he was
motion of natural science were successfully instituted un- for a moment recalled to his early studies by an incident
der the patronage of different prmces, especially those of destined to form an epoch in the history of physical
1 In rr h°”Sef.0.t M?dlcl- science. Some artisans, in the service of the grand duke, Incidental
rf this ferment of inquiry, Galileo arose, a man fitted having been employed to construct a lifting or sucking failure of a
alike by the gifts of nature and the lights of education to pump for a very deep well, found, with equal surprise and sucking
be the founder of experimental science. His elegant vexation, that, in spite of all the pains they had taken inPumP-
fitting the piston and valves, the water could by no effort
be made to rise higher in the barrel than eighteen palms,
or thirty-two feet. In this dilemma they applied to Gali¬
leo for an explication of the cause of a failure then so un¬
expected and perplexing. But the philosopher was not
yet prepared to encounter such a discordant fact. The
Aristotelian tenet of the impossibility of the existence of
a void, was, at this period, universally received as an un¬
questionable truth. It had become a favourite axiom of
Galileo.
genius was invigorated by the study of the Greek geome¬
try ; and he conceived the happy and prolific idea^of em¬
ploying that refined instrument to explore facts and com¬
bine the results. Archimedes, indeed, among the ancients,
had anticipated this road of discovery, having most suc¬
cessfully applied the powers of geometrical analysis to
the investigation of some parts of mechanics and hydro¬
statics. But his was a solitary instance, unheeded by
succeeding ages. The ingenuity of Galileo prepared a
complete revolution in science. By means of a few sim- the schoolmen, deceiving themselves, as Leibnitz^'did
pie but striking experiments performed on the lagoons of afterwards in proposing his principle of sufficient reason,
Venice, he established the laws of motion, which he now
transferred from the surface of our globe, to direct the
revolutions of the heavenly bodies. The publication of
his Dialogues, which unfold the right process of induction,
and are not less distinguished by fineness of conception
by the glimmer of a metaphorical expression, the fuga
vacui, or nature s horror of a void. To create a vacuum,
they gravely maintained, would require the hand of Om¬
nipotence, transcending the utmost power of men or even
c  -j    — ——i—-* devils. But Galileo, though borne along by the current
than beauty of diction, forms a new era in the annals of of opinion, saw the necessity of at least modifying the
philosophy. He was the first who attempted to ascertain general principle. Without questioning nature’s abhor-Timid and
the weight of air by actual experiment; and considering rence of a vacuum, he supposed the influence of this hor-imperfect
the nicety of the operation, and the rudeness of the in- ror to be confined within certain limits, not exceeding the exPlication
pressure of a column of water eighteen palms in height.ofGaliIeo*
This was evidently evading, rather than meeting, the
difficulty proposed for his solution. Yet, in the last of his
Dialogues, he actually mentions an experiment to ascer¬
tain this power, or virtu, as he calls it, of a vacuum. A
piston with a valve, exactly fitted into a smooth hollow
cylinder, was rammed quite to the end, and this carefully
clinf* nr* • on nlaninrr tl->^    • l_ j. v . •
struments constructed at that period, he made a very
tolerable approach to the truth. It had been known for
many ages that air is capable of being highly condensed ;
and Ctesebius of Alexandria had invented an engine,
which, by the force of the sudden expansion of this com¬
pressed fluid, hurled missile weapons. This was after¬
wards improved into the wind or air-gun, which seems to
i .— ^ iu Luc enu, anu mis careiUJli
nave been not uncommon in Europe as early as the fif- shut up; then placing the cylinder in an upright but in-
teenth century, though soon afterwards generally super- verted position, successive weights were appended to the
seded in practice by the introduction of fire-arms. Gali- rod, till it was drawn from the close end, and pulled down,
leo, being led by a different path from that pursued at It may seem strange that the Tuscan philosopher, after
present, set himself to examine the weight which air ac- advancing so far, should have stopt on the verge of a great
quires by condensation. Having fitted a large copper ball
with a valve, he injected air into its cavity by means of a
syringe, and then suspended it to a balance. The addi¬
tional increase of weight being thus found, he opened the
valve under an inverted glass receiver full of water, and
measured, by the displacement of this liquid, the surplus
quantity of air which had been injected into the copper
vessel.1 He thence concluded that air is 400 times lighter
discovery. He had already weighed the air, and k was
only another small step thence to infer the effect of its in¬
cumbent mass. But the atmosphere was still believed to
reach to the moon, and the pressure of columns of such
enormous altitude seemed to mock all calculation, and
overwhelm the imagination.2 Yet, on reconsidering the
subject, Galileo began to suspect the solidity of the ex¬
plication which he had given; but it was now too late for
1 From this remarkable experiment it is easy to perceive that Galileo was really the inventor of our pneumatic apparatus, thoue-h
ms title has been so long overlooked by chemists. “
2 I his narrative, which marks so well the slow and timid steps whereby men, even of the highest intellectual endowments usually
advance in the search after truth, is drawn from the writings of Galileo himself. The carelessness of some authors in mis-stating
acts, and imputing unworthy motives to those patriarchs of science who could not open their eyes all at once to the bright eflulo-ence
Ot (lay, deserves severe renrphpnsion. Wp mnv rpmnrlr in nnccinrr thfit". AT. Rinh. wItn vanl-c? 4-U^. v
£• 1 1 r r> vv, vsov* Wi. vwwaaa aav,v cy co tiu ill UUCP 10 me Drifflll Cfl Ulcrpnce
. J, y’ rieserves severe reprehension. We may remark, in passing, that M. Biot, who ranks among the first mathematicians and
e, has not scrupled, in an elaborate compilation on physics, to allege that Galileo merely joked with the artisans
ason of the failure of their ruimn • that he h*wl an idea of the true evnli^otw.n Knf ^ 1 •  „ i
philosophers in France, nas not scrupieci, in an elaborate compilation on pnysics, to allege that Galileo merely joked with the artisans
suff aS-t ,lm ■ rcas<m of tlle failure of their pump; that he had an idea of the true explication, but chose to keep his secret and
er^it to die with him. Such conduct would certainly have been a reproach to Galileo’s acknowledged candour.
d L
450
BAROMETER.
Barometer.him, in his advanced age, loaded with bodily infirmities,
and dispirited by clerical persecution, to attempt any fur¬
ther innovation in science. Recommending it earnest y
to his friend and pupil Torricelli to resume the investiga¬
tion, this illustrious precursor of Newton expired in 154^,
the very year in which the English philosopher was born.
His uniform kindness and urbanity rendered him extreme¬
ly beloved; and his disciples, particularly Torricelli, Vi-
viani, and Ricci, venerating his memory, caught the same
taste, and followed similar pursuits.
Torricelli’s Torricelli now conceived the happy idea of exhibiting
famous ex-f-hg action of a pump on a contracted scale, by means of
periment. a column 0f mercury, which is nearly fourteen timesheavier
than water. This experiment he first communicated to
his friend Viviani, who performed it with success in 1643 ;
and he afterwards repeated and varied it himself. 1 he
method which he adopted brought very neatly under one
view all the circumstances affecting the question. Hav¬
ing selected a tube about a quarter of an inch wide, and
four feet long, he sealed one of the ends hermetically, or
closed it under the flame of a lamp; he then filled the
cavity of the tube with mercury, and applying his finger
to the open end, he inverted it in a basin likewise con¬
taining mercury, though covered with a portion of water.
The mercury instantly sunk to nearly thirty inches above
the lower surface; but on raising the tube, till its oi mce
communicated with the layer of water, the mercury ran
all out, and the water now sprung up to the top, and
occupied the whole of the cavity. It was thus proved,
that the water and mercury are each supported by the
same equipoise, which Torricelli, after some hesitation, at
last concluded to be the pressure of the external atmo¬
sphere. He next converted the mercurial column into a
form adapted for observation, by bending the lower end
of the tube, and constructing what has since received the
name of the siphon barometer. (See fig. 1. Plate CIV.)
Thus provided with a commodious instrument, he soon
detected the variation of atmospheric pressure, which de¬
pends on the change of weather. These important re¬
sults were published in the year 1645; but Torricelli did
not live to enjoy the fame of his great discovery, for this
most promising genius was snatched away by a putrid
fever in the flower of his age. _
The report of Torricelli’s first experiments having been
carried to France before he had ventured to draw his ca¬
pital conclusion, set philosophers to speculate on the cause
of such an unexpected fact. Descartes, with his usual
rapidity and boldness of conception, did not hesitate, in
his correspondence with Mersenne, to refer the suspen¬
sion of the mercury in the tube at once to the pressure of
the external atmosphere. But this inference appears not
very consistent with his system, which assumed the ex¬
istence of an absolute plenum, and only supplied the place
of a void by the diffusion of subtile abraded particles of
matter. He suspected, besides, the accuracy of Galileo s
estimate of the weight of the air, which he thought could
be scarcely appreciable by experiment.
But, in the same country, the subject wras now pursued
with deliberate caution, and through all its details, by ano¬
ther genius of the highest order; one of the finest and
most original that France has ever produced. Pascal had
shown premature and extraordinary talents, which were
encouraged by his father, a man of learning, who lived in
habits of intimacy with the literati of Paris. The young
philosopher happened to be residing at Rouen, in 1646,
when he was informed of the famous Italian experiment.
Having access, fortunately, to a glass-house, he resolved
immediately to repeat the observations on a large scale. He
had already suspected the justness of the principle, that
“ nature abhors a vacuum,” and thought that the condensa-
Pascal’s
experi¬
ments.
tion and rarefaction of the air point to a different, or at least Barometer,
a modified conclusion. With a view to clear up this subject,
Pascal performed a number ot satisfactory experiments, of
which we shall cite a few of the more striking, nearly in his
own language, tinctured evidently with the prevailing opi¬
nions of the age:—1. Having fitted a piston to an open
glass tube, and rammed it quite down, he applied his finger
close to the lower end, and plunged the whole under wa¬
ter; then di awing back the piston, which was done with
ease, the finger felt strongly and rather painfully attracted,
while an apparent vacuity was formed above it, and con¬
tinued to enlarge; but instantly on removing the finger,
the water, contrary to its nature, darted up and filled the
whole of the cavity. 2. A glass tube, about fifty feet
long, sealed hermetically at one end, and filled with wa¬
ter, or rather red wine, as a more visible fluid, was invert¬
ed perpendicularly in a basin of the same. The liquid
immediately subsided, leaving a vacant space of thirty-five
feet; but on gradually reclining the tube, the liquid rose
again, and continued to mount, till it struck a sharp blow
against the top of the glass. 3. A siphon, having one leg
fifty-five feet high, and the other only fifty, being filled
with water, and planted in two basins containing the
same, such that the shorter branch had a perpendicular
position, the water sunk in both to the same level, without
being attracted, as usual in siphons, to the longer branch;
but, on leaning the siphon back, the columns rose till
they united at the top, and then the water began to flow
towards the lower basin. The same experiment was also
performed with mercury, the siphon having one leg ten
feet, and the other only nine feet and a half in length,
the mercury being found to divide itself into two columns,
which continued suspended at an altitude of about thirty
inches. 4. Having nicely fitted a piston to a long glass
syringe, and pushed it down to the end, he immersed this
in a basin of mercury, and held the tube in a vertical posb
tion; on gently drawing up the piston, the mercury closely
followed it to the height of twenty-nine inches, but
then stopt, leaving the piston to form above it an appa¬
rent vacuity. In this state, also, the syringe weighed ex¬
actly the same, whatever was the magnitude of the vacant
space. . , .
From these and other similar experiments, Rascal led His cau-
his inductive process, with a degree of caution that might dous in.
seem to border on timidity. He inferred that all bodies1 uc 10
have a reluctance to a visible separation, or that nature
abhors an apparent void ; that this reluctance is exactly
the same for a small as for a great vacuity ; and that the
force is limited, and exceeds not the pressure of a column
of water thirty-three feet in height. He next ventured
one step farther, and concluded, that this apparent vacuity
was not filled by air lodged in the pores of the glass, or
derived from external filtration ; that it contained no sub¬
tile matter secreted from the atmosphere, and was not
occupied by mercurial vapours or spiritous exhalations;
in short, that a real and absolute vacuum had been formed.
Pascal, then only twenty-four years of age, proposed to Attacked
write a treatise on the subject of those inquiries; but by Noel-
thought proper, in the mean time, to publish a short ab¬
stract of it, which appeared in 1647, and involved him in
a wretched controversy. Father Noel, rector of the Je¬
suits’ College at Paris, keenly attacked it, armed with all
the miserable sophisms of the schools, and the absurd
dogmas of the Romish church. He contended, that the
space above the mercurial column was corporeal, because
it was visible and admitted light; that a void being a
mere non-entity, cannot have different degrees of magni¬
tude; that the separation produced in the experiments
was violent and unnatural; and he presupposed that the
atmosphere, like blood, containing a mixture of the seve-
.
BAROMETER.
irometer. ral elements, the fire and the finer part of the air were
detached from it, and violently forced through the pores
of the glass, to occupy the deserted space. To enforce
these puerile arguments, the reverend prelate did not
scruple to employ the poisoned weapon which his order
has often wielded with deadly effect, namely, hinting an
oblique charge of heresy. This rude attack only roused
Pascal, and disposed him boldly to throw off the fetters
of inveterate opinion. He began to perceive that “ ab¬
horrence cannot, in strict logic, be applied to nature,
which is a mere personification, and incapable of passion;
and was inclined, by degrees, to adopt the clear disem¬
barrassed explication of Torricelli, referring the suspen¬
sion of the mercurial column to the pressure of the exter¬
nal atmosphere. In stating this conclusion, he makes
some remarks which would deserve the serious attention
of philosophers in the present age. “ When the weakness
of men is unable to find out the true causes of phenomena,
they are apt to employ their subtilty in substituting ima¬
ginary ones, which they express by specious names that fill
the ear, without satisfying the judgment. It is thus that
the sympathy and antipathy of natural bodies are asserted
to be the efficient and unequivocal causes of several ef¬
fects, as if inanimate substances were really capable of
sympathy and antipathy. The same thing may be said
of the antiperistasis, and various other chimerical causes,
which afford only a vain relief to the avidity of men to
know hidden truths, and which, far from discovering them,
only serve to conceal the ignorance of those who invent
such explications, and nourish it in their followers.”
These remarks, equally judicious and profound, are the
more striking, since Lord Bacon, while he proposed to
reform and new-model the whole structure of human
learning, yet complied with the taste of his age in retain¬
ing much of the jargon and barbarous distinctions of the
schools.
iscal’s But Pascal did not rest satisfied with mere reasoning,
cisive however strictly conducted; and he soon devised an ex-
peri- periment which should palpably mark, under different cir-
ent- cumstances, the varying effects of atmospheric pressure.
It occurred to him, that, if the mercury in the Torricellian
tube were really supported by the counterpoising weight
J of the atmosphere, it would be affected by the mass of
superincumbent fluid, and must therefore partially subside
in the higher elevations. He was impatient to have his
conjecture tried in a favourable situation ; and, in Novem¬
ber 1647, he wrote a letter communicating those views to
his brother-in-law, Perier, who held an office of consider¬
able trust in the province, and commonly resided at Cler¬
mont in Auvergne, in the immediate vicinity of the Puy
de Dome, a lofty conical mountain, which rose, according
to estimation, above the altitude of 500 toises. Various
avocations, however, prevented that intelligent person
from complying with his instructions till the following
year. Early in the morning of the 19th September 1648,
a few curious friends joined him in the garden of a mo¬
nastery, situated near the lowest part of the city of Cler-
‘ mont, where he had brought a quantity of mercury, and
two glass tubes hermetically sealed at the top. These he
filled and inverted, as usual, and found the mercury to stand
m both at the same height, namely, 26 inches and 3f lines,
• or 28 English inches. Leaving one of the tubes behind,
in the custody of the subprior, he proceeded with the
other to the summit of the mountain, and repeated the
experiment, when his party were surprised and delighted
to see the mercury sink more than three inches under the
ormer mark, and remain suspended at the height of 23
inches and 2 lines, or 24’7 English inches. In his descent
rom the mountain, he observed, at two several stations,
iat the mercury successively rose ; and, on his return to
451
the monastery, he found it stood exactly at the same point Barometer,
as at first. Encouraged by the success of this memorable
experiment, Perier repeated it on the highest tower of
Clermont, and noted a difference of two lines at an eleva¬
tion of twenty toises. Pascal, on his part, as soon as the
intelligence reached him at Paris, where he then chanced
to be, made similar observations on the top of a high
house, and in the belfry of the church of St Jacques des
Boucheries, near the border of the Seine; and so much
was he satisfied with the results, that he proposed al¬
ready the application of the barometer for measuring the
relative altitudes of distant places on the surface of the
globe.
The investigation of the existence and effects of atmo¬
spheric pressure was now completed, and it threw a sud¬
den blaze over the whole contexture of physical science.
The fame of the experiments performed in Italy and in
France, quickly spread over Europe. Yet such is the Opposition
force of habit and early prejudice, that, after the first mo- which it
ments of surprise and confusion, few of the learned at this exPeri-
period had the courage to open their eyes to the light enced-
which had so unexpectedly burst upon them; but, secret¬
ly cherishing their inveterate notions, they sought to
comfort themselves by starting a variety of captious ob¬
jections. Father Mersenne, though a man of some abili¬
ties, conceived that suction was occasioned by certain
hooked particles dispersed through the atmosphere, which
laid hold of any fluid in contact with them, and drew it
towards the general mass. Father Linus, plunging still
deeper in mysticism and absurdity, gravely proposed the
funicular hypothesis, which attributes the suspension of the
mercurial column to the agency of certain small invisible
threads. But others of the clergy attacked Pascal with
envenomed bitterness. The Jesuits of the college of
Montserrand scrupled not, in their public theses, to per¬
vert his expressions, and even contest the originality of
his experiments. The philosopher was justly incensed
at their base conduct; and those repeated provocations
served, no doubt, to give a keener edge to his wit, when
he afterwards directed it with such overwhelming force
against that insidious and formidable order of priesthood.
He composed in 1653, though they were not published
till after his death, two short treatises, On the Equilibrium
of Liquors, and On the Weight of the Mass of Air, remark¬
able for their neatness, perspicuity, and lucid order. The
laws of the equilibrium of fluids are there beautifully de¬
duced from a single principle, which suggests a variety of
original views and admirable remarks. In those tracts
he likewise gives a description of the Hydraulic Press, a
most useful and powerful machine, which has lately been
revived in this country, and by some considered as a new
invention.
A similar discovery, which was made about the same Discovery
time in Germany, came seasonably to support the triumph of the air-
of innovation. Otto Guricke, a wealthy magistrate ofPumPby
Magdeburg, who amused his leisure by constructingGarickd*
pieces of mechanism, and instituting curious physical in¬
quiries, finding that the belief in the impossibility of a
vacuum, with other scholastic tenets, was on the gradual
decline, had the boldness to conceive that the forming of
a void was a task perhaps within the reach of human in¬
genuity. Fired with the idea of accomplishing what for
ages had been deemed unattainable, he directed all his
efforts to compass that end. In his first trials he failed,
as might be expected; but, by perseverance, he was
enabled to surmount every obstacle. Having filled a
wooden cask with water, he attempted to extract this
again, by means of a small sucking pump, introduced at
the bottom of the cask, and worked vigorously by three
stout men; a hissing noise was heard like that of boiling
i
452
barometer.
Barometer, water, the air entered from above through the interstices
* of the wood, and the water flowed out. Ihe more eftec-
tually to exclude the air, he next took a smaller cas ,
with a sucker attached to it, and placed it within a large
one, having filled up the space between them with water.
On working the pump as before, the water was forced
through the pores of the wood into the inner cask, hut
none was extracted by the action of the piston. Foiled
_ • . 1  C'lro M O M O f 1 1 P (
ini: a toy, of the shape of a man. The whole being filled Barometer,
with water, and set in a basin in the ground, the column
of liquid settled to the proper altitude, and lett the toy
floating on its surface; but all the lower part of the tube
being concealed under the wainscoting, the little image,
cr weather'mannikin, as he was called, made its appear¬
ance only when raised up into view in fine weather, this
whimsical contrivance, which received the name of arae-Anemo-
Statical
balance.
uone was extracted by the action of the excited among the populace vastscope.
in these attempts with wooden casks, he ha ^ ^ admir^tion. and the worthy magistrate was m consequence
a copper ball, to the under pai t of w shrewdly suspected by his townsmen of being too familiar
inclining sucker; and, with this apparatus, he atlast sue of dikness. . ^ j
ceeded in extracting the air. He continued ^ «Pe a ^ Before the taste for experimental science was imported Introduc
till no further portion of air was perce ved to ^sue^ from the Continent into England, the great struggle fort.onrf ex-
the vent. On opening the coek g ^ the game the security of public rights had called forth the national
into the cavity of the ball with vio e , enero-y, and its triumphant success had infused amongE land>
effect took place, with scarcely any diminution of ^ower cner 7 a F ^ and enterprise t S
after an interval of a day or two The construction of recPption of the new philosophy. The
the machine was afterwards icndered P \ J rljamentary commissioners, by removing the more vio-
substituting a large inclined metal suckei, wit j P‘^ ^ biCTOted members of the universities, contributed,
secured by immersion in water. t tbe whole, to encourage a more liberal tone of thmk-
Such was the origin of that most valuable addition to on the ^ nfc senfinaries. Near the close of the
philosophical apparatus, the air-pump, wuc S ci^ warj and during the vigorous administration of Crom-
ed its earliest rude and simple foim riirirk^ well the philosophy by experiment found some proselytes
By help of this new and powerful instrument Guricke ^ PjJfSers of Oxford, where the mass of anti-
was enabled to perform some interesting and very^ - ^ had lain s0 long embalmed and protected
portant experiments. One of these, which dea[10"stiate J reiiCTious awe. A small association was there formed,
in a very striking way the pressure of the atm0*P •’ f/ COmbinin<r together the efforts of individuals in the
has since been deservedly styled the Magdebuig P cuti0n of such inquiries; and the fruits of this mu-
ment. It was performed with two hollow c.°Wer : £ j compact were afterwards visible in the composition
spheres, closely fitted together, and the air exhausted tual p * workg> Bufc the Restoration, by
from their cavity. This singular experiment Guncke l ad f the iation, in a burst of inconsiderate loyalty, sur-
the honour of exhibiting, in the year 1654, before e the ivileges which it had purchased with tor-
princes of the empire and the foreign minis ers, as c rents of blood threw the government of the universities
at the diet of Ratisbon. The force of two teams, each ren s ^b1^^ of mefen decidedly hostile to the very
consisting of a dozen of horses, made to Pu“ ^ °P? •_ skadow of improvement. Experimental science withdrew
directions, was found insufficient to separate the he e c0^(Tenial soii, and sought shelter and support
spheres. It was now that the burgomaster o ag 8 tbe wider scope of the capital. The college, founded
heard, for the first time, of Torricelli s great discovery ^ munificence of Sir Thomas Gresham, for the be-
and the intelligence must have appeared quite dehg V citjzens 0f London, though now unfortunately
to him, who, by a path so different, had yet arrived at a X0C“glect5 bad the me'rit of being the first
similar conclusion. r;. ; < t0 extend its protection to the pursuits of inductive phi-
After his return from this splendid assembl) , Gur c , It ij,oduced a succession of professors, eminent
pursued at home various pneumatical researches. mathematical learning, which is so closely allied with
showed the diminished pressure of the atmosphere imental research. A more extensive association was
elevation above the surface, by means of a hollow ba P formed in London, which regularly met at
fitted with a stop-cock ; having carried this to a height, ^cco dgly ^ the Exchange, and was afterwards,
a portion of the contained air rushed out on tunning 1 P gucro.estion of Oldenburg, the resident from the
cock; but when it was brought down again and opened, a H^b and in imitation of the foreign acade-
the same measure of air apparently flowed into its c - y titute^ b cbarter into the Royal Society. Royal So-
vity. He actually weighed the air by ascertaining, w , humble beginning of that illustrious body,«ety.
the help of a nice balance, the loss which a large bottle Such was ™glance it received from a needy
sustained on being exhausted, and found that the air i nroflieate government. The institution, however,
970 times lighter than water; a very near approximation, and p g ^ useful by its influence in direct-
if allowance be made for the residuum of an- still left in Foved,b’i^ it afforded to experi-
the bottle. He was the first who proposed the Statical ^g pubhcopimon an^the^ ^ dedared hos.
Balance for measuring the variations of atmospheric den- me p P J S boiagtic seminaries. The union
sity, consisting of a hollow glass ball about a foot in dia- tihty of the clei cal a»d ™ola h h stiU ve iimited in
meter, hermetically sealed, and freely suspended m the of rank or wealth,^or talent. Urn g^ ^ ^ ^ ^
air, to indicate by its different buoyancy the changes which ^ ra ^ quite necessary for its defence against the
take place in the gravity of the external fluid. ciety, t a lnce and the undermining of bigotry. _
But Guricke took great pleasure in a huge water baro- attacks o g ^ members of tbe R0yal Society
meter erected in his house.1 It consisted of a tube above One o <- , h h in become ac-
thirty feet high, rising along the wall and terminated by was the honourably Mr^Boyle,^^^ ^ ^ ^ Qf
a tall and rather wide tube hermetically sealed, contain- quainted wit p   
* It deserves perhaps to be mentioned, that the theatre of
several years been furnished with a water barometer, constructed by Mr Ad e. cemented at the top to a glass cylinder
bore rising thirty feet from a copper basin inclosed under the benches of a d^elow^ Both ends of this corn-
two inches wide and about six feet high, exposed to view, but ^ f onceaied wires. By this large apparatus
pound column are fitted with stop-cocks, which are opened or shut at pleasure u> me
the Torricellian experiment is likewise exhibited in a very striking manner.
BAROMETER.
453
Barometer, his travels, devoted, after his return home, his time and
his fortune to such calm but engaging pursuits. In this
occupation he derived the most essential aid from Dr
IJooke, whom he had the discernment to engage as his
assistant,—the most skilful mechanician, and one of the
best practical philosophers, of the age. The same ingeni¬
ous person was likewise employed as operator to the socie¬
ty, and undertook to produce at each meeting some new
experiments for the instruction and entertainment of the
members. One of the favourite subjects was to exhibit
the properties of the atmosphere. Hooke, at the instance
of Boyle, had given a more convenient form to the air-
pump, and had materially improved its construction, espe¬
cially by the application of oil to the joints and valves.
With this improved machine, a more perfect vacuum was
procured than Guricke had obtained; and the English
philosophers were thus enabled to perform a variety of
delicate and interesting experiments, which extended the
influence of the original discovery.
In those early meetings, too, of the Royal Society, the
suspension of the mercury in the Torricellian tube had
still the attraction of novelty. The famous Italian expe¬
riment, as it was called, was frequently repeated and va¬
ried in the presence of a few of the more assiduous mem¬
bers, who, though delighted with the exhibition, still con¬
tinued to argue and to doubt concerning the cause of the
Huygens’s phenomenon. These doubts acquired new force from a
experi- singular experiment which the celebrated Huygens some
ments. years afterwards communicated, during a visit he made to
London. Having filled a glass tube eighty inches long
with mercury, and carefully expelled whatever air was
lurking about the sides, he gently inverted it, as usual, in
a basin; when the mercury notwithstanding remained
still hanging from the top of the tube, and did not sub¬
side to the proper height till it was struck with a slight
blow. This anomalous fact appeared then extremely puz¬
zling. The experiment, indeed, requires great nicety and
address on the part of the operator, and evidently depends
on a concurrence of circumstances which have not yet
been sufficiently explained. There can, at present, exist
no doubt that this extraordinary suspension of the mer¬
cury is occasioned by its obstinate adhesion to the inside
of the tube, which, in the process of purging the air, be¬
comes probably lined with a very thin film of mercurial
oxyd. But Huygens, who had embraced the leading
principles of the Cartesian philosophy, was inclined to
draw a very different conclusion. He thought that the
fact proved the existence of another fluid besides the at¬
mosphere, and one possessed of such extreme subtilty
and power, as to be capable of permeating the grosser bo¬
dies. In ordinary cases, this fine ethereal substance might
be supposed to escape through the pores of the glass, and
leave the mercurial column to the pressure merely of the
atmosphere. Such was the unfortunate introduction of
that ideal being—an aether—into experimental science,
which it has continued to infest with mysticism, and to
dazzle with a false glare. Similar notions are perpetually
renewed by a certain class of superficial inquirers, and
have exercised a visible and most pernicious influence in
retarding the progress of sound philosophy.
Cistern ba- It was soon perceived that the siphon barometer of
rometer. Torricelli has a disadvantageous form. Both branches of
the tube being assumed to be of the same width, the mer¬
cury must evidently sink as much in the one as it will rise
in the other; so that the variations in the height of the
column are thus reduced to half the true quantity. A
small basin, or semicircular wooden box, to hold the sur¬
plus mercury, was therefore attached to the frame of the
instrument; and this construction, with very little change,
was adopted, during the course of a century, by the ma¬
kers of the ordinary barometer. But the syphon barome-Barometer,
ter itself was afterwards materially improved by having
its lower branch blown into a wide bulb for holding the
charge of mercury. (See fig. 2, Plate CIV.) This form
of the barometer is not quite accurate, owing to the small¬
ness and unequal shape of the round bulb; but being very
convenient for carriage, it has grown into general use, at
least for the cheaper and more common sort of instru¬
ments.
As soon as the barometer came to be regarded as a Barometer
weather-glass, ingenuity was set at work to devise theofDes-
means of enlarging its scale of variations. Descartes firstcartes*
proposed a simple method for effecting that object, by-
combining a mercurial with a water barometer; which ar
rangement, though subject to imperfection, has led to
many of the subsequent improvements. (See fig. 4.) He
directed two short barometric tubes to be cemented, the
one into the bottom, and the other to the neck of a phial;
or, still better, that the tubes should be joined, by the
flame of a lamp, to the opposite ends of a wide and regu¬
lar cylinder. The lower tube, and a portion of the cylin¬
der, were then to be filled with mercury, and above it
was to be introduced pure water, reaching to the top of
the upper tube, and there sealed close. When this com¬
pound tube was inverted in a basin of mercury, it is evi¬
dent that the columns both of mercury and of water would
sink, till their joint pressure became just equal to the su¬
perincumbent weight of the external atmosphere. But
the variation of this weight would afterwards be indicated
chiefly by the large motion of the water; since the mer¬
curial column, spreading out above into a broad surface,
must, in any case, experience a very slight difference of
altitude. Thus, suppose the cylinder to have eight times
the diameter of the upper tube, or a section sixty-four
times greater, mercury being 13*6 times denser than
water: for each inch of increase of altitude which the
ordinary mercurial column gains, the top of the water
would be raised in the tube 11'4 inches, its own rise be¬
ing IMS inches, and that of the wide mercurial cylinder
only T8 of an inch, yet equal in pressure to 2-4 inches
of water. But Descartes, generally satisfied with mere
theory and speculation, did not live to see his construction
of the barometer carried into effect; and Chanut, the
French resident at Stockholm, to whom he had imparted
his views, met with such difficulty in the execution of the
project, that, after some fruitless attempts, he abandoned
it altogether.
Huygens was more fortunate, and succeeded, by dint of Huygens’s
perseverance and skill, in constructing the Cartesian ba- double ba-
rometer. But he had the mortification to find that, inrometer-
spite of all the pains he could take, the water, after it was
relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere by the seal¬
ing up of the tube, constantly discharged a portion of air,
which collected at the top, and by its elasticity depressed
the compound column below its due altitude. Convinced
that this source of imperfection is irremediable, he sought
to rectify the construction of the instrument, and produc¬
ed his Double Barometer; a form of combination frequent¬
ly used, especially when the object is rather to make the
variations very sensible than to obtain delicate results.
(See fig. 5.) He joined a barometric tube of the usual
length, by the flame of a blow-pipe, to two wide cylinders,
the one sealed at the top, and the other annexed likewise
hermetically to a tall and narrow tube, open at its extre¬
mity ; he then bent the thicker tube a little above the
lower cylinder, and brought the two branches to be parallel.
The instrument being thus formed, he filled the first branch
with mercury, and introduced above, in the second branch,
some liquid of comparative lightness. Alcohol would, in
this respect, answer extremely well, if it were not so lia-
454
barometer.
Barometer, ble to waste by evaporation. An alkaline lye, or the de-
liquiate salt of tartar, which also readily admits ot being
coloured, was therefore, on the whole, preferred.
The principle of this construction is evidently the same
as in that of Descartes; but the vacuum lying contiguous
,i _    war. no admixture ot insen¬
sibly mixed. On the other hand, fluids of distinct cha-Barometer,
racters are seldom free from chemical action; they ex¬
pand differently with heat, and by coating with other
traces the inside of the tube, they are the more apt to re-
tard the motion of the column. In general, the advantage
 — rwnnf oiirrmpntfit.inn of the scale is counter-
as in that of Descartes; but the vacuum ^ very great augmentation of the scale is counter-
to the mercury itself, can have no admire 0^- ver^y ^ by 8tart?. and
gaged air or of aqueous vapour, oince tbe c^ ^ ^ 1 . . , , .1 ..rivofoiror it bfifi irampd in
Its advan.
tages and
detects.
oaianceu, ao itiic n iai vao ^ j ‘j*
the instrument loses in delicacy whatever it has gained in
extent of action.
Another method of augmenting the variations of the Wheel
barometer was invented by the same fertile genius, which
has the advantage of uniting great simplicity with toler¬
able accuracy. (See fig. 7.) Resuming the siphon baro¬
meter, he made a small float ot iron or glass to rest on the
exterior surface of the mercury, and suspended by a slender
thread passed round a small wheel or cylindrical axis that
carried an index. Though the varieties of the height
of the mercurial column are, in a tube of this form, re¬
duced to half the ordinary measure, yet, from the great
length of the index compared with the diameter ot its
axis, the divisions on the circumference of the circle m
which it travels are much amplified. The little machi-
xj.  — - ^ # r.v. nHpinc* f*onc*Gcil.6(I witlim tliG frcimc of t-tiG instriimGiit,
ed in that reservoir, and rising into the narrow ste the^ndex^only is brought into view, protected by a cir-
instrument, therefore, to a certain “ the in- the^ndex^onlj s^^ g^ ^ ^ ^ ^
dications of the barometer with those of the thermome , a^mndsome piece of furniture. The Wheel Baro-
a ^asait is called, has long maintained its reputation
double barometer, of a similar construction. He after- among or enlarging the divisions of the Inclined
wards resumed the subject, and with a view to correct ,
the defect of the former arrangemen , he produced m ”eter is^com ^venturer who inventedj or rather
1685, an instrument of J ™orfie’ er eJd introduced from abroad, the Speaking Trumpet. (See fig.
ingeniously conceived. (See fig. b.) io tne uppe o x _nn5,:„tpd in merely bending the upper part of the
ofthe open stem he joined a third cylinder of the same “““SJ position. By this deflexion,
dimensions as the two former, but tapering away , ,he SC.JC ,vh ch depends on the perpendicular
fine orifice at the top. The principal bang filled as ™mCentedPbeyond three or four times
usual with mercury, extending to occupy the in eYfdent risk Jf inaccuracy. The in-
rWni strument is called the Inclined <*
The form has been sometimes varied by the fancy ot art
ists, who, repeating the inclination of the tube, have oc¬
casionally given the upper part a zig-zag appearance.
The most ingenious barometer, filled with mercury only, Square
and yet admitting a scale of any extent, was invented by barometer.
Cassini and by John Bernoulli, who first gave the descrip-
„ . . -.m-irx /Cl £. — 0\ A xiriflts /’VTinHpr IS HTl-
gagea air or 01 aqueuus   j
made very much wider than the bore of the annexed tub ,
the variation of pressure will be produced almost entire y
by the change of altitude which the alkaline liquor under¬
goes, the mercury suffering only a very minute alteration
of ascent or descent. The divisions of the ordinary scale
will be about tenfold enlarged, if a section of each cyh -
der should exceed twenty times that of the tube in whic
■ ^ 1 barometer' of this construction has decided advan¬
tages with respect to the extent of its variations, but still
itfs not exempt from considerable defects. The moisture
on the inner surface ofthe cylindrical reservoir increases
the adhesion of the mercury, and retards its movements.
But a much greater source of error proceeds from ^ ~
fluence of heat in extending the volume of liquor conta -
ed in that reservoir, and rising into the narrow stem, i his
« n i - _   -.,4-^ 4"orvf" 1
Dotn tne connecteu     .. , x
mediately over the mercury in the second cylinder, rising
partly into the stem ; above this, again, he poured another
liquor specifically lighter and differently coloured, filling
up the rest of the stem, and mounting into the third
cylinder. Bv this artificial and delicate combination, the
mercury is left perfectly stationary, and all the move¬
ments corresponding to the atmospheric pressure are per-
r j liniinrs. and marked by tnei
ments corresponding to the atmospnenc piessu^ i—. in 1^10> /See 9.) A wide cylinder is an-
formed by the counterpoising liquors, and marked by t e f mafn tube, at the bottom of which
line of mutual separation. Since the stem or narrow tube rigTt angles another long and nar-
remains constantly full, the variation of its pressure J mercury^ in ascending or descending with-
depend on the different proportions of its length occupied row tube. I he me c y, » h thig hori_
byPthe two fluids. If tie weight of external atmosphere m the wide cylinder, ^therem e, ^ ^
should, for instance, increase, the denser liquor will rise, a ter than the bore of the tube, the scale of va-
consequently cause the lighter liquor to contract its colum . S augmented sixteen times. This instrument
The action of this compound barometer, being thus pro- nation w § Square Barometer. It is not
duced merely by the difference of the gravity of the wo so Tell as the theory might
fluids, might, therefore, be augmented indefinitely. p 1 The mercury creeps along the hori-
pose the liquid resting on the mercury to be pure water, ^ us to supp fficul and ^ desuit0ry advances ;
and the superincumbent liquid to be olive oil, which is zontal tube w ^ . . . J   frnn; itR motion
. . ^   1TVV. vsni-I- lirrlltfir - til fa Wfllllrl PnlarC-
about one twelfth part lighter; the scale would be enlarg¬
ed no less than 163 times, or an alteration of one tenth in
the altitude of the common mercurial column would be
marked by a motion through 12 X 1-36 inches, or 16*3
inches. But such a vast enlargement of the scale is far
greater than would ever be desirable in practice. It were
y . . . xi intrnrhir*p npvt. thp mprr.lirv SOmG
zontai tuue witu ^
and these irregularities increase when, from its motion
and exposure, it becomes covered with dust and partial
^TheTimplest of all the barometers with an enlarged
scale, and at the same time one of the most ingenious, is
the Conical or Pendant Barometer, invented and descnb-
greater than would ever be desirable in practice. Itwere ^^“a FTench phdosoph^ who,
bptipr therefore, to introduce next the mercury some ed in lobb by Amon , pnn<spnuence of a
fluid which is denser than water. If oil of sassafras were being afflicted wit i o a n^ Wmself Mechanical
combined with oil of oranges, the divisions of the scale fever m his infancy, instrument
wo”ld be augmented only sixty-eight times, and conse- contrivances (See fig 3 Hate UV.> 1 ^
quently the whole range might not exceed ten or twelve —Je narroler ttan ordinary ^d tapering regu-
feeu Those oils, however, would move rather sluggishly, with a bore narrowe y hardly
especially in cold weather, and might, from their inces- larly “ .tl te Jah M^ Sf aS inch, while near the
santshiftings, during a lengthened period, become insen- exceed three twentieth parts ot
BAROMETER.
455
Barometer* top it may be contracted to about one tenth. A column
of about thirty-one inches of mercury being introduced,
the tube is gently inverted and held perpendicular; the
cohesion of such a narrow column is sufficient to prevent
it from dividing and admitting air unless it be shaken;
but, overpowering the atmospheric pressure, it descends
till it has contracted into the equiponderant altitude, by
passing into a wider part of the tube. To obtain equal
divisions on the scale, it is necessary that the tube should
have a uniform taper. The most accurate construction
of a barometer of this kind is, therefore, attained by joining
together two tubes that have even but unequal bores, the
longer and narrower one being uppermost. If the width of
the upper tube were supposed to be to that of the under
one as two to three, the scale would be enlarged three
times, since, by descending three inches from the top,
and consequently two at the bottom, the column would
suffer a contraction of one inch in height.
This species of barometer is thus recommended by its
simplicity and its ample range. But the bore of the tube
being indispensably narrow, the mercury moves with dif¬
ficulty, and resists the impression of minute changes of
external action. When the conical-shaped tube is retain¬
ed, the instrument is liable to some inaccuracy from the
influence of the cohesion of the mercury, which varies
with the diameter of the column in different parts of the
tube.
Amontons likewise proposed another form of barometer,
in which the mercurial column is subdivided among seve¬
ral short connected branches. (See fig. 10.) Suppose
the instrument were to have only the third part of the
usual height, the first, third, and fifth branches, enlarged
above and below into very short cylinders, are filled with
mercury; and the second, fourth, and sixth branches,
which may have their bores narrower, are occupied with
some light fluid, or simply with air. If the external
pressure should suffer any diminution, the three mer¬
curial columns which produce the counterpoise will each
descend and push up the last fluid of the series by their
combined effects. It is evident that, by multiplying those
branches, the barometer will have its altitude proportion¬
ally reduced. But this construction, though specious in
theory, is found to have no practical advantages. The
instrument is, from its complication, very difficult to con¬
struct ; its motions are sluggish, owing to the multiplicity
of tubes and the conjunction of fluids, and they are sub¬
ject to derangements from the variable influence of tem¬
perature. It has therefore been generally abandoned.
Sectoral These different forms of the instrument have been va-
barometer. rjous]y modified an(j 0ften brought forward with claims
of novelty. We may notice, however, the Sectoral Baro¬
meter proposed by Magellan, in which the mercury is al¬
ways made to rise to the same high point of the tube, by
drawing this less or more aside from the vertical position.
The arc thus described will indicate the deviation from
the perpendicular, and consequently the actual descent of
the mercury. But the difference between the vertical
and the oblique line is not measured by the inclination
merely, it is proportioned to the versed sine of this angle,
or nearly to the square of the arc. The advantage of this
mode of observing is, therefore, best perceived in small
variations of the mercurial column. In the hands of a
skilful observer, the best and most accurate barometer,
after all, is that of the original construction, with a tube
rather wide, and a broad cistern. To apply minute divi¬
sions is decidedly preferable to any enlargement of the
scale. The measuring of such divisions has been since
rendered extremely easy by the adaptation of the differ¬
ential scale; a most valuable contrivance, proposed by
Vernier early in the seventeenth century, but strangely
neglected long afterwards. This delicate appendage being Barometer,
once adopted, it became the more desirable to improve
the sensibility and regulate the correctness of the indica¬
tions of the barometer.
The first object was carefully to cleanse the mercury, Effect of
and to expel any portions of air or moisture adhering to moisture
the inside of the tube. The influence of aqueous vapour withm the
in depressing the mercurial column had been observed by ^a™metr‘c
Huygens; but other more evaporable fluids were after-tu e'
wards found to occasion, by their presence, a still greater
derangement. Homberg having, about the year 1705,
washed a tube with alcohol to remove the impurities from
its internal surface, remarked that the mercury introdu¬
ced into it stood an inch and half lower than usual, a de¬
pression which this ingenious chemist was disposed to at¬
tribute to the elasticity of the spiritous exhalations col¬
lected above the mercurial column; though other acade¬
micians, and Amontons among the rest, misled by their
Cartesian prejudices, sought to ascribe the effect to the
different sized pores of the glass. These anomalies were
removed by heating or rather boiling the mercury in the
tube till it was completely purged of air and moisture,
and brought into close contact with the inside of the tube
But a new fact occurred which long puzzled the mecha¬
nical philosophers. The tube of a barometer, which had Luminous
been filled with more than usual care, was observed to barometer,
exhibit a luminous appearance when moved or slightly
agitated in the dark. This curious phenomenon gave oc¬
casion to multiplied and prolonged controversies; it was
attributed to the subtile matter of Descartes, or ascribed
to a native phosphorescence, or a latent fire inherent in
the mercury. Our countryman Hauksbee, in the year
1708, gave the first rational explanation of the fact, by
referring it to electricity, which he had just begun to cul¬
tivate as a distinct science. It resembles exactly, indeed,
the experiment of the exhausted flask, in which an elec¬
trical current flashes with a diffuse lambent flame, like the
aurora borealis or the northern streamers. The friction of
the mercury against the inside of the tube excites elec¬
tricity, while the vacuity, or rather the very attenuated
vapour in which the supposed fluid plays, facilitates its
expansion. When the vacuum is rendered very perfect
by the careful and accurate boiling of the mercury, the
lambent flashing ceases for want of a fine medium to con¬
duct and disperse the electrical influence.
The next point to which experimenters were led to Effect of
direct their attention, was the effect of the width of thethe width
tube on the altitude of the mercurial column. Plantade,of t^e
a lawyer of Montpellier, appears to have been one of thetube’
first who remarked that the mercury stands always lower
in narrow tubes. This fact he communicated about the
year 1730 to Cassini, who was then occupied in the south
of France with carrying on the great trigonometrical sur¬
vey. But the discrepancies observed by Plantade, being
unfortunately confounded with other collateral circum¬
stances, were for a time overlooked. In tubes having a
narrow bore, the depression of the mercury, however, is
very considerable, as may be readily perceived in a small
glass syphon, of which the one branch is about half an inch
in diameter, and that of the other branch less than the
tenth of an inch. Thus, if the narrow tube had a width
of only the thirteenth part of an inch, the depression of
the mercury would amount to half an inch, which is about
the third part of the elevation to which water in similar
circumstances would be raised by capillary action. This
effect has not been sufficiently examined, but it appears to
result from the attraction of the particles of the mercury
to each other exceeding their attraction to the surface of
the glass. Mercury, in contact with glass, therefore,
tends to a spherical form, and always assumes a convex
I
456
Barometer
BAROMETER.
Pure mer¬
cury has
always a
convex
surface.
Quantity
of depres¬
sion in dif¬
ferent
tubes.
Applica¬
tion of a
leathern
bag
surface within a clean tube. Water and other liquids,
again, manifest an opposite character, the mutual attrac¬
tion of their particles being less than their adhesion to
glass. Accordingly, they spread along a vitreous surface,
instead of collecting into drops ; and in narrow tubes they
mount above the level, and invariably have a concave ter¬
mination. If the bore be so small as to be reckoned ca¬
pillary, the depression of mercury is, like the elevation of
water, inversely as the diameter; but when the bore has
a considerable width, the quantity of depression, depend¬
ing on the curvature of the surface of the mercury, dimi¬
nishes proportionally faster, and follows nearly the inverse
duplicate ratio of the diameter. But on the subject of
capillary action we refer our readers with the utmost con¬
fidence to a valuable paper communicated to the Royal
Society of London, by Mr Ivory, late of the Military Col¬
lege at Sandhurst, one of the most original and profound
mathematicians that our island has had the honour to
produce. .
The influence of the predominating attraction ot the
particles of mercury to themselves, above their adhesion
to the sides of a glass tube, has not been considered with
so much attention as it demands. Nothing is more com¬
mon than to remark that the mercury in the barometer is
in the act of rising if it show a convex surface, but about
to fall if it should appear concave. Now, the top of the
mercurial column must always remain convex it the ba¬
rometer be properly constructed, the tube perfectly clean,
and the mercury purged of all impurities. But if the in¬
side of the tube be anywise soiled, whether covered with
humidity or stained with mercurial oxyd, the metallic
fluid will adhere so obstinately to the glass as to lose its
convexity, and to subside into a flat surface, or even sink
into a concavity, like water and other liquids. Hence
the danger of boiling the mercury too long in the tube, as
it becomes partially oxydated; and the thin crust so foim-
ed not only suspends the column higher, but obstructs the
freedom of its motion. The same effect is produced by
greasing the inside of the tube. Some respectable authois,
from not attending to these facts, have hastily inferred
that the convex appearance which mercury assumes in
the barometer was merely accidental, and consequently
removed by a more complete boiling and purification.
In the case of tubes having wide bores, the depression
of the mercurial column may, without any sensible error,
be disregarded. According to the accurate experiments
made by Lord Charles Cavendish, and published by his
son the celebrated Mr Cavendish, the quantity of depres¬
sion is only the 200th part of an inch in a tube of 6-10ths
of an inch in diameter, the 28th part of an inch in a tube
of 3-10ths diameter, and the 15th part of an inch in a tube
of 2-10ths diameter. Wide tubes ought, therefore, to be
preferred in the construction of barometers, both on ac¬
count of the facility with which the mercury moves in
them, and the smallness of its depression. The only cir¬
cumstance to overbalance these advantages would be the
necessity and inconvenience of having a very large cistern.
A quarter of an inch may be reckoned a good width of
tube, and the corresponding depression is only the twen¬
tieth part of an inch.
In the siphon barometer, if both branches have the
same diameter, the action is exerted on opposite sides,
and therefore the effect of depression becomes entirely
lost. For accurate purposes, this original form of the in¬
strument has been resumed, and the inconvenience aris¬
ing from the large variation of the lower lever entirely
obviated by an ingenious contrivance introduced above
fifty years ago. This consists in the application of a
leathern bag, instead of a wooden or ivory cistern, to hold
the surplus mercury. Besides the barometric tube, there
is placed adjacent to it another short one of the same Barometer,
width, communicating with the mercury contained in the
bag, which being pressed by turning a screw below, is at
each observation brought exactly to the same mark. The
external atmosphere readily acts through the substance of
the leather ; but the mercury, from the powerful cohesion
of its own particles, cannot be squeezed through the pores
of that casing without violent compression. Hie addition
of a bag within a cylindrical box, omitting the lower tube,
likewise renders the barometer easily portable ; since, for
safe carriage, the mercury can be screwed up tight, to fill
the whole cavity of its tube, but, on turning the screw
again, the column will subside and rest on a broad base.
The last object which required nice observation, was Effect of
to estimate the effect of heat in dilating the mercury, and heat on the
consequently increasing the altitude of the equiponderantbarometer
column. This correction could not be made with any
sort of accuracy previous to the application of the ther¬
mometer, which, though invented half a century earlier
than the barometer, was yet more than another half-cen¬
tury in arriving at perfection. Hero, a mechanical phi¬
losopher, who flourished at Alexandria about 130 years
before Christ, has described in his Spiritalia a sort of
huge weather-glass, in which water was made to rise and
fall by the vicissitudes of day and night, or rather the
changes of heat and cold. This machine had for ages been
overlooked, or merely considered in the light of a curious
contrivance. But Sanctorio, the inventor of the famous Invention
statical balance, a very learned and ingenious Italian phy-
sician, who was long professor of medicine in the univer¬
sity of Padua, and had laboured to improve his art by the
application of experimental science, reduced the hydraulic
machine of Hero into a more compendious form, and thus
constructed, about the close of the sixteenth century, the
instrument since known by the name of the theTtnome-
ter, which he employed with obvious advantage to examine
the heat of the human body in fevers. Some years after¬
wards a similar instrument was contrived, perhaps with¬
out any communication, by Drebbel, a very clever and
scheming Dutch artist, who visited London in the reign
of James I., and imported the knowledge of that instru¬
ment into England.
But this air thermometer was evidently of the same
nature with what has been since called the manometer ; it
could measure only the dilatation or augmented elasticity
of the air confined within its bulb, whether occasioned
by heat or the diminution of external pressure. It was
therefore considered merely as a weather-glass, in licating
the state of the atmosphere; nor could its ble<.ded im¬
pressions, which might separately afiect both the thermo¬
meter and barometer, be then distinguished. Had it been
more closely studied, it must have led, by another path,
to the discovery of the latter. But those irregularities to
which the air thermometer was hence subject appear to
have created such doubts respecting the accuracy of the
instrument, as occasioned its being neglected long after-
wards. .
The same country, however, which had given birth to Florence
the thermometer, began its improvement. After theS388,
principle of the barometer was established, the members
of the Academy del Cimento, founded at Florence in
1657, and supplied with liberal funds by the grand duke
of Tuscany, had, among other interesting physical re¬
searches, resumed the application of the thermometer;
and, instead of air, they substituted alcohol or spirit of
wine, another very expansible fluid not affected by atmo¬
spheric pressure, while they attached to the tube a scale
graduated on a regular plan, though directed by no very
precise measures. The instrument so constructed, but
somewhat varied in its form, being copied by Italian ar-
BAROMETER.
Barometer
v^y '
Attempts
to obtain a
standard.
Amontons.
Newton.
Roemer.
Delisle’s
Uiermome.
ler.
Henaldini.
’'ahren-
eit’s ther.
aometer.
tists, was dispersed over Europe under the name of the
Florence Glass. From its careless execution, however, in
the hands of itinerant venders, this thermometer, or rather
thermoscope, appears never to have obtained an establish¬
ed reputation.
Ihe great object proposed was to bring thermometers
to an exact correspondence. It was expedient, therefore,
not only to select a proper fluid, but to adopt a uniform
and consistent scale. Alcohol, linseed oil, and mercury,
had been successively tried. The graduation was at first
derived from the temperature of cellars and deep caves,
which, indicating the natural heat of the globe, had long
been considered invariable ; but more enlarged experience
discovered the inaccuracy of that supposition, and showed
the mean temperature to be materially modified by the
latitude of the place, and its elevation above the level of
the sea. Congelation, or rather the inverted process, the
thawing of ice, or the melting of snow, was then found to
remain fixed; a most important fact, which had been first
noticed by Giiricke, but overlooked till a considerable time
afterwards. A stationary point was hence obtained, from
which to commence the thermometric scale. But differ¬
ent modes were pursued for determining the divisions.
Amontons, reverting to the air thermometer in spite of
its acknowledged defects, found that the elasticity of
air compressed in the bulb, and able at the temperature
of melting snow to support a column of mercury fifty-four
inches high, was capable of raising this to seventy-eight
inches at the heat of boiling water; and he seemed con¬
tented with framing a rude standard, by merely dividing
the intermediate space into inches and half-inches.
But about the same, or nearly at the beginning of the
eighteenth century, Newton himself cast a keen though
rapid glance on the subject of heat, and proposed a ther¬
mometer of a much simpler and more elegant construc¬
tion. Having adopted linseed oil as a fixed and uniform
substance, capable of great dilatation, he discovered by
experiment, that dividing the capacity of the bulb into
ten thousand equal parts, the liquid expanded 256 parts
from melting snow to blood-heat, and 725 parts to that of
boiling water. These numbers, however, being incon¬
veniently large, he reduced them somewhat more than
twenty times, adopting 12 and 34 as the proportional divi¬
sions on his scale. But oil, being so viscid a substance,
was found to trail and collect on the inside of the tube;
and this thermometer, though constructed on a right prin¬
ciple, never came into general use.
Roemer, the Danish astronomer who made the fine dis¬
covery of the progressive motion of light, was the first
who proposed mercury as the fittest fluid for thermome¬
ters ; and Halley and Amontons remarked about the same
time, that it expands uniformly with heat, and remains
nearly stationary at the point of boiling water. On this
principle, Delisle of St Petersburg constructed, in 1733, a
mercurial thermometer with a descending scale, the dis¬
tance from freezing to boiling water occupying 153, or, in
round numbers, 150 divisions, of which the bulb itself
contains 10,000. A mere ingenious method, but perhaps
too refined, for graduating thermometers, was proposed
by Renaldini, a distinguished Italian mathematician, in
1694. It consisted in adopting the scale, in the successive
temperatures produced by mixtures, in the different pro¬
portions of twelve parts of water at the moment of thaw-,
mg and of ebullition. This suggestion led to a very im¬
portant inference, since it proved that mercury expands
uniformly with equal additions of heat, while alcohol
swells constantly in a rising progression. But the capital
improvement of the thermometer was effected by the skill
and perseverance of Fahrenheit, whose name has remain¬
ed justly attached to the instrument. This ingenious per-
vol. iv.
457
son, originally a merchant at Dantzic, who had the mis- Barometer,
fortune to fail in business, was induced, by his taste for
mechanics and chemistry, to have recourse to the manu¬
facture of thermometers, as the means of gaining a slen¬
der livelihood. But not meeting with sufficient encour¬
agement at home, he removed, about the year 1720, to
Holland, the great emporium of the arts, and fixed his
future residence at Amsterdam. He now preferred mer¬
cury to alcohol for filling his thermometers; and, adopt¬
ing the division of the bulb into 10,000 parts, he reckon¬
ed sixty-four of them as the expansion between freezing
and blood-heat, and thirty-two as the contraction from
the same point to what he considered as extreme cold,
or that produced by the mixture of one part of salt with
three parts of snow. These numbers were extremely con¬
venient, being found by a repeated bisection. With re¬
spect to the heat of boiling water, Fahrenheit discovered
the important fact, that it varies with the state of atmo¬
spheric pressure. Taking the mean, however, he reckon¬
ed 180 degrees from freezing to ebullition, and therefore
marked this point at 212 on his scale. The thermome-The Cel-
ter owes its improvement to Celsius, professor at Upsal, sjan or ceQ"
who in 1742 placed the commencement of the scale at[j^rr^pme
congelation, and divided the interval thence to boiling ter
water into an hundred degrees, extending such a portion
downwards as might be wanted. This centesimal ther¬
mometer is exactly the same as what the French have
since called the centigrade, which, from its fitness and sim¬
plicity, deserves to be universally adopted.
The thermometer having been thus carried by succes- Correction
sive steps to perfection, it was found by delicate experi-of the ba-
ments, that, between the points of boiling and freezing, r^rieteJ'f3
the expansion of mercury amounts to the fifty-fourth part^J[£ e ^
of its bulk, or that it acquires, for each degree of heat, an
increase of volume amounting to the 5412th part on the
centesimal scale, or the 9742d part on the scale of Fahren¬
heit. A correction, therefore, on the height of the mer¬
curial column in the barometer becomes necessary accord¬
ing to the changes of temperature which it undergoes
In this climate, the extreme variation arising from that
cause will seldom exceed two tenths of an inch. But if
the barometer be suspended in a room kept at an agree¬
able temperature, the error occasioned by the expansion
of the mercury may, in ordinary cases, be disregarded,
since it will scarcely amount to the twentieth part of an
inch.
Since the barometer marks the condition of the distant
atmosphere, and intimates those internal alterations which
are generally connected with the change of the weather,
it is particularly valuable at sea, by forewarning the ma¬
riner of the approach of a storm. But an instrument of
the ordinary construction would not answer this purpose,
the agitation of a vessel on a tempestuous ocean being
such as would not only throw the ponderous mercurial co¬
lumn into violent oscillation, but communicate those sud¬
den shocks which must infallibly break the tube. Various Marine
attempts have accordingly been made to obtain a marme barometer.
barometer exempt from risk, and yet sufficiently sensible
to the variations of the atmosphere. The conical or
pendant barometer being, from the narrowness of its bore,
rather sluggish, was first recommended for that purpose,
though never adopted into practice. About the beginning
of the eighteenth century, Dr Hooke and Amontons seve¬
rally proposed to employ for a barometer on board ship,
the manometer or air thermometer. To obviate the de¬
rangement arising from the influence of heat, there was
to be placed beside it a spirit-of-wine thermometer, with
a ball so large as to give expansions equal to those of the
portion of air confined within the bulb. The difference
between the two adjacent columns of liquid would there-
3 H
458
BAROMETER.
Rarorneter. fore measure the variation of external pressure. But to
procure such a nice adaptation would prove so extremely
difficult in practice, that most probably this instrument
was seldom or never actually constructed. Besides, the
liquid column of the manometer, though light and nanow,
would yet be much shaken by the rolling and pitching at
sea. Notwithstanding these weighty objections, however,
this compound manometer was tried in England, mercury
being employed as the fluid both of expansion and pies-
sure, and various adjustments applied by means of a com¬
plex machinery. . ,. , . . ,
Blondeau’s An ingenious and very substantial kind of marine ba-
marine ba-rometer was, above twenty years ago, recommended by
rometer. Blondeau, one of the professors of the naval academy
at Brest. (See fig. 11, Plate CIV.) It consisted of an
iron tube, bent below into a siphon, and filled carefully
with mercury, which carried a float. For this puipose, a
musket-barrel, about three feet long, was chosen, having
a very smooth and even bore, and an iron breech close y
welded to it, instead of being soldered with brass, which
might become corroded by the action of the mercury.
The lower end of the tube had a collar of leathei, to
which was screwed a piece of iron, perforated through its
whole length, and bent into an arch, having screwed
likewise, with a collar of leather at its other extremity, a
vertical cylinder of iron, four inches high, and of the
same bore exactly as the tube. The contracted aperture
at the end of the tube, not being exactly in the middle,
was not always opposite that of the arch ; and, therefore,
by turning it occasionally aside, the communication could
be contracted at pleasure, or even obstructed entirely.
The cylindrical appendix was tapered at the top to a nar¬
row orifice, through which an iron wire, attached to a
small ivory float, had been introduced. To prepare this
instrument for action, the mercury was first boiled in the
tube ; then the arch, filled with hot mercury, was screwed
to the end, the cock opened, and the surplus mercury al¬
lowed to flow over; next the vertical piece, with its float,
was screwed on, and a little mercury added, to give it
due play. The origin of the scale was to be determined
from the comparison with another good barometer of the
ordinary construction; but, owing to the equality of the
bores of the opposite tubes, the divisions were only half
the usual size, or the inches were exhibited by half-inches.
This species of barometer is certainly free from all sort
of risk, while the facility which, by means of turning the
arch, it affords in checking the ascent and descent of the
mercury, prevents in a great measure the oscillations of
that fluid. If the instrument were properly suspended,
therefore, its indications would be tolerably steady and
regular. The chief objection to it consists in the diminu¬
tive range of its scale.
In every marine barometer, the main object is to give
steadiness to the mercurial column, by retarding its mo¬
tion in the tube; in short, to imitate the equalizing effect
of the fly in mechanics. One form of construction was,
instead of the cistern below, to annex a spiral tube com¬
posed of a number of horizontal convolutions. Passemant,
an ingenious Parisian artist, about the year 1758 improved
on this idea. He twisted the barometer tube near the
middle, at least twice round, and joined to its upper end
a wide cylinder. But, more effectually to prevent all ir¬
regular oscillations, he took a tube with a very narrow or
capillary bore, and contracted it below, while he annexed
a wide cylindrical piece at its other extremity. The only
thing wanted now to the perfection of this instrument,
was to devise a mode of suspending it that should soften
the jerks, and allow it generally to maintain a vertical po¬
sition. Our English artists have, by repeated trials, at
last succeeded in surmounting all the difficulties. The
marine barometer, manufactured by Mr Cary of London Barometer,
(see fig. 12, Plate CIV.), is one of the most approved '^Y '
kind. It consists of a capillary tube, about twenty-seven
inches long, with a bore scarcely exceeding the thirtieth
part of an inch, but terminated by a cylinder four or five
inches high, and nearly three tenths of an inch in diame¬
ter. It is suspended by a spring and jimbols, near the
top, at a certain point, which in each case is discovered
by actual trial. By making the suspension lower, it is
found that the agitation of the barometer will cause the
mercury to rise a little; while, by placing the suspension
higher, the mercurial column suffers always some de¬
pression. The reason of this curious observation is not
well explained. It probably results from the different
centrifugal tendencies communicated to the opposite por¬
tions of the columns. The swinging of the instrument
would evidently augment the pressure of the upper por¬
tion of the column, while it diminished that of the under
portion. But this lower portion being longer than the
other, its tendency to descend would be proportionally so
much greater. About the point of suspension, however,
the opposite effects of the centrifugal tendencies are ba¬
lanced, since the superior force being employed to set in
motion a narrower column, the reflux and efflux of the
mercury in the upper cylinder must be preserved nearly
equal.
Marine barometers, thus improved, are now very gene¬
rally used, and with great benefit to the public service,
on board ships of war and Indiamen. To facilitate the Hors-
keeping of a register of barometrical observations, the burgh s
meritorious and indefatigable Mr Horsburgh, hydrogra-Pmes-
nher to the East India Company, published a set of en¬
graved ruled sheets, adapted for the convenience of na¬
vigators. In these plates the height of the mercury, from
twenty-seven to thirty-one inches, is represented in inch¬
es and tenth parts by horizontal lines, while each succes¬
sive day has a space apportioned to it by vertical bars.
The state of the barometer at every observation is mark¬
ed with a dot, and these dots being afterwards connected
together, exhibit an irregular waved line, stretching across
the sheet, and indicating the series of the changes of the
weather. At the lowest points, from which the curve
again returns, a gale generally follows. From the obser¬
vations made off the Cape of Good Hope during the
month of May 1815, by an ingenious and active officer,
Captain Basnl Hall, then of his majesty s sloop \ ictor, it
appears that whenever the mercury fell to 29,60 inches,
a storm ensued; the column always rose when the gale
abated, and when it reached near thirty inches, the wea¬
ther became fair. Those gales often came on suddenly,
without any visible change in the aspect of the sky, but
the marine barometer never failed to give warning of their
approach.
A very convenient substitute for the marine barometer
is the constructed by Mr Adie, optician in
Edinburgh. It is merely an improved manometer, partly
filled with a fixed oil, and indicating the conjoined effect
of heat and atmospheric pressure on the inclosed air; but
the influence of temperature is corrected by means of a
sliding scale, regulated by an attached mercurial thermo¬
meter. The sympiezometer occupies little room, is easily
rectified, and comparatively cheap.
To explain the cause of the variations of the barometer,. 1 ^ ,ajn
has long perplexed philosophers. Many hypotheses have tjjeva-
at different times been advanced on the subject; but ^riati0nsof
would be a mere waste of time to make any detailed re- tjie taro-
cital of such crude and unsatisfactory attempts. The va- meter,
rious and often imaginary effects of vapours, of heat, and
of winds, have been employed in framing an explication of
the changes of the atmosphere. The fact, that the merr
BAROMETER.
Barometer, curial column generally falls before rain, seemed at com-
plete variance with the intimation of the senses, a notion
having become universally prevalent, that the air is hea¬
vier when the sky appears lowering and overcast; another
proof, were it wanted, how fallacious are all current opi¬
nions in matters of science.
Leibnitz, fancying he had discovered a new principle
in hydrostatics, endeavoured, by a sort of metaphysical
argument, to demonstrate that, though a body adds its
own weight to the pressure of a fluid in which it is sus¬
pended, yet it will cease to be ponderous during the act
of falling. This alleged principle will not, in the actual
state of science, be thought to require any serious refuta¬
tion ; nor, were it even admitted, would it be found at all
adequate to the explication of the phenomenon, since the
weight of moisture precipitated from the whole body of
atmosphere could never, by the absence of its pressure,
occasion a diminution of the tenth part of an inch in the
altitude of the mercurial column.
Dr Halley and Mairan sought to account for the de¬
pression of the barometer before a storm, by the withdraw¬
ing of the vertical pressure of the atmosphere, when borne
swiftly along the surface of the globe by a horizontal mo¬
tion. This hypothesis at first sight appears very plausible,
and might seem further confirmed by a noted experiment
which most authors have admitted without due examina-
Hauks- tion. Hauksbee, a skilful and ingenious experimental
bee’s ex- philosopher, about the year 1704 placed two barometers,
penment. about three feet asunder, with their naked cisterns in two
close square wooden boxes, connected by a horizontal
brass pipe ; one of these boxes had, inserted at right
angles, an open pipe on the one side, and a second pipe,
terminating in a screw, on the other side ; to this end he
adapted a strong globular receiver of about a foot in dia¬
meter, which had been charged, by injection from a
syringe, with three or four atmospheres; then suddenly
opening the stop-cock, and giving vent for the escape of
the air through the box and over the surface of the included
cistern, the mercury sunk equally more than two inches
in both the barometers.
This elegant experiment might be deemed entirely con¬
clusive, if a minute circumstance, on which the success
really depends, had not unfortunately been overlooked.
Us fallacy. It will be perceived from the inspection of the figure which
Hauksbee has given, that the exit pipe of the box was
considerably wider than the pipe which conveyed into it
the stream of air. This fluid, escaping from compression,
would therefore be carried by its elasticity as much be¬
yond the state of equilibrium; while the width of the ori¬
fice, by facilitating its emission, would allow the portion
occupying the box and the connected reservoir to preserve
its acquired expansion. If the pipe of discharge from the
box had been much narrower than the other, an opposite
effect must have taken place ; for the air accumulated over
the cistern, not finding a ready vent, would remain in a
state of condensation. This curious fact is another of the
many instances which might be cited to show the great
delicacy and circumspection required in performing philo¬
sophical experiments.
Similar results, however, can be exhibited by a very
simple apparatus. Let a small box, or rather a glass ball,
bave a short narrow tube inserted in the one side, and
459
another wide tube opposite to this, with a cross slider ofBarometer
brass, for contracting the orifice at pleasure ; and, to the v>--y^
under part of the ball, join a long perpendicular tube, bent
back like a syphon to more than half its height, and con¬
taining a double column of water. Now, blow through the
narrow tube into the cavity of the ball, while the orifice
of emission is quite opened, and the liquid will rise seve¬
ral inches in the long stem ; but, still continuing the blast,
let the orifice be gradually contracted, and the column will
first descend to its ordinary level, and then sink consider¬
ably below it.
The fall and rise of the mercury in the barometer must Causes of
evidently be occasioned by some corresponding reduction the varin-
or accumulation of the atmosphere at the place of obser-tion of the
vation. Whatever augments the elasticity of the air will barometeir‘
cause part of the incumbent fluid to evade and leave for
the time a diminished vertical pressure. The efflux of
wind might also produce a temporary reduction of the at¬
mospheric column. But the real difficulty consists in ex¬
plaining why the variations of the barometer should be
greater in the high latitudes than between the tropics,
and why they so much exceed in all cases the quantities
which calculation might assign.
The influence of heat will account for the semi-diurnal
variations of the barometer which are observed, especially
within the torrid regions. From ten o’clock in the morn¬
ing till four in the afternoon, the mercury generally falls ;
but, after that hour, it rises again, till ten o’clock at night,
when it drops till four in the morning, and then mounts
till ten o’clock in the forenoon. These regular changes,
which amount to about the five hundredth part of the
whole atmospheric pressure, depend on the prevalence of
the alternating land and sea breezes, occasioned by the
diversified action of the sun’s rays upon the earth and
water. The accumulation of air is greatest at four o’clock
in the morning and evening, and the mercury then attains
its highest point; but it sinks lowest at ten o’clock in the
morning and evening, when the incumbent mass has been
the most reduced.
A similar reason will explain the effects of the north¬
erly and easterly winds, in elevating the mercury of the
barometer in our climate. A chill air, with enfeebled
elasticity, is thus accumulated and exerts a predominant
pressure.
The augmented elasticity communicated to the air by
the action of heat or the presence of humidity, and the
reduction of the incumbent mass by the efflux of winds,
have each their distinct influence in disturbing the equi¬
librium of the atmospheric ocean. But the effects, particu¬
larly in the high latitudes, much surpass the regular opera¬
tion of those causes. The only mode, perhaps, of remov¬
ing the difficulty, is to take into consideration the compa¬
rative slowness with which any force is propagated through
the vast body of atmosphere. An inequality may con¬
tinue to accumulate in one spot, before the counterbalan¬
cing influence of the distant portions of the aerial fluid can
arrive to modify the result. In the higher latitudes, the
narrow circle of air may be considered as, in some mea¬
sure, insulated from the expanded ocean of atmosphere,
and hence, perhaps, the variations of the barometer are
concentrated there, and swelled beyond the due propor¬
tion. See the articles Climate and Meteorology, (j.l.)
Supplement.
Aneroid Barometer. A very ingenious instrument for
indicating atmospheric pressure is the invention of M.
id! of France, which is called the Aneroid Barometer
k rom avepofiai, I inquire). The appearance and construc-
on will be best understood from the annexed diagrams.
The action of the aneroid depends on the effect produced
by the pressure of the atmosphere on a circular metallic
chamber exhausted of air and hermetically sealed ; thus the
chamber is a substitute for the Torricellian tube, and the
vacuum for the column of mercury.
460
BAROMETER.
Supple¬
ment.
The mechanical arrangements of the instrument will be
understood by reference to the woodcuts.
Fig. i.
Figure 1 represents the external appearance of the in¬
strument. It is four inches and three-quarters in diameter
across the face, and one inch and three-quarters in thick¬
ness. The pressure of the atmosphere is indicated by a
hand pointing to a scale which is graduated to forty divisions
to the inch ; one or two thermometers are fixed on the face,
as shown in the drawing, but these are not essential.
Fig. 2.
Figure 2 represents the internal construction, as seen
when the face is removed, but with the hand still attached,
a is a flat circular metallic box, about two inches and three-
quarters in diameter, and a quarter of an inch in depth,
having its upper and under surfaces corrugated in concen¬
tric circles. This box* or chamber being exhausted of air,
through the short tube b, which is subsequently made air¬
tight by soldering, constitutes a spring, which is aftected by
every variation of pressure in the external atmosphere, the
corrugations on its surface increasing its elasticity. At the
centre of the upper surface of the exhausted chamber there
is a solid cylindrical projection x, about half an inch high, to
the top of which the principal lever, c, d, e, is attached, as
shown in the drawing. This lever rests partly on a spiral
spring at d ; it is also supported by two vertical pins, with
perfect freedom of motion. The end e of the large or prin¬
cipal lever is attached to a second or small lever /, from
which a chain g extends to h, where it works on a drum
attached to the arbor or axis of the hand, connected with a
hair spring at h, changing the motion from vertical to hori¬
zontal, and regulating the hand, the attachments of which
are made to the metallic plate i. The motion originates
in the corrugated elastic box a, the surface of which is de-
pressed or elevated as the weight of the atmosphere is in¬
creased or diminished, and this motion is communicated
through the levers to the axis of the hand at h. The spira
spring on which the lever rests at d is intended to com¬
pensate for the effects of alterations of temperature. I he
actual movement at the centre of the exhausted box, from
whence the indications emanate, is very slight, but by t ie
action of the levers this is multiplied 657 times at the point
of the hand, so that a movement of the twenty-second part
of the tenth of an inch in the box carries the point of the
hand through three inches on the dial.
The effect of this combination is to multiply the smallest
degrees of atmospheric pressure, so as to render them sen¬
sible on the index.
The aneroid is a very delicate instrument, and seems to
answer well at moderate elevations above the sea.
Metallic Barometer. M. Bourdon constructed in 1 HoU a
modification of the aneroid, and, like it, a very portable in¬
strument, in which the movement is produced by the ine¬
qualities of atmospheric pressure on the convex and concave
sides of a thin box in the form of a segment of a circle. I he
idea is ingenious. It is very similar to a contrivance of
Messrs Bryson of Edinburgh in 1849, which diminished the
instrument to the size of a small snuff-box. Both appear to
be original, but are perhaps inferior to the instrument of
^Register Barometers. Barometers have been invented
which indicate their own extremes of altitude during the
absence of the meteorologist. These instruments render
his task less irksome ; and if generally adopted, would in¬
crease our knowledge of atmospheric phenomena.
Dr Traill exhibited to the meeting of German philoso¬
phers at Hamburg in 1830, a register-instrument which he
had constructed for showing the maxima and minima of
barometric pressure during the absence of the observer.
It is cheap and simple in construction, and consists of two
diagonal barometers, one of which is inverted, and re¬
sembles in principle the rectangular barometer. Both are
attached to the same frame. Before bending and filling t e
upright one, and after filling the inverted barometer, a piece
of smooth steel wire is introduced into each, to serve as in¬
dices to the instrument.
When the upright barometer rises,
the mercurial column pushes before
it the index, which remains there by
its own gravity on the sinking of the
mercury ; so that its extremity next
the mercury will indicate the extreme
rise of the barometer. When the
mercurial column descends in the in¬
verted instrument, which has a small
aperture to admit atmospheric pies-
sure at its lower extremity, that in¬
dex is pushed before it, and its end
nearest the mercury will indicate the
extreme of the barometric depres¬
sion, should the increased atmo¬
spheric pressure cause that end of the
column to recede.
In the first instrument of this kind
which Dr Traill constructed the in¬
verted one was the common rectan¬
gular barometer ; but he conceived
that it would be preferable to give
the same inclination to the angles of .
each tube, that the gravitation of both indices might
equal, as represented in the woodcut.
Supple¬
ment.
Fig. 3.
‘To adjust the instrument for observation, the indices are
*
BAROMETER.
461
Supple¬
ment.
drawn into contact with the end of each mercurial column
by a small magnet. One of the instruments was used for
several years without requiring any fresh adjustment. It is
not, however, very portable.
A thermometer should be attached to the frame, to in¬
dicate the temperature of the instrument, for the same
reason as in other barometers. If the cisterns be of con¬
siderable size in proportion to the bore of the tubes, we
may for common purposes neglect the adjustment for in¬
equalities in the level of the mercury in the cisterns; to
which, indeed, it would not be easy to adapt an accurate
indicator.
The general appearance of the instrument will be seen
in the woodcut; and the construction, it is hoped, will be
understood from this short description. This instrument
was first published in a German journal, Oken’s Isis ; and
again described in the article Physical Geography, in the
seventh edition of this work.
Keith?s Siphon Barometer. The late Alexander Keith,
Esq. of Ravelston, invented one of the first of such instru¬
ments, which was described in the 4th volume of the Trans¬
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. It is a siphon
barometer, in the shorter limb of which an ivory float rests
on the surface of the mercury, and carries a wire bent at
the top at right angles. This bended extremity is placed
between two lists of oiled silk, which it moves up and down
as the float rises and falls with the mercury, on a wire
stretched along the scale of the instrument. The objection
made to this contrivance was, that it is subject to derange¬
ment from slight accidental causes, as the collection of dust,
and the wearing of the apertures in the silk indices. But
Mr Keith improved his barometer farther, by adapting to it
a clock, which turned a vertical cylinder, covered with
paper ruled into 31 columns, for the days of the month, and
a pencil attached to the kneed wire traced the oscillations
of the column through its whole monthly course. At the
commencement of each monthly period, a new paper was
substituted for the old, which was preserved in the register
of the weather.
This very ingenious instrument never came into much
use, both on account of the expense, and because it was
alleged that the continual friction of the pencil rendered
slight changes of atmospheric pressure inappreciable.
Brysor?s Improved Siphon Barometer. More recently
a great improvement on the instrument of Mr Keith was
contrived and executed by the late Mr Bryson, an eminent
watchmaker of Edinburgh.
This is also a siphon barometer, furnished with an ivory
float, and kneed wire, ending in a small knife-edge, intended
to mark the oscillations of the mercurial column. A verti¬
cal cylinder of japanned tinned iron, about three inches in
diameter, moves round its axis once in every 24 hours. At
one of its ends the hours from 1 to 12 a.m. are in red, and
from 1 to 12 p.m. in black characters. Seven such cylinders
are made, one for each day of the week. The cylinder for
each day’s observations has its surface thinly coated with a
mixture of fine chalk and water, laid on with a camel-hair
pencil. The cylinder fits accurately on a square arbor or
spindle, which is steadily moved round by clockwork at¬
tached to the barometer. The knife-edge, instead of con¬
stantly pressing against the cylinder, is made to touch it
only for a moment every hour, by means of a series of pins
on the wheel connecting the clock with the cylinder. This
slight touch is sufficient to cut through the thin film of
chalk, and shew a black line on a white ground. There is
therefore on the cylinder one such mark for every hour;
and their position indicates the successive oscillations of the
barometer.
When the day is completed, the cylinder is removed, and a
fresh one substituted, and the first is fixed horizontally be¬
tween two pivots, on which it is made to revolve steadily in
what is termed the reader. On the front of the reader
is a scale of inches from 27 to 32, divided into hundredths
by means of a vernier, moved by a firm tangent screw, and
ending upwards in a point. The precise value of each mark
on the cylinder is thus ascertained.
This scale is first adjusted by simultaneous observations
on a standard barometer. Should the scale be too high, the
fixed pivot of the reader is loosened, and screwed out, until
the point of the vernier corresponds to the indications of
the standard barometer; after which the fixed pivot is per¬
manently secured in its place for future observations.
The simple mechanism by which he has secured the
steady movements of the cylinder in its horary revolution,
and when transferred to the reader, is creditable to the skill
of the inventor ; and the barometer of Mr Bryson may be
considered as probably the best register barometer hitherto
constructed.
Specimen of Bryson’s Hourly Barometric Register.
1843
June 22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
29-93
29-96
29.97
29-85
29-80
29-71
29-67
29-66
29-91
29-95
29-97
29-85
29-79
29-69
29-67
29-66
29-90
29-95
29-97
29-83
29-79'
29-69
29-67
29-65
4 ’
29-90
29-95
29-97
29-83
29-78
2969
29-67
29-65
29-90
29-95
29-97
29-83
29-78
29-66
29-67
29-65
29-90
29-95
29-97
29-83
29-78
29-66
29-67
29-65
29-90
29-95
29-97
29-83
29-78
29-66
29-67
29-65
29-92
29-95
29-97
29-83
29-78
29-66
29-67
29-62
29-93
29-92
29-97
29-83
29-77
29-65
29-67
29-62
10
29-94
29-92
29-97
29-83
29-76
29-65
29-67
29-62
11
29-94
29-92
29-96
29-83
29-76
29-65
29-65
29-62
12
29-94
29-93
29-96
29-83
29-74
29-65
29-65
29-62
June 22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
29-96
29-96
29-95
29-93
29-84
29-74
29-63
29-63
29-61
29-96
29-96
29-95
29-91
29-84
29-74
29-63
29-62
29-61
29-96
29-96
29-95
29-91
29-84
29-74
29-63
29-62
29-61
29-96
29-96
29-95
29-91
29-84
29-74
29-65
29-62
29-61
29-96
29-96
29-95
29-91
29-80
29-73
29‘-65
29-62
2960
29-96
29-96
29-95
29-91
29-82
29-73
29-65
29-62
29-63
29-96
29-96
29-96
29-91
29-82
29-71
29-67
29-63
29-63
29-96
29-96
29-97
29-86
29-82
29-71
29-67
29-64
29-67
29-97
29-96
29-97
29-86
29-82
29-71
29-67
29-64
29-67
29-98
29-96
29-97
29-86
29-82
29-71
29-67
29-66
29-67
29-94
29-96
29-97
29-86
29-82
29-71
29-67
29-66
29-67
29-93
29-96
29-97
29-86
29-82
29-71
29-67
29-66
29-68
Supple¬
ment.
462
BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
Barome- IT was remarked in the preceding article, that the de-
trical cisive experiment by which Pascal established the re-
Measure- ality of atmospheric pressure, had likewise suggested to
ments. ^ ingenious philosopher the method of determining the
elevations of distant points on the surface of the globe.
But the first attempts were very rude, proceeding on the
inaccurate supposition that the lower mass of air is a fluid
of uniform density. Different authors estimated variously
from eighty to ninety feet as the altitude, which corre¬
sponds to a variation of the tenth part of an inch in the
mercurial column. The Torricellian tube or cane, as it
was then called, was, on its first introduction to England,
carried accordingly to the tops of mountains, or conveyed
to the bottom of pits and mines, or even let down to great
depths in the sea.
Sinclair. Among those experimentalists who laboured most assi¬
duously in the study and application of the barometer in
this part of the island, we may mention George Sinclair.
This ingenious person had been professor of philosophy
in the university of Glasgow, but seems to have consci¬
entiously resigned his office soon after the Restoration,
rather than comply with that hated episcopacy which the
minions of Charles II. had forced upon the people of Scot¬
land. He then retired to the village of Tranent, not far
from Edinburgh, and was employed as a practical engineer,
in tracing the levels of coal-pits, in directing the machinery
employed in the mines at Leadhills, and afterwards in the
great undertaking of conducting water from the heights of
the Pentlands to supply the northern metropolis. Though
not a profound mathematician, he was skilled in mechanics
and hydrostatics, and possessed no small share of inven¬
tion. Sinclair is said to have been the first who applied
to the mercurial tube the name of baroscope, or indicator
of weight; the more definite appellation of barometer, or
measurer of iveight, not having been appropriated till many
years afterwards. During his excursions in 1668 and 1670,
he employed that instrument to measure the heights of
Arthur’s Seat, Leadhills, and Tinto, above the adjacent
plains. He followed the original mode of using a tube
sealed at the top, with a paper scale pasted against the
side, which he carried to the top of the mountain, where
he filled it with mercury ; and, inverting it in a basin, he
noted the altitude of the suspended column, and repeated
the same experiment below; a very rude method, cer¬
tainly, but no better was practised in England during the
succeeding thirty years.
In a small scarce tract, printed in 1688, and bearing
the quaint title of Proteus bound with Chains, Sinclair
gives some judicious remarks on the variations of the baro¬
meter, considered as a weather-glass, and delivers very Barome-
sound opinions, on the whole, respecting the causes of the trical
chief meteorological phenomena. In a postscript to that Measure-
piece, he proposes a most efficient and ingenious method , ™ents',
of weighing up wrecks from the bottom of the sea. It
consisted in employing two large arks, or square wooden
boxes, fastened to the sides of the ship, and charged with
air carried down to them by a succession of inverted casks,
open at the lower end. An arc of a cubical shape, and
twenty feet in every dimension, the smallest which he
mentions, would, as he computes, have a buoyancy equi¬
valent to 448,000 pounds Troy. It is remarkable that the
celebrated Mr Watt always employed this very mode,
using a large gazometer, floating in a pond dug in the churt
of his manufactory, and charged gradually by the action
of bellows, for raising the ponderous engines constructed
at Soho, and lifting them over his walls into the boats,
which were stationed to receive them in the adjacent canal.1
In all the computations hitherto made from different
altitudes of the barometer, the air was considered as a
uniform fluid; no regard being had to the gradual dimi¬
nution of density which must evidently take place in as¬
cending the atmosphere. To estimate the effect of that jjeiat;on
gradation, it became requisite previously to determine the of the air’s
actual relation subsisting between the density of the fluid density
and its elasticity. This was first ascertained in England aP(l elasti-
by Townley, who inferred, from some experiments ofclt^"
Boyle, that the elastic force which the air exerts is exact¬
ly proportional to its density. A similar conclusion was
about the same time drawn by Mariotte, a French philo¬
sopher, from a still better series of experiments. Follow¬
ing out this very simple law, he thought of computing
heights from barometrical observations, by the rules usu¬
ally employed in constructing tables of logarithms; and
had, therefore, obtained some glimpse, no doubt by a sort
of conjectural process, of the remarkable result, that the
density of the atmosphere decreases in a geometrical pro¬
gression, corresponding to the elevations taken after an
arithmetical one. But seemingly not aware of the import¬
ance of the principle at which he was pointing, Mariotte
immediately deserted it; and calculating from a repeated
bisection of the column of air between the two stations
into successive horizontal strata, he contented himself with
interpolating the densities according to a harmonic divi¬
sion, which he next abandoned for the simplicity of a se¬
ries with equal differences. This able experimenter hence
only sketched out a mode of investigating the problem of
barometrical measurements, without arriving at any very
definite or consistent rule of solution.
1 Sinclair was author of a well-known little book entitled Satan's Invisible World Displayed, which, at a former period, was sold
at all the public fairs in the country, and devoured with eagerness and dismay by the Scottish peasantry. In a quarto volume, on
Hydrostatics, and the Working of Coal-mines, printed in Holland, and published by subscription in 1672, he digressed so widely from his
subject as to insert A True Relation of the Witches of Glenluce. But this was the folly of the age, from which several of the most
learned men had not been able to escape. It is painful to observe, that James Gregory, the inventor of the reflecting telescope,
who, although endowed with talents of the highest order, appears to have had a keen temper, and to have imbibed an hereditary
attachment to royalism and episcopacy, should have stooped to attack an unoffending and less fortunate rival. He wrote a little tract
against Sinclair’s Hydrostatics, with the title of the Art of Weighing Vanity, and under the thin disguise of Patrick Mather, arch¬
beadle to the university of St Andrew’s. It is a piece full of low scurrility, and memorable only for a very short Latin paper ap¬
pended to it, containing the series first given to represent the motion of a pendulum in a circular arc. In the British Museum,
there is a letter of Gregory to Collins, the secretary of the Royal Society, boasting of his project, and soliciting information with
which to overwhelm the poor author. But with all his eagerness to hunt down Sinclair, he never touches on the strange episode of
the Witches of Glenluce. What a picture of times approaching so near to our own ! Sinclair was restored to his chair at the Re¬
volution, and lived a few years longer. He answered Gregory’s attack in the same coarse style, charging him with total want of
skill in the use of astronomical instruments, though by help of subscriptions he had erected a sort of observatory at St Andrew’s. The
manuscript of this reply is preserved in the College Library of Glasgow.
BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
463
Barome- In 1686 that ingenious and active philosopher Dr Hal-
trical ley resumed the subject, and discovered the law that con-
Measure- nects the elevation of the atmosphere with its density; of
which he gave a clear demonstration, derived from the well-
jTk^^fknown properties of the hyperbola referred to its asymp-
atmosphe- totes.1 Since the height of the mercury indicates the
ric density pressure, and consequently the elasticity of the external
and eleva- air, it must be proportioned likewise to the density,
non. Wherefore the breadth of a given mass of air, or the thick¬
ness of a stratum which corresponds to a certain portion
of the mercurial column, will be inversely as this altitude.
Let O be the centre of a rectangular hyperbola, of which
O A and OP are the asymptotes; and conceive the dis¬
tances OA and OB to represent the heights of the mer¬
cury at two stations. The perpendiculars AC and BD,
which are reciprocally as OA and OB, must hence express
the relative thickness of strata corresponding to equal por¬
tions of the barometric scale. Divide AB into a multi¬
tude of equal segments, and erect the perpendiculars EM,
FL, GK, and HI. The intercluded spaces, from AC to
BD, will denote the successive thickness of the series of
strata into which the whole mass of air between the two
stations is subdivided. Consequently the aggregate or
mixtilineal space DBAC, which is proportional to the lo¬
garithm of the ratio of OB to OA, will express the differ¬
ence of atmospheric elevation when the mercurial column
mounts from B to A. Taking equal ascents, therefore, in
the atmosphere, the corresponding densities must, from
the property of the hyperbola, form a decreasing geome¬
trical series.
Rule de- To apply this elegant theorem, Dr Halley availed him-
duced. self of the best experiments which had been performed to
determine the relative densities of air, water, and mer¬
cury. In different trials made near the earth’s surface,
it was found, when the barometer stood at 29f inches,
that the air is 840, 852, or even 860 times lighter than wa¬
ter. Employing round numbers, therefore, and assuming
the specific gravity of mercury to be 131, be reckoned
800 X 13^ X 30 = 10,800 inches, or 90 feet, as the altitude
of an atmospheric column which, near the level of the sea,
would exert a pressure equivalent to that of an inch of
mercury. For the co-efficient, which answers to the actual
constitution of the atmosphere, Halley should have taken
the thirtieth part of -4342945, the modulus of the common
system of logarithms, or -0144748. But he proceeded
less directly, having satisfied himself with taking the
arithmetical mean between the differences of the loga- Barome-
rithms of 29 and 30, and of those of 30 and 31; a compen- trical
sation of errors which gives -0144765, hardly deviating Measure-
from the former. Hence he gave this simple analogy for
computing the heights of mountains by the barometer:
As the constant number -0144765 is to the difference between
the logarithms of the barometric columns at the two stations,
so is 2^0 feet to the elevation required. The result of this
operation is evidently the same as if the logarithmic dif¬
ference had been multiplied by the number 62170; a very
tolerable approximation at all seasons for a northern cli¬
mate, and quite accurate, indeed, if the mass of interven¬
ing air had a medium temperature of 46° by Fahrenheit’s
scale. Dr Halley supposed that the observations them¬
selves might, from the influence of heat, differ about a fif¬
teenth part between summer and winter. But the thermo¬
meter was still so imperfect an instrument, that it could not
be applied with confidence in correcting such variations.
The principle which Halley thus investigated might be Otherwise
derived from a simpler process. Conceive the atmosphere hwestigat-
to be divided into a multitude of equally thin horizontalecl-
layers, it is evident that each successive stratum would,
to the pressure of the superincumbent stratum, add its
own weight, which being as its density or elasticity, is
therefore proportioned to the collective pressure; and,
consequently, those densities must continually increase in
going downwards, exactly in the same way, and after a
like progression, as money accumulates at compound in¬
terest, where a constant portion of the aggregate fund is
regularly joined to the capital.2 Such, in fact, is the dis¬
tinguishing character of a geometrical progression, that
the increase or decrease of each succeeding term is always
proportional to the term itself. The logarithmic curve is
hence the best adapted for exhibiting the relations which
connect the densities with the elevations in the atmo¬
sphere ; the axis of the curve expressing the elevation,
while each ordinate represents the corresponding density
of the stratum of air. It being a fundamental property of
the logarithmic curve, that every subtangent applied to it
has the same length, the exact determination of this in
the case of our atmosphere is the only thing wanted for
the final solution of the general problem.
Let AB, the absciss of a logarithmic curve, represent
a line descending perpendicular through the atmosphere;
the ordinates AC and BD will in¬
dicate the elasticity of the strata
at A and B, and consequently,
abating the influence of tempera¬
ture, their densities. Draw the tan¬
gent DT, and form the elemental
triangle T>db; then BD : BT :: hd
: 5D, or inversely BD : M BT :
5D. But the thickness 3D of
each accrescent stratum being as¬
sumed to be the same, and the
subtangent being constant, from
the nature of the curve; the ratio
of BT to 3D is given; therefore
the ratio of BD to bd is likewise given, or the increment
of the density in the successive strata is proportional to
1 It appears, however, that he was anticipated by Huygens, who had found, as early as the year 1662, that the altitudes of succes¬
sive strata of air being taken in arithmetical progression, the corresponding densities will form a geometrical series, this beautiful
proposition he never published, indeed, but left it recorded upon one of the blank leaves of a Hutch almanac, containing various
other speculations, and now preserved in the library of the university of Leyden. .
* To illustrate still further this comparison ; if we reckon the mean altitude of a uniform atmosphere to be 26000 feet, it will follow
that, for every descent of 26 feet, the density of the air will increase one thousandth part. This rate of progression corresponds pre¬
cisely with the weekly improvement of money invested at 5 per cent, per annum, supposing, for the sake of simplicity, the year to
contain only 50 weeks. Since monev at the statute interest doubles in 14years, so the air has its dilatation doubled at the height
of 26 x 50 x 14-2 or 18466 feet, answering to three miles and a half.
464
BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
Barome¬
trical
Measure¬
ments.
Newton’s
general so
lution.
Applica¬
tion of the
thermome¬
ter.
the density itself, the leading property of air. The
pressure of the thin stratum at B is represented by BDr/i,
which is equal to the rectangle under BT and hd. Hence,
drawing the parallel DE, the collective area ABDC,
which represents the weight of the atmosphere between
the altitudes A and B, is equal to the rectangle under
the subtangent and EC. But AB expresses the difference
of the logarithms of the ordinates AC and BD, or the
densities at A and B; and consequently this difference
multiplied by the length of Bf will indicate AB. In
relation to our atmosphere at the point of congelation,
the numerical value of the subtangent is about 26,000
feet, which is very nearly the product of 60,000 into the
modulus of the ordinary logarithms.
Eleven years after Dr Halley had given his rule for ba¬
rometrical measurements, this philosopher had an oppor¬
tunity of applying it to discover the height of Snowdon in
North Wales. He found that the barometer which stood
at 29-9 inches on the sea-shore near Caernarvon, fell a
few hours after, when planted on the summit of the moun¬
tain, to 26T inches, the altitude having been ascertained
previously, by a trigonometrical observation, to be 1240
yards.
The year 1687 is memorable as being the date of the
■first publication of the Principia, which wras drawn up
chiefly at the urgent request of Halley, from disjointed
materials that had lain a considerable time in the author's
closet. In that immortal work, Newton resumed the pro¬
blem of the gradation of atmospheric density, and solved
it in that general way which suited his penetrating genius.
He demonstrated that, supposing the particles of air, like
other bodies, to have their weight or gravitating tendency
diminished as the squares of their distances from the
centre of the earth, if those distances be taken in harmo¬
nic progression, the corresponding densities of the atmo¬
sphere will form a geometrical one- But since the dimi¬
nution of attraction at the greatest height we are able to
reach amounts only to the two thousandth part of the
whole, this difference is too minute to be adopted in prac¬
tice ; and the simpler law first established by the sagacity
of Halley may be deemed sufficiently accurate for every
real purpose.
Newton has given a sort of geometrical solution of the
problem. But a more precise, and, in this case, a clearer
investigation, is obtained by help of the symbols of the
integral calculus. Let x and x' express the altitudes of two
strata of atmosphere, y and y' the corresponding densities,
r the radius of the earth ; and suppose further, that e re¬
presents the altitude of the equiponderant column which
measures the elasticity of the air. Since the density of
the air depends on the incumbent pressure, its decrement
must evidently be proportional to the weight of each su-
peradded minute stratum, or to the density of this stratum
multiplied into its thickness and power of gravitation.
T , ( r \Q edy Pdx
Whence — edy = ydx (—r-— )2, or — = t--]—a5
\r -r xj y (?’+*)>
if
of which the complete integral is e Hyp. Log. — = . —
y r x
  — = —;— . ; :. If r be regarded as indefi-
r x r + x r + x
nitely great in comparison of x, the expression will pass
'l/
into e Hyp. Log. — — x/ — x, which is only the common
formula.
Little seemed wanting, therefore, to complete the prac¬
tice of barometrical measurements, but the application of
the thermometer to correct the results. This instrument,
however, advanced slowly to perfection, and more than
forty years yet elapsed before it came into current use. Barome-
Some of the continental philosophers likewise, biassed, tr*ca^
perhaps, by a secret jealousy of the superiority which
England had acquired in science, began to throw out ;
doubts respecting the reality or accuracy of the law of
geometrical progression in the atmosphere. Daniel Ber¬
noulli, a man of candour on the whole, as well as ingenuity,
but who, with some proneness to speculative reasoning,
had unfortunately imbibed many of the prejudices of the
Cartesian and Leibnitzian schools, proposed in his capital
work, the Hydrodynamica, which appeared in 1736, some
vague hypotheses regarding the constitution of the atmo¬
sphere, as deduced from certain internal motions attribut¬
ed to its component strata. The specious results of those
calculations led him hastily to deviate from the principle
of the geometrical progression of density in the upper re¬
gions. In this departure from nice theory he was follow¬
ed by Cassini and Horrebow, who concluded, from some
partial observations they had made, that the barometer,
in its indications of atmospheric pressure, is subject to
irregularity; and that, near the surface of the earth, it
obeys a different law from that which obtains at great ele¬
vations. A strong light, however, was thrown upon theBouguer.
subject in 1753 by Bouguer, an able mathematician and
very skilful and ingenious observer, who, with other aca¬
demicians, had been employed for several years in mea¬
suring a degree of the meridian along the stupendous
ridge of the Andes. From the comparison of more than
thirty distinct observations, he deduced a simple and ele¬
gant rule for computing heights by means of the barome¬
ter. It is this, that the difference between the logarithms
of the mercurial columns at the two stations being dimi¬
nished by one thirtieth part, and the decimal point shifted
four places to the right, will express the required eleva¬
tion in toises. Since the English was to the French foot
nearly as fifteen to sixteen, the rule would be accommo¬
dated to our measures, and the result expressed in feet,
if the logarithmic difference were augmented by the thir¬
tieth part, then multiplied by six, and the decimal point
thrown back four places; or, which is the same thing, if
that logarithmic difference were multiplied at once by
62,000. But Bouguer imagined, that this rule would not
hold exactly in Europe, or in the lower regions of the
torrid zone ; and to explain the deviation, he had recourse
to the forced supposition that the particles of air possess
different degrees of elasticity. Lambert, a philosopher of
great originality and penetration, afterwards published
some excellent remarks on the comparison of barometrical
measurements. But no material progress was made till
1755, when M. de Luc of Geneva resumed the subject,^ lUCi
and carefully combined experiment with observation. For
the space of fifteen years and upwards, he prosecuted his
inquiries with diligence and perseverance, aided by the
peculiar advantages of local situation, in a city abounding
with skilful artists, and seated in the neighbourhood of
lofty mountains. The discrepancies which had hitherto
created so much embarrassment proceeded mostly from
the inattention of observers to the disturbing influence
of heat, and particularly its effect in expanding the air,
and consequently augmenting the elevation due to a
given difference of atmospheric pressure. De Lucs
first object was to improve the thermometer of Reaumur,
which, though greatly inferior to that of Fahrenheit,
had been adopted in France and the adjacent parts of
the Continent. Having ascertained that mercury has
the valuable property of expanding equably with equal
additions of heat, he substituted that metallic fluid for
spirit of wine, but retained its arbitrary and inconvenient
scale of eighty degrees between the points of freezing and
boiling water. He next examined the dilatation of air
BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
Shuck-
burgh,
Barome- at different temperatures, and corrected those results by
trical numerous observations made on the mountains of Savoy,
menu.6 an^ t?le n“n.es ^le Hartz, in which the barometer was
combined with the thermometer. 'YhiG formula which he
thence deduced for the computation of barometrical mea¬
surements was, in 1772, published in his Recherches sur les
Modifications de l Atmosphere, and seemed to attract, espe¬
cially in England, a very considerable degree of notice.
Dr Maskelyne, the astronomer-royal, adapted it to our
system of measures, and De Horsley made annotations
and comments on it. But, what was of more importance,
other accurate observers, incited by De Luc’s example,
entered the same field of inquiry, provided with instru-
ments of greater delicacy and much better construction.
In L75 Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn visited the Alps,
and combined trigonometrical operations with correspond¬
ing observations by barometers and thermometers from
the hands of Ramsden; and about this time likewise,
and Roy. General Roy not only measured, with instruments made
by that excellent artist, some of the principal mountains
in Scotland and Wales, but instituted a series of mano-
metrical experiments. It resulted from all these re¬
searches that, for each degree on Fahrenheit’s scale, mer¬
cury expands the 9700th part, and air the 435th part of
their respective bulks. It further appeared that the at¬
mosphere has its temperature almost uniformly diminish¬
ed at equal ascents; and that the logarithmic difference,
reckoning as integers the first four digits, expresses in
English fathoms the height of an aerial column as cold
as the point of congelation. General Roy proposed like¬
wise another correction depending on the enfeebled gra¬
vity, and consequently the augmented altitude, of the
equiponderant column of atmosphere in the lower lati¬
tudes, occasioned by the influence of centrifugal force
arising from the earth’s rotation. Several years after¬
wards, Professor Playfair, in a learned paper, printed in
the first volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, examined all the circumstances which can
affect barometrical measurements, and discussed each
question with the correctness and perspicuity that we
formula of might expect from his distinguished abilities. At nearly
Laplace, an equal interval of time the celebrated Laplace resumed
the subject in his Mecanique Celeste, and brought all the
conditions together in a very complicated formula. Such
an appearance of extreme accuracy, however, is perhaps
to be regarded merely as a theoretical illusion, unsuited
and inapplicable to any real state of practice. Biot has
since attempted to arrive at a similar conclusion, by set¬
ting out d priori from some careful experiments on the
relative density of air and mercury, performed by him in
conjunction with Arago. He thence infers that, in the
latitude of Paris, and at the point of congelation, air, un¬
der a mercurial pressure of 76 metres, or 29,922 English
inches, is 10,463 times lighter than mercury at the tem¬
perature of water at its lowest contraction. This would
give 26,090 feet for the height of a column of homogene¬
ous fluid, whose pressure is equivalent to the elasticity of
the atmosphere. The co-efficient adapted to common
logarithms, and adjusted to the force of attraction at the
level of the sea, would therefore be 60,148 feet, or 18,334
metres; scarcely differing sensibly from the quantity
which Ramond had deduced from a very numerous set
of experiments made by him on the Pyrenees. But Biot
prefers, as the co-efficient, the number 18,393, answering
for an elevation of 1200 metres, or about 4000 feet above
the sea, which is not far from the general level of such
observations. The formula is hence, in English feet,
60,346 (1 + -002837 cos.
fi j_ 2 (T + , H
l1 + looo / g'T’
VOL. IV.
465
where ^ denotes the latitude of the place, T and t the Barome.
temperatures of the air at the two stations, as indicated trical
by the centesimal thermometer, and H and h the heights Measure-
of mercurial columns corrected for the effects of heat. merits.
This active writer has likewise given tables for expe-
diting the calculation of barometrical measurements; in
which he was anticipated, however, by Oilmans of Berlin,
who published, in 1809, large Hypsometrical Tables, as
they are called, accommodated to the complex formula
of Laplace. Such tables might no doubt prove useful
where very frequent computations are wanted, as in the
case of the reduction of the numerous observations brought
home by Baron Humboldt, for which, indeed, they were
first designed. But still they contain a needless profusion
of figures, and hold forth a show of extreme accuracy
which the nature of the observations themselves can
never justify. The mere calculation of barometrical mea¬
surements is a secondary object. The great difficulty is
to procure good observations, and to combine tolerable
accuracy with expedition. For this purpose, a very port¬
able barometer is still wanted;—an instrument light and
commodious, exempt from injury or derangement, and yet
sensible to minute changes of atmospheric pressure.
These properties, indeed, are seldom conjoined, and one
advantage must generally be sacrificed to obtain another.
A modification of the conical barometer already suggest¬
ed would seem, on the whole, to be well adapted for the
geological traveller. The two unequal tubes are cement¬
ed into a small cylinder of steel, with a fine stop-cock of the
same metal confining the mercury. This renders the in¬
strument so portable that it may be inclosed in a walking-
stick ; on turning the steel-cock, and inverting the staff,
the height of the mercurial column is readily found.
A barometer of the most improved construction is re- Mountain
presented in fig. 19; a portion of the tube is shown in barometer,
fig. 20; and a section of its cistern in fig. 21. By help Plate CIV.
of a screw pressing against the bottom of a leathern bag,
inclosed within a cylindrical ivory box, the mercury is'
always brought up through a tubular aperture to the same
precise level; or till its convex surface appears to touch
a very thin line of light, which is admitted through a slip
of ivory applied against the side of the chink or separation
of this tube from a wider one immediately over it. The
lower end of the mercurial column being thus adjusted,
the length is easily measured by drawing gradually down
a hollow brass tube, divided at intervals by wide slits,
covered on one side by thin bits of ivory, till by that
softened light a contact is observed with the edge of a
slit and the convex top of the column. The fine Vernier
which the movable tube carries gives the altitude of the
mercury in thousandth parts of an inch. A thermometer
is likewise constantly attached to the instrument, for the
purpose of indicating the temperature of the mercury,
which, from the heat of the hand in carrying, or the in¬
fluence of the solar beams, is commonly warmer than the
external air.
This mountain barometer is suspended for observation
by jimbols from a tripod, as exhibited in fig. 18; but its
several parts can be folded up together into a convenient
compass, tolerably well fitted for carriage, as represented
in fig. 19. The whole apparatus may not exceed the
weight of ten pounds; yet even this, moderate as it might
seem, would be felt a serious encumbrance by a traveller
who is engaged, day after day, in the labour of climbing
mountains. The risk which the instrument incurs, be¬
sides, in transporting it perhaps over rough precipices,
imposes a perpetual constraint, while to make correct
observations with it must always require time and patient
attention. A lighter and more compact, though less ac¬
curate, barometer will generally be preferred by the geo-
3 N
466
Barome¬
trical
Measure¬
ments.
—’r—'
Portable
barometer
of Sir H
Knglefield,
and of Gay
Lussac.
Modified
conical b;
rometer.
BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
logical traveller, whose object is rather to extend our ac¬
quaintance with the altitudes of mountains, than to aim
at a superfluous and often illusory precision. I he port¬
able instrument, invented by Sir Henry Englefield, and
represented in fig. 14, will, on the whole, answer those
views. Its cistern is formed of box-wood, sufficiently
tight to hold the mercury, without preventing the access
and impression of the external air. When this barometei
is inverted, the mercury, therefore, subsides very slowly
in the tube, which must be firmly suspended in a vertical
position. For greater security, the mercury is now put
into a leathern bag introduced within the cistern.
A very simple and convenient sort of portable baiome-
ter was lately invented in France by that celebrated che¬
mical philosopher M. Gay-Lussac. (See fig. lo and 16.)
It consists of rather a wide siphon tube, filled with mei-
cury, and sealed hermetically at the inverted end, having
a very fine capillary hole formed about an inch undei this,
by nicely directing the flame of a blow-pipe against the
side of the glass, and drawing a melted spot of it out to a
point. The lower portion of the principal branch has its
bore contracted to less than the tenth part of an inch, to
prevent the mercurial column from dividing in the act of
inverting it. The mercury is boiled as usual, and the
tube may be concealed in a walking-stick, or lodged, like
the complete mountain barometer, in a cylinder of brass,
with movable sliders bearing the divisions of a Vernier
at both ends. (See fig. 17.) For greater simplicity, how¬
ever, the larger divisions might be engraved on the tube
itself. This kind of barometer is of ready use, and very
little exposed to hazard in carriage. It is commonly held
in a reclined or inverted position; but, in making an ob¬
servation, it must be gently turned back, and kept per¬
pendicular till the mercury descends through the con¬
tracted bore, and slowly rises again in the opposite snoi t
branch ; the scale is noticed at both ends of the incurved
column, and the difference of those indications gives its
correct altitude.
A modification of the conical barometer, which, in tra-
a.veiling, we have ourselves employed with great ease and
advantage, should likewise be mentioned, ihepiincipal
part of it consists of a small stop-cock made of steel, and
represented in fig. 13. A glass tube of 31 or 32 inches
long, with a bore of the tenth part of an inch hermeti¬
cally sealed at the top, and filled with quicksilver, is ce¬
mented into the one end of the stop-cock; and into the
other end is cemented an open and wider tube, 16 inches
or more in length, and having its diameter above the
eighth part of an inch. This compound tube is lodged in
a walking-stick, divided into inches and tenths through
its whole extent, or only at the upper part, it uniform
tubes be selected. In making an observation, the cock
is turned, and the instrument inverted. The upper column
then descends partly into the lower tube, till it becomes
shortened to the proper altitude.
We have already stated the principles on which the cal¬
culation of barometrical measurements proceeds. But
there still are some points, either assumed or overlooked,
which may considerably modify the results. It is presum¬
ed, that, at equal successive heights, the temperature of
the atmosphere decreases uniformly. This property, how¬
ever, does not hold strictly, and it may be shown, from a
comparison of the best observations, that the decrements
of heat follow a quicker progression in the higher regions.
But we shall soon have another opportunity to examine
this subject, and trace out its various consequences.
The humidity of the air also materially affects its elas¬
ticity, and the hygrometer should therefore be conjoined
with the thermometer in correcting barometrical observa¬
tions. But nothing satisfactory has yet been done in re¬
gard to that subject. The ordinary hygrometers, or rather Barome-
hygroscopes, are mere toys, and their application to science tncal
is altogether hypothetical. A most unphilosophical course 1
has lately been pursued, by multiplying calculations ground-
ed on very loose data, instead of instituting a nice and ela¬
borate train of original experiments.
In the actual state of physical science, it is preposte¬
rous, therefore, to affect any high refinement in the formula
for computing barometrical measurements. The whole
operation may be reduced to a very short and easy pro¬
cess. But the simplicity of the calculation would be still
greater, if the centesimal thermometer were generally
adopted. It will be sufficiently accurate, till better data
are obtained, to assume the expansion of mercury by heat
as equal to the 5000th part of its bulk for every centesi¬
mal degree, while that of air is twenty times greater, be¬
ing an expansion for each degree of the 250th part of the
bulk of this fluid. 1. Correct the length of the mercurialRule for
column at the upper station, adding to it the product of its computing
multiplication into twice the difference between the degrees on
the attached thermometers, the decimal point being
four places to the left. 2. Subtract the logarithm of this
corrected length from that of the lower column, multiply by
six, and move the decimal point four places to the rigid; the
result is the approximate elevation expressed in English feet.
3. Correct this approximate elevation by shifting the deci¬
mal point three places back to the right, and multiplying by
twice the sum of the degrees on the detached thermometers;
this product being now added, will give the true elevation.
If it were judged worth while to make any allowance
for the effect of centrifugal force, this will be easily done
before the last multiplication takes place, by adding to
twice the degrees on the detached thermometers the
fifth part of the mean temperature corresponding to the
latitude. The mean temperature itself is formed by mul¬
tiplying the square of the cosine of the latitude by twen¬
ty-nine. . .
In illustration of these rules, we shall subjoin some Examples,
real examples. General Roy, in the month of August
1775, observed the barometer on Caernarvon Quay, at
30091 inches, the attached centesimal thermometer in¬
dicating 15°*7, and the detached 15°-6 ; while, on the peak
of Snowdon, the barometer fell to 26‘409 inches, and the
attached and detached thermometers marked respectively
10°*0 and 8°'8. Here twice the difference of the attach¬
ed thermometers is 11°’4, and twice the sum of the de¬
tached thermometers is 48°‘8, which becomes 50-8 when
augmented by the fifth part of the mean temperature on
that parallel. Now, omitting the lower decimals, the
first correction is •00264 X 1T4 zr *030, to be added to
26'409. Wherefore,
Lost. 30091 = 1-4784866
Log. 26-439 = 1-4223450
Difference =
Constant multiplier =
Approximate height =
•0561416
60000
3368-496
And, for the true height, the correction is 3*37 X 50-8
— 171-2, which gives 3340 for the final result.
We shall take another example from the observations
made bv Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, at the same pe¬
riod, among the mountains of Savoy. This accurate phi¬
losopher found the barometer, placed in a cabin near the
base of the Mole, and only 672 feet above the surface of
the lake of Geneva, to stand at 28-152 inches, while the
attached and detached thermometers indicated 16°-3 and
and 17°-4; but, in another barometer carried to the sum¬
mit of that lofty insulated mountain, the mercury sunk to
24-176 inches, the attached and detached thermometers
marking 14°-4 and 13°-4. Wherefore, twice the difference
B A R O M E T RI CA L
Barome- of the degrees on the attached was 3°-8, and twice the
trical sum of the degrees on the detached thermometers was
ments6" ^0*®' Consequently the correction to be applied to the
hisrher column was *0024 X 3'8 — "009, which makes it
4-185. Now,
Log. 28-152 = 1-4495092
* Log. 24-185 ~ 1-3835461
Difference = *0659631
Constant multiplier == 60000
Approximate elevation = 3957-786
Uo correct this approximate elevation, remove the deci¬
mal point three places back, and multiply it by 61°-6, in¬
creased by 2°-9, the fifth part of the mean temperature,
corresponding to the latitude; but 3-96 X 64*5 = 255-4,
and 3957*8 -j- 255-4 — 4213. Hence the summit of the
Mole is 4885 feet above the lake of Geneva, or 6083 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean Sea.
The last example we shall give is drawn from the ob¬
servation which Baron Humboldt made among the Andes,
near the summit of Chimbora9o, the highest spot ever ap¬
proached by man. This celebrated traveller found there,
that the barometer fell to 14-850 English inches; the at¬
tached thermometer in the tent being at 10°, and the de¬
tached in open air being l°-6 under zero. But the same
barometer, carried down to the shore of the Pacific Ocean,
rose exactly to thirty inches, while both the attached and
detached thermometers stood at 25°-3. Consequently the
correction to be applied to the upper column is = -0015
X 30-6 = -045. Wherefore,
Log. 30-000 = 1-4771213
Log. 14-895 = 1-1730405
Difference = -3040808
Constant multiplier = 60000
Approximate elevation — 18244-848
Now, the difference of the detached thermometers, or
26°-9, being doubled and further increased by 5°-8, the
fifth part of the mean temperature at the equator, makes
59°-6; and the final correction to be applied is therefore
= 18-24 X 59°-6 = 1087, which gives 19,332 feet for
the true elevation observed, or 2140 feet below the sum¬
mit of Chimborazo.
Calcula- These calculations are performed by the help of loga-
rithms. It is desirable, however, to approximate at least
rithrnf3" *° barometrical measurements without such aid. A very
simple rule for this object has been given by Professor
Leslie in his Elements of Geometry.
Since log. ^ 2 M
Gr+i+ !(;ho)3 + K^+i)S&c-),whcreMde‘
notes the modulus of the logarithmic system ; when a
approaches to b, the lower terms may be rejected without
sensible error, or log. ^ = 2 M very nearly.
Wherefore, in reference to our atmosphere, the modulus
is expressed by the equiponderant column of homogene¬
ous fluid, or 60,000 X -4342945 — 26,058 feet, or only
26,000 in round numbers ; whence, as the sum of the
mercurial columns is to their difference, so is the constant
number 52,000 feet to the approximate height. Let General
Hoy’s observation on Snowdon be resumed as an exam¬
ple: the analogy is 30-091 + 26-439 : 30-091 — 26-439,
or 56-530 : 3-652 :: 52,000 : 3,359, the approximate eleva¬
tion, differing very little from the logarithmic result.
This mode of calculation may be deemed sufficiently
accurate for determining any altitude that exceeds not
5000 feet. But it will extend to greater elevations if the
MEASUREMENTS. 467
second term of the series be likewise taken, which is done Barome
by striking off three figures, and cubing the half of this trical '
number. Thus, resuming the mensuration of Chimboraco Measure-
44-895 : 15-105 :: 52,000:17,496, and (8-75)3 = 670, mak- ments-
ing together 18,166 for a nearer approximation.
The calculation of barometrical measurements, including Barome
the corrections required, is rendered most easy and expe- trk^cale.
ditious by means of a sliding rule made by Mr Cary, op¬
tician in London. This small instrument should always
go along with mountain barometers; and it will be found
a very agreeable companion to every geological traveller.
But portable barometers, in spite of every precaution,
are yet so liable to be broken or deranged, that other aux¬
iliary methods are desirable for ascertaining distant ele¬
vations. In this view, the variation of the boiling point
of water was proposed by Fahrenheit as far back as the
year 1724 ; the idea having occurred to him, as it had done
before to Amontons, while engaged with experiments to
perfect his thermometer. Little regard, however, seems
to have been paid to the suggestion till De Luc and Saus-
sure made a series of observations on the heat of ebullition
at different elevations above the surface. About thirty
years since, Cavallo attempted to revive the scheme of
Fahrenheit, but experienced much difficulty in preventing
the irregular starts of the thermometer plunged in boiling
water. The best and surest way of examining the heat
of ebullition, is to suspend the bulb of the thermometer in
the confined steam as it rises from the water.
The heat at which water boils, or passes into the form Tempera-
of steam, depends on the weight of the superincumbent ture of
atmosphere. By diminishing this pressure, the point of boihng ^a-
ebullition is always lowered. It appears that, while theter 3PPhed
boiling heat sinks by equal differences, the corresPondmg
atmospheric pressure decreases exactly, or at least ex-^onof^"
tremely nearly, in a geometrical progression, it being heights,
found that every time such pressure is reduced to one
half, the temperature of boiling water suffers a regular di¬
minution of about eighteen centesimal degrees. This
beautiful relation assimilates with the law which connects
the density and elevation of the successive strata of the
atmosphere. The interval noticed between the boiling
points at two distinct stations must be proportional to
their difference of altitude above the level of the sea. We
have, therefore, only to determine the co-efficient or con¬
stant multiplier, which may be discovered either from an
experiment under the rarefied receiver of an air-pump, or
from an actual observation performed at the bottom and
on the top of some lofty mountain. We shall prefer at
present the observation made by Saussure on the summit
of Mont Blanc. This diligent philosopher found, by means
of a very delicate thermometer constructed on purpose,
that water which boiled at 101°-62 in the plain below
when the barometer stood at 30-534 English inches, boil¬
ed at 86°-24 on the top of that mountain, while the baro¬
meter had sunk to 17-136. Wherefore the distance be¬
tween the points of ebullition, or 15-38 centesimal de¬
grees, must correspond to an approximate elevation of
15,050 feet, which gives 9781 feet of ascent for each de¬
gree, supposing the mean temperature of the atmospheric
column to be that of congelation. But it will be more
convenient to assume 1000 for the constant multiplier,
which corresponds to the temperature of 51°.
To reduce this very simple result into practice, it would
be requisite to have a thermometer with a fine capillary
bore, and nicely constructed, the stem six or eight inches
long, and bearing ten or a few more degrees from the
boiling point; these degrees to be divided into twenty or
perhaps fifty equal parts engraved on the tube, which
should be rather thick, and terminating in a bulb of about
half an inch diameter. This thermometer, being fitted
468
Barome¬
trical
Measure¬
ments
li
Baron.
Mode of
tracing
vertical
sections.
BAR
with a brass ring two inches above the bulb, should screw
into the narrow neck of a small copper flask, which holds
some water, but has a hole perforated near the top for al¬
lowing the steam to escape. The water may be made to
boil by the application of a lamp. The difference between
the indications of the thermometers at the two stations
being multiplied by a thousand feet, will give the eleva¬
tion corresponding to a temperature of 5^°. The correc¬
tion for the actual mean temperature can easily be ap¬
plied. If a more correct co-efficient be afterwards deter¬
mined, the same thousand, retained as a multiplier, may
easily be adapted to another temperature.
This method of measuring elevations on the surface of
the globe is, therefore, capable of great improvement, and
might be employed with advantage in a variety of cases
where observations with the barometer are not easily ob¬
tained. Its application would be most important to phy¬
sical geography, in ascertaining the capital points for tia-
cing the outline of the profile or vertical section of any
country. The common maps, which exhibit mere super¬
ficial extension, are quite insufficient to represent the
great features of nature, since the climate and productions
of any place depend as much on its elevation above the
sea as its latitude. Scientific travellers have accordingly
turned their attention of late years to the framing of ver¬
tical sections. As a specimen, we give, in fig. 22, from
Humboldt’s Geography of Plants, a section acioss the
American continent, one of the best and most interesting
that has yet appeared. It consists, in fact, of four com¬
bined sections, traversing through an extent of 425 miles.
The line begins at Acapulco, on the shore of the Pacific
Ocean, and runs 195 miles, about a point of the compass
towards the east of north, to the city of Mexico; then
80 miles, a point to the south of east, to La Puebla de
los Angeles; again it holds a north-east direction of ^ 70
miles, to the Cruz Blanca; and finally bends 80 miles
east by south, to Vera Cruz, on the coast of the Atlantic.
A scale of altitudes is annexed, which shows the vast ele¬
vation of the table-land of Mexico. An attempt is like¬
wise made in this profile to give some idea of the geologi¬
cal structure of the external crust. Limestone is repre¬
sented by straight lines slightly inclined from the hori'
zontal position; Basalt, by straight lines slightly reclined
Measure¬
ments
BAR
from the perpendicular; Porphyry, by waved lines some- Barome.
what reclined ; Granite, by confused hatches; Amygda- trical
hid, by confused points.
By this mode of distant levelling, a very interesting ^
discovery, in another quarter of our globe, was made by Baron.
Engelhardt and Parrot, two Prussian travellers. They
proceeded, on the 13th July 1814, from the mouth ofTheCas-
the Kuban, at the island of Taman, on the Black Sea; ptan below
and, examining carefully every day the state of the ba-^1^^™
rometer, they advanced with fifty-one observations, the e oc an'
distance of 990 wersts, or 711 English miles, to the mouth
of the Terek, on the margin of the Caspian Sea. Similar
observations were repeated and multiplied on their return.
From a diligent comparison of the whole, it follows that
the Caspian is 334 English feet below the level of the
Black Sea.1 That the Caspian really occupies a lower level
than the Ocean, had been suspected before, from a com¬
parison of some registers of barometers kept at St Peters¬
burg, and on the borders of that inland sea; but the last
observation places the question beyond all doubt. It fur¬
ther appears, that within 250 wersts, or 189 miles, of the
Caspian, the country is already depressed to the level of
the Ocean, leaving, therefore, an immense basin, from
which the waters are supposed to have retired by a sub¬
terranean percolation.
If the same plan of barometrical measurements had
been followed by the adventurous explorers of the African
continent, and the altitudes of the central lakes ascer¬
tained, the question regarding the course of the Niger
would have been much sooner settled, and much vague and
unsatisfactory discussion avoided. Even thermometrical
observations of the temperature of springs, or of the ground
at moderate depths, would have furnished an approxima¬
tion to those elevations sufficiently near for solving that
great problem in geography on scientific principles alone.
The spirit of modern enterprise has more lately carried
barometers to the remotest and loftiest stations on the sur¬
face of our globe. It has been thus ascertained that some
of the mountains in the equatorial parts of America attain
the stupendous altitude of 25,000 feet, while the great
chain of Upper India seems to rear its vast summit about
2000 feet still higher. See Climate, Hygrometry, and
Meteorology. (j* l')
BARON. The origin and primary import of this term
have been much contested. Menage derives it from the
Latin haro, a word which we find used for vir, a “ stout” or
“ valiant manwhence it was that those placed next the
king in battles were, according to him, called barones, as
being the bravest men in the army; and as princes fre¬
quently rewarded with fees the bravery and fidelity of those
about them, the word came to signify any noble person who
held a fee immediately of the king. Isidore, and after him
Camden, suppose the word; in its original acceptation, to have
meant a “ mercenary soldierand Messieurs de Port Royal
derive it from /3dpos, “ weight” or “ authority.” But Cicero
uses the word baro for a stupid brutal man ; the old Ger¬
mans make mention of “buffeting a baron,” meaning a villain;
and the Italians use the word barone to signify a “ beggar.”
M. de Marca thinks baron derived from the German bar,
“ man,” or “ freemanothers seek its origin in the old
Gaulish, Celtic, and Hebrew languages; and some are of opi¬
nion that it comes from the Spanish varo, a “ stout noble per¬
son ;” whence wives used to call their husbands, and princes
their tenants, “ barons.” In the Salic law, as well as in the
laws of the Lombards, the word baron signifies man in gene¬
ral ; and, accordingly, the old glossary of Philomenes renders
baron dv^p, “man.” The old law expression “baron and/eme
(man and wife) preserves the traces of this signification.
The term is more particularly applied among us to a lord
or peer of the lowest class, or a degree of nobility next be¬
low that of viscount. In ancient records the word baron
included all the nobility of England, because all noblemen
were barons even although they occupied a higher rank in
the peerage. But it sometimes happened, that, when a
baron had been raised to a new degree of peerage, the two
titles, in the course of a few generations, descended differ¬
ently, one perhaps to the male descendants, and the other
to the heirs-general, by which means the earldom or other
superior title subsisted without a barony; and there are also
modern instances where persons have been created earls
and viscounts without annexing a barony to their other
1 The trigonometric measurement, however, of Fuss, Sabler, and Sawitsch, make the depression of the Caspian much less, g y
81.4 English feet.
BAR
Barons, honours; so that now the rule does not hold universally
that all peers are barons.
The origin and comparative antiquity of barons have
been the subject of much research amongst English an¬
tiquaries. But the most probable opinion is, that they
were the same with our present lords of manors; to which
the appellation of court-baron, which is the lord’s court,
and incident to every manor, seems to give countenance.
The original name of this dignity in England is said to
have been vavassour, which by the Saxons was changed
into thane, and by the Normans into baron. From Magna
Charta it appears that originally all lords of manors, or
barons, had seats in the great council or parliament; but
such is the defective state of the public records, that the
first precept to be found is not of older date than the 49th
of Henry III.; and this, though it had been issued out in
the king’s name, had neither his authority nor his sanction,
the king himself, his son Prince Edward, and most of the
nobility who remained faithful to him, being then prisoners
in the hands of the rebellious barons.
Before the date above mentioned, the ancient parliaments
consisted of archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and barons.
Of these barons there were two sorts; the greater barons,
or the king’s chief tenants, who held in capite of the crown ;
and the lesser barons, who held of the greater by the tenure
of military service. The former had a summons to parlia¬
ment by several writs ; and the latter, if possessed of thir¬
teen knights’ fees and a quarter, had a general summons
from the sheriff in each county. At the date above given,
instead of keeping to the old form, the prevailing powers
thought fit to summon only those of the greater barons who
were of their party, and, in room of the lesser barons who
attended with large retinues, to issue their precepts to the
sheriffs of counties to cause two knights in every shire to
be chosen, and one or two burgesses for each borough, to
represent the people residing in those counties and boroughs;
—an innovation which gave rise to the separation into two
houses of parliament. Hence the title came by degrees to
be confined to the greater barons, or lords of parliament;
and, among the peerage, no other barons were admitted ex¬
cept such as had been summoned by writ, in respect of the
tenure of their lands or baronies, until Richard II. con¬
verted it into a mere title of honour, by conferring it on
divers persons by his letters patent.
When a baron is called up to the house of peers by writ
of summons, the writ is in the sovereign’s name, and he is di¬
rected to repair to the parliament appointed to be holden at
a certain time and place, and there to treat and advise with
his sovereign, the prelates, and nobility, about the weighty
affairs of the nation. The ceremony of the admission of a
baron into the house of peers is this: He is brought into
the house between two barons, who conduct him up to the
lord chancellor, his patent or writ of summons being earned
by a king-at-arms, and presented by him kneeling to the
lord chancellor, who reads it, then congratulates him on his
becoming a member of the house of peers, and invests him
with his parliamentary robe. Thereafter the patent is de¬
livered to the clerk of parliament, and the oaths are ad¬
ministered to the new peer, who is then conducted to his
seat on the barons’ bench. The coronation robes of a baron
are the same as those of an earl, except that he has only
two rows of spots on each shoulder; and, in like manner,
his parliamentary robes have but two guards of white fur,
with rows of gold lace; but in other respects, they are the
same as those of other peers. King Charles II. granted to
the barons a coronet, having six large pearls set at equal
distances on the chaplet. A baron’s cap is the same as a
viscount’s. His style is Right Honourable ; and he is ad¬
dressed by the king or queen, Right Trusty and Well Beloved.
Barons by ancient tenure were those who held certain
territories of the king, who still reserved the tenure in chief
BAR
469
to himself There were also barons by temporal tenure
who held their honours, castles, and manors, as heads of
their barony; that is, by grand serjeantry, by which tenure
they were anciently summoned to parliament. But at pre¬
sent a baron by tenure is not a lord of parliament till he be
called thither by writ.
Barons of the Exchequer, four judges to whom the ad¬
ministration of justice is committed in causes betwixt the
king and his subjects relative to matters of revenue. Their
office is also to look into the accounts of the king, for which
reason they have auditors under them.
Barons of the Cinque-ports were (prior to 1831) mem¬
bers of the house of commons, elected by the cinque-ports,
two for each port. These ports are now under the juris¬
diction of a warden.
Baron and Feme, in the English Laiv, a term used for
husband and wife, in relation to each other, who are ac¬
counted as one person. Hence by the old law of evidence
the one party was excluded from being evidence for or
against the other in civil questions, and a relic of it is still
preserved in the criminal law.
Baron and Feme, in Heraldry, is when the coats-of-
arms of a man and his wife are borne per pale in the same
escutcheon ; the man’s being always on the dexter side, and
the woman’s on the sinister. But in this case the woman
is supposed not to be an heiress, for then her coat must be
borne by the husband on an escutcheon of pretence. See
Heraldry.
Baron, or Boyron, Michel, a celebrated French actor,
born at Paris in 1653 ; died in 1729. He was first brought
on the stage by Moliere, and during his lifetime was said
to be “ du theatre Frangais Vhonneui et la merveille.” He
was equally successful in tragedy and comedy, and likewise
composed some comedies. His self-esteem seems to have been
equal to his success; “every hundred years,” he said, “a Caesar
may be seen, but it needs ten thousand to produce a Baron !”
Baron, Robert, an English writer of the seventeenth
century, author of a novel called the Cyprian Academy (8vo,
1647), and some dramatic pieces, and poems (8vo, 1650).
BARONET, a dignity or degree of honour next below
that of baron, and above that of knight, with precedency of
all knights excepting those of the Garter.
The dignity of baronet is generally conferred by patent,
and forms the lowest degree of honour that is hereditary.
The order was instituted by King James I. at the sugges¬
tion of Sir Robert Cotton in 1611, when 200 baronets were
created at once, being the number to which it was intended
they should always be restricted ; but it is now enlarged at
the sovereign’s pleasure, without limitation. Originally the
creation of this order seems to have been merely an expe¬
dient to raise money in the name of fees, which, in each
case, amounted to about L.1200 sterling.
Baronets take precedence according to the dates of their
patents, conformably to the terms of which, no intermediate
honour between baron and baronets can be established.
The title or prefix of Sir is granted them by a peculiar
clause in their patents, though they be not dubbed knights.
Baronets of Scotland, called also Baronets of Nova
Scotia. This order of knights-baronets was instituted by
Charles I. in the year 1625, when the first person dignified
with the title was Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstone, a
younger son of the Earl of Sutherland. The professed ob¬
ject of the institution was to encourage the plantation and
settlement of Nova Scotia in North America: hence the
king granted to each of them a certain portion of land in
that province, which they were to hold of Sir William
Alexander, afterwards Earl of Stirling, with precedency to
them and their heirs-male for ever, before all knights called
equites aurati, all lesser barons called lairds, and all other
gentlemen, except Sir William Alexander, His Majesty’s
lieutenant in Nova Scotia, his heirs, their wives and chil-
Barons
II
Baronet.
«
470
BAR
BAR
Baronets dren. It was further provided that the title of Sir should be
II prefixed to their Christian name, and Baronet added to
Barony. t]iejr surname; and that their own and their eldest sons’
wives should enjoy the title of Lady, Madam, or Dame.
Malone has given the following curious note upon this
subject, in his very learned Life of Dry den, prefixed to his
edition of the prose works of that writer:—“ \\ hen the order
of baronets was first established in 1611, King James en¬
gaged that they should not exceed two hundred. However,
towards the close of his reign, that number being completed,
and the creation of baronets being found a useful engine of
government (the courtier by whose influence the title was ob¬
tained receiving usually L.1000 for the grant), it was not
lightly to be parted with. A scheme, therefore, of creating
Baronets of Scotland was devised, which, it w as conceived,
would be no infraction of the original compact, to confine the
grants to a limited number; and as the English baronets were
created under the great seal of England, for the reduction
of Ulster in Ireland, so the Scottish baronets were created
under the great seal of Scotland, for the reduction of Acadia,
or Nova Scotia. The scheme, however, was not carried
into execution by King James; but early in the reign of
his successor several Scottish baronets were made. From
this statement it appears, that there is no more necessity for
calling a baronet created under the great seal of Scotland
(whether he be an Englishman or Scotchman), a Baronet
of Nova Scotia, than there is to denominate one created
under the great seal of England a Baronet of Ulster:’
(Malone’s Dryden, vol. i. pp. 28-29.)
Baronets of Ireland. This order was likewise instituted
by King James I. in the 18th year of his reign, for the same
purpose and with the same privileges within the kingdom of
Ireland as had been conferred on the analogous order in
England; for which also the Irish baronets paid the same
fees into the treasury of Ireland.
BARONI, Leonora, a celebrated singer and composer,
was born at Naples, but spent the greater part of her life
at Rome. She was daughter of Adriana Baroni of Mantua,
baroness of Piancaretta, a lady also distinguished for her
musical talents, and, on account of her beauty, surnamed
the Fair. A collection of verses in her honour was published
in 1623, under the title of Teatro della gloria D’Adriana.
Leonora, like her mother, was celebrated by the wits; and
in 1639 there was published a collection of poems in various
languages addressed to her, under the title of Applausi
Poetici alle Glorie della Signora Leonora Baroni. Among
the Latin poems of Milton are no fewer than three, entitled
Ad Leonoram Romce Canentem, of which this lady is the
subject. Mazuchelli, Scritt. d’ltal.; Mangers, Discours sur
la Musique d’Italic, Paris, 1672.
BARONI US, Ctesar, a pious and learned cardinal, was
born at Sora in 1538. He studied at Rome, and put him¬
self under the discipline of Filippo di Neri, the founder of
the congregation of the Oratory; on whose resignation in
1593 Baronins succeeded him as superior. Pope Clement
VIII. made him his confessor, and raised him to the rank of
cardinal in 1596. He was afterwards made librarian to the
Vatican, and died from excessive study in 1607, at the age
of sixty-nine. His principal work is his Annales Ecclesias-
tici, from a.d. 1 to 1198, in 12 vols. folio, Rome, 1588-93,
which is characterized by very great learning and ability,
and has always been in high esteem in the Church of Rome;
though, having been composed with the express object of
vindicating that church against the supposed misrepresen¬
tations of the Magdeburg Centuriators, it is necessarily par¬
tial and imperfect. The best edition, including the continu¬
ation of Raynaldi, is that published at Lucca in 38 vols.
folio, 1738-1787. A further continuation in 8 vols. folio, is
at present in preparation by Father Theiner, a priest of the
Oratory at Rome.
BARONY, Baronia, or Baronagium, the lordship or
fee of a baron, either temporal or spiritual. Baronies, in their Barquki-
first creation, proceeded from the king himself, the chief mjjt0
lord of the whole realm, and could be holden immediately Barracks
of no other lord. Thus the king enfeoffed a man of a great
seigniory in land, to be held by the person enfeoffed and his
heirs, of the king and his heirs, by baronial service; that is,
by the service of so many knights as the royal act appointed.
In the ages immediately succeeding the Conquest, such
seigniory was called a barony, but more commonly an honour ;
as the honour of Gloucestershire, of Wallingford, &c. In
England these were sometimes called by Norman or other
foreign designations, when the same person was lord of an
honour in Normandy, or some other foreign country, and
also of an honour in England. Thus, William de Forz, de
Force, or de Fortibus, was lord of the honour of Albemarle
in Normandy, and also of the honours of Holderness and
of Skipton in England, and these latter were sometimes
called by the Norman name, as the honour of Albemarle, or
the honour of the Earl of Albemarle.
BARQUICIMETO, a province in Venezuela, with a
capital of the same name. This city, which had a popula¬
tion of 15,000, w'as nearly destroyed by the great earth¬
quake of 1812, which desolated Caraccas; but it has since
been rebuilt, and already has above 12,000 inhabitants.
Eat. 9. 50. N. Long. 69. 20. W.
BARRA, or Barray, island of. See Barray.
Barra, or Vara, in Coynmerce, a long measure used in
Portugal and some parts of Spain, to measure woollen and
linen cloths and serges. In Valencia, 13 barras — \2fy yards
English measure ; in Castile, 7 barras — 6^ yards; and in
Aragon, 3 barras = 2f yards.
BARRACAN, in Commerce, a sort of stuff, something
like camlet. It is used to make various outer garments.
The cities where barracans are chiefly made in France are
Valenciennes, Lisle, Abbeville, Amiens, and Rouen.
BARRACKPORE, a town and military cantonment of
Hindustan, in the province of Bengal, about 16 miles above
Calcutta. The cantonment consists of a large village in
the occupation of soldiers, with separate lodges for the Eu¬
ropean officers. In its vicinity is the country residence of
the governor-general of India, situate on the banks of the
Hooghly, within a park containing 200 or 300 acres. Eat.
22. 46. Long. 88. 26.
BARRACKS, called by the French Casernes, places for
soldiers to lodge in, especially in garrisons. Till the middle
of the year 1792, when there was a prospect of war with re¬
volutionary France, and the British ministry became appre¬
hensive of disturbances in this country, barracks were not
numerous, nor were they under the control and management
of a separate and peculiar board. Previous to this they were
built under the authority and directions of the Board of
Ordnance, which also supplied them with bedding and the
necessary utensils; and any extra articles that were requisite
were furnished by the secretary at war. In 1792 orders
were issued by the ministry for budding cavalry barracks
with the utmost despatch, and the deputy-adjutant-general
was directed to superintend the building and fitting them
up. In January 1793 the same officer was appointed su¬
perintendent-general of barracks ; and on the 1st of May
the king’s warrant was issued for their regulation. Greater
powers were given to the superintendent-general in the year
1794; but as these seemed to interfere with the duties and
powers of the Board of Ordnance, a new warrant was issued
in the year 1795, defining and limiting the respective duties
and powers of the Board of Ordnance, and the superinten¬
dent-general, or barrackmaster-general, as he was now called.
In 1806 the barrack establishment was placed under the
direction of four commissioners, one of whom was generally
a military man. Since 1834 the superintendence of bai-
racks has reverted to the master-general of ordnance.
Barracks throughout the country are more immediately
BAR
Barrama- under the management and care of the resident barrack-
hal masters, especially since the reduction of the barrack-office
II establishment, and the further reduction of the assistant-
, **rra ry-, barrackmasters-general attached to districts.
v The barrack districts in Great Britain are—Dover, Eastern,
London, Manchester, Medway, Midland and South Wales,
Northern, North Britain, South West and Sussex, Wool¬
wich, Exeter, Western, Yorkshire, Guernsey and Alderney,
Jersey, Dublin, Athlone, Belfast, Cork, and Limerick.
In the cavalry barracks, field-officers have two rooms each;
captains one ; subalterns, staff, and quartermasters, one;
serjeants of each troop of dragoons, and corporals of each
troop of horse, one; eight rank and file one among them;
and two rooms are allowed for the officers’ mess. In in¬
fantry barracks, field-officers are allowed two each ; captains
one; one is allotted to two subalterns; the staff has one;
twelve non-commissioned officers and private men one among
them ; the serjeant-major and quartermaster-serjeant one ;
and two are allotted for the officers’ mess. The barracks
are supplied by the barrack-office with beds, bedding, sheets,
blankets, towels, house and stable utensils, coals, and candles;
beer was formerly supplied, but now an allowance is made
instead of it. Forage is supplied by the commissariat.
The expense of erecting barracks must of course greatly
depend on the price of materials at the time, and, in some
measure, on the part of the kingdom where they are erected.
The total expense incurred by the nation for barracks and
the barrack-office, in Great Britain, between the 25th of
December 1792 and the 10th of November 1804, was
L.9,024,005, 8s. 9d.
During the last war the annual expense of the barrack
establishment in Great Britain varied from L.350,000 to
L.500,000. But in Ireland, where barracks are more nu¬
merous, the expense generally equalled, and often exceeded,
that of Great Britain in this particular. Thus, in 1814 the
sum required for Great Britain was L.309,826, whilst that
necessary for Ireland was L.360,515 ; and a similar excess
appears in the peace estimate for 1816, which was for Great
Britain L.l 73,500, and for Ireland L.213,000. Since this
period the annual expense has of course been greatly reduced.
BARRAMAHAL, a territorial subdivision in the south
of Hindustan, situated between the 12th and 13th degrees
of N. Lat. This district was annexed by Hyder to the
dominions of Mysore about the middle of the last century;
in 1792 it was ceded to the British government by the
treaty of Seringapatam, and now constitutes the northern
portion of the British district of Salem.
BARRAS, Paul Jean Francois Nicolas, Comte de,
the representative of an ancient family in Provence, a leader
in the first French Revolution, and member of the execu¬
tive directory, was born in Provence in 1755, and died near
Paris in 1829. See France.
BARRATOR, or Barretor, in the law of England, a
person guilty of barretry. See Barretry.
Lambert conceives the word barretor to have been formed
from the Latin balatro, a vile knave ; but the proper deriva¬
tion is from the French barrateur, a deceiver; and this
agrees with the description of a common barretor given by
Lord Coke, namely, that he is a common mover and main-
tainer of suits in disturbance of the peace, particularly by
taking and detaining the possession of houses and lands or
goods by false inventions or pretences. Hence it is said
that a common barretor is the most dangerous oppressor in
the law, for he oppresses the innocent under colour of law,
which was made to protect them from oppression.
BARRATRY, in a shipmaster, consists in defrauding the
owners. If goods delivered on shipboard are embezzled,
all the mariners are bound by the maritime law to contri¬
bute to the satisfaction of the party that has lost his goods ;
and the cause is to be tried in the admiralty. In a case
where a ship had been insured against the barratry of the
BAR 471
master, and the jury found that the ship was lost by the Barraux
fraud and negligence of the master, the court ruled that the II
fraud was barratry, though not named in the covenant, but Barr®re-
that negligence did not amount to that offence. A ship-
master who is at the same time a part owner, cannot commit
barratry. See Marshall on Insurance, I. c. 12; Park on
Insurance, c. 5.
BARRAUX, a fortress of Dauphine, now in the depart¬
ment of Isere. It stands on the river Isere, in the valley
of Gresivaudan, and was built in 1597.
BARRAY, or Barra, (from the Scandinavian, Bara-
ey, isle of the ocean,) one of the Hebrides or Western
Isles of Scotland, forming part of Inverness-shire. It lies
about 5 miles S.W. of South Uist, and is 8 miles in length
by from 2 to 4 miles in breadth. The parish of the same
name comprehends, besides Barra, a number of smaller
islands and islets, and is estimated to contain 4000 acres
of arable, and 18,000 of meadow and hill pasture. The cod,
ling, and herring fisheries are considerable ; and its coasts
abound with shell-fish, especially cockles. On Barra Head,
the highest part of Bernera, one of the Barra Islands, is a
lighthouse with an intermitting light 680 feet above high-
water, in Lat. 56. 48. N., Long. 7. 38. W. Population of
island (chiefly Roman Catholics), in!841, 1977; in 1851,
1624.
BARRE, Louis Francois Joseph he la, a learned
French historian and antiquary, born at Tournay in 1688.
Besides various learned papers contributed to the Memoirs of
the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, of which he
was a member, he published, in Yl^,Memoires pour servir
a I’Histoire de France et de Bourgogne. He also contri¬
buted many articles to the edition of Moreri’s Dictionary
published in 1724, and was concerned in various other works.
He died in 1738, whilst preparing a dictionary of Greek
and Roman antiquities.
BARREL, in Commerce, a round vessel bulging in the
middle, composed of staves, and bound with hoops. It is
chiefly used for holding liquids, particularly ale and beer.
The barrel of beer in London formerly contained only
32 ale gallons, = 32^ imperial gallons; but by 43d Geo. III.
cap. 69, it was enacted that the barrel of beer should contain
36 gallons, and by 6th Geo. IV. cap. 58, the standard imperial
gallon is always to be understood in any excise law where
the gallon is mentioned. The barrel therefore contains
36 imperial gallons. (M‘Culloch’s Diet, of Commerce?)
Barrel also denotes a certain weight of several kinds of
merchandise, and differs according to the nature of the com¬
modities. Thus a barrel of Essex butter weighs 106 pounds,
and of Suffolk butter 256 pounds ; a barrel of herrings ought
to contain 32 gallons wine-measure, and about 1000 her¬
rings ; a barrel of salmon should contain 42 gallons, and
a barrel of eels the same; a barrel of soap should weigh
256 lb. The measure of capacity called barrel-bulk = 5
cubic feet.
Barrel, in Mechanics, a term given by watch-makers
to the cylinder about which the spring is coiled; and by
gunsmiths to the cylindrical tube of a gun, pistol, or blun¬
derbuss, which contains the charge.
Barrel, in Anatomy, the cavity of the tympanum.
BARREN CAPE, an island in Bass’s Straits, in the
South Pacific Ocean, between Great Island on the N. and
Clarke’s Island on the S. It is about twenty miles in
length by ten in breadth, and chiefly covered with low ve¬
getation. Long. 148. 10. E. Lat. 40. 23. S.
BARREN ISLAND, an island in the Bay of Bengal,
about 18 miles in circumference. It contains a volcano 1800
feet above the level of the sea, which is sometimes in a state
of activity, and discharges immense columns of smoke and
showers of red-hot stones. Long. 94. 1. E. Lat. 12.15. N.
BARRilRE (or BARfCRE) DE VIEUZAC, Ber¬
trand, originally an avocat, was one of the most noted and
472 BAR
Barratry cruel members of the convention in the first French Revo¬
lt lution. He was born at Tarbes in 1755, and died at 1 aris
Barring. in 184L His was the horrible apophthegm, “ 11 ny a que les
ton' j marts qui ne reviennent pas.” The list of his works, histo-
^ rical, political, poetical, and miscellaneous, is numerous. 1 he
graceful style in which he couched even his sanguinary pro¬
scriptions procured him the singular title of the Anacreon
of the Guillotine. See France. ^ .
BARRETRY,or Barratry, in the Law of hngland, is,
according to Blackstone, “the offence of frequently exciting
and stirring up suits and quarrels between the lieges, either
at law or otherwise. The punishment for this offence, in a
common person, is by fine and imprisonment; but it the
offender, as is too frequently the case, belongs to the pro¬
fession of the law, a barretor who is thus able as well as
willing to do mischief ought also to be disabled from practis¬
ing for the future.” And hence it is enacted by statute 12th
Geo. I. cap. 29, which is made perpetual by the 21st Geo.
II. cap 3, “ that if any person who has been convicted of
common barretry, shall act or practise as an attorney, so i-
citor, or agent, in any suit or action, the court, upon com¬
plaint, shall examine the matter in a summary way, in open
court, and, if proved, shall direct the offender to be tians-
ported for seven years.” “To this head,” continues the learned
commentator, “also may be referred an offence of equal ma¬
lignity and audaciousness, that of suing another in the name
of a fictitious plaintiff, either one not in being at all, or one
who is ignorant of the suit. "1 his offence, if committed in
any of the king’s superior courts, is left, as a high contempt,
to be punished at their discretion ; but in courts of a lower
degree, where the crime is equally pernicious, but the au¬
thority of the judges is not equally extensive, it is directed by
statute 8th Elizabeth, cap. 2, to be punished by six months
imprisonment, and treble damages to the party injured.
In Scotland the crime of a judge who receives a bribe is
called barratry.
B ARRHEAD, a large village of Scotland, county of Ren¬
frew, three miles S. of Paisley, and 8 miles S.W. of Glasgow.
Its population, which in 1841 was 3492, had increased in
1851 to 6069. The principal employment is spinning,
weaving, and bleaching. It is connected with Glasgow by
the Glasgow Barrhead and Neilston Railway.
BARRICADE, or Barricado, a military term for a
fence formed in haste with trees, baskets of earth, palisades,
waggons, or any bulky material, to serve as a defence against
the shot or assault of the enemy.
Barricade, in Naval Architecture, a strong wooden rail,
supported by stanchions, extending across the foremost part
of the quarterdeck in ships of war. The vacant spaces be¬
tween the stanchions are commonly filled with rope-mats,
cork, or pieces of old cable ; and the upper part, which con¬
tains a double rope-netting above the rail, is stuffed with
hammocks, to prevent the execution of small-shot in time
of action.
BARRIER, in Fortification, a kind of fence erected at
a passage, retrenchment, or breach, composed of great stakes,
about four or five feet in height, placed at the distance of
eight or ten feet spart, with transoms or overthwart rafters,
to stop the enemy.
It is also applied to a wall of defence, fortress, or fortified
town, on the frontier of a country.
BARRINGTON, The Hon. Daines, fourth son of Lord
Viscount Barrington, a distinguished antiquary and naturalist,
born about the year 1730. He was educated for the pro¬
fession of the law, and, after filling various posts, was ap¬
pointed a Welsh judge in 1757, and afterwards second jus¬
tice of Chester. He never rose to much eminence at the
bar, but he showed his knowledge of the law as a subject of
liberal study by a valuable publication entitled Observations
on the Statutes, chiefly the more ancient, from Magna
Charta to 2\st James I. cap. 27, with an Appendix, being a
BAR
proposal for new-modelling the Statutes, 1766, 4to ; a work Barring-
which has been quoted with merited commendation by ton-
many of our historians and constitutional antiquaries. In
1773 he published an edition of Orosius, with Alfred’s
Saxon version, and an English translation with notes of his
own, which was severely animadverted on by the critics.
His Tracts on the Probability of reaching the North Pole,
1775, 4to, were written in consequence of the northern voy¬
age of discovery undertaken by Captain Phipps, afterwards
Lord Mulgrave. In these he has accumulated a variety of
evidence favourable to his own opinion of the practicability
of attaining the object in which that voyage had failed; and
it is not improbable that his views and arguments had some
effect in determining the government at a later period to
renew the attempt. Mr Barrington’s other writings are
chiefly to be found in the publications of the Royal and
Antiquarian Societies, of both of which he was long an as¬
siduous member, and of the latter vice-president. Many
of these were collected by him in a quarto volume entitled
Miscellanies on various Subjects, 1781. Among the most
curious and ingenious of his papers, are his Experiments
and Observations on the Singing of Birds, and his Essay
on the Language of Birds. He died on the 14th March
1800, and was buried in the Temple church.
Barrington, John Shute, Lord Viscount Barrington,
a nobleman distinguished for theological learning, was the
youngest son of Benjamin Shute, merchant, and was born
at Theobald, in Hertfordshire, in 1678. He received
part of his education at the university of Utrecht; and,
after returning to England, studied law in the Inner Tem¬
ple. In 1701 he published several pamphlets in favour
of the civil rights of Protestant dissenters, to which body he
belonged. On the recommendation of Lord Somers, he was
employed to engage the Presbyterians in Scotland to favour
the union of the two kingdoms ; and, in 1 / 08, he was re¬
warded for this service by being appointed to the office of
commissioner of the customs. From this, however, he was
removed on the change of administration in 1711; but his
fortune had, in the meantime, been improved by the bequest
of two considerable estates; one of them left him by Francis
Barrington of Tofts, Esq., whose name he assumed by act
of parliament; the other by John Wildman of Becket, Esq.
Mr Barrington now stood at the head of the dissenters.^ On
the accession of George I. he was returned member of pai-
liament for Berwick-upon-Tweed; and in 1720 the king
raised him to the Irish peerage, by the style and title of
Viscount Barrington of Ardglass. But having unfortunately
engaged in one of the bubbles of the time, the Hai burg lot-
tery, he incurred the disgrace of expulsion from the House
of Commons in 1723; a punishment which was thought
greatly too severe, indeed altogether unmerited on his part.
In 1725 he published his principal work, entitled Miscellanea
Sacra, or a New Method of considering so much of the His¬
tory of the Apostles as is contained in Scripture, in an Ab¬
stract of their History, an Abstract of that Abstract, and
four Critical Essays, 2 vols. 8vo ; afterwards reprinted with
additions and corrections, in 3 vols. 8vo, 1770, by his son,
the Bishop of Durham. In the same year he published An
Essay on the several Dispensations of God to Mankind.
He was the author of various other tracts, chiefly on subjects
relating to religious toleration. He died in 1734, leaving
a number of children, five of whom rose to high stations m
the church, the law, the army, and the navy. Lord Bar¬
rington was a friend and disciple of Locke, whose sentiments
he adopted as to the right and advantage of free inquiry,
and the value of civil and religious liberty ; and he contri¬
buted greatly to the rising spirit of liberal scriptural cnticisin
amongst those who wished to render religion a subject of
rational belief. He was a man of great moderation, and,
though chiefly connected with the dissenters, he occasion¬
ally communicated with the Established church.
BAR
Barrister BARRISTER, is a counsellor learned in the law, ad-
11 mitted to plead at the bar, and there to take upon him the
Barrow, protection and defence of clients. “ Barristers,” observes Mr
Justice Blackstone, “are in our old books styled apprentices
(apprenticii ad legem), being looked upon as merely learners,
and not qualified to execute the full office of an advocate
till they were sixteen years’ standing; at which time, accord¬
ing to Fortescue, they might be called to the state and de¬
gree of serjeants, or servientes ad legem? According to Dug-
dale, they seem to have been first appointed by an ordinance
in parliament of 20th Edward I.
The rank or degree of barrister-at-law is conferred ex¬
clusively by the inns of court, and its possession constitutes
an indispensable qualification for practising as an advocate
in the superior courts at Westminster.
In order to be entitled to be called to the bar, it is neces¬
sary for the student to have kept commons for three years,
that is, twelve terms, by dining in the hall of the society
of which he is entered, three times at least in each term.
The usual course is to attend as a student in the chambers
of a practising barrister, conveyancer, or special pleader, in
order to attain a knowledge of the practice and of the prin¬
ciples of the law. Under the new regulations of Hilary
term 1853, no student is eligible to be called to the bar
who shall not have satisfactorily passed a public examination,
or have attended during one whole year the lectures of two
of the readers appointed on—1. Constitutional Law and
Legal History ; 2. Equity ; 3. Jurisprudence and the Civil
Law; 4. The Law of Real Property ; and 5. The Common
Law of England. The Council of Legal Education have
also instituted a public examination of candidates for honours
or certificates, entitling students to be called to the bar two
terms before the regular period ; and such students rank in
seniority over all other students called on the same day.
In accordance with the notion derived from the ancient
Roman orators or patrons, who practised gratis for honour
or to gain influence, the fees of counsel are given, not as
locatio vel conductio, but as quiddarn honorarium, and hence
no action can be maintained for their amount.
Counsel is not answerable for any matter spoken by him
relating to the cause in hand and suggested in his instructions,
even though it prove untrue and reflect on another’s repu¬
tation ; but it is otherwise if the matter be not pertinent; and
under the statute of Westm. 1 (3d Edward I. cap. 28) they
are punishable with imprisonment for a year and a day, and
perpetual silence in the courts, if guilty of deceit or collu¬
sion ; or they may for gross misconduct be disbarred by the
benchers of their inn of court. See Advocate, (r. m—m.)
BARRITUS, or more properly Barltus (from the old
German bar, baren, to raise the voice), was the war-cry of
the Germans, and adopted by the Romans to signify the
general shout raised by their armies on their first encounter,
after the classicum or alarm.
BARROS, Joao de, a celebrated Portuguese historian,
born about 1496 ; died in 1570. In 1522, he was made go¬
vernor of St George del Mina, on the coast of Guinea. 1 hree
years after, the king recalled him to court, and made him
treasurer of the Indies. This appointment inspired him with
the thought of writing the well-known and valuable history
entitled Azia Portuguesa; the first decade of which he
published in 1552, the second in 1553, and the third in 1563;
the fourth was not published till 1615. Several authors have
continued the work, so that it extends to twelve decades. A
handsome edition of the original work, and its continuations,
was published at Lisbon in 1774, in 11 vols. 8vo.
BARROW, an artificial hillock or mound, used in an¬
cient times as a repository for the dead. They were formed
either of stones heaped up, or of earth. The former, more
generally known by the name of cairns, are almost exclu¬
sively confined to Scotland. Of the latter, Dr Plott takes
notice of two sorts in Oxfordshire ; one placed on the mili-
VOL. IV.
BAR 473
tary ways, the other in the fields or woods ; the first sort Barrow,
being probably of Roman origin, the other erected by the
Britons or Danes. Monuments of this kind are also very
frequent in Scotland. On digging into barrows, urns made
of calcined earth, and containing burnt bones and ashes,
have sometimes been found; in others are found stone
chests, containing bones entire; in others, again, bones
neither lodged in chests nor deposited in urns. These tu¬
muli are round, not greatly elevated, and generally at their
bases surrounded by a fosse. They are of different sizes,
being in proportion, it is supposed, to the rank and power of
the deceased person. Of those found in the Orkneys, some
are formed of earth alone, whilst others consist of stone
covered with earth. In one of the former was discovered a
coffin made of six flat stones, but too short to receive a body
at full length. The latter feature is a general characteristic
of all these sarcophagi: the skeletons found in them lie with
the knees pressed to the breast, and the legs doubled along
the thighs. In one of them were found multitudes of small
beetles ; and as similar insects have been discovered in the
bag which inclosed the sacred ibis among the Egyptians, we
may suppose that the nation to whom these tumuli belonged
had the same superstition respecting them as the subjects of
the Pharaohs. Ancient Greece and Latium concurred with
the natives of this island in the erection of sepulchral tumuli.
Patroclus among the Greeks, and Hector among the Trojans,
received the same funeral honours with our Caledonian
heroes; and the ashes of Dercennus the Laurentine monarch
could boast of no prouder receptacle. The urn and pall of
the Trojan warrior might perhaps be more superb than those
of a British leader ; but the monument of each was com¬
posed of the same rude materials, dug from the bosom of
the earth. The Grecian barrows, however, do not seem
to have been all equally simple. The barrow of Alyattes,
father of Croesus king of Lydia, is described by Herodotus
(i. 93.) as a most superb monument, inferior only to the works
of the Egyptians and Babylonians. It was a vast mound of
earth nearly a mile in circumference, heaped on a basement
of large stones, by three classes of the people, one of which
was composed of girls devoted to prostitution. Alyattes died
in the year b.c. 560; but Herodotus informs us, that, in his
time, above a century afterwards, five stones, or stelcc, on
which letters were engraved, remained on the top, recording
what each class had performed ; and from the measurement
it appeared that the greater portion of the work had been
done by females. It was customary among the Greeks to
place on barrows the image of some animal, or round pillars
\stelce), with inscriptions. The famous barrow of the Athe¬
nians in the plain of Marathon, described by Pausanias, is
an instance of the latter usage. An ancient monument in
Italy near the Appian Way, vulgarly called the sepulchre
of the Curiatii, has the same number of termini as the bar-
row of Alyattes ; the basement, which is square, supporting
five round pyramids.
Barrows, and similar tumuli, are also found in great num¬
bers in America. These are of different sizes; some of
them being constructed of earth, and others ofloose stones.
That they were repositories of the dead has been generally
believed ; but on what particular occasions they were con¬
structed is matter of conjecture. Some have thought that
they covered the bones of those who had fallen in battle on
the spot; others ascribe them to the custom said to prevail
among the Indians, of collecting at certain periods the bones
of all their dead, wheresover deposited at the time of death ;
whilst others, again, suppose them to have been the general
sepulchre for towns that existed on or near the spots where
they are met with. For a minute and interesting account
of one of these remarkable tumuli, the reader may consult
Mr Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia, p. 156. See
also Worsae’s Scandinavian Antiquities; and Hamilton’s
Researches in Asia Minor, vol. i.
3 o
474
BAR
Barrow.
Barrow, a large river of Ireland, which rises in Queen s
county, and being joined by the Noi'e and the Suir, fells
into the sea at Waterford Bay. In spring-tides, vessels of 300
tons can ascend to New Ross, and it is navigable for baiges
to Athy, where it is joined by a branch of the Grand Canal.
Barrow, Isaac, an eminent mathematician and divine,
was the son of Mr Thomas Barrow, a linen-draper in Lon¬
don, where he was born in 1630. He was at first placed for
two or three years at the Charter-house School. Ihere.
however, his conduct gave but little hopes of his ever suc¬
ceeding as a scholar ; for he was extremely fond ol fight¬
ing, and of promoting pugnacity among his school-fellows.
But being removed from this establishment, his disposition
took a happier turn; and having soon made considerable
progress in learning, he was admitted a pensioner ot St
Peter’s College, and afterwards of Trinity College, Cam¬
bridge, where he applied himself with great diligence to the
study of literature and science, especially of natural philo¬
sophy. He afterwards turned his thoughts to the profession
of physic, and made some progress in anatomy, botany, and
chemistry ; after which he studied chronology, geometry,
and astronomy. He then travelled into France and Italy,
and in a voyage from Leghorn to Smyrna gave proofs of
great personal bravery ; for the ship having been attacked
by an Algerine pirate, Barrow remained upon deck, and
fought with the utmost intrepidity, until the pirate, unpre¬
pared for the stout resistance made by the ship, sheered off
and left her to pursue her voyage.
At Smyrna he met with a most kind reception from Mr
Bretton, the English consul, upon whose death he after¬
wards wrote a Latin elegy. From this place he proceeded
to Constantinople, where he received similar civilities from
Sir Thomas Bendish, the English ambassador, and Sir
Jonathan Dawes, with whom he afterwards contracted an
intimate friendship. While at Constantinople he read and
studied the works of Chrysostom, once bishop of that see,
whom he preferred to all the other fathers. He resided in
Turkey somewhat more than a year, after which he pro¬
ceeded to Venice, and thence returned home through Ger¬
many and Flolland in 1659. Immediately on his return he
received episcopal ordination from Bishop Brownrig; and in
1660 he was appointed to the Greek professorship at Cam¬
bridge. When he entered upon this office, he intended to
have prelected upon the tragedies of Sophocles ; but he al¬
tered his intention, and made choice of Aristotle’s Rhetoric.
His lectures on this subject, however, having been lent to
a friend who never returned them, are irrecoverably lost.
In July 1662 he was elected professor of geometry in
Gresham College, on the recommendation of Dr Wilkins,
master of Trinity College, and afterwards bishop of Chester ;
and in May 1663 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal So¬
ciety, at the first election made by the council after obtaining
their charter. The same year the executors of Mr Lucas,
who, according to the will of that individual, had founded a
mathematical chair at Cambridge, fixed upon Barrow as the
first professor; and although his two professorships were^
not inconsistent with each other, he chose to resign that of
Gresham College, which he did on the 20th May 1664.
In 1669 he resigned his mathematical chair to his illustrious
friend Isaac Newton, having now determined to renounce
the study of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon quit¬
ting his professorship, Barrow was only a fellow of Trinity
College; but his uncle gave him a small sinecure in Wales,
and Dr Seth Ward, bishop of Salisbury, constituted him a
prebend in that church. In the year 1670 he was created
doctor in divinity by mandate ; and, upon the promotion
of Dr Pearson, master of Trinity College, to the see of
Chester, he was appointed to succeed him by the king’s
patent, bearing date the 13th February 1672. When the
king advanced Barrow to this dignity, he was pleased to
say, “ he had given it to the best scholar in England.”
BAR
His Majesty did not speak from report, but from his own Barrow,
knowledge ; for the doctor being then his chaplain, His Ma-
jesty frequently conversed with him, and in his humorous
way used to call him an “ unfair preacher,” as he exhausted
every subject he discussed, and left no room for others to
come after him. In 1675 Dr Barrow was chosen vice-chan¬
cellor of the university. His scientific works are very nu¬
merous, and such as do honour to the science and litera¬
ture of his country. They are, 1. Euclid’s Elements ; 2.
Euclid’s Data; 3. Optical Lectures, read in the public school
of Cambridge; 4. Thirteen Geometrical Lectures; 5. The
Works of Archimedes, the four Books of Apollonius’s Conic
Sections, and Theodosius’s Spherics explained in a New
Method; 6. A Lecture, in which Archimedes’s Theorems
of the Sphere and Cylinder are investigated and briefly de¬
monstrated ; 7. Mathematical Lectures, read in the public
schools of the university of Cambridge. The above were
all written in Latin. His English works have been collected
and printed together in four volumes folio. The name of
Dr Barrow,” says Grainger, “ will ever be illustrious for a
strength of mind and a compass of knowledge that did
honour to his country. He was unrivalled in mathematical
learning, and especially in the sublime geometry ; in which
he has been excelled only by one man, and that man wras
his pupil, the great Sir Isaac Newton. The same genius
that seemed to be born only to bring hidden truths to light,
to rise to the heights or descend to the depths of science,
would sometimes amuse itself in the flowery paths of poetry;
and he composed verses both in Greek and Latin. He at
length gave himself up entirely to divinity ; and particu¬
larly to the most useful part of it, that which has a tendency
to make men wiser and better. He has, in his excellent
sermons on the Creed, solved every difficulty and removed
every obstacle that opposed itself to our faith, and made
divine revelation as clear as the demonstrations in his own
Euclid. In his sermons he knew not how to leave off writ¬
ing till he had exhausted his subject; and his admirable
discourse on the duty and reward of bounty to the poor took
him up three hours and a halt in preaching. This great
man, who was a bright example of Christian virtue, as well
as a prodigy of learning, died on the 4th of May 1677, in
the forty-seventh year ot his age; and was interred in West¬
minster Abbey, where a monument, surmounted with hisbust,
was soon after erected, by the contributions ot his friends.
Barrow, Sir John, Bart, F.R.S., LL.D., was born
near Ulverston, in Lancashire, June 19. 1764. His early
opportunities of instruction were limited; but by sell-edu¬
cation he matured those powers which eventually were
turned to so good an account. He displayed, at an early
age, a decided inclination for mathematical pursuits. Some
of his earlier years were passed as superintending clerk ot
an iron foundry at Liverpool; and he afterwards taught ma¬
thematics at an academy in Greenwich. While in this latter
situation he was fortunate in obtaining, through the interest
of Sir Georgfe Staunton, a place in the first British em¬
bassy to China. He was thus enabled to put his toot on
the first step of the ladder ot ambition ; but each step in his
subsequent career may be fairly said to have been achieved
by himself. The account of the embassy, published by Sir
George Staunton, records many of Mr Barrow’s valuable
contributions to literature and science connected with China.
This work, together with his own subsequently pubhshe
volume of travels, is ample evidence how well his time had
been employed. Few persons could within the space or a
few months overcome all the practical difficulties of sue a
language as the Chinese ; but Mr Barrow soon began to
converse in it, and acquired a complete knowledge o its>
theory. His papers on this subject in the Quarterly Review
(to which periodical he was for many years a very trequen
contributor) contain the best and most popular account o.
that singular language ever presented to the British pub ic.
BAR
Barrow’s Although Mr Barrow ceased to be personally connected
btraits. with our affairs in China after the return of the embassy in
— 1794, he always continued to take a lively interest in the
varying circumstances of our relations with that empire.
On the occasion of the second embassy under Lord Am¬
herst in 1816, he was of course consulted by the ruling
powers ; but unfortunately his advice was not taken ; and
in consequence of the injudicious rejection of the proposal
which he had suggested for getting rid of the vexatious
question of the Chinese ceremony, Lord Amherst and his
colleagues were compelled to abandon the personal recep¬
tion of the mission for the sake of preserving the honour
and interests of the English in China, which would have
been essentially damaged by the acceptance of the terms
upon which it was offered. Mr Barrow was likewise con¬
sulted on the occasion of our recent conflict with China,
which, it is to be hoped, has secured our future peace with
that country.
Lord Macartney was naturally anxious to secure the aid
of such a man as Mr Barrow in his next public service, his
important and delicate mission to settle the government of
our newly-acquired colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Mr
Barrow was intrusted with our first communication with
the Caffre tribes; and it would have been well if the spirit,
judgment, and humanity, which he then displayed had
more uniformly governed our subsequent transactions with
that remarkable race. The two volumes of his history of
the colony made the public at once fully acquainted with
the extent, capacities, and resources of that important,
but till then little understood, acquisition of the British
crown.
There is little doubt that it was the perusal of this valu¬
able work which mainly decided Lord Melville to accept
Lord Macartney’s recommendation of a perfect stranger to
him, as Mr Barrow then was, as his second secretary of the
admiralty. Mr Barrow’s subsequent career for forty years
at the admiralty, embracing the whole period of the last
war, will be for ever historically associated with the civil
administration of our navy for the same period. He en¬
joyed the uniform esteem and confidence of the eleven chief
lords who successively presided at the admiralty board
during that period, and more especially of King William IV.,
while lord high admiral, who honoured him with tokens
of his personal regard. Mr Barrow received the honour of
the baronetcy during the short administration of Sir Robert
Peel in 1835 ; and the information was communicated to
him by Sir Robert in a letter acknowledging, in highly
gratifying terms, his literary and scientific eminence, and his
“ long, most able, and most faithful public service.”
Sir John Barrow, besides the works already mentioned,
published the lives of Lord Macartney, Lord Anson, Lord
Howe, and Peter the Great; and he was also the author of
several valuable contributions to the seventh edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Sir John retired from public life in 1845, in consideration
of his advanced years, although still in vigorous possession
of all the mental and bodily powers required for the due dis¬
charge of the functions of his office. In the course of the
succeeding three years his vital energies gradually declined,
but he nevertheless continued so fully in the enjoyment of
his faculties, writing a history of the modern arctic voyages
of discovery, of which he was a great promoter, as well as
his autobiography, that his friends and relatives entertained
no apprehension that his end was so near. He expired sud¬
denly on the 23d November 1848, in the 85th year of his
age, much honoured and respected by his friends and the
public at large.
BARROW’S STRAITS, a channel leading from the
N.W. part of Baffin’s Bay into the Polar Sea, and lying be¬
tween Lat. 73. 45. and 74. 40. N. It is about 200 miles in
length, and has an average breadth of 60 or 70 miles. The
BAR 475
coasts on both sides are generally steep and rugged, with nu- Barry,
merous bays and inlets. In many places it is upwards of 200
fathoms in depth, and not unfrequently no bottom can be
found. It abounds in whales and other inhabitants of the
northern seas.
BARRY, or Barri, Girald de, commonly called Gir-
aldus Cambrensis, an historian and ecclesiastic of the twelfth
and thirteenth century, was born at the castle of Mainarpir,
near Pembroke, in 1146. By his mother he was descended
from the princes of South Wales ; and his father, William de
Barri, was one of the chief men of that principality. Being
a younger brother, and intended for the church, he was sent
to St David’s, and educated in the family of his uncle, the
bishop of that see. When about twenty years of age he
was sent to the university of Paris, where he continued for
three years, and, according to his own account, became an
excellent rhetorician. On his return he entered into holy
orders, and obtained several benefices both in England and
Wales. But observing with much concern that his country¬
men the Welsh were very backward in paying tithes of wool
and cheese, he applied to Richard, archbishop of Canterbury,
and was appointed his legate in Walesfor rectifying this and
other disorders. Barri excommunicated all, without dis-
stinction, who refused to compound matters with the church,
and, in particular, delivered over bodily to the Evil One
those who withheld the tithes. Not satisfied with enrich¬
ing, he also attempted to reform, the clergy. He delated
the archdeacon of Brecon to the archbishop, for the unpar¬
donable crime of matrimony ; and on his refusing to put
away his wife, he was deprived of his archdeaconry, which
was bestowed upon the zealous legate. On the death of his
uncle, the bishop of St David’s, in 1176, he was elected his
successor by the chapter; but this choice having been made
without the permission of Henry II., Girald prudently de¬
clined to insist upon it, and went again to Paris to prose¬
cute his studies. He speaks with exultation of the prodi¬
gious fame w'hich he acquired by his eloquent declamations
in the schools, and of the crowded audiences who attended
them. Having spent about four years at Paris, he returned
to St David’s, where he found everything in confusion ; and
on the expulsion of the bishop by the people, which took
place soon after, he was appointed administrator by the arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, and governed the diocese in that ca¬
pacity till 1184, when the bishop was restored. About the
same time he was called to court by Henry II., appointed
one of his chaplains, and sent into Ireland with Prince John,
by wdiom he was offered the united bishoprics of Femes and
Leighlin, but declined them, and employed his time in col¬
lecting materials for his Topography of Ireland, and his his¬
tory of the conquest of that island, which was completed in
three books in 1187. In 1188 he attended Baldwin, arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, in his progress through Wales, preach¬
ing a crusade for the recovery of the Holy Land ; an em¬
ployment in which he tells us, with his usual modesty, that
he was far more successful than the primate,—adding sig¬
nificantly, that the people were most affected with the Latin
sermons (which they did not understand), melting into tears,
and coming in crowds to take the cross. On the accession
of Richard I. in 1189, he was sent by that prince into Wales
to preserve the peace of the country, and was even joined
in commission with William Longchamp, bishop of Ely, as
one of the regents of the kingdom. He failed, however, to
improve this favourable opportunity ; and having fixed his
heart on the see of St David’s, the bishop of which was very
old and infirm, he refused the bishopric of Bangor in 1190,
and that of Landaff the year following. But in 1192 the
state of public affairs became so unfavourable to Barri’s in¬
terest at court that he determined to retire. He proceeded
to Lincoln, where William de Monte read lectures in theo¬
logy with great applause ; and here he spent about six years
in the study of divinity, and in composing several works. At
476
Barry.
B A K R Y.
last the see of St David’s, which had long been the object of
his ambition, became vacant, and he was unanimously elected
by the chapter, but met with so powerful an adversary in
Hubert, archbishop of Canterbury, that it involved him in a
litigation which lasted five years, cost him three journeys to
Rome, and ended in his defeat in the year 1203. Retiring
from the world, he spent the last seventeen years of his lite
in a studious privacy, composing many books, °f which a
catalogue is given in the Biographia Britannica. His Mbs.
are preserved in the British Museum, the library at Lam¬
beth, and the Bodleian Library. Of his published works,
the best known is his Itinerarium Cambrice, of which a trans¬
lation, illustrated with annotations, and accompanied with a
life of the author, was published by Sir Richard Colt Hoare,
in two splendid quarto volumes, in 1806.
Barry, James, an eminent painter, was born at Cork, on
the 11th October 1741. His father had been a builder, and
at one time of his life a coasting trader between the two
countries of England and Ireland. To this business of trader
was James destined, and he actually made, when a boy, seve¬
ral voyages ; but these voyages being forced upon him, he
on one occasion ran away from the ship, and on others dis¬
covered such an aversion to the life and habits of a sailor,
as to induce his father to relinquish all hopes of him in this
line, and to suffer him to pursue his inclinations, which led
him to drawing and study. When on board his father s ves¬
sel, instead of handling sails and ropes, and climbing the mast,
he was generally occupied with a piece of black chalk, sketch¬
ing the coast or drawing figures, as his fancy directed him.
When his father found that the idea of making a sailor of
him must be given up, he permitted him to acquire as much
instruction as the schools of Cork afforded, but long retained
his aversion to the chalk drawings with which the floors and
walls of the house were covered ; the boy being always en¬
gaged in some attempt at large figures, and early catching
at the means of representing action, attitude, and passion. It
was at a very early period of his life that young Barry of¬
fered to furnish the drawings, and, as it is believed, helped
to etch the engravings, such as they were, for a set of fables
or emblems which a bookseller in Ireland had undertaken to
reprint. At the schools in Cork to which he was sent, he was
distinguished by his parts and industry above his school-fel¬
lows ; his habits differed from those of ordinary boys, as he
seldom mixed in their games or amusements, but at those
times stole off to his own room, where he worked at his pencil,
or was studying some book that he had borrowed or bought.
He would spend whole nights in this manner at his studies,
to the alarm of his mother, who dreaded his injuring his health
or setting fire to the house, and who often kept up his sister
or the servant to watch him. His allowance of money he
spent in buying books or candles to read by ; he sometimes
locked himself up in his room for days, and seldom slept
upon his bed, or else made it so hard as to take away the
temptation or luxury of lying long in it. It is not to be un¬
derstood that at this period he used to lead the life of an
absolute recluse, for he could and did occasionally join in
any feats going on in the neighbourhood, and was not be¬
hind other boys in such pastimes and mischief as boys are
usually fond of. An adventure which happened to him about
this time, and which left a strong impression on his mind, is
worth mentioning here. In one of his rambles in the neigh¬
bourhood, he entered, one winter’s evening, an old, and, as
he thought, an uninhabited house, situate in a narrow by¬
lane in the city of Cork. The house was without doors or
windows ; but curiosity impelled him to enter, and, after
mounting a rotten staircase which conducted to empty rooms
on different floors, he arrived at the garret, where he could
just discern, by the glimmering light of a few embers, two
old and emaciated figures, broken by age, disease, and want,
sitting opposite each other, in the act, as far as their palsied
efforts would permit, of tearing each other’s faces ; not a
word being uttered by either, but with the most horrible ariT
grimaces that malice could invent. They took no notice of
his entrance, but went on with their deeds of mutual hate;
which made such an impression on the boy that he ran down
stairs, making his own reflections, which he afterwards found
verified through life, that man and all animals are malicious
and cruel in proportion as they are impotent; and that age
and poverty, two of the worst evils in human life, almost
always add to the calamities inherent in them by arts of their
own creating. As his industry was excessive, his advances
in the acquisition of knowledge were rapid, and he was re¬
garded as a prodigy by his school-fellows. His mother being
a zealous Catholic, the son could not avoid mixing at times
in the company of priests resident at Cork, who pointed out
to him books of polemical divinity, of which he became a
great reader, and for which he retained a strong bias during
his lifetime. He was said at one time to have been des¬
tined for the priesthood, but for this report there is no au¬
thority. He, however, always continued a Catholic, and in
the decline of life manifested rather a bigoted attachment to
the religion of his youth.
About the age of seventeen he first attempted oil painting,
and between that and the age of twenty-two, when he first
went to Dublin, he produced several large pictures, which
decorated his father’s house, and represented subjects not
often handled by young men, such as iEneas escaping with
his family from the flames of Troy, Susanna and the Elders,
Daniel in the I Jon’s Den, &c. At this period he also pro¬
duced the picture which first drew him into public notice,
and gained him the acquaintance and patronage of the cele¬
brated Edmund Burke. This picture was founded on an
old tradition of the landing of St Patrick on the sea-coast
of Cashel, and of the conversion and baptism of the king of
that district by the patron saint of Ireland. Barry’s manner
of treating it was such as to insure him the applause and
admiration of the connoisseurs of the metropolis of the sister
kingdom, where it was exhibited in 1/62 or 1763. He
took this picture with him to Dublin; and when he went
to the exhibition room, being delighted with the encomiums
it received from the spectators, he could not refrain from
making himself known as the painter. His pretensions were
treated with incredulous contempt by the company, and
Barry burst into tears of anger and vexation. During his
early acquaintance with Burke, having fallen into a dispute
on the subject of taste, he quoted a passage in support of
his opinion from the Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful,
which had been just then published anonymously, and which
Barry, in his youthful admiration of it, had, it seems, tran¬
scribed entire. Burke affected to treat this work as a theo¬
retical romance of no authority whatever; which threw
Barry into such a rage in its defence, that Mr Burke thought
it necessary to appease him by owning himself to be the
author. The scene ended in Barry’s running to embrace
him, and showing him the copy of the work which he had
been at the pains to transcribe. After a residence of seven
or eight months in Dublin, an opportunity offered of ac¬
companying some part of Mr Burke’s family to London,
which he eagerly embraced. This took place some time in
the year 1764, when he was twenty-three years of age, and
with one of those advantages which but rarely fall to the
lot of young artists on their arrival in the British capi¬
tal, that of being recommended to the acquaintance of the
most eminent men in the profession by the persuasive elo¬
quence of a man who, to genius in himself, added the rare
and noble quality of encouraging it in others.
By the liberality of Mr Burke and his other friends, Mr
Barry, in the latter part of 1765, was enabled to proceed to
the Continent, where he remained till the beginning of
1771, studying his art with an enthusiasm which seemed to
augur the highest success, and making observations on the
different chefs d’ctuvre of Italy with equal independence of
BARRY. 477
Barry, judgment and nicety of discrimination. He proceeded first
to Paris, then to Rome, where he remained upwards of
three years, from thence to Florence and Bologna, and
home through Venice. His letters to the Burkes, giving
an account of Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and Lio-
nardo da Vinci, show a complete insight into the charac¬
teristic merits of their works, and would make us wonder
(if the case were at all singular) how he could enter with
such force, delicacy, and feeling, into excellencies of which
he never transplanted an atom into his own works. He
saw, felt, and virote ; his impressions were profound and re¬
fined ; but the expression of them must be instantaneous,
such as gave the results of them with a stroke of the pen,
as they were received by a glance of the eye, and he could
not wait for the slow process of the pencil for embodying
his conceptions in the necessary details of his own art.
We suspect Mr Barry did not succeed very well in copy¬
ing the pictures he so well describes; because he appears
to have copied but few—only one of Raphael, as far as we
can find, and three from Titian, whom he justly considered
as the model of colouring, and as more perfect in that de¬
partment of the art than either Raphael or Michael Angelo
were in theirs, expression and form, the highest excellence
in which he conceives to have been possessed only by the
ancients. In copying from the antique, however, he mani¬
fested the same aversion to labour, or to that kind of labour
which, by showing us our defects, compels us to make ex¬
ertions to remedy them. He made all his drawings from
the antique by means of a delineator, that is, a mechanical
instrument, to save the trouble of acquiring a knowledge
both of form and proportion.
The consequences are before us in his pictures ; namely,
that all those of his figures which he took from these memo¬
randums are deficient in everything but form, and that all
the others are equally deficient in form and everything else.
Mr Barry painted two pictures while abroad, his Adam and
Eve, and his Philoctetes. The first of these he sent home
as a specimen of his progress in the art. It does not ap¬
pear to have given much satisfaction. His Philoctetes he
brought home with him. It is a most wretched, coarse, un-
classical performance, the direct opposite of all that he
thought it to be. During his stay at Rome, he made an
excursion to Naples, and was highly delighted with the col¬
lections of art there. All the time he was abroad, Mr
Burke and his brothers not only were punctual in their re¬
mittances to him, but kept up a most friendly and cordial
correspondence. For some time previous to his return to
England, Mr Hamilton (afterwards Sir William) appears to
have been almost the only person with whom he kept up
any intimacy. It was on his return home through Milan
that he witnessed, and has recorded with due reprobation,
the destruction of Lionardo’s Last Supper, which two bung¬
ling artists were employed to paint over by order of one
Count de Firmian, the secretary of state.
In the spring of 1771 Mr Barry arrived in England, after
an absence of five years. He soon after produced his pic¬
ture of Venus, which, absurdly enough, has been compared
to the Galatea of Raphael, the Venus of Titian, and the
Venus de’ Medici. Mr Barry flattered himself that he had
surpassed the famous statue of that name, by avoiding the
appearance of maternity in it. There is an engraving of it
by Mr Valentine Green. In 1773 he exhibited his Jupiter
and Juno on Mount Ida, which was much praised by some
critics of that day. His Death of General Wolfe was con¬
sidered as a falling off from his great style of art, which con¬
sisted in painting Greek subjects, and accordingly it is said
to “ have obtained no praise.” His fondness for Greek
costume was assigned by his admirers as the cause of his
reluctance to paint portraits; as if the coat were of more im¬
portance than the face. His fastidiousness in this respect,
and his frequent excuses or blunt refusals to go on with a
portrait of Mr Burke which he had begun, caused a mis- Barry,
understanding with that gentleman, which does not appear v'—
to have been ever entirely made up. The difference be¬
tween them is said to have been widened by Burke’s grow¬
ing intimacy with Sir Joshua, and by Barry’s feeling some
little jealousy of the fame and fortune of his rival in an
humbler xvalk of the art. About the same time he painted
a pair of classical subjects, Mercury inventing the Lyre, and
Narcissus looking at himself in the water, the last suggested
to him by Mr Burke. He also painted an historical picture
of Chiron and Achilles, and another of the story of Strato-
nice, for which last the Duke of Richmond gave him a hun¬
dred guineas. In 1773 there was a plan in contemplation
for our artists to decorate the inside of St Paul’s with his¬
torical and sacred subjects ; but this plan fell to the ground^
from its not meeting with the concurrence of the bishop of
London and the archbishop of Canterbury, to the no small
mortification of Barry, who had fixed upon the subject he
was to paint,—the rejection of Christ by the Jews when
Pilate proposes his release. In 1773 he published An In¬
quiry into the real and imaginary Obstructions to the Ac¬
quisition of the Arts in England, vindicating the capacity
of the English for the fine arts, and tracing their slow pro¬
gress hitherto to the Reformation, to political and civil dis¬
sensions, and, lastly, to the general turn of the public
mind to mechanics, manufactures, and commerce. In the
year 1774, shortly after the failure of the scheme of deco¬
rating St Paul’s, a proposal was made, through Mr Valen¬
tine Green, to the same artists, Reynolds, West, Cipriani,
Barry, &c., for ornamenting the great room of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com¬
merce, in the Adelphi, with historical and allegorical paint¬
ings. This proposal was at the time rejected by the artists
themselves ; but, in 1777, Mr Barry made an offer to paint
the whole himself, on condition of being allowed the choice
of his subjects, and being paid by the society the expense
of canvass, paints, and models. This offer was accepted,
and he finished the series of pictures at the end of seven
years, instead of two, which he had proposed to himself
but with entire satisfaction to the members of the society
for whom it was intended, and who conducted themselves
to him with liberality throughout. They granted him two
exhibitions, and at different periods voted him 50 guineas,
their gold medal, and again 200 guineas, and a seat among
them. Dr Johnson remarked, when he saw the pictures,
that, “ whatever the hand had done, the head had done its
part.” There was published an excellent anonymous criti¬
cism on them, supposed to be by Burke, in answer to some
remarks put forth by Barry in his descriptive catalogue on
the ideal style of art, and the necessity of size to gran¬
deur. His notions on both these subjects are very ably
controverted, and, indeed, they are the rock on which
Barry’s genius split. It would be curious if Burke were the
author of these strictures; for it is not improbable that
Barry was led into the last error, here deprecated, by that
author’s Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. The series
consists of six pictures, showing the progress of human cul¬
ture. The first represents Orpheus taming the savages by
his lyre. The figure of Orpheus himself is more like that
of a drunken bacchanal than an inspired poet or lawgiver.
The only part of this picture which is valuable is the back¬
ground, in one part of which a lion is seen ready to dart
upon a family group milking near a cave, and, in another,
a tiger is pursuing a horse. There is certainly a scope of
thought and picturesque invention in thus showing in¬
directly the protection which civilization extends, as it we .*e,
over both man and animals. The second picture is a
Grecian harvest, which has nothing Grecian in it. But we
cannot apply this censure to the third picture of the Olym¬
pic Games, some of the figures in which, and the princi¬
pal group, are exceedingly graceful, classical, and finely
Barry
478
BAR
conceived. This picture is the only proof Barry has left
upon canvass that he was not utterly insensible to the beau¬
ties of the art. The figure of the young man on horseback
really reminds the spectator of some of the Elgin marbles ;
and the outlines of the two youthful victors at the games,
supporting their father on their shoulders, are excellent.
The colouring is, however, as bald and wretched in this
picture as in the rest, and there is a great want of expres¬
sion. The fourth picture is the Triumph of Commerce, w ith
Dr Burney swimming in the Thames, with his hair powdered,
among naked sea-nymphs : the fifth, the Society of Aits
distributing their annual prizes: and the sixth represents
Elysium. This last picture is a collection of caricatured
portraits of celebrated individuals of all ages and nations,
strangely jumbled together, with a huge allegorical figure
of Retribution driving Heresy, Vice, and Atheism into the
infernal regions. The moral design of all these pictures is
much better explained in the catalogue than on the canvass ;
and the artist has added none of the graces of the pencil to
it in any of them, with the exception above made. Barry
appears, however, to have rested his pretensions to fame
as an artist on this work, for he did little afterwards but
paltry engravings from his own paintings, and the enor¬
mous and totally worthless picture of Pandora in the as¬
sembly of the gods. His self-denial, frugality, and fortitude,
in the prosecution of his work at the Adelphi, cannot be too
much applauded. He has been heard to say, that at the
time of his undertaking it, he had only 16s. in his pocket;
and that he had often been obliged, after painting all day,
to sit up at night to sketch or engrave some design for the
printsellers, which was to supply him with his next day’s
subsistence. In this manner he did his prints of Job, de¬
dicated to Mr Burke, of the Birth of Venus, Polemon, Head
of Chatham, King Lear from the picture painted for the
Shakspeare gallery, &c. His prints are caricatures even of
his pictures ; they seem engraved on rotten wood.
Soon after his return from the Continent, Barry was
chosen a member of the Royal Academy; and in 17 82
he was appointed professor of painting, in the room of Mr
Penny, with a salary of L.30 a-year. The lectures which
he delivered from the chair were full of strong sense and
wholesome advice, both to the students and academicians.
Among other things, he insisted much on the necessity of
purchasing a collection of pictures by the best masters as
models for the students, and proposed several of those in the
Orleans collection. This recommendation was not relished
by the academicians, who perhaps thought their own pic¬
tures the best models for their several pupils. Bickerings,
jealousies, and quarrels arose, and at length reached such a
height, that, in 1799, Barry was expelled from the Aca¬
demy, soon after the appearance of his Letter to the Di¬
lettanti Society ; a very amusing but eccentric publication,
full of the highest enthusiasm for his art, and the lowest con¬
tempt for the living professors of it. In 1800 he undertook
a design or drawing to celebrate the union of the two king¬
doms of Great Britain and Ireland. The profits of the two
exhibitions of the Adelphi pictures are said to have amounted
to above L.500. Lord Romney presented him with 100
guineas for his portrait, which had been copied into one of
the pictures, and he had 20 guineas for a head of Mr Hooper.
He probably received other sums for portraits introduced
into the work. By extreme frugality, he contrived not only
to live, but to save money. His house was twice robbed of
sums which he kept by him ; one of the times (in 1794) of
upwards of L.100, a loss which was made up by the muni¬
ficence of Lord Radnor, and by that of his friends the Hol¬
lises. After the loss of his salary, a subscription was set on
foot by the Earl of Buchan to relieve him from his difficul¬
ties, and to settle him in a larger house to finish his picture
of Pandora. The subscription amounted to L.1000, with
which an annuity was bought, but of this he was prevented
BAR
from enjoying the benefit, for on the 6th of February 1806
he was seized with a pleuritic fever, and died on the 22d II
of the same month. On the 14th of March the body was
attended by a numerous and respectable train of his friends v ^ ^
to the cathedral of St Paul’s, where it was deposited. ^
Mr Barry, as an artist, a writer, and a man, was distin¬
guished by great inequality of powers and extreme contra¬
dictions in character. He was gross and refined at the same
time ; violent and urbane ; sociable and sullen ; inflammable
and inert; ardent and phlegmatic; relapsing from enthu¬
siasm into indolence ; irritable, headstrong, impatient of re¬
straint ; captious in his intercourse with his friends ; waver¬
ing and desultory in his profession. In his personal habits
he was careless of appearances or decency; penurious,
slovenly, and squalid. He regarded nothing but his imme¬
diate impulses, confirmed into incorrigible habits. His pen¬
cil was under no control. His eye and his hand seemed to
receive a first rude impulse, to which it gave itself up, and
paid no regard to anything else. The strength of the ori¬
ginal impetus only drove him farther from his object. His
genius constantly flew off in tangents, and came in contact
with nature only at salient points. His writings are a greater
acquisition to the art than his paintings. The powers of con¬
versation were what he most excelled in ; and the influence
which he exercised in this way over all companies where he
came, in spite of the coarseness of his dress, and the fre¬
quent rudeness of his manner, was great. Take him for all
in all, he was a man of whose memory it is impossible to
think without admiration as well as regret, (w. h-z-t.)
Barry, in Heraldry, is when an escutcheon is divided
bar-ways, that is, across from side to side, into an even num¬
ber of partitions, consisting of two or more tinctures, inter¬
changeably disposed. In the blazon the word harry must
be expressed, and the number of pieces specified; but if the
divisions be odd, the field must be first named, and the num¬
ber of bars expressed.
BARRY-Bendy is when an escutcheon is divided evenly,
bar and bend-ways, by transverse and diagonal lines, inter¬
changeably varying the tinctures of which it consists.
BARS, a county of Hungary, in the circle of the Hither
Danube, with a population of 138,000, and an area com¬
puted at 1044 square miles. See Hungary.
BARSAC, a town of France, on the Garonne, in the
department of the Gironde, famous for its white wines, which
are of the same class as those of Sauternes, but stronger.
Pop. 2896.
BARTAS, Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet,
born in 1544. He was employed by Henry IV. of France,
in England, Denmark, and Scotland; and he commanded
a troop of horse in Gascony, under the Marshal de Mar-
tingan. His principal work, The Week, or the Creation
of the World, which has long since fallen into oblivion, once
enjoyed a high reputation, thirty editions of it having been
printed within six years after its appearance. It was trans¬
lated into English by Joshua Sylvester. Du Bartas died
in 1590, of wounds received in the battle of Ivry.
BARTER, or Truck, is the exchanging of one com¬
modity for another. The word comes from the Spanish
baratar, to deceive or circumvent in bargaining. See Truck.
BARTFELD, a town of Hungary, county of Saros, on
the river Tepla. It has some trade in wine, corn, linen and
woollen goods, paper, &c., and is noted for the mineral
springs and baths in the vicinity. Pop. 6000.
BARTH, or Bart, Jean, a fisherman of Dunkirk, who
rose to the rank of admiral, and is celebrated in the annals
of France for his valour and naval exploits. He died in
1702, aged fifty-one. {Histoire de Jean Bart, by Vanderest;
Paris, 1841, 8vo.)
BARTHELEMY, Jean-Jacques, a celebrated French
writer, born at Cassis, a little seaport on the shores of the
Mediterranean, on the 20th January 1716. At twelve
BARTH
Barthe- years of age be entered the college of the Oratory at Mar-
lemy- seilles, under the care of Father Renaud, a person of taste
v,—and ability, who soon discovered similar qualities in his pupil,
and became uncommonly attentive to his progress. M. de
Visclede, a man of letters, and friend to the former, also
concurred with him in his endeavours; and young Barthe-
lemy’s career soon became equally rapid and brilliant.
He had resolved to dedicate himself to the church ; but,
in order to qualify himself, it became necessary to change
his place of residence, as M. de Belzunce, bishop of Mar¬
seilles, refused to admit to holy orders the students of the
Oratory. Barthelemy, therefore, quitting his old masters
with regret, found himself under the necessity of studying
• philosophy and theology under the Jesuits.
Following a plan of education independently of the pro¬
fessors, he was indefatigable in his study of the Greek, He¬
brew, Chaldee, and Syriac languages. His passion for
learning, however, nearly cost him his life ; for he fell dan¬
gerously ill, and did not recover his strength until he had
entered the seminary where he received the tonsure.
In this retreat he dedicated his leisure hours to the study
of Arabic; and, with the assistance of a young Maronite
who had been educated at Rome, he soon acquired a per¬
fect knowledge of that language. By way of return, his
new friend proposed to him to render all the services in his
power to the Maronites, Armenians, and other Catholic Ara¬
bians, who were but slightly acquainted with the language
of the country in which they resided; in other words, he
expressed a wish that Barthelemy would announce the word
of God to them in their native tongue, and with that view
presented him with some Arabic sermons composed by a
Jesuit who had belonged to the Propaganda. Accordingly
Barthelemy got one or two of them by heart, and pro¬
nounced them in a spacious hall belonging to the seminary,
to the entire satisfaction of his oriental- auditors.
When Barthelemy had finished his education at the semi¬
nary, he retired to Aubagne, and spent some time in the
bosom of his family. He made frequent visits, however, to
Marseilles ; and among the learned of that city to whom he
attached himself in a particular manner w as M. de Cary, the
possessor of a fine cabinet of medals and a valuable library.
They spent whole days together in conversing on literary
subjects; after which Barthelemy, as if insatiable in his thirst
for knowledge, would retire to the Minims, where Father
Sigaloux, a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences, was
employed in making astronomical observations; and in these
labours the young abbe became his associate.
In 1744 he repaired to Paris, with the view of devoting
himself entirely to literature, and carried with him a letter
to M. de Boze, keeper of the medals, and perpetual secre¬
tary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres.
The increasing age and declining health of De Boze ren¬
dered it necessary that he should have assistance ; and Bar¬
thelemy was selected as his colleague. From that moment
the abbe dedicated both his days and nights to the study of
those medals which De Boze had been prevented by his in¬
firmities from arranging.
On the death of M. de Boze in 1753, Barthelemy, who
had been his colleague during eight years, was nominated
his successor.
M. de Stainville, afterwards better known during his ad¬
ministration by the title of Duke de Choiseul, being appointed
ambassador to Rome in 1754, Madame de Stainville, a lady
of great personal beauty, and an enthusiastic admirer of
learning and literary men, conceived a particular regard for
the abbe ; and it was proposed that he should occupy a place
in their carriage on this occasion, and make the tour of Italy
along with them. Such a proposition could not fail to be
highly flattering; and having been accepted, he set out soon
after, and in November arrived at Rome. Pope Benedict
XIV., who then wore the tiara, and was a learned man him-
E L E M Y. 479
self, distinguished Barthelemy by the most courteous recep- Barth6-
tion. But his stay at Rome was not of long duration; for lemy.
he w^as desirous of visiting Naples, rendered at that period
particularly interesting to an antiquary, by the recent dis¬
coveries made in its neighbourhood. During a whole month
he and his fellowr-travellers were occupied in admiring the
curiosities of that capital, and in studying ancient literature;
after which they took a journey of thirty leagues to examine
the monuments of Grecian architecture still extant amidst
the splendid ruins of the ancient city of Paestum.
As he was exceedingly desirous of presenting the learned
men of France with a specimen of the ancient writing em¬
ployed in the Greek manuscripts, he addressed himself on
this subject to his friend Mazocchi, and also to M. Paderno,
who superintended the collection of antiquities from Her¬
culaneum and Pompeii in the palace of Portici; but both
replied that they wrere expressly enjoined not to make any
communication on the subject. On this he solicited per¬
mission to look, for a few minutes only, on a page of a ma¬
nuscript which had been cut from top to bottom since its
discovery. It contained twenty-eight lines, and Barthelemy
read it over six different times with extreme attention, after
which he transcribed the precious fragment on a piece of
paper, from memory. On making a mental collation be¬
tween the copy and the original, he corrected two or three
trifling errors that had escaped his attention. Having thus
rendered himself master of a fac-simile of the manuscript,
which related to the persecution of the Greek philosophers
during the time of Pericles, he transmitted the literary plun¬
der in the course of that very day to the Academy of Belles-
Lettres ; strictly enjoining secrecy, however, that Mazocchi
and Paderno might escape all manner of blame.
M. de Stainville having been appointed ambassador to the
court of Vienna in 1757, the abbe accompanied his lady
thither. On his arrival he found that his friend and protec¬
tor had made certain engagements with the French ministry
with the view of gratifying his passion for antiquities; and,
in consequence, he received permission to visit, at the king’s
expense, Greece and the seaports of the Mediterranean,
where he was to collect new treasures, and return with them
to his native country by Marseilles. But notwithstanding
all the attractions which this project presented, his scrupu¬
lous attachment to his duty prevailed over his passion for
knowledge; and as he deemed it highly improper that the
cabinet of medals should remain so long shut, he abandoned
the scheme of visiting the Levant.
Towards the end of 1758, M. de Stainville, now become
Duke de Choiseul, was nominated minister for foreign affairs,
which enabled him to provide for his friend ; and having re¬
quested him to state the sum which would make him easy
for life, Barthelemy instantly mentioned 6000 livres a year,
blushing at the same time at the largeness of the demand.
In 1759 the duke presented him with a pension on the
archbishopric of Alby; in 1765 he conferred on him the
treasurership of St Martin de Tours; and, in 1768, he made
him secretary-general to the Swiss guards. In addition to
these the abbe also enjoyed a pension of 5000 livres on the
Mercure de France. By these means his income was now
large ; but he employed it nobly ; for he distributed the sur¬
plus, which was considerable, among indigent men of letters.
In 1771 M. de Choiseul was superseded by the Duke
d’Aiguillon, and exiled to his estate at Chanteloupe. On
this occasion he was as usual forsaken by the courtiers who
had basked in the sunshine of his favour. But he was not
deserted by the grateful antiquary, who instantly repaired
to Chanteloupe to pay his respects to the fallen minister.
Barthelemy was now in possession of more than L.1200
sterling per annum, of which he distributed between L.300
and L.400 in assisting men of letters. He also educated
and established in life three nephews, one of whom was suc¬
cessively an ambassador and a director ; at the same time
480
Barthc-
lemy.
BAR
BAR
supporting the rest of his family in Provence, and collecting
a noble library, which he disposed of some years before his
death. But after having thus possessed an ample income
during more than twenty years, Barthelemy at last, in con¬
sequence of the suppression of places and appointments oc¬
casioned by the Revolution, found himself reduced to live
on a pittance barely adequate to furnish the necessaries ot
life. He was never heard to complain, however, nor, in¬
deed, did he seem to perceive the change; and while age
and infirmities permitted him to walk from one end of Pans
to the other, in order to visit his kind friend Madame de
Choiseul, his happiness suffered no apparent diminution.
In 1788 appeared his celebrated work, entitled Voyage du
jeune Anacharsis en Grece, dans le milieu du quatrieme
siecle avant Vere Chrttienne. He had begun it in 1757, and,
during an uninterrupted succession of thirty years, occupied
his leisure hours in bringing it to maturity. His hero, a
young Scythian, descended from the famous philosopher
Anacharsis, whose name he bears, is supposed to repair to
Greece for instruction in his early youth, and after making
the tour of her republics, colonies, and islands, to return to
his native country and write this book in his old age, after
the Macedonian hero had overturned the Persian empire.
In the manner of modern travellers, he gives an account of
the customs, government, and antiquities of the. country ie
is supposed to have visited; a copious introduction supplies
whatever may be wanting in respect to historical details;
whilst various dissertations on the music of the Greeks, on
the literature of the Athenians, and on the economy, pur¬
suits, ruling passions, manners, and customs, of the sur¬
rounding states, supply ample information on the subjects
of which they treat. The author, indeed, is not profound;
and the young Scythian seldom penetrates much below the
surface. But his remarks are commonly judicious, and to
respectable erudition he unites singular skill in the distri¬
bution of his materials, and a happy talent for presenting
his subject in the most agreeable and attractive form. The
assumed character is so admirably sustained throughout, that
we can scarcely persuade ourselves we are not pei using a
book of real travels, and communing with an actual person¬
age who has recorded his observations and experience for
the instruction and improvement of his countrymen.
In 1789 Barthelemy became a candidate for a chair in the
French Academy; and was enrolled among its members by
acclamation. The speech delivered by tbe abbe on his inau¬
guration is equally remarkable for its simplicity and modesty.
In 1790 M. de St Priest, minister of the department of
Paris, made him an offer of the situation of librarian to the
king, then vacant by the resignation of M. le Noir ; but this
very flattering proposal was not accepted.
But while Barthelemy was thus refusing one of the most
honourable offices which a man of letters could at that time
aspire to, he did not neglect the department which had so
long been confided to his charge. His ardour respecting
everything that concerned the cabinet of medals remained
unabated through life ; and he now found means to have his
nephew, Barthelemy Courcy, associated with him in his la¬
bours. This grand collection had received a considerable
increase, and bad been embellished with a number of fine
specimens since it was first confided to his care. To en¬
rich it still more, he carried on an extensive correspondence
not only with the various provinces of France, but also with
every part of Europe.
In the mean time the health of the learned medalist de¬
clined daily, and in 1792 his strength had so much failed
him that, towards the close of the year, he became subject
to fainting fits which deprived him of the exercise of his
faculties for several hours together. Being naturally calm
and courageous, he did not appear to be the least affected
bv these accidents ; his friends, however, considered them as
sypmtoms of approaching dissolution. He was now seventy-
eight years of age, sixty of which had been spent in literary
toils; and it might therefore have been expected that, even
at that agitated period, the venerable veteran would have
been suffered to die in peace. But it was not so. On the
30th of August 1793 this feeble old man was denounced as
an aristocrat, and his nephew and several other young men
employed about the library were included in the charge.
The accusation proceeded from a person of the name of
Duby, a clerk in the library, and it was conveyed in a letter
written by him to a person of the name of Chretien, a pastry¬
cook (who happened to be a member of the section before
which it was first read), and then transmitted to the muni¬
cipality. It was of no consequence that Duby did not know
Chretien, nor Chretien Duby, and that Barthelemy was not
acquainted with either. A warrant was immediately issued
against the supposed culprits, and the fact was signified by
the officers of justice, to the abbe, while at Madame de
Choiseul’s on the morning of the 2d of September. On
receiving the intimation he instantly rose, without discover¬
ing any symptoms of perturbation, and taking his leave of
that lady, was conducted to the Magdelonettes, where he
found his nephew Courcy. Such, however, was the respect
paid to his virtue and his talents, even within the walls of
a prison, that he was received with every expression of re¬
gard by the inhabitants of that dreary mansion : even the
jailer paid him the most respectful attention. He was lodged
in a little apartment along with his relation; and in the
course of that evening he received a visit from Madame
de Choiseul, who had taken care to notify the event to the
government. No sooner was the Committee of Public Safety
informed that the Abbe Barthelemy had been included in
the order, which was meant to extend only to some of the
subalterns in the library, than orders were instantly issued
for his release ; and such zeal did the clerks in the public
offices display in forwarding the necessary papers for his
liberation, that he was awakened from his sleep at eleven
o’clock at night, and conducted to the house of his fair friend.
In a few weeks afterwards, the office of national librarian
having become vacant by the death of Carra and the re¬
signation of Chamfort, who had held it jointly, it was offered
to the abbe, with the most flattering marks of respect. Biit
his advanced age and increasing infirmities did not admit
of his accepting the offer.
He expired without a struggle on the 30th April 1795,
retaining to the last moment full possession ot his faculties.
In his person Barthelemy was above the middle size; and,
if we are to credit his admirers, his countenance displayed
an air of antiquity wonderfully corresponding with his studies.
His bust, sculptured by Houdon, is allowed to be a master¬
piece of art; and that able artist has contrived to infuse into
the physiognomy a mixture of the mildness, simplicity, good¬
nature, and elevation of soul, so visible in the original.
Barthelemy he Groain, St, a village of France, in the
department of Isere, and arrondissement of Grenoble. In
the vicinity is a burning fountain, i.e., inflamed carburetted
hydrogen.
BARTHEZ, or Barthes, Paul Joseph, one of the
most celebrated physicians of the university of Montpellier,
equally remarkable for the variety and extent of his erudi¬
tion, and for the vigour of mind displayed in his abstruse
speculations. He was born on the 11th of December 1734,
at Montpellier, and received his early education at Nar-
bonne, where his family resided, and afterwards at I oulouse.
He soon gave decisive indications of those talents with which
nature had endowed him, and which destined him to occupy
a distinguished station among the learned men of the age.
He commenced the study of medicine at Montpellier in
1750, and in 1753, when he had only attained his nineteenth
year, he received his doctor’s degree. He afterwards occa¬
sionally visited Paris, where he attracted the notice, and
acquired the friendship, of the most distinguished literati of
BarthS-
lemy
Barthez.
BAR
ilarthez. that period. In 1756 he obtained the appointment of phy-
sician to the military hospital in Normandy, attached to the
army of observation commanded by Marshal d’Estrees. The
zeal and assiduity with which he discharged the duties of his
new office were most exemplary. He spent his whole time
at the hospital, and often passed the night at the bedside
of his patients. Though naturally of a good constitution,
his strength was not commensurate with the ardour of his
mind. His health suffered much from the intensity of his
application, and he was often very near falling a sacrifice to
fevers and other disorders which he caught from the patients
in the hospital; and he thence became liable ever after to
attacks of dysentery and bilious fever.
Many of the observations and inquiries which he made
during this period were published in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences; and two of his first productions were
crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. In 1757 his
services were required in the medical staff of the army of
Westphalia, where he had the rank of consulting physician.
On his return to Paris he contributed several articles to the
Journal des Savans and to the Encyclopedic; and was, in¬
deed, for a time considered one of the editors of the for¬
mer of those works. In 1761 he obtained a medical pro¬
fessorship at Montpellier, in which his abilities as a teacher
soon shone forth with unrivalled lustre. His success was
the more honourable inasmuch as his colleagues, Lamure,
Leroy, and Venel, were men of distinguished reputation, and
had raised the school to a high pitch of celebrity.
In 1774 he was created joint chancellor of the university,
with the certainty of succeeding singly to the office on the
death of his colleague, which happened in 1786. He after¬
wards took the degree of doctor in civil law, and was ap¬
pointed counsellor to the supreme court of Aids at Mont¬
pellier. In 1780, he was induced to fix his residence in
Paris, having been nominated consulting physician to the
king, with a brevet of counsellor of state, and a pension of
a hundred louis. Honours now crowded upon him ; he was
admitted free associate to the Academies of Sciences and of
Inscriptions, and appointed first physician to the Duke
of Orleans, in the room of Tronchin. His reputation in¬
creased in proportion as his merits were displayed on a
wider theatre. He practised as a physician at Paris for
nearly ten years, and received the most flattering testimo¬
nials of public approbation.
This brilliant career was suddenly interrupted by the great
political revolution which broke out at this period, and by
which the interests of every individual in France, however
tranquil his pursuits or obscure his station, were more or less
immediately affected.
Barthez was now obliged to quit Paris, and seek in his
native province that tranquillity and repose which the
stormy aspect of the times forbade him to hope for in a
more conspicuous station, holding, as he did, opinions so
much at variance with the new order of things. Though
he had lost the greater part of his fortune, acquired by so
much labour, and was deprived of the honours to which he
possessed so just a claim, he determined, upon his retiring
to Carcassone, to practise his profession gratuitously, and
devote all his leisure hours to the speculative studies con¬
nected with it, which had been the ruling passion of his
life. It was in this retreat that he gave to the world his
Nouvelle Mecanique des Mouvemens de VHomme et des
Animaux, which appeared in 1798.
On the re-establishment of the College of Medicine at
Montpellier, Barthez was naturally looked up to as the per¬
son best calculated to revive its former fame. But age and
infirmity operated to dissuade him from resuming the labo¬
rious office of teacher; and he was accordingly nominated
honorary professor. In 1802 he received several marks of
favour from the new government under Buonaparte ; he was
nominated titular physician to the government, and after-
VOL. iy.
BAR 481
wards consulting physician to the emperor, and member of Barthius.
the Legion of Honour. \ v '
His Traite des Maladies Goutteuses, in two volumes
octavo, appeared in 1802 ; and he afterwards occupied him¬
self in preparing for the press a new edition of his Elemens
de la Science de VHomme, of which he just lived to see the
publication. His health had been declining for some years
before his death, which took place soon after his removal
to Paris, on the 15th of October 1806, in the seventy-second
year of his age. He bequeathed his books and manuscripts
to M. Lordat, who, in consequence, published two volumes
of Consultations de Medecine, Paris, 1810, 8vo, to which
he prefixed a preface of his own. Another posthumous
work of Barthez, the Traite du Beau, preceded by some
account of his life, was edited in 1807 by his brother, M.
Barthez de Marmorieres, who is known as the author of
agricultural essays, and projects for improving the mari¬
time coast of Languedoc, together with some translations
from the oriental languages; and who has sometimes been
mistaken for the subject of the present article.
Barthez has enjoyed a much higher reputation on the Con¬
tinent than in this country, where, indeed, his writings are
comparatively little known. The work which has chiefly con¬
tributed to establish his fame, and which contains the deve¬
lopment of his peculiar opinions on physiology, is the Nou-
veaux Elemens de la Science de VHomme. It is not written,
however, with the simplicity and clearness which might
have been expected from one who had been in the constant
habit of instructing others, and whose lectures were gene¬
rally admired as possessing those qualities in an eminent
degree.
Amidst many vague and unprofitable speculations, his
work contains a great store of facts, which are often instruc¬
tive, though sometimes they expose the credulity of the
author.
In the preface to his Nova Doctrina de Functionibus
Naturce Humance, he has given an excellent arrangement
of the general principles of the objects to be kept in view
in the medical treatment of diseases. He treats of this sub¬
ject more at large in his treatise De Methodo Medendi, pub¬
lished at Montpellier in 1777, and also in the preface to his
Traite des Maladies Goutteuses.
The writings of Barthez appear to have had considerable
influence in overthrowing many of the crude and prepos¬
terous theories which had prevailed in the schools of medi¬
cine ; and, however he may have been seduced from the
path of genuine philosophy by an excessive disposition to
generalize, and an overweening fondness for abstruse spe¬
culation, he still deserves the praise of being an original
thinker, and of standing pre-eminent among his contem¬
poraries for the courage with which he shook off the tram¬
mels of authority, in a university where it had ruled with
despotic sway, and where the dogmas of antiquity were held
in peculiar reverence. (p. m. r.)
BARTHIUS, Gaspard, a learned German philologist,
born at Custrin, in Brandenburg, on the 22d June 1587.
M. Baillet has inserted his name among his Enfans Cele-
bres, upon the ground that at twelve years of age he had
translated the Psalms of David into Latin verse of every
measure. Upon the death of his father, who was professor
of the civil law at Frankfort, counsellor to the elector of Bran¬
denburg, and chancellor at Custrin, he was sent to Gotha,
then to Eisenach, and afterwards, according to custom, went
through all the different universities in Germany. He after-
wards travelled into Italy, France, Spain, and England. He
resided latterly at Leipzig, where he died in 1658. He
wrote a great number of books, the principal of which are,
1. His Adversaria, a large volume in folio, the second and
third volumes being left by him in manuscript; 2. A Trans¬
lation of ffineas Gazaeus ; 3. A large volume of Notes upon
Claudian, in 4to; 4. Three large volumes upon Statius.
3 p
482 BAR
Bartholi- BARTHOLINUS, Gaspaed, a learned writer, born in
mis. 1585, at Malmoe in Scandinavia. At three years ot age he
. had such a quick capacity, that in fourteen days he learned
^mew °" t0 reac^ ’ an(^ thirteenth year he composed Greek and
v. ^; Latin orations, and delivered them in public. When he was
about eighteen he went to the university of Copenhagen, and
afterwards studied at Rostock and Wittemberg. He then
travelled through Germany, the Low Countries, England,
France, and Italy, and was received with marked respect at
the different universities he visited. In 1613 he was chosen
professor of physic in the university of Copenhagen, and
filled that office for eleven years, w-hen, falling into a dan¬
gerous illness, he made a vow, that if it should please God
to restore him, he wrould apply himself solely to the study
of divinity. He recovered, observed his vow, and soon after
obtained the professorship of divinity, with the canonry of
Rotschild. He died on the 13th of July 1630, after having
written nearly fifty works on different subjects.
Baetholinus, Thomas, a very celebrated physician, son
of the former, was born at Copenhagen in 1619. After
studying some time in his native country, he wTent in 1637
to Leyden, where he studied medicine for three years. He
then travelled into France, and resided two years at Paris
and Montpellier, in order to improve himself under the dis¬
tinguished physicians of those universities ; after which he
visited Italy, remained three years at Padua, and then went
to Basle, where he obtained the degree of doctor in philo¬
sophy. Returning to Copenhagen, he was appointed pro¬
fessor of mathematics in 1647, and next year was nomi¬
nated to the chair of anatomy, which was better suited to his
genius and inclination. This he held for thirteen years,
distinguishing himself by several observations respecting
the lacteal and lymphatic vessels, shortly after their dis¬
covery by Olaus Rudbeck. His close application, however,
having rendered his constitution very infirm, he resigned
his chair in 1661 ; but the king of Denmark allowed him
the title of “ honorary professor.” He now retired to a little
estate he had at Hagestaed, near Copenhagen, where he
hoped to spend the remainder of his days in peace and tran¬
quillity ; but his house having been burnt in 1670, his li¬
brary, with all his books and manuscripts, was consumed.
In consideration of this loss, the king appointed Bartholinus
his physician, with a handsome salary, and exempted his land
from all taxes ; the university of Copenhagen also chose
him for their librarian ; and, in 1675, he was honoured with
a seat in the grand council of Denmark. He died on the 4th
of December 1680. He wrote, Anatomia Gaspardi Bartho-
lini Parentis, novis Observationibus primum locupletata,
8vo ; De Monstris in Natura et Medicina, 4to ; De Armillis
Veterum, praesertim Danorum, Schedion, 8vo; and several
other works.
BARTHOLOMEW, St, one of the twelve apostles,
generally supposed to have been the same individual who in
St John’s Gospel is called Nathanael. This appears to have
been his real name, while Bartholomew merely expresses his
filial relation. He was a native of Cana in Galilee (John xxi.
2). He was introduced by Philip to Jesus, who, on seeing him
approach, at once pronounced that eulogy on his character
which has made his name almost synonymous with sincerity:
he was a witness of the resurrection and the ascension, and
returned with the other apostles to Jerusalem. Of his sub¬
sequent history we have little more than vague traditions.
According to Eusebius {Hist. Eccles. v. 10), when Pan-
taenus went on a mission to the Indians (towards the close
of the second century), he found among them the Gospel of
Matthew, written in Hebrew, which had been left there by
the apostle Bartholomew. Jerome {De Vir. Illustr. c. 36)
gives a similar account. But the name Indians is applied
by ancient writers to so many different nations, that it is
difficult to determine the scene of Bartholomew’s labours.
Mosheim (with whom Neander agrees) is of opinion that it
BAR
was a part of Arabia Felix, inhabited by Jews, to whom Bartholo.
alone a Hebrew gospel could be of any service. Accord- raew
ing to the received tradition, this apostle was flayed alive Bar''
and crucified with his head downwards, at Albanopolis in y ^
Armenia, or, according to Nicephorus, at Urbanopolis in
Cilicia. A spurious gospel which bears his name is in the
catalogue of apocryphal books condemned by Pope Ge-
lasius.
The festival of St Bartholomew is celebrated on the 24th
of August. On the night of this festival, in the year 1572,
took place that foul and treacherous massacre of the Hugue¬
nots in France, which has stamped with infamy the memory
of the detestable Catherine de’ Medici and her son Charles
IX. This massacre lasted three days. See Fkance.
Baktholomew, St, one of the West India Islands, 30
miles north of St Christopher’s. Lat. 17.55. 35. N. Long.
62. 50. W. Though destitute of fresh water except what is
supplied by rain, it is very fertile, producing sugar, cotton,
and tobacco. It is of an irregular oblong shape, and has an
area of 35 square miles, with a population of 18,000. Being
surrounded by rocks and shoals, it is difficult of access, but
its harbour, lie Carenage, on the western side, is safe and
commodious. This island was ceded by France to Sweden
in 1784.
BARTIZAN, in Architecture, a small turret projecting
from the angle of a square tower, or from the parapet.
BARTOLOCCI, Julius, a learned monk, and professor
of Hebrew at Rome, was born at Celano in 1613. He dis¬
tinguished himself by writing a Hebrew and Latin cata¬
logue of the Hebrew writers and writings, entitled Biblio¬
theca Magna Babbinica, &c., in four volumes folio. This
important work was continued by his disciple Imbonati.
Bartolocci died in 1687.
BARTOLOMEO, Fkancesco, a celebrated painter,
born at Savignano near Florence, in the year 1469, was the
disciple of Cosimo Rosselli, but was much more indebted
to the works of Lionardo da Vinci for his extraordinary skill
in painting. He was so well versed in the principles of de¬
sign, that Raphael, after quitting the school of Perugino,
applied to this master, and studied under him the rules of
perspective, with the art of managing and uniting his colours.
He painted both portraits and historical pieces; but from
conscientious scruples, he seldom drew naked figures. He
died in 1517, aged forty-eight.
BARTOLOZZI, Francesco, a very celebrated de¬
signer and engraver, was the son of a silversmith at Flo¬
rence, in which city he was born about the year 1 /30. After
studying at Venice and at Rome, in 1 <64 he came to Eng¬
land at the invitation of Mr Dalton, the king’s librarian, and
soon afterwards was elected a member of the Royal Aca¬
demy. He was induced by an offer of the Prince Regent
of Portugal to remove to Lisbon, where it is supposed he
died about the year 181o ; though some place that event at
London in 1819. The productions of his graver are very
numerous, and are greatly esteemed by collectors.
BARTON, Benjamin Smith, M.D., an eminent Ame¬
rican naturalist, who was the first professor of botany and
natural history in a college in the United States. He was
born in Pennsylvania in 1766. He studied for two yearsat
Edinburgh, and afterwards graduated at Gottingen. He
began to practise his profession at Philadelphia, and soon
obtained a respectable share of employment. In 1790 he
was appointed to the professorship above mentioned m
Philadelphia College ; in 1802 was chosen president of the
American Philosophical Society ; was made professor o
materia medica; and on the death of Dr Rush he ob¬
tained the chair of practical medicine. By his lectures and
his writings he may be considered as the founder of be
American school of natural history, which has risen to
such a high rank in that branch of science. He aiecl in
1815.
harton-on-
Humber
II
Basedow.
BAS
Baeton-ON-Humber, a market-town in the hundred of
Yarborough and county of Lincoln. It stands on the Hum-!
her, six miles S.W.ol Hull, with which town it has steam com¬
munication. Its principal trade is in corn and flour, and it has
manufactures of ropes, sacking, bricks, and tiles. It has two
parish churches. Market-day, Monday. Pop, in 1851, 3866.
BARTSCH, Adam yon, the author of the most valu¬
able dictionary of engravers, entitled Le Peintre Graveur,
in 21 vols. 8vo, 1803-21. He was born at Vienna in 1757,
and died there in 1821. From 1781 he was keeper of the
imperial cabinet of prints.
BARUCH, the Prophecy of, one of the apocryphal
books subjoined to the canon of the Old Testament. Baruch
the son of Neriah was the disciple and amanuensis of the
prophet Jeremiah; and his prophecy has by some been
reckoned part of that of Jeremiah. It is difficult to deter¬
mine in what language this prophecy was originally written.
Three copies of it are still extant, one in Greekj and the
other two in Syriac ; but which of these, or whether any
one of them, is the original, remains uncertain.
BARYTES, or Baryta, heavy earth. See Minera¬
logy and Chemistry.
BARYTONE OSapvs and tovos), in Music, denotes a
male voice intermediate between a bass and a tenor.
BARYTONIUM, in Greek Grammar, denotes a verb
which has no accent marked on the last pliable, the grave
accent being understood.
BAS, Jacques Phillipe le, a celebrated French en¬
graver. He particularly excelled in landscapes and small
figures. He was born at Paris in 1707, and died there in
1783.
Bas-Relief. See Basso-Rilievo.
BASALT. See Geology.
BASAN, or Bashan, in Ancient Geography, a territory
beyond Jordan, mentioned in Scripture, and called by Jose¬
phus, Eusebius, and Jerome, Batancea. The sacred writers
include in Bashan that part of the country eastward of the
Jordan which was given to the half tribe of Manasseh, situ¬
ated to the north of Gilead. After the Babylonish captivity
it was subdivided into Batanaea or Basan, Trachonitis, Au-
ranitis, and Gaulonitis. To settle the limits of these, how¬
ever, is now impossible. Bashan was famous for its pastures
and large breed of cattle.
BASCINET, Basinet, or Basnet, alight helmet gene¬
rally without a vizor, and so called from its resemblance to
a basin. (See Grose on Ancient Armour?)
BASEDOW, Johann Bernhard, a celebrated German
writer, born at Hamburg, the 11th September 1723, was
the son of a hairdresser. Ill treatment made him abandon
his fathers house. A physician in a neighbouring village
took him into his service, and shortly after persuaded him
to return home to his father. Being placed in one of the
lower classes of the college of St John, the severity of his
masters rendered him harsh and violent himself. Forced to
submit to a slow and rigorous method of study, he contracted
a dislike to patience and regularity, which exercised a
marked influence over the whole course of his life. Poor
but intelligent, he often performed their tasks for school¬
fellows who could afford to pay for it; and they, in return,
invited him to their parties of pleasure, which contributed
to those habits of irregularity by which his health and re¬
putation often suffered. In 1744 Basedow went to Leipzig
to study theology. He gave himself up entirely to the in¬
structions of Crusius the professor, and to the study of philo¬
sophy. This at first made him sceptical in theology ; a
more profound examination of the sacred writings, and of
all that relates to them, brought him back to the Christian
faith ; but, in his retirement, he formed his belief after his
own ideas, and it was far from orthodox. Having returned
to^ Hamburg, he lived there without any employment till
1749, when M. de Quaalen, privy-councillor of Holstein,
BAS 483
appointed him preceptor to his son. Basedow now began Basel,
to apply himself to the subject of education. At first he s.-w'
would not teach his pupil Latin otherwise than by talking
with him in Latin; and he wrote a dissertation on this subject,
published at Kiel in 1751, Inusitata et optima honestioris
Juventutis erudiendce Methodus. In 1753 he was chosen
professor of moral philosophy and belles-lettres in the aca¬
demy of Soroe in Denmark, Here, between the years
1758 and 1764, he published several works of a heterodox
character, which exposed him to the opposition of the ma¬
gistrates and the odium of the people. Constantly perse¬
cuted in his theological career, he would have fallen the vic¬
tim of his incautious zeal, if the Count de Bernstoff, minister
of state, and J. A. Cramer, another officer of the court of
Copenhagen, had not taken him under their protection. He
left off giving lessons without losing his salary; and, to¬
wards the end of 1767, he abandoned theology to devote
himself with the same ardour to education, of which he con¬
ceived the project of a general reform in Germany. He
began by publishing An Address to the Friends of Hu¬
manity, and to Persons in Power, on Schools, on Educa¬
tion, and its hifluence on Public Happiness, with the Plan
of an Elementary Treatise on Human Knowledge ; Ham¬
burg, 1768. He proposed the reform of schools and of the
common methods of instruction, and the establishment of an
institute for qualifying teachers; soliciting subscriptions for
the printing of his elementary work, where his principles
were to be explained at length, and accompanied with
plates. For this object he required 5050 crowns. The
subscriptions presently amounted to 15,000 crowns: the
Empress of Russia, Catherine II., sent a thousand crowns,
the King of Denmark nine hundred. In 1770 appeared at
Altona the first volume of his Method for Fathers and Mo¬
thers of Families, and for the Chiefs of the People, which
was followed by other treatises on education. In his tra¬
vels he had been well received by the Prince of Anhalt-
Dessau, who promised him his protection. From that time
he had resolved to establish an institute for education at
Dessau, and to apply his principles himself in forming dis¬
ciples, who might spread them over all Germany. Little
calculated by nature or habit to succeed in an employment
which requires the greatest regularity, patience, and atten¬
tion, he, however, engaged in this new project with all his
accustomed ardour. The name of Philanthropinon ap¬
peared to him the most expressive of his views ; and he
published at Leipzig in 1774 a pamphlet entitled The Phil¬
anthropinon founded at Dessau, containing the details of
his plan. He immediately set about carrying it into execu¬
tion ; but he had few scholars, and the success by no means
answered his hopes. The institution, badly managed, be¬
came a theatre of quarrels between Basedow and the mas¬
ters who taught in it under his direction. The assistance
of the celebrated Campe, a journal which they both com¬
posed together, under the title of School Dialogues, from
1777 to 1779, and a public examination which went off with
eclat, gave a transient splendour to the Philanthropinon;
but in a short time Basedow quarrelled with Campe, made
complaints against his prince, quitted, and again returned to
the care of the institution, exemplifying in all his conduct
the effects of coarse manners and bad temper. He was at
length drawn into the most scandalous disputes with Pro¬
fessor Wolke, his former coadjutor. The institution was finally
shut up in 1793, Basedow died at Magdeburg on the 25th
July 1790, His work On the Education of Princes destined
to the Throne has been translated into French by Bourjoing.
A list of his writings may be seen in Meusel’s Lexicon of
German Writersfrom 1750 to 1800, and an account of his life
in Schlichtegroll’s Necrology for 1790. (w. h-z-t.)
BASEL, Basle, or Bale, a canton in the N.W. of Swit¬
zerland, with an area of 139 geographical square miles. It
is bounded on the N.W. by France, on the N. by the grand
484
Basel
II
Bashaw.
BAS
duchv of Baden. E. by the canton of Aargau, and S. and
S.W.* by those of Solothurn and Berne. The country is
generally mountainous, being traversed by the Jura chain ;
but it abounds in excellent pasturage, and numerous herds
of cattle are reared there. The northern part of the canton
is best suited for agriculture, being watered by the Knine
and numerous small mountain streams, besides the more
considerable rivers of the Birse and the Ergolz, in whose
valleys the vine and other fruits are cultivated. 1 tie
mountains attain an elevation of from 3000 to 4000 feet;
and the climate is mild and salubrious. The principal ma¬
nufactures are ribbons, woollen, linen, and cotton goods,
leather, paper, iron and steel wares. Basel was admitted in¬
to the Swiss confederation in 1501, and furnishes a contin¬
gent of 918 men. In consequence of a revolt of the country
population against the aristocratic government of the city,
this canton was divided in 1832 into two sub-cantons ; viz.,
Basel-stadt, or Bale-ville, comprising the city and several of
the neighbouring communes; and Basel-landschaft, or
Bale-campagne, with the remaining communes of the can¬
ton. Pop. of Bale-ville in 1850, 29,555 ; of whom 24,083
were Protestants, and 5508 Roman Catholics; pop. of Bale-
campagne, 47,830, of whom 38,818 were Protestants, and
9052 Roman Catholics; the former sending one, and the
latter two members, to the national council. See Switzer¬
land. „ , ,
Basel, or Bale, the capital of the above province, is
situated on both sides of the Rhine, 43 miles north of Berne,
in Lat. 47. 33. 36. N. Long. 7. 35. 35. E. Great Basel, or
that portion of the city which lies on the south side of the
river, is connected with Little Basel on the opposite side by
a handsome stone bridge 600 feet long. Its ancient forti¬
fications are still in a good state of preservation, and the
town is generally well built; but the streets are nairow,
and it has few public edifices worthy of notice. The cathe¬
dral is a fine old Gothic edifice, founded about the begin-
ing of the eleventh century, and contains the tombs of
Erasmus, CEcolampadius, and other eminent persons.
Besides the university, which was founded by Pope Pius
II. in 1459, Basel possesses an extensive public library, con¬
taining a valuable collection of MSS., a picture galleiy, a
museum, gymnasium, botanical garden, an orphan asylum
and institution for deaf mutes, a theological institute, &c.
It is the seat of an active transit trade between France,
Germany, and Switzerland; and it has important manu¬
factures of silk, linen, cotton, leather, paper, &c. Basel was
the seat of a great council from 1431 to 1448 ; and here, in
1795, France concluded a treaty with Prussia and with
Spain. It is connected by railway with Strasburg, from
which it is 60 miles distant. Pop. 24,000. Basel was the
birthplace of Euler, Holbein, and Bernouilli.
BASHAN. See Basan.
BASHARIANS, a sect of Mahometans, being a
branch or subdivision of the Motazalites. They maintain the
tenets of Bashar Ibn Motamer, a leading teacher among the
Motazalites, but who varied in some points from the general
tenets of the sect, carrying man’s free agency even to the
extent of making him independent.
BASHAW, more commonly written Pasha or Pacha, a
Turkish governor of a province or district. Nothing more
is necessary to raise an Osmanli to the dignity of pasha than
the firman of the grand seignior; but some ceremonies are
usually observed at his investiture or installation- The badge
of a pasha’s authority, as well as the emblem of his rank, is
the horse-tail, and he takes precedence according to the
number of these in his banner. The highest rank usually
conferred, however, is that of pasha of three tails. The
pashas are the grand seignior’s lieutenants, and exercise the
supreme military and civil power in their respective pro¬
vinces. But many of them own little more than a nominal
subjection to the Porte, although they submit to pay it an
BAS
annual tribute ; and some are almost always in a state of
open rebellion against its authority. Religion, in fact, is
the only connecting principle which keeps the different parts
of the Ottoman empire together ; but, fanatical as the Mos- ^
lemin almost universally are, the case of Egypt shows how
frail a tie this may become, and how easily the bundle of
rods may be dissolved. In fiscal matters, the pasha ordi¬
narily acts as a horse-leech to his more immediate subjects,
and serves as a sponge to the sultan, who frequently contrives
to squeeze out a portion of the blood with which he is gorged,
and, after a time, kindly presents him with a bowstring, and
thus becomes ultimate heir to his private accumulations.
BASHEE ISLES, a cluster of small islands in the Chi¬
nese Sea, due north of Luzon, the largest of the Philippines.
They are five in number, with four rpcky islets.^ They were
visited by Dampier the English navigator in 168 /, and named
by him Orange, Monmouth, Grafton, Goat, and Bashee
Islands. These islands possess a fertile soil, and produce
abundance of potatoes and yams, as also sugar-canes, pine¬
apples, bananas, and plantains. Orange Island is twenty-two
miles long by six broad. Grafton Island is about thirteen
miles in circumference, and has good anchorage on the
western side, with abundance of very fine water close to the
beach. The inhabitants are described by Dampier as short
and squat in stature, and of a dark copper colour. Iron
was formerly a favourite article of exchange with them, but
the use of money is now also understood. Ihe Spaniards
took possession of these islands in 1783, being tempted by
the gold which is washed down by the mountain torrents,
and manufactured by the inhabitants into a thick w ii e, which
they wear as an ornament. The Spanish governor resides
at Grafton Island, with about 100 soldiers. These islands
are situated between the 20th and 21st degrees of N. Lat.
BASHKIRS, a race, supposed to be descended from the
Nogay Tartars, who inhabit the Russian provinces of Ufa
and lekaterinenburg, in the governments of Orenburg and
Perm respectively- Little is known of their history previous^
to their submission to the Russian dominion in the reign of
Ivan II. They have frequently attempted to revolt, but
have for a long time been faithful in their allegiance to the
Russian power, to which, as skilful horsemen and archers,
they contribute a useful body of auxiliaries. They are but
partially civilized; and, though professing Mahometanism,
retain traces of their old superstitions. They have little
taste for agriculture, and subsist by hunting and the bleeding
of cattle and bees. A favourite dish with them is a hash
of horse-flesh, which they call bichbarmark, ox five-finger-
dish ; and they are greatly addicted to an intoxicating be¬
verage called koumiss, prepared from fermented mare s
and camel’s milk. They set so little value on the
mines in their territory, that they are left entirely to the in¬
dustry of Russian miners, who pay a small rent to the pro¬
prietors. .
BASIGNANA, acity of Piedmont, province of Alessan¬
dria, near the junction of the Po with the Fanaro. It con¬
tains 4000 inhabitants. A celebrated treaty of peace was
concluded there in 1361, between Duke Otto of Brunswick
and Count Galeazzo.
BASIL the Great, one of the most learned and elo¬
quent doctors of the church, was born at Caesarea in Cap¬
padocia, of a noble Christian family, about the year 328.
He went to finish his studies at Athens, where he contracted
an intimate friendship with Gregory Nazianzen. He re¬
turned in 355 to his native country, and there taught ne-
toric for some time. He then travelled into Syria, Pales¬
tine, and Egypt, for the purpose of visiting the monasteries
of these countries ; and finding the monastic life suite o
his disposition, he resolved, upon his return, to follow it, and
in fact became the first monk and the original founder o
monasteries in Pontus and Cappadocia. Upon the death
of Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, in 370, Basil was chosen his
Bashee
Isles
II
Basil,
\
BAS
BAS
485
Basil successor; but it was with difficulty that he accepted of this
i| dignity; and no sooner had he been raised to it than the
Basilic. Emperor Valens began to persecute him because he refused
to embrace the doctrine of the Arians. As soon as this
storm had blown over, the new bishop used his utmost en¬
deavours to bring about a re-union between the Eastern and
Western Churches, which were then much divided about some
points of faith, and also in regard to Meletius and Paulinus,
two bishops of Antioch ; but all his efforts were ineffectual,
and the dispute was not terminated until nine months after
his death. Basil had a share in all the controversies of his
time regarding the doctrineof the church. He died on the 1st
of January 379. The best edition of his works is that of Gar-
nier and Maran, Greek and Latin, 3 vols. fob, Paris, 1721.
There is a good recent edition in 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1839.
Basil’s style is pure and elegant, his expressions often reach
the sublime, and his thoughts are noble and full of majesty.
Erasmus ranks him among the greatest orators of antiquity.
Basil, Ocymum basilicum, a fragrant, aromatic, herba¬
ceous plant, a native of warm climates, and much used to
flavour food.
Basil, in Joinery, the sloping edge of a chisel, or of the
iron of a plane. The basil is usually made twelve degrees
for soft wood, and for hard w ood eighteen.
BASIL AN, one of the Philippine Isles, S.W. of Min¬
danao ; from which it is separated by the Basilan Strait. It
is a fertile island, but is infested by pirates. The village is
in Lat. 6. 30. N. Long. 122. 24. E.
BASILEUS, (/WiAefs, king or lord), a title assumed by
the emperors of Constantinople, exclusive of all other princes,
to w hom they gave the title of rex. The title basileus was
subsequently assumed by other kings, particularly the kings
of England; as Ego Edgar totius Anglice basileus conjir-
mavi. Hence also the queen of England was anciently styled
Basilea or Basilissa. See Archon, and King.
BASILIAN Monks, a religious community of the order
of St Basil. That saint, having retired into a desert in the
province of Pontus, founded a monastery for the convex
nience of himself and his numerous followers ; and, for the
better regulation of this society, he drew up in writing the
orders and rules which they were to observe. This new
order quickly spread all over the East, and soon passed into
the West; and it is even said that before his death Basil
saw himself the spiritual father of more than ninety thousand
monks in the East alone. The historians of the order state
that it produced fourteen popes, many cardinals, and a
great number of patriarchs and archbishops, 180o bishops,
3010 abbots, 11,805 martyrs, with an infinite number of
confessors, virgins, &c. It was introduced into the West
in 1057, and reformed in 1569 by Pope Gregory XIII.,
who united the religious of this order in Italy, Spain, and
Sicily, into one congregation.
BASILIC, or Basilica, in the ancient architecture, a
kind of public hall or court of judicature, where the princes
or magistrates sat to administer justice. This word is taken
from the Greek /L-criAi/oy, a royal house, or palace.
The basilicae consisted of a great hall, with aisles, porti¬
coes, tribunes, and tribunals. The bankers, too, had one
part of the basilica allotted for their residence; and scholars
likewise went thither to pronounce their declamations. In
after times the denomination of basilica was also given to
other buildings of public use, as town-houses, exchanges,
and the like. The Roman basilica? w^ere covered, by which
they were distinguished from the fora, which were public
places in the open air. The first basilica at Rome was built
by Cato the elder, whence it was called Porcia ; the second
was called Opimia ; the third was that of Paulus, built at
great expense, and with much magnificence, whence it was
called by some regia Pauli ; and Julius Caesar erected a
fourth called basilica Julia, of which Vitruvius tells us he
had the direction. Besides these there were others, to the
number of eighteen or twenty. The basilica Julia not only Basilica,
served for the hearing of causes, but likewise for the recep-
tion and audience of foreign ambassadors. It was supported
by a hundred marble pillars in four rows, and enriched with
decorations of gold and precious stones ; and in it were thir¬
teen tribunals or judgment-seats, where the praetors sat for
the despatch of judicial business.
Basilica is also used by ecclesiastical writers for a
church ; in which sense the name frequently occurs in St
Ambrose, St Austin, St Jerome, Sidonius Apollinaris, and
other writers of the fourth and fifth centuries. The name
was probably thus applied from many of the ancient churches
having been formed out of the Ronian halls or basilicae above
described. The name is chiefly applied, in modern times, to
churches of royal foundation, as those of St John de Lateran
and St Peter of the Vatican at Rome, founded by the Em¬
peror Constantine.
BASILICA, to, Baa-dWd, in the history of jurisprudence,
a name given to a digest of laws commenced by the Emperor
Basilius, and completed by his son Leo the philosopher.
This collection, according to some, received the title of
Basilica in honour of the Emperor Basilius; while others
think that it was so denominated from the circumstance of
its containing /^cutiAikcis Siard^eis or imperial constitutions.
It was begun by Basilius in the year 867, and completed by
Leo in the year 880 ; the former having carried the work
as far as forty books, and the latter having added twenty
more, in which state it was published. In 911, Leo was
succeeded by his son Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, from
whom the Basilica received their final revision, rgv rekevraiav
avaKaOapo-Lv; and the amended edition is supposed by Heim-
bach to have appeared about the year 945. Opinions, how¬
ever, are divided as to whether the work has descended to
us in the state in which it was first published by Leo, or
according to the revised and improved edition of Constan¬
tine. Brunquell thinks that we possess the Basilica in the
amended form ; but Hoffmann considers this opinion doubt¬
ful, and his suspicions have been confirmed by the subse¬
quent investigations of Heimbach. In the West, the Basilica
never obtained the force of law; and the chief value of the
collection therefore consists in the illustration it furnishes of
the Justinianean body of law from which it was mostly com¬
piled ; but in this respect its utility has long been under¬
stood and acknowledged. Four complete books of the Basi¬
lica, namely, the forty-fifth, forty-sixth, forty-seventh, and
forty-eighth, and fragments of two others, the twenty-eighth
and twenty-ninth, were published at Paris in 1557, accom¬
panied with a Latin version, by Gentianus Hervetus. In
1566, Cujacius published at Lyons a Latin version of the
sixtieth book, which is of great length. All the different
portions which had thus been edited were collected by Dio¬
nysius Gothofredus, and printed at Hanau in 1598 and
1606, But the more extensive and complete edition of
Fabrot, which appeared at Paris in 1647, superseded these
imperfect publications, and proved of great service to the
study of ancient jurisprudence. It is contained in seven
volumes folio, and accompanied with a Latin version of the
text as well as of the Greek scholia subjoined. Of the sixty
books which composed this great work Fabrot supposes that
he has exhibited forty-one in an entire form ; but Meerman,
Reitz, and others, think that this estimate admits of some
abatement. About a century after the date of Fabrot’s edi¬
tion, Reitz published four entire books of the Basilica,
namely, the forty-ninth, fiftieth, fifty-first, and fifty-second,
which were inserted in the fifth volume of Meerman’s The¬
saurus Juris Civilis et Canonici, and, thirteen years after¬
wards, given to the world in a separate form, accompanied
with the commentaries (as edited by Ruhnken) of fhale-
laeus, Theodorus, Stephanus, Cyrillus, Gobidas, and other
Greek lawyers, on the titles of the Pandects and Code Be
Postulando sice de Advocatis, nee non de Procurator!-
486 BAS
Basilicata bus et Defensoribus. The ancient Glossce, which are not
II without their value, were first published by Labbe, and after-
Basilisk. war(js illustrated by Schulting and Rover.1 2
BASILICATA, a province of the kingdom of Naples,
bounded on the N. by Capitanata, N.E. by Terra di Bari,
E. by Otranto and the Gulf of Taranto, S. by Calabria
Citra, S.W. by the Mediterranean, W. by Principato Citra,
and N.W. by Principato Ultra. It has an area of 3130
geographical square miles, and is divided into four districts
and 121 communes. Pop. 481,288. In the N.W. part
of this territory the Apennines divide into two branches,
the one running eastward to Terra di Bari, and the other
southward to Calabria. The principal rivers are the Bra-
dano, Basento, Salandrella, Agri, and Sinno, all flowing into
the Gulf of Taranto. The principal productions are maize,
wine, lint, hemp, and tobacco; swine, goats, and sheep, are
numerous ; and the produce of the silkworm forms a con¬
siderable branch of industry. The chief towns are Potenza,
Francavilla, and Tursi.
BASILICI, a denomination given in the Greek empire
to those who carried the emperor’s orders and commands.
BASILIDIANS, the followers of Basilides of Alexandria,
one of the most eminent leaders of the Gnostics, who lived
near the beginning of the second century. It has commonly
been said that he held the body of Christ to be a mere
phantom, and that he gave his form to Simon the Cyrenian,
who was crucified in his stead. We learn from Eusebius
that Basilides wrote twenty-four books upon the Gospel, of
which some fragments are extant, and that he forged several
prophets, to two of which he gave the names of Barcaba
and Barcoph. A Gospel of Basilides is mentioned by Ori-
gen, Ambrose, and Jerome. The Basilidians held much
the same opinions with the Valentinians, another branch of
the Gnostic family. They asserted that all the actions of
men are necessary; that faith is a natural gift, to which
men are forcibly determined; and that however irregular
or vicious may be their lives, they are nevertheless sure
to be saved. Irenaeus and others assure us that they acted
in perfect consistency with their principles, committing all
manner of villanies and impurities, in confidence of their na¬
tural election. It however appears that, whatever opinions
his followers may have held, Basilides himself recommended
purity of life and the practice of piety ; and that he supposed
the man Jesus and Christ united to constitute the Saviour.
(Mosheim, de Reb. Christ., fyc. pp. 342—361.) 1 lie Basili¬
dians believed in a hierarchy of divine persons, or iEons.
Under the cabalistical name Abraxas, they are believed to
have worshipped the supreme God, from whom, as a prin¬
ciple, all other things proceeded. There are still extant gems
inscribed with the word Abraxas, and which were proba¬
bly used as amulets against diseases and evil spirits. See
Abraxas.
BASILISK (/3acnAi<TK05, from /SacnAeiJs), a fabulous crested
serpent, called a cockatrice, because supposed to be produced
from a cock’s egg. (See Lucan, ix. 726). It is also the
name given by naturalists to a genus of saurian reptiles be¬
longing to the Iguanoid family. See Reptilia, Index.
Basilisk, an ancient species of ordnance, so called from
its supposed resemblance to the fabulous serpent of that
name. The basilisk threw an iron ball of 200 pounds
weight. It was much used in the time of Sultan Solyman,
particularly during the wars of Hungary, but is now entirely
out of use ; unless, indeed, the name may still be applied to
those enormous pieces of ordnance which the Turks have
BAS
built into the ramparts of the castles on the Dardanelles, and Basilius
which carry stone balls of from 200 to 300 pound weight. II
BASILIUS L, surnamed the Macedonian, was sprung Basket'
of an obscure family in Macedonia, and rose, after many ad-
ventures and vicissitudes, from the rank of a common sol¬
dier to be emperor of the Greeks. He was made chamber-
lain to the Emperor Michael III., and having co-operated
with that weak and vicious prince in the murder of the
Caesar Bardas, he was made his colleague in the empire. In
a.d. 867, he assassinated Michael when overpowered by
wine, and thus obtained undivided sovereignty. He ruled
with great ability, and left the kingdom in a very flourishing
condition. He was dreaded by the Saracens, whom he fre¬
quently vanquished; and he was loved by his subjects on
account of his justice and clemency. He died in a.d. 886,
of wounds received from a stag while hunting. He is the
author of a small work on the duties of a prince, which he
dedicated to his son. (Gibbon, xlvii. liv.)
BASINGSTOKE, a market and borough town in the
county of Hants, 45 miles from London, It occupies a
pleasant situation, and has a good trade in corn and malt,
which has been greatly facilitated by the canal which joins
the rivers Wey and Thames. The church is a spacious and
handsome structure. The town is governed by a mayor,
four aldermen, and twelve councillors. Pop. in 1851, 4263.
BASKERVILLE, John, an eminent letter-founder and
printer, was born in 1706, at Wolverley, in Worcestershire.
He was heir to an estate of about L.60 a year, the whole of
which income he allowed to his parents during their lives.
In his early years he conceived a love for calligraphy and
cutting in stone; and being brought up to no particular
profession, he became a writing-master at Birmingham when
about twenty years of age. Here the improvements made
in different manufactures soon drew his attention, and he
applied to the business of japanning, which he carried on
for a long time with distinguished excellence and success.
In 1750 he turned his attention to letter-founding, which,
with much labour and expense, he brought to great per¬
fection, and in a few years proceeded to printing. His
first work was an edition of Virgil in royal quarto. Soon
after this the university of Cambridge granted him permis¬
sion to print a Bible in royal folio, and editions of the Com¬
mon Prayer in three sizes; a privilege for which he paid a
considerable sum to the university. He afterwards printed
Horace, Terence, Catullus, Lucretius, Juvenal, Sallust, and
Florus, in royal quarto; Virgil in octavo; and several books
in duodecimo. He likewise published some of the English
classics. These books are admirable specimens of typogra¬
phy ; and indeed Baskerville is deservedly ranked among
those who, in modern times, have brought the art ot print¬
ing to its greatest perfection. It has been observed, how¬
ever, that his books are far more elegantly than correctly
printed. Not having met with that encouragement which
he expected from the booksellers, Baskerville set up his
letter thundery for sale a little before his death, which took
place in July 1775.
BASKET, a utensil made of twigs, rushes, or chips, as
well as of a variety of other materials, interwoven together,
and used for holding or carrying any commodity. Ihe an¬
cient Britons were noted for their ingenuity in making bas¬
kets, which they exported in large quantities. These baskets
were of very elegant workmanship, and bore a high price.
They are mentioned by Juvenal among the extravagantly
expensive furniture of the Roman tables in his time.
1 See a very learned and satisfactory article on the Greek Texts of the Roman Law, in the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. xiv.
2 The words of Juvenal are, Adde et bascaudas et mills escaria, “ Add baskets, and a thousand other dishes. That these baskets
were of British manufacture is evident from the lines of Martial:
“ Barba a de pictis veni bascauda Britannis,
Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma suam.”
BASKET-MAKING.
487
Basket- Basket-Making. Modern ingenuity has applied many
making, substances before unthought of to the construction of bas-
kets, such as iron and even glass. But wicker-work being
the oldest as well as the most universal invention, it alone
will be treated of in the present article. The process of in¬
terweaving twigs, reeds, or leaves, is seen among the rudest
nations of the world; and there is known even an inferior
specimen of art among the natives of Van Diemen’s Land,
consisting of a bunch of rushes tied together at either end,
which, spread out in the middle, forms a basket. But the
sudden alteration of shape obviously renders this construc¬
tion less convenient; whence the same and other tribes
make a basket of leaves interwoven, and that so skilfully
executed, that it retains either milk or water. A bundle of
rushes spread out may be compared to the warp of a web,
and the application of others across it to the woof, also an
early discovery ; for basket-making is literally a web of the
coarsest materials. By experience these materials are re¬
fined and ornamented; and, in the most improved stages
of manufacture, neat and useful implements and utensils
are produced. Scarcely any nation has been entirely igno¬
rant of the art; and our ancestors in this island made bas¬
kets which, as we have already stated, were carried to Home
either for use or ornament.
Basket-making, however, has by no means been con¬
fined to the fabrication of those simple and useful utensils
from which its name is derived. Of old, the shields of
soldiers were fashioned of wicker-work, either plain or
covered with hides ; and the like has been witnessed among
modern savages. In Britain, the wicker boats of the natives,
covered with the skins of animals, attracted the notice of
the Romans ; and Herodotus mentions boats of this kind on
the Tigris and Euphrates. But there was this difference,
that the former seem to have been of the ordinary figure
of a boat, whereas the latter were round and covered with
bitumen. Boats of this shape, about seven feet in diameter,
are used at the present day on these rivers; and boats of
analogous construction are employed in crossing the rivers
of India which have not a rapid current. Nothing can be
more expeditious or more simple than the fabrication and
materials of these vessels, if they merit that name. One
may be made by six men in as many hours. Only two sub¬
stances, almost always accessible, are used,—hides and bam¬
boo. They are navigated either by paddles where the water
is deep, or are pushed over a shallow bottom with long poles ;
and the passengers within are safely transported, being kept
dry by planks and pieces of wood at the bottom. The
basket-boats on the river Krishna, in the same country, are
about twelve feet in diameter and four feet deep. Whole
armies are thus enabled to continue their march, and even
heavy artillery has been conveyed in this manner across
rivers. Sometimes the boats are towed by bullocks fastened
to them, and goaded on in the proper direction. In different
parts of the world, whole houses, cottages, fences, and gates,
are formed of basket or wicker work. On the Continent,
a two-horse carriage, called a Holstein waggon, of very con¬
siderable size, and fit to carry several persons, is composed
solely of basket-work. The same is done in Britain with
regard to the bodies of gigs; and an appendage of the
stage-coaches is literally designed the basket; besides a vast
variety of works on a smaller scale.
In respect to the materials employed, besides those speci¬
fied as belonging to the ruder nations, there are many which
are equally the product of nature and art. Twigs, branches,
straw, and whalebone, are all of the number. The natives
of some parts of South America make baskets simply of
rushes, so closely interwoven as to hold water ; and thousands
of them are annually sold in the Spanish provinces. The
Kaffirs and Hottentots are alike skilful with the roots of plants.
But of all materials, osiers or willows are in most general use.
Osiers employed for basket-making are either taken en¬
tire, cut from the root, split asunder, or stripped of their
bark, according to the work to be produced; but in the
latter case they are previously soaked in water. The strip¬
ping is performed by drawing the willows through an iron-
edged implement called brakes, which removes the bark, and
the willows are then cleaned, as far as necessary, by manual
operation with a sharp knife. Next they are exposed to the
sun and air, and afterwards placed in a dry situation. But it
is not the less necessary to preserve willows with their bark in
the same manner; for nothing can be more injurious than
the humidity inherent in the plant; and previous to use they
must be soaked some days in water also. The barked or white
osier is then divided into bundles or faggots according to size;
the larger beingreserved to form the strong work in the skele¬
ton of the basket, and the smaller for weaving the bottom
and sides. Should the latter be applied to ordinary work,
they are taken whole ; but for implements of slight and finer
texture, each osier is divided into splits and skains; which
names denote the different degrees of size to which they
are reduced. Splits are osiers cleft into four parts, by means
of a particular implement employed for that purpose, con¬
sisting of two edge tools placed at right angles, whereby the
rod is longitudinally divided down the pith. These are next
drawn through an implement resembling the common spoke-
shave, keeping the grain of the split next the wood or stock
of the shave, while the pith is presented to the edge of the
iron, which is set in an oblique direction to the wood: and
in order to bring the split into a shape still more regular, it
is passed through another implement called an upright, con¬
sisting of a flat piece of steel, each end of which is fashioned
into a cutting edge, like that of an ordinary chisel. The flat
is bent round, so that the two edges approach each other at a
greater or less interval by means of regulating screws, and
the whole is fixed into a handle. By passing the splits be¬
tween the two edges they are reduced to skains, the thick¬
ness of which is determined by the interval between the
edges of the tool. All the implements required by a basket-
maker are few and simple: they consist, besides the pre¬
ceding, of knives, bodkins and drills for boring, leads for
keeping the work steady while in process, and, where it is
of small dimensions, a heavy piece of iron called a beater,
which is employed to beat the basket close as it is augmented.
Thus a basket-maker has this great advantage over many
other artificers, that he can establish himself in his profession
at the most inconsiderable expense either for tools or materials.
An ordinary basket is made by preparing the requisite
number of osiers, and preserving their length considerably
greater than that of the finished work. They are ranged
in pairs on the floor parallel to each other, at small intervals,
in the direction of the longer diameter of the basket; and
this may be called the woof; for, as we have said, basket-
work is literally a web. These parallel rods are then crossed
at right angles by two of the largest osiers, with the thick
ends towards the workman, who places his foot upon them ;
and weaving each alternately over and under the parallel
pieces first laid down, they are by that means confined in
their places. The whole now forms what is technically called
the slat or slate, which is the foundation of the basket. Next,
the long end of one of the two rods is taken and woven un¬
der and over the pairs of short ends all round the bottom,
until the whole be woven in. The same is done with the
other rod, and then additional long osiers are also woven
in, until the bottom be of sufficient size, and the woof be
occupied by them. Thus the bottom or foundation on
which the superstructure is to be raised is finished; and
this latter part is accomplished by sharpening the large ends
of as many long and stout osiers as may be necessary to form
the ribs or skeleton. These are forced or plaited between
the rods of the bottom from the edge towards the centre,
and are turned up in the direction of the sides ; then other
rods are woven in and out between each of them, until the
Basket¬
making.
488
BASKET-MAKING.
Basket- basket is raised to the intended height, or, more correct y
making, speaking, the depth it is to receive. The edge or brim is
—v/—^ finished by turning down the perpendicular ends of the ribs,
now protruding and standing up over each other, whereby
the whole is firmly and compactly united. A handle is
adapted to the work by forcing two or three osiers, sharp¬
ened at the end, and cut to the requisite length, down the
weaving of the sides, close together; and they are pinne
fast, about two inches from the brim, in order that the ban e,
when completed, may be retained in its proper position. ie
osiers are then either bound or plaited in such fashion as
pleases the taste of the artist. , . ,
[ This is the most simple kind of basket, from which others
differ only in finer materials and nicer execution; but in
these there is considerable scope for taste and fancy, and
implements are produced of extreme neatness and ingenuity
in construction. Some are formed of twigs or straw entire ;
others of sections, split of various thickness, coloured, plaited,
or plain ; and baskets of endless variety in size, figure, and
texture, are fabricated according to the artist s inclination.
The skains are frequently smoked and dyed either of dull
or brilliant colours, and by intermixing them judiciously a
very good effect is produced.
From the simplicity of this manufacture, a great many in¬
dividuals, independent of professed basket-makers, are occu¬
pied in it; and, fortunately, it affords employment to the bond
in the several asylums established for their reception. JNot
that persons suffering privation of sight are incapable of more
ingenious and delicate mechanical exercises, but the facility ot
teaching and acquiring the principles of basket-making being
alike obvious, is one of the strongest recommendations in its
favour. At Liverpool, where there is an asylum of this de¬
scription, the art is practised with success ; and in the city
of Edinburgh a number of the blind find employment of the
same kind in the asylum established there.
The best materials for basket-making have been prmci-
pallv imported into Great Britain from France and Holland ;
but'the duration of the late war induced the inhabitants of
this country to endeavour to obtain a supply at home. Cul¬
tivation of the osier was imperfectly understood m England,
and in Scotland it scarcely received any attention whatever ;
whence, as a suitable encouragement, that patriotic society
whose notice is specially directed to the improvement of arts
and manufactures, offered premiums to those cultivators who
should raise the greatest quantity, not being less than bUOO
plants on an acre.
It became an object with such cultivators to ascertain,
not only the quantity that could be obtained, but the quality
of the produce ; which was of the greater consequence, as
many plants, passing under the general name of osiers, and
even possessing their external characters, are ill adapted for
the work intended. But considerable light has been thrown
on the subject by Mr Philipps of Ely, who was early re¬
warded by a premium on account of the utility of his ob¬
servations. He remarks that the osier is a species of salix,
of which there are many varieties ; and that these may be
comprehended under two classes, the first containing nine
or ten species. None, however, excepting one, the gray or
brindled osier, is of use. This, in common with the others,
has a light-coloured leaf, but is distinguished by the bark
being streaked with red or blood colour; and it is of late
introduction into Britain, having been first planted in the isle
of Ely, where the observer’s experiments seem to have been
chiefly made. It grows vigorously, is very hardy and tough,
and bleaches well. All the others of the same class prefer
a wet soil, where they grow quickly and large, flourishing
even in the most barren kind of peat; but they are coarse
and spongy, have a thick pith, and are extremely perishable.
Nevertheless they are sometimes used for coarser workman¬
ship, and are profitable to those who live in the vicinity of
places where there is a great demand for osiers, and cheap
conveyance. During the interruption of Continental inter¬
course they were much resorted to by basket-makers: but
their inferiority has brought the English baskets into disre-
pute in foreign markets. The second class, according to
Mr Philipps, contains four or five different species. One of
these, the Welsh willow, is very tough and durable, but not
of a favourable colour. There are two varieties, red and white,
the former of which is preferred, and forms part of every
plantation, from its particular utility in tying up the bundles
of willows after they have been barked or whitened. I he
bitterness of this plant is such as to be a protection from the
depredations of cattle. Besides these there are the west
country Spaniard, the new willow, the French, and the re
Kent willow. The first has been superseded by others of
superior quality ; but experience proves that an acre will
carry 2000 plants more of them than of some which are m
higher repute. But the most esteemed of all is the French
willow, especially as being most adapted for smaller and finer
work in baskets, fans, hats, and other light articles. It is
rather of slow growth, but extremely taper, pliant, close-
grained, tough, and durable. Great quantities of it are al¬
ways imported from the Continent, its culture being more
neglected here than that of the others; however, it must be
distinguished from a species resembling it, which is charac¬
terized by the brittleness of the leaves, which snap like glass
when drawn through the fingers. Plantations of the r rench
willow have been strongly recommended as forming a use¬
ful commodity, and being always in demand. Having at¬
tained the requisite maturity, all willows are cut down and
made up into bunches in iron hoops 36 or 40 inches in dia¬
meter, for the manufacturers, and are sold either in this
way or in loads, the price being subject to fluctuation ac¬
cording to the scarcity or abundance of the commodity.
In regard to the cultivation of osiers very different opin¬
ions prevail; originating, it is probable, from too limited
experiments, combined with the diversity of soil and cli¬
mate. Mr Philipps, whose opinions are entitled to atten¬
tion, conceives that autumn, and not spring, is the most pro¬
per season for planting willows : the stagnation of the juices
he considers the true criterion whereby to regulate the
period, but not on account of the set so much as on account
of the trunk ; for if the shoot be severed when the sap is in
circulation, the parent plant bleeds to death. The osieis
which he planted in the first week of October he found to
have struck roots about Christmas, though there was no ex¬
ternal sign of vegetation. In prosecuting this subject Mr
Philipps observes, that he made a plantation in autumn, and
filled up part of the ground which was vacant, in the fol¬
lowing month of March, with additional sets. The latter
were the further advanced in May, but in June the autumn
plants had the advantage, and continued growing well, while
many of the others died. In summer, he remarks, when
the fibres have been formed before the winter, or when a
tendency to form them has been observed by the swelling
of the bark, and particularly at the eye, the plant is enabled
to charge itself with a sufficient portion of the juices to an¬
swer the demand of spring.” Therefore he concludes that
the proper rule is to plant as early in autumn as the shoots
may be cut, without injuring the parent stock. The culti¬
vator lays out the ground in beds or burrows eighteen feet
broad, digging ditches nine feet wide on each side. 1 lie
upper surface of the ditches, to the depth of fourteen inches,
is thrown on the beds, and the remainder of what is ex¬
cavated from them is used for turf or fuel. 1 he beds, novv
consisting of about two feet and a half thick of solid eart
above the surface of the substratum of peat, are planted in
the following autumn, and produce good crops.
Experiments have been made by various cultivators re¬
specting the suitableness of different soils, after having borne
different kinds of grain. Mr Sheriff has related a F°fitab e
mode of culture practised by him in Scotland, and also made
Basket-
making.
BAS
Basket- some judicious observations on the subject in general. He
making, remarks that the finest and most valuable twigs can be pro-
cured only from land cured of chilling weeping springs ;
and if the soil is not of considerable thickness, it must be
rendered so by manure. Moderate moisture is favourable
to the production of fine twigs, but water constantly stag¬
nant is ruinous. He proposes to make the cuts or shoots
from fifteen to seventeen inches in length, and to allow four
or five inches to remain above ground, to be cut down by
the surface of the soil, when the heads of the stocks shall,
in a series of years, have become too bushy. By this ope¬
ration the vigour of the plant is renewed in the most de¬
cided manner. Mr Sheriff forgets, however, that, in the time
he mentions, a much greater protrusion from the earth will
have taken place by the simple vegetation of the plant than
is necessary to leave room for cutting off the head. It is
necessary, in his opinion, to trim and dress the stocks from
decayed wood, and to retain only as many buds on each as
the plant may be expected to bring to perfection in length
and strength of shoot. Thus the superabundant stumps of
old wood are cut down, and the weakest shoots extirpated,
in November and December, or March and April; and sel¬
dom more than two buds should be left on those selected to
stand and produce the next summer’s growth. He con¬
siders the leading errors of those who have attempted the
cultivation of osiers to consist in employing improper soil,
peat-earth perhaps, or poor bogs ; and also in defective pre¬
paration of the soil, though suitable in other respects. Failure
may, besides, arise from planting bad or useless species of
osiers ; putting too few cuts in the ground ; neglecting their
subsequent culture, particularly during the first spring and
summer after plantation ; and allowing the shoots to be cut
down after Christmas and before the middle of March,
which renders the stocks liable to be much weakened by
hard frosts succeeding heavy rains, immediately after the
twigs have been cut, and before the wounds from the knife
have healed. By pursuing a system analogous to what is
here exposed, he calculates the profits of an acre of osiers at
about L.18, 10s.; and he mentions that he contracted to re¬
ceive a sum between L.220 and L.250 for the produce of
twelve statute acres and a half. It does not appear, how¬
ever, that this was an annual crop, and it is rather to be in¬
ferred that willows of several years’ growth formed part of
it. Mr Sheriff’s experiments and observations were re¬
warded with the gold medal of the Society for the En¬
couragement of Arts and Manufactures. Another cultiva¬
tor, Mr Wade, calculated his profits on fourteen acres, which
were planted with 12,000 sets each, at intervals of twenty-
six inches by ten, as amounting to L.10 per acre.
Among the experiments on the quality of soil may be
instanced a plantation made in spring, of large cuttings,
eighteen inches long, thrust so far into the earth as to leave
four or five inches protruding. Part of the ground had been
m wheat after summer fallow, and part, which was also
planted, had been sown with grass seeds. The plants made
a more vigorous shoot in spring than at any subsequent
period, and of the whole but few failed. Those which suc¬
ceeded the wheat produced the best osiers, and those which
were planted among the grass seeds the worst. Both stood
on a strong clay soil; and from the difference seen here, it
has been concluded, that, as the cleanest ground produced
the best crop, summer fallowing would be advantageous.
Another example is given, where, of 350 sets planted in
garden ground, the soil of which was clay, 341 succeeded;
producing, in the first year apparently, a bundle thirty-eight
inches in circumference, and some of the osiers above ten
leet long. They were planted in the latter end of March,
and arranged in rows, between which was sown a crop of
beans. Both the interval separating the plants and their age
are arbitrary, as is also the extent of the plantation, and we
may likewise add the quality of the soil; for experiments
VOL. iv.
BAS 489
have not been made on a sufficient scale to determine the Baskets of
fact. The most superficial observer cannot fail to have re- Earth
marked the comparative slenderness of all plants crowded ^
together, and the superior strength of those apart from each ^ ° j,
other. The sets of osiers, for several reasons, should be in-
serted in regular rowrs. Their age does not appear impor¬
tant, and nowhere is a more vigorous crop produced than
from the root of the oldest tree deprived of its trunk. In
general, previous preparation of the ground is profitable ;
and plantations may thence be formed, which are to be an¬
nually cut down for baskets and such light utensils ; but the
shoot is allowed to grow two, or even four years, if strong
rods are required for larger and coarser w orkmanship. The
rapidity and certainty with which this plant vegetates pre¬
serves it in a manner under absolute control, and peculiarly
adapts it for a variety of mechanical purposes. Many culti¬
vators recommend deep insertion of the shoot into the
ground; but here there is a limitation ; for if it be too
deeply inserted, the vegetation will be less vigorous. At
the same time, the powerful tendency to vegetation in a
willow is rather an exception to ordinary rules; and although
the lower part be injured, roots may spring nearer the sur¬
face. But it is not to be overlooked, that if a tree be trans¬
planted into too deep a pit, the root, instead of striking out
new fibres, remains inactive, and the tree withers and de¬
cays ; or if seeds be deposited too deeply in the earth, no
vegetation will ensue ; whereas, even those on the surface
will put forth a radicle, and establish themselves there. In
the former case, they either lose the germinative faculty, or
are destroyed ; but if a tree be transplanted into a shallow
pit the root will spread, and the whole will exhibit a luxu¬
riant vegetation. These are facts which demand greater
attention than they usually receive ; and the depth at which
the shoots of osiers are inserted should be carefully observed.
Nevertheless we must repeat, that it does appear that deep
insertion is not as noxious to them as to other plants.
It was long supposed that willows flourish nowhere but
with abundance of water. Undoubtedly, adequate hu¬
midity is very essential; but this general position was quite
erroneous, as experiment and observation daily testify. Wil¬
lows growing in water have almost invariably a sickly aspect;
few strong or healthy scions spring from them; and their
vegetation is never so vigorous as when they are at some
distance from it. Every plant has a predilection for a par¬
ticular place, where the conditions of its aliment and vege¬
tation concur. The willow requires a considerable degree
of humidity, though it may also be seen vigorous on drier
soils; but the vicinity of water is an essential quality in
selecting a suitable spot for a plantation. The purposes to
which the plants are to be applied must be considered, and
the circumstances of their growth so regulated that they
may become suitable for the object in view. There is little
doubt that, with due notice and consideration, this plant may
receive great amelioration by culture.
All plantations must be well fenced against cattle, as the
willow, both shoot and leaf, is with them a favourite kind or
food; and as at certain seasons of the year some particular
caterpillars infest the plant, stripping it totally bare and in¬
juring its vegetation, care should also be taken to remove
them as effectually as possible. (j. g. d.)
Baskets of Earth, called in French corbeilles, are some¬
times placed on the parapet of a trench, to form a sort of
epaulement or breastwork, between which the soldiers fire
upon the enemy.
BASKING SHARK, a very large and powerful but
harmless species of shark. See Ichthyology, Selache.
BASNAGE, Jacques, a learned author, and pastor of
the Walloon church at the Hague, was born at Rouen in
Normandy on the 8th of August 1653. He was the son of
Henri Basnage, one of the ablest advocates in the parlia¬
ment of Normandy. At the age of seventeen, having made
3 Q
490
BAS
Basnage himself master of the Greek and Latin authors, as well as
II of the English, Spanish, and Italian languages, he went to
Basque Qeneva where he began his theological studies under ivies
Prcmnces-trezat, Turretin, and Tronchin; and completed them at
 ^ Sedan, under the professors Juneu and Le Blanc de Be
lieu. He then returned to Rouen, where he wa& received
as minister in September 1676 ; and in this ^ ie;
mained till the year 1685, when the exercise of the Rrotes
tant religion being suppressed at Rouen, he obtained leave
S the klig to redre ^Holland. He settled at Rotterdam
and continued a minister pensionary there till 1691, whe
he was chosen pastor of the Walloon church of that city.
In 1709, the pensionary Heinsms got him elected on
pastors of the Walloon church at the Hague, intending to
Soy him not only in religious but also in civil affairs
Accordingly he was engaged in a secret ^
Marshal d’Uxelles, plenipotentiary of France at the confess
of Utrecht; a service which he executed with so much sue
cess that he was afterwards intrusted with several important
commissions, all of which he dischilrSedhl" SvUC^j ^esT
as to establish a high character for *Shat he
Indeed, a celebrated modern writer has said of him, that tie
was fitter to be a minister of state than the minister of a
parish. The Abbe Dubois, who was sent to the Hague in
1716, as ambassador plenipotentiary from His Most Chris-
tian Maiesty, in order to negotiate a defensive alliance be¬
tween France, England, and the States General, received
instructions from thlDuke of Orleans, then regent of France,
to address himself to M. Basnage, and to follow his advice.
they accordingly acted in concert, and the alliance was con¬
cluded in January 1717. His published works, which ate
mostly in French, spread his reputation over the greater
part of Europe. Among these are, The History of the
Reliqion of the Reformed Churches; Jewish Antiquities,
The History of the Old and New Testament; Dissertation
on Duels, %c. He died on the 22d September 1723.
Basnage, Henri, Sieur de Beauval, was the second son
of Henri Basnage, and brother of the preceding. He studied
the law, and was admitted an advocate in the parliament
of Rouen in 1679. He practised with great reputation, till
the revocation of the edict of Nantes obliged him to fly to
Holland, where he composed the greater part of his wor s.
He died in 1710, aged fifty-four. His chief work is his
Histoire des Ouvrages des Sqavans, Rotterdam, 2 vo
l2mo. . c .
BASON, or Basin, in Hydraulics, a reservoir ot water,
used for various purposes.
BASQUE Language. The language spoken by tne
Spaniards in what are called the Basque provinces, as also
in Navarre. The people call it Escuara. For a long time
it was supposed to be a dialect of the Celtic; but later re¬
searches show that there is good ground for considering it as
a distinct ancient language, and as having been once spoken
over all the Peninsula. This is proved by the ancient names
of mountains, towns, and rivers being decidedly derived from
Basque radicals ; as is shown in the curious Inquiries ot
William Von Humboldt, published at Berlin in 1821; and by
the dictionary and grammar of this tongue recently published.
The structure of the verb is complex—it is considered as
having 11 moods and 46 tenses; so as to exhibit all the re¬
lations of the agent to the action, and to the object it affects.
The substantive has no distinction of gender ; the articles
are two, a for the singular, and ac for the plural; the cases
are marked bv affixes or prepositions. In the structure ot
the sentences the noun occupies the first place ; it is followed
by the article, then the adjective, next the adverb, the verb,
the thing acted upon, and lastly the affix.
Basque Provinces {Provincias Vascongadas). ine
three Spanish provinces known by this name, which are
distinguished from all the other divisions of Spain by the
character, language, and manners of the inhabitants, and by
BAS
the enjoyment of political privileges which make the form Bass
of their government nearly republican, are Biscay (Vizcaya), BaJ
Guipuzcoa, and Alava. The territory occupied by them v  •
is in the form of a triangle, bounded on the N. by the bay
of Biscay, S. by Soria, E. by Navarra and part of France,
and W. by Santander and Burgos. It comprises an area of
2958 square miles; pop. in 1849, 373,149. These three
provinces are more particularly described under their respec¬
tive heads. The ancient French Basque provinces now
form the arrondissements of Bayonne and Mauleon.
BASS, or Base, in Music, means, in a general sense, the
lowest part in a composition for two or more voices or in¬
struments, or for an organ or pianoforte, &c. A funda¬
mental bass is that in which each note bears a direct har-
monv only, i. e., a common chord or a chord of the seventh.
A thorough bass (Basso continuo in Italian), or continuous
bass, is that which, on the organ or pianoforte, accompanies
a musical composition throughout, and of which the har¬
mony played by the right hand consists of a judicious selec¬
tion of chords drawn from the upper parts ot the composition.
(See Music, §§ Harmony, Organ, Pianoforte ; and Accom¬
paniment, in appendix to Music.) _ t - 'F' /
Bass Rock, an islet about a mile in circumference, situ¬
ated on the coast of East Lothian, near the entrance of the
Firth of Forth, and at a short distance from the town ot
North Berwick. It is steep and inaccessible on all sides,
except to the south; and even there it is with some diffi¬
culty that a single person can ascend. In ancient times it
belonged to the Lauders; and although long solicited b\
royalty, it was not acquired till 1671, when Charles II. pur¬
chased it. Its insulated situation and inaccessible nature soon
suggested the idea of a state prison, which was accordingly
erected in the reign of Charles, or in that of his brother
James, together with some trifling fortifications. It was
here that some of the Covenanters were confined, who had
been found in arms against the king. At the revolution
a party of King James’s adherents got possession of the
Bass. “ There being a fountain sufficient to supply water on
its summit, with pasturage for the maintenance of a few
sheep, and a small rabbit-warren, they were enabled to hold
possession, carrying on their piratical operations by means of
a boat, which they'hoisted upon the rock, out of the reac
of attack, and let down at pleasure. This party captured a
great many vessels, and held out for King James long after
the whole of Great Britain had submitted. Their boat, how¬
ever, was at last seized or lost, upon which they were obfiged
to surrender for want of provisions. After this the island
was dismantled of its fortifications. It is now the property
of Sir Hew Dalrymple Hamilton of North Berwick. There
is a cavern which runs quite through the rock and is ac¬
cessible at low water, affording refuge for a multitude of mid
pigeons. The sea-fowl, which resort to this spot during the
breeding season, nearly cover its sides and a large P?rt‘
of its surface. Of these the gannet or solan goose is the
principal; with puffins, cormorants, and kittywakes. I
island is farmed at a considerable rent for the sake of the bn
and eggs, which are brought to market. The rock constats of
greenstone and trap tuffa. Long. 2. 37. W. Lat. Qtx 4. in-
(See The Bass Rock, its Civic and Ecclesiastical History,
Bass’s Straits, the channel which separates New Hoi
land from Van Diemen’s Land. It is nearly fifty eagues m
length from E. to W., and about the same breadth from N.
to S. The navigation of this strait is rendered dangerous
in some parts by groups of barren and unproductive islanc s,
scattered through it. Van Diemen’s Land was supposed
by all the earlier navigators to form a part of N ’
until Mr Bass, the surgeon of a man-of-war, conceived tl
there were indications of a channel. This conjecture was found
to be correct; and the channel has
Bass-Viol, a large old instrument of the violin family,
BAS
Bassani with six strings and a fretted finger-board; long since su-
[) perseded by the violoncello.
Bassein. BASSANI, Giovanni Battista, maestro di cappella
of the cathedral church of Bologna, was born at Padua
about the year 1657. His works, which are very voluminous,
consist of psalms, masses, motets with instrumental parts, and
sonatas for the violin ; on which last-mentioned instrument
he was an admirable performer. It is said that he was the in¬
structor of Corelli. His fifth opera, in particular, containing
twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass, is written in a style
wonderfully grave and pathetic, and abounding with evidences
of great learning and fine invention. The first and third
operas of Corelli are apparently modelled after this work.
Bassani was one of the first who composed motets for a single
voice, with accompaniments of violins; a practice which is
liable to objection, as it assimilates church-music too nearly
to that of the chamber.
, BASSANO, Giacomo da Ponte, a celebrated Venetian
painter, born in 1510. His subjects were generally peasants
and villagers, cattle, landscapes, with some portraits and
historical designs. His figures are well designed, and his
animals and landscapes have an agreeable air of simple na¬
ture. His compositions, though devoid of much elegance
or grandeur, have abundance of force and truth: the local
colours are well observed, the carnations are fresh and bril¬
liant, and his chiaroscuro and perspective are unexception¬
able. He finished a great number of pictures; but not¬
withstanding his application, his genuine works are rare;
many of those which are called originals being either copies
by the sons of Bassano, or others. His true pictures, when
undamaged, always bear a considerable price. He died in
1592, aged eighty-two. Francesco and Leandro, his sons,
made some progress in the same art; but inheriting a species
of lunacy from their mother, both came to an untimely end.
Bassano, a city in the Austrian kingdom of Vene¬
tian Lombardy, in the delegation of Vicenza. It stands on
the river Brenta, over which there is a bridge 180 feet in
length. It is surrounded with walls, and has six gates, one
of which, built by Palladio, is very much admired. It con¬
tains 30 churches with some fine paintings, several religious
houses, and other public edifices. Pop. about 12,000. It
has extensive silk mills, besides manufactures of cloth, paper,
straw hats, copper ware, &c.; and the printing establishment
of S. Remondini employs about 1000 persons.
BASSANTIN, James, a Scotch astronomer, son of the
Laird of Bassantin, in Teviotdale, was born in the reign of
James IV. Educated at the university of Glasgow, he
travelled through Germany and Italy, and then fixed his
abode in the university of Paris, where he taught mathe¬
matics with great applause. Having acquired some fortune
in this occupation, he returned in 1562 to Scotland, where
he died in the year 1568. From his writings he appears to
have been no contemptible astronomer, considering the
times ; but, like most of the mathematicians of that age, he
was not a little addicted to judicial astrology. His works
are, 1. Astronomia Jacobi Bassantini Scoti, opus absolu-
tissimum, fyc., ter editum Latine et Gallice. Genev. 1599,
folio. This is the title given it by Tornaesius, who trans¬
lated it into Latin from the French, in which language it
was first published. 2. Paraphrase de VAstrolabe, avec un
amplification de Vusage de VAstrolabe. Lyons, 1555. Paris,
1617, 8vo. 3. Mathematica Geneihliaca. 4. Arithmetica.
v>* Musica secundum Platonem. 6. De Mathesi in genere.
BASSE Terre, capital of the island of St Christopher,
one of the Caribbee Islands. See Christopher’s Island, St.
BASSEIN, a town in the Burmese territory, formerly
included within the possessions of the sovereign of Ava,
but now belonging to the British. It is the chief place of
a district of the same name, and forms part of the pro¬
vince or kingdom (for such it once was) of Pegu, recently
incorporated by the British Government with the dominions
BAS '491
under its administration. Bassein is seated on one of the Basset,
channels by which the great river Irawaddy finds its way to
the sea; which from its divergence down to the town, is
called Bassein River, and subsequently the Negrais. In
the first war with Burmah (carried on under the govern¬
ment of Lord Amherst), this place was taken without oppo¬
sition ; the governor having abandoned the town and burnt
it on the approach of the British force. In 1852 its cap¬
ture was again sought and was obtained, but not without a
struggle. On the 17th May in that year, a military force
of between 700 and 800 men, with some seamen of one of
H. M. ships, embarked on board several steamers at Ran¬
goon, and proceeded up the river to Bassein, abreast of which
place the squadron anchored on the 19th. The assailants
were landed forthwith ; a pagoda was immediately carried;
a strong mud fort was then gallantly stormed, and a stockade
on the opposite side of the river was simultaneously at¬
tacked with success. The loss of the British was not great:
that of the enemy was believed to be considerable.
The port of Bassein is stated to have a greater depth of
water than that of Rangoon ; but it is not considered to be so
advantageously situated for trade ; and intercourse with the
northern portion of the Burmese territories by water can
be maintained during only part of the year. Lat. 16. 45.
Long. 94. 50. (e. t.)
BASSET, or Basette, a game with cards, said to have
been invented by a noble Venetian, who was banished for
his invention. It was first introduced into France by Sig-
nior Justiniani, the Venetian ambassador, in 1674. Severe
laws were made against it by Louis XIV., to elude which
they disguised basset under the name of pour et contre, which
occasioned new arrets and prohibitions of parliament.
The parties concerned in this game area dealer or banker ;
his assistant, who supervises the losing cards ; and the
punter, or any one who plays against the banker. Besides
these, there are other terms used in this game. 1. The
fasse or face is the first card turned up by the tailleur be¬
longing to the pack, by which he gains the value of half
the money laid down on every card of that sort by the pun¬
ters. 2. The couch is the first money which every punter
puts on each card; each person who plays having a book
of thirteen several cards before him, on which he may lay
his money, more or less, at discretion. 3. The paroli is,
when a punter, having won the first stake, and having a mind
to pursue his good fortune, crooks the corner of his card,
and lets his prize lie, aiming at a sept et le va. 4. The masse
is, when having won the first stake, the punter is willing to
venture more money on the same card. 5. The pay is,
when the punter, having won the first stake, be it a shilling,
half-crown, guinea, or whatever he laid down on his card,
and not caring to hazard the paroli, leaves off, or goes the
pay ; in which case, if the card turn up wrong, he loses
nothing, having won the couch before ; whereas if it turn
right, he by this adventure wins double the money staked.
6. The alpiew is much the same with paroli, and is used when
a couch is won by turning up or crooking the corner of the
winning card. 7. Sept et le va is the first great chance or
prize, when the punter, having won the couch, makes a
paroli, and goes on to a second cliance, so that if his winning
card turns up again, it comes to sept et le va, which is seven
times as much as he laid down on his card. 8. Quinze et
le va is the next higher prize, when the punter, having won
the former, is resolved to push his fortune, and lay his money
a second time on the same card, by crooking another cor¬
ner ; in which case, if it comes up he wins fifteen times the
money he laid down. 9. Trent et le va is the next higher
prize, when the punter, crooking the fourth corner of his
winning card, if it turn up, wins thirty-three times the mo¬
ney he first staked. 10. Soixanl et le va is the highest
prize, and entitles the winner to sixty-seven times his first
money, which, if it be considerable, may chance to break
492
BAS
BAS
Basset-
horn
II
Bassi.
the bank ; but the bank has many chances of first breaking
the punter. This cannot be won but by the tailleur s deal¬
ing the cards over again.
, The rules of the game of basset are as follow: 1. i ne
banker holds a pack of fifty-two cards, and having shuffled
them, he turns the whole pack at once, so as to discover
the last card; after which he lays down all the cards by
couples. 2. The punter has his book of thirteen cards in
his hand, from the king to the ace, and out of these he takes
one card or more at pleasure, upon which he lays a stake.
3. The punter may, at his choice, either lay down his stake
before the pack is turned, or immediately after it is turned,
or after anv number of couples are down. 4. Supposing
the punter to lay down his stake after the pack is turne ,
and calling 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., the places of those cards which
follow the card in view, either immediately after the pack is
turned or after any number of couples are drawn ; then, o.
If the card upon which the punter has laid a stake come
out in any even place except the first, he wins a stake equa
to his own. 6. If the card upon which the punter has laid
a stake come out in any even place except the second, he
loses his stake. 7. If the card of the punter come out in the
first place, he neither wins nor loses, but takes his own stake
again. 8. If the card of the punter come out in the second
place, he does not lose his whole stake, but only one-ha ,
and this is the case in which the punter is said to he faced.
9. When the punter chooses to come in after any number
of couples are down, if his card happen to be but once in
the pack, and is the last of all, there is an exception from the
general rule; for, although it comes out in an odd place,
which should entitle him to win a stake equal to his own,
yet he neither wins nor loses from that circumstance, but
takes back his own stake. ■ ^ ^ ^
This game has been the object of mathematical calcula¬
tion ; and M. de Moivre solves this problem: To estimate
at basset the loss of the punter under any circumstance of
cards remaining in the stock when he lays his stake, and of
any number of times that his card is repeated in the stoc
From the solution he has formed a table showing the
several losses of the punter in whatsoever circumstances he
may happen to be. From this table it appears, 1. I hat the
fewer the cards in the stock, the greater is the loss of the
punter: 2. That the least loss of the punter, under the same
circumstances of cards remaining in the stock, is when his
card is but twice in it; the next greater when but three
times ; the next greater when four times ; and the greatest
of all when but once. The gain of the banker upon all the
money adventured at basset is 15s. 3d. per cent.
Basset-Horn. See Music, § Musical Instruments.
Basset, Peter, a gentleman of good family, chamberlain
to King Henry V., whom he attended in his campaigns. He
wrote Acta Regis Henrici V., which is said to exist in MS.
in the Heralds’ College.
BASSETING, in the coal mines, denotes the rise of the
vein of coal towards the surface of the earth. This is also called
by the workmen cropping ; and stands opposed to dipping.
BASSI, Laura Maria Caterina, an Italian lady emi¬
nently distinguished for her learning and her virtues, was
born at Bologna in 1711. On account of her extraordinary
attainments she received a doctor’s degree, and was ap¬
pointed professor in the philosophical college, where she de¬
livered public lectures on experimental philosophy till the
time of her death. In 1738 she married Giuseppe Yerrati,
a physician, and left several children. She died in 1778.
BASSI A, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. of Sapotese.
The species are found in India and Africa. B. Butyracea
is a tree of 50 feet in height, found in the Almorah hills
in India. The seeds afford a concrete oil of considerable
economic importance. B. longifolia is also a considerable
tree, the seeds of which yield a valuable oil for lamps,
soap, and in the kitchens of the poor a seasoning for rice. B.
latifolia yields a greenish oil coarser than the last; and its
flowers on distillation yield an ardent spirit. The wood of
all the species is hard and durable.
BASSO-RILIEVO, or Bas-Relief, a piece of sculp¬
ture where the figures or images do not protuberate or stand
out much above the plane on which they are formed. When
cut, stamped, or otherwise wrought, so that not the entire
body, but only part of it, is raised above the plane, it is said
to be done in relief or rilievo ; and when the work is flat,
or little raised, it is called low relief. If a piece of sculp¬
ture, a coin, or a medal, has its figure raised so as to be well
distinguished, it is said to be in bold, strong, or high rehe ,
BASSOON. See Music, § Musical Instruments.
BASSORA. See Bussorah.
BASSUS. See Entomology.
BASTARD, bastardus (fancifully derived from the
Greek /Saaadpa, meretrix, hut with more reason from the Bri¬
tish bastcerd, nothus, spurious, or from the German bastart,
composed of bas, low, and start, risen, Saxon steort, an upstart,
homo novus), one whose father and mother were not lawful y
married previous to his or her birth, or, as it has sometimes
been loosely expressed, one born out of law ful wedlock.
The civil and canon laws do not allow a child to remain
a bastard if the parents afterwards intermarry ; and this is
also the law of Scotland, in which the principle of legitima¬
tion by subsequent marriage has been often and solemnly
recognized. But herein they differ most materially from
the English law; which, though not so strict as to require
that a child shall be begotten, yet makes it an indispensable
condition that it shall be born after lawful wedlock. Black-
stone thinks that the reason of the English law is in this re¬
spect much superior to that of the Roman or of the deriva¬
tive systems, if the principal end arffl design of establishing
the contract of marriage, taken in a civil light, be considered;
but this opinion, however natural in an English lawyer, does
not seem to be borne out by considerations either of prin¬
ciple or of expediency. For although the learned commen¬
tator may be perfectly correct in his estimate of the motives
which actuated the parliament of Merton a.d. 1235, when
they refused to enact that children born in bastardy should
be legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their parents;
yet the question still remains whether such an enactment
would not have been highly beneficial on grounds of pub¬
lic policy, as well as for the protection of private morals,
and whether the experience since acquired has not decided
in its favour ; points concerning which lawyers, in Scotland
at least, have long ceased to entertain any doubt.
Be this, however, as it may, one thing is certain, that all
children born before matrimony are bastards by (Air law ;
and so are all children born so long after the death of the
husband, that by the usual course of gestation, they could
not be begotten by him. But this being a matter of some
uncertainty, the law is not exact as to a few days ; and al¬
though the child is born some time after the usual period of
forty weeks, this only affords presumption, not proof, of ille¬
gitimacy.1 But if a man dies, and his widow soon after
Bassia
Bastard.
1 According to information furnished by the late celebrated anatomist Dr John Ilu°tcA'> lt; aPP ’ ’ or three weeks. 2dly, That
tation is nine calendar months, or from 270 to 280 days; but there is very commonly a difference > ’ reared or attaining man-
a child may he born alive at any time three months after conception, but none are born wit i po hild j perfectly natural
hood before seven calendar months or thereby. 3dly, That he, Dr Hunter had known a woman bear a^iv^
way, fourteen days beyond the completion of nine calendar months; and he believed that t o tural irregularities that the law-
child, in a natural way, above ten calendar months from the hour of conception. It is owing to these natural irregular
has been obliged to admit of considerable latitude in the application of the ordinary rule.
BASTARD.
Bastard, marries again, and a child is born within such a time as that
i i by the course of nature it might have been the child ot either
husband, in this case he is said to be more than ordinarily
legitimate, for when he arrives at years of discretion, he may
choose which of the fathers he pleases. To prevent this,
among other inconveniences, however, the civil law ordained
that no widow should marry infra, or more classically intra,
annum luctus; a rule which obtained as early as the reign
of Augustus, if not of Romulus himself; and the same con¬
stitution was probably handed down to our early ancestors
from the Romans, during their stay in this island, since we
find it established under both the Saxon and the Danish
governments.
But as bastards may be born before the coverture or mar¬
riage state is begun, or after it is determined, so also children
born during wedlock may in some circumstances be bastards;
as if the husband be out of the kingdom of England, or, as
the law loosely phrases it, extra quatuor maria, for above
nine months, so that no access to his wife can be presumed,
her issue during that period is to be accounted bastaid.
But generally during the coverture, access of the husband
is presumed, unless the contrary be shown ; which is such
a negative as can only be proved by showing him to be else¬
where; for the general rule \$,prcesumiturpro legitimatione.
The law of adulterine bastardy was recently commented
on by the late Lord Langdale, Master of the Rolls, in the
case of Hargrave v. Hargrave, 9 Beavan’s Reports, 5o5. His
lordship observes:—“ A child born of a married woman is,
in the first instance, presumed to be legitimate. The pre¬
sumption established by law is not to be rebutted by circum¬
stances which only create doubt and suspicion; but it may be
wholly removed by proper evidence, showing that the hus¬
band was, 1. Incompetent; 2. Entirely absent, so as to have
no intercourse or communication of any kind with the mother;
3. Entirely absent at the period during which the child must,
in the course of nature, have been begotten; or, 4. Only P16-
sent under such circumstances as afford clear and satisfac¬
tory proof that there was no sexual intercourse. Such evi¬
dence as this puts an end to the question, and establishes the
illegitimacy of the child of a married woman. It is, however,
very difficult to conclude against the legitimacy, in cases where
there is no disability, and where some society or communi¬
cation is continued between husband and wife duiing tie
time in question, so as to have afforded opportunities of
sexual intercourse ; and in cases where such opportunities
have occurred, and in which any one of two or more men
may have been the father, whatever probabilities exist, no
evidence can be admitted to show that any man other than
the husband may have been, or probably was, the father ot
the wife’s child. Throughout the investigation, the pre¬
sumption in favour of the legitimacy is to have its weight
and influence, and the evidence against it ought, as it has
been justly said, to be strong, distinct, satisfactory, and con-
elusive.”
In a divorce a mensa et toro, if the wife have children they
are bastards, because the law presumes the husband and wife
to live conformably to the sentence of separation, unless
access be proved; but in a voluntary separation, by agi ce¬
ment, the law supposes access, unless the negative be shown.
If a man or woman marry a second wife or husband, the
first being living, and have issue by such second wife or
husband, the issue is spurious. Again, if a man have issue a
son by a woman before marriage, and afterwards marry the
same woman and have issue a second son born after the mar¬
riage ; the first of these, who would be legitimated per sub-
sequens matrimonium in Scotland, is termed in England a
bastard eigne, and, by the common law of that country, is
as incapable of inheriting as if his father and mother had
never married ; the second, by a species of legal Hiberni-
cism, is denominated a mulier, or mulier puisne, and suc¬
ceeds to the exclusion of the bastard eigne. Again, if there
be an apparent impossibility of procreation on the part of
the husband, as if he be only eight years old, or the like,
then the issue of the wife is bastard. likewise, in case of
divorce in the spiritual court a vinculo matrimonii, all the
issue born during the coverture is bastard; because such
divorce is always upon some cause that rendered the mar¬
riage unlawful and null from the beginning.
The duty of parents to their bastard children consists
principally in maintaining them. For although bastards
are not looked upon as children to any civil purpose, yet
the ties of nature, of which maintenance is one, are not so
easily dissolved; and these hold good even in other re¬
spects, as, for example, that a man shall not marry his bas¬
tard sister or daughter. The enactments relating to the
maintenance and affiliation of bastards are numerous. 1 he
law is now regulated by the 7th and 8th Viet. cap. 101, as
amended by the 8th and 9th Viet. cap. 10. The mother of a
bastard is entitled to its custody in preference to the puta¬
tive father, during the age of nurture ; and by an earlier act
(4th and oth Will. cap. 76, § 71, amended by the 2d and 3d
Viet. cap. 85) she was bound, so long as she remained un¬
married or a widow, to maintain it as a part of her family
until it attained the age of sixteen, or married, if a female;
and by 5 57 this liability attached, on the mother s mar¬
riage, to her husband, until her death or the child attained
the age of sixteen. But under the 7th and 8th \ ict. cap. 10 ,
l 2, any single woman who may be with child, or who may
be delivered of a.bastard child, may either before, or within
twelve months from, the birth of such child, or at any time
thereafter, on proof of the payment ot money by the alleged
father for its maintenance within such period, obtain from a
justice of the peace the issue of a summons to the petty
sessions of such putative father. Thereupon the justices
(or, in the metropolitan police district, a single magistrate,
under the 8th and 9th Viet. cap. 10, § 9) may make an order
for maintenance and costs, and enforce the same by disti ess
and commitment. But it is necessary that the mothers
evidence be corroborated in some material particular by
other testimony to the satisfaction of the justices. The
order by § 5 is determined upon the child attaining the age
of thirteen years, or after the marriage of its mother, or after
the death of the child; and the putative father is entitled
under § 4 to appeal to the quarter sessions, upon entering
into recognizances in the form provided by the 8th and 9th
Viet. cap. 10, § 3. The 6th section declares the mother to be
punishable for neglect or desertion of her bastard child as
“anidle and disorderly person,”and on a second conviction a.s
« a rogue and vagabond,” under the 5th Geo. IV. cap. 83
(amended by the 1st and 2d Viet. cap. 38), and any misappli¬
cation of moneys paid for the support of, or withholding
proper nourishment from, or otherwise abusing and mal¬
treating, such bastard child, is punishable under § 8 by a
penalty of L.10.
The rights of a bastard are very few, being only such as
he can acquire ; for civilly he can inherit nothing, being
looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes called
filius nullius, sometimes filius populi. Yet he may gain a
surname by reputation though he has none by inheritance,
and may even be made legitimate and capable of inheriting
by the transcendent power of an act ot parliament. All
other children have their primary settlement in their father s
parish; but a bastard has his in the parish where he was
born, unless such birth has been procured by fraud, or hap¬
pened under an order of removal, in a state of vagrancy, in
the house of correction, or under certificate ; for in law he
has no father. The incapacities attaching to a bastard con¬
sist principally in this, that he cannot be heir to any one ;
for being nullius filius, he is therefore of kin to nobody, and
has no ancestor from whom an inheritable blood can be de¬
rived. Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an in¬
heritance than such illegitimate child, it escheats to the lord.
493
Bastard.
494
BAS
Bastard. And as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can
thev have any heirs but those of their own bodies. For as
all collateral kindred consists in being derived from the same
common ancestor, and as a bastard has no legal ancestor, ic
can have no collateral kindred, and consequently no legal
heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent from him¬
self. And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised
therefor without issue, and intestate, the land escheats to
the lord of the fee. But under § 11 of the New Savings-
Bank Act, 7th and 8th Viet.cap. 83, the trustees or managers
are empowered to pay the money deposited by an i ugh1
mate depositor to the persons who would have been entitled
to the same, according to the statute of distributions, it e
had been legitimate. Originally a bastard was deeme in¬
capable of holy orders, and disqualified by the fact of his
birth from holding any dignity in the church ; but this doc¬
trine is now obsolete, and in all other respects there is no
distinction between a bastard and another man.
These are the principal incapacities attaching to bastardy
in England. By the law of Scotland a bastard is not only
excluded from his father’s succession, because the law knows
no father who is not marked out by marriage ; and from a
heritable succession, whether by the father or mother, be¬
cause he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest
in terms of the brief; but also from the movable succession
of his mother, because he is not her lawful child, and legi¬
timacy is implied in all succession deferred by the law. But
a bastard, although he cannot succeed sanguinis, may
succeed by destination, where he is specially called to the
succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as in Fin¬
land, a bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his
own body ; and hence, failing his lawful issue, the king suc¬
ceeds to him as last heir. In Scotland bastards may be legi¬
timated in two ways ; either by the subsequent intermar¬
riage of the mother of the child with the father, as already
mentioned ; or by letters of legitimation from the sovereign.
With respect to the last, however, it is to be observed, that
letters of legitimation, be their clauses ever so strong, can¬
not enable the bastard to succeed to his natural father ; for
the king cannot, by any prerogative, cutoff the private right of
third parties. But, by a special clause in the letters of legiti¬
mation, he may renounce his right to the bastard’s succession,
failing descendants, in favour of him who would have been the
bastard’sheir had he been born in lawful wedlock, suchrenun-
ciation encroaching upon no right competent to any third party.
The number of illegitimate births (exclusive of still-born)
registered during the year 1851 for England, appears from
the fourteenth report of the Registrar-General, dated 24th
June 1853, to have been 42,000 against 615,865 legitimate
births, or a proportion of nearly 2 to 29. The following
table, compiled (with the exception of the last item) from
the Registrar-General’s Sixth Report, and from Dr Stark’s
Vital Statistics of Scotland, exhibits the proportion of illegi¬
timate births in various European states and one American
Bastia.
BAS
It is a remarkable fact, as connected with tlie proportion Bastards
of illegitimate children in the large towns, that in all the
large towns in England the proportion of children born out (
of wedlock is much below what it is in the country districts.
On the continent of Europe, on the other hand, the propor¬
tion of illegitimate births in the large towns greatly exceeds
that of the country districts ; and statists are pretty gene¬
rally agreed that the existence of foundling hospitals in these
towns has much to do with this result, encouraging and fos¬
tering bastardy as they do. The following table, compiled
from the Registrar-General’s Sixth Annual Report exhibits
these facts.
States.
Sardinia 
Sweden 
Norway  
England 
Belgium 
France 
Prussia  
Scotland (part of)
Denmark  
Hanover  
Austria  
Wurtemburg  
Saxony  
Bavaria  
Chili 
Total
Births.
1828-37
1831-5
183H5
1842
1842
1842
1841
1835-45
1835 9
1842
1842
1842
1841
1838-9
1848
1,457,493
467,799
181,363
517,739
138,135
982,896
591,505
4,305
64,376
55,559
894,711
75,456
70,094
149,185
46,143
Illegiti¬
mate
Births.
Ratio
of
Illegit.
Births
to 100
Births.
30,474
31,289
12,111
34,796
9,354
69,928
42,129
328
6,020
5,487
101,821
8,859
10,512
30,729
10,235
209
656
667
672
677
7-11
7-12
7-61
9-35
9-87
11-38
1174
14-99
20-59
2218
Proportion
of Illegi¬
timate
Births.
1 to 44-54
.. 15-23
.. 14-97
.. 14-88
.. 14-66
.. 14-05
.. 1403
.. 1312
.. 10-69
.. 1012
.. 8-79
.. 8-51
.. 6-66
.. 4-85
.. 4-50
Towns,
Liverpool 
London  
Birmingham   
Plymouth 
Bristol    
Sheffield 
Leeds    
Manchester  
Bath 
Salford   
N e wcastle-on-Tyne
Brighton   
Wolverhampton ...
Total
Births.
Illegitimate
Births.
PC O
!.§s
2 ow
Genoa   
Berlin     
Frankfort 
St Petersburg 
Turin   
Department of Seine (Paris)...
Stockholm   
Vienna  
9,923
60,240
5,094
1,199
2,088
3,490
6,376
6,969
1,846
2,828
2,449
1,299
3,097
33,034
29,914
3,784
9,625
36,313
40,005
13,291
47,191
274
I, 925
207
50
93
174
349
403
110
181
156
84
215
2, 665
4,472
652
1,809
6,867
II. 527
5,409
21,763
Proportion
of Illegiti¬
mate per 100
Births.
3-0
3- 2
4- 1
4-2
4- 5
5- 0
5-5
5- 8
60
6- 4
6-4
6-5
6-9
8-0
14-9
17- 2
18- 8
18-9
28-8
40-7
46-1
Bastards is also an appellation given to a kind of fac¬
tion or troop of banditti, who rose in Guienne about the
beginning of the fourteenth century, and joining with some
English parties, ravaged the country, and set fire to the
towns. They are supposed to have derived this name from
having been headed by the illegitimate sons of noblemen,
who were excluded from the rights of inheritance.
BASTARDY, Arms of, should be crossed with a bar,
fillet, or traverse, from the right to the left. See Heraldry.
BASTARNfE, an ancient people in European Sarmatia,
who, according to some authors, had emigrated from Ger¬
mania. They were a powerful nation, occupying the country
between the rivers Tyras and Borysthenes, about the mouth
of the Danube, and seem to have belonged to the great race
of the Celts.
BASTARNICA: Alpes, in Ancient Geography, called
also the Carpates, now the Carpathian Mountains.
BASTERNA, in Antiquity, a kind of litter or sedan-
chair, in which the Roman ladies were carried by two mules.
It was very similar to the lectica, which was borne by slaves.
See Lectica.
BASTIA, a fortified town and seaport on the eastern
coast of the island of Corsica, and capital of an arrondisse-
ment of the same name. It occupies a very picturesque
situation, rising from the sea in the form of an amphi¬
theatre; but the town itself is ill built, and the streets
narrow and crooked. The harbour, which is defender b\
a citadel, is only fit for small craft, and its entrance is nar¬
row and difficult. Bastia is the seat of a royal court for the
island, and of tribunals of commerce and primary j urisdic¬
tion ; and has a communal college, a model school, and a
museum. Its principal manufactures are soap, leather,
liqueurs, and wax; and it exports oil, wine, coral, &c. Eat.
42. 41. 36. N. Long. 9. 27. 22. E. Pop. (1851) 14,523.
Bastia was at one time the capital of Corsica. It was taken
BAS
Ba'tiat by the English in 1745, and again in 1794. The arron-
!l dissement of the same name contains 20 cantons and 94
Bastille, communes. Pop. in 1851, 70,288.
BASTIAT, Frederic, a celebrated French economist,
born at Bayonne on the 29th June 1801. He studied in the
colleges of Saint Sever and Soreze, and then entered the
commercial house of his uncle at Bayonne. He was made
a justice of the peace in 1831, and some time afterwards a
member of the general council of Landes. In 1840 he
visited Spain and Portugal, where he paid especial attention
to the customs and institutions of those kingdoms. His first
literary essay, entitled De Vinfluence des tarifs Francnis et
Anglais sur Vavenir des deux peuples, appeared in the Jour¬
nal des Economistes in 1844, and contains the germs of the
economic theory of the author, who afterwards appears as the
decided opponent of the system of protection. He visited
England soon after; and on his return to Mugron, where he
resided, he continued his exertions in favour of free trade;
as afterwards at Paris also. After the revolution of 1848, he
became a member of the legislative assembly; and he died
on the 24th December 1850, during a tour in Italy. His
writings are as follow:—Sophismes economiques ; Propriety
et Loi; Protectionisme et Communisms; Capital et Rente;
Paix et Libert ',; Incompatibilites Parlementaires; LEtat,
maudit argent; Harmonies economiques.
BASTILLE, or Bastile (from the French bastir, bdtir,
to build), denotes a small antique castle, fortified with tur¬
rets. Such was the famous Bastille of Paris, which seems
to have been the last castle that retained the name. It was
commenced in 1370, by order of Charles V., and finished
in 1382, under the reign of his successor. This building
was strongly fortified, with numerous massive towers, which
were united by a wall eight feet in thickness. The whole was
surrounded by a ditch twenty-five feet in depth ; and at sub¬
sequent intervals other additions were made to the fortifica¬
tions, so as to render it an almost impregnable fortress. When
Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, all his
opponents in the city took refuge in the Bastille, which they
were prepared to defend with vigour, but the want of pro¬
visions obliged them to capitulate. In 1588 the Duke of
Guise took possession of the Bastille, and gave the command
of it to Bussy-Leclerc. Soon afterwards he shut up the
whole parliament within its walls, for having refused their
adherence to the League. When Henri IV. became master
of Paris he committed the command of the Bastille to Sully,
and there he deposited his treasures, which at the time of his
death amounted to the enormous sum of 1,870,000 livres.
On the 11th of January 1649, the Bastille was invested by
the forces of the Fronde, and, after a short cannonade, capi¬
tulated on the 13th of that month. The garrison consisted
of only twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a peace
with the court on the 11th of March; hut it was stipulated
by treaty that they should retain possession of the Bastille,
which in fact was not restored to the king till the 21st of
October 1651. In that year took place the famous fight
of the Porte Ste Antoine, between Conde and Turenne, on
which occasion the forces of Conde owed their safe retreat
into Paris to the cannon of the Bastille.
The chief use of the Bastille, however, was for the custody
of state prisoners, or, more properly speaking, for the clan¬
destine atrocities of a corrupt and cold-blooded despotism.
Nowhere else upon earth, even in the dungeons of the In¬
quisition, had human misery by human means been rendered
so lasting, so complete, and in many cases so irremediable,
as in the Bastille. Of this one striking instance related by
M. Mercier may serve as an example.
Upon the accession of Louis XVI. to the throne, the mi¬
nisters then in office, anxious to obtain popularity by an act
of clemency and justice, began their administration by in¬
specting the registers of the Bastille, and setting many pri¬
soners at liberty. Amongst these was an old man, who had
BAS 495
been a prisoner for forty-seven years. The sudden change Bastinado
from the solitude of his cell to the light and bustle of the Bag|Jion
outer world was too great for him; and finding that of the v J18 10”’,
friends of his youth none now survived, he begged to
be restored to the dungeon which had become his only
home. The offence which had been visited by so terrible
a punishment consisted in some unguarded expressions re¬
specting Louis XV. These had been reported, very pro¬
bably exaggerated, by some informer or enemy; a lettre-
de-cachet had been issued; and the offender seized, commit¬
ted to the Bastille, and forgotten.
Among the more distinguished personages who were con¬
fined in this fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV.,
and XVI., were the famous Man of the Iron Mash, the
Marshal Richelieu, Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville,
Voltaire, De Latude, Le Prevost de Beaumont, Labour-
donnais, Lally, Cardinal Rohan, Linguet, and La Chalotais.
But, besides the numerous illustrious prisoners who at various
times occupied the Bastille,—of whom many were more or
less guilty,—its dreadful dungeons became the tombs of
thousands of obscurer victims, whose very names were made
to perish out of record, having been designedly defaced in
the registers of the governors, or committed to loose leaves,
that no trace of their fate might survive to satisfy the anxiety
of friends or the curiosity of posterity. Thus in the reign of
Louis XIV. the Bastille was a receptacle for innumerable
innocent victims of religious tyranny ; and, under the more
degrading sway of his successor, for the fathers and brothers
of the unhappy inmates of the Parc aux Cerfs.
At the breaking out of the French revolution, the Bastille
was attacked by the Parisians, and, after a vigorous resist¬
ance, taken and razed to the ground. This memorable
event occurred on the 14th July 1789. At the time of its
capture only seven prisoners were found in it. A very
striking account of this siege will be found in Carlyle’s
French Revolution, vol. i.
The site of the Bastille is now marked by a lofty column
of bronze, dedicated to the memory of the patriots of July
1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded figure of Mercury,
spreading its pinions in the act of flight.
See the Histories of the Bastille by Renneville (7 tom.
12mo, 1713-24) ; Fougeret (8vo, 1833) ; Dufey de 1’Yonne
(8vo, 1834) ; Arnould (7 tom. 8vo, 1843-44) ; and the Me¬
moirs of Linguet (12mo, 1821, new ed.); Carra (3 tom.
8vo, 1787); Charpentier (3 tom. 8vo, 1789); and Latude
(edited by Thierry, 3 tom. 18mo, 1791-92).
BASTINADO, or Bastinade, the punishment of beat¬
ing or drubbing a criminal with a stick. The word is formed
from the French baston, a stick, staff, or cudgel. The bas¬
tinado was a punishment used among the ancient Greeks,
Romans, and Jews, and still obtains among the Turks. The
Romans called it fustigatio, fustium, admonitio, fustibus
ccedi ; which differed from the flagellatio in being done with
a stick instead of a rod or scourge. Fustigation was a
lighter punishment, and inflicted on freemen ; flagellation a
severer, and reserved for slaves. This was also called
tympanum, because the patient was beaten with sticks like
a drum. The punishment of the bastinado is much in use
in the East at this day; and it is chiefly administered on the
soles of the feet, which are sometimes beaten almost to a
jelly.
BASTION, in modern fortification, a huge mass of earth,
usually faced with sods, sometimes with brick, and rarely
with stone, standing out from a rampart of which it is a prin¬
cipal part. This is what, in the ancient fortification, was
called a bulwark. Solid bastions are those which have the
void space within them filled up entirely, and raised of an
equal height with the rampart. Hollow bastions are those
surrounded only with a rampart and parapet, having the
space within unoccupied, where the ground is so low that
no .retrenchment can be made in the centre, in the event of
496
Eastern
li
Eatavia.
BAT
the rampart being taken. Flat bastion is a bastion beiilt in
the middle of the curtain, when it is too long to be defended
by the bastions at its extremes. Cut bastion is that which,
instead of a point, has a re-entering angle. Composed bas¬
tion is when two sides of the interior polygon are very un¬
equal, which makes the gorges also unequal. Dejormea
bastion is when the irregularity of the lines and angles puts
the bastion out of shape ; as when it wants a demigorge, one
side of the interior polygon being too short. Demi-bastion
is composed of one face only, with but one flank, and a de¬
migorge. Double bastion is that which is raised on the
plane "of another bastion. Begular bastion is that which
has its true proportion of faces, flanks, and goiges. ee
Fortification. . . ,
B ASTON, Baton, or Batune, a staff or cudgel, borne m
English coats of arms, as a badge of illegitimacy. In archi¬
tecture it denotes the round moulding at the base of a co¬
lumn, also called a torus. . n
B aston, Robert, a Carmelite monk, afterwards pnor ot
the convent of that order at Scarborough and also poet-
laureate and public orator at Oxford, flourished in the four¬
teenth century. Edward II, in his expedition into Scotland
in 1304 took'Robert Bastonwith him m order to celebrate
the victories he was to gain over the Scots ; but the poet
having been taken prisoner, was obliged to change his note
and sing “ the Bruce of Bannockburn.” He wrote several
pieces in Latin, on the Wars of Scotland, the Luxury of
Priests, Synodical Sermons, &c.; and also a volume ot tra¬
gedies and comedies, in English. He died about the year
1310. „T . , . p
BASTWICK, Dr John, born at Wnttle, m Essex, in
1593 was a physician at Colchester, who applied himself to
writing books against popery. About 1633 he printed m
Holland a Latin treatise entitled Elenchus Rehgionis Fa-
nisticce with Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latia-
lium; in which the English prelates thinking themselves
also aimed at, he was fined L.1000 in the High Commission
Court, excommunicated, prohibited from practising physic,
while his books were ordered to be burnt, and the author
himself consigned to prison. Instead of recanting, however,
he wrote Apologeticus ad Prcesules Anglicanos, and another
book called The Litany, in which he exclaimed vehemently
against the proceedings of that arbitrary court, and taxed
the bishops with an inclination towards popery. Prynne and
Burton coming under the lash of the Star-chamber couit at
the same time, they were all censured as scandalous and
seditious persons, condemned to pay a fine of L.5000 each,
to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears, and to undergo
perpetual imprisonment in three remote parts of the king¬
dom. The parliament in 1640 reversed these proceedings,
and ordered Bastwick a reparation of L.5000 out of the
estates of the commissioners and lords who had persecuted
him. The civil commotions which ensued prevented his
receiving this solatium for his sufferings ; but, in 1644, his
wife had an allowance ordered for her own and her hus¬
band’s maintenance. The place and time of his death are
unknown.
BAT. See Mammalia, Index.
Bat Bate, or Batz, a small silver coin, mixed with a
large quantity of copper, current in several parts of Germany
and Switzerland.
BATAVI or Batavi. See Batavorttm Insula.
BATAVIA, a large city and seaport on the north coast of
the island of Java, and the capital of all the Dutch settle¬
ments in the East. It is situated on the river Jacatra, in a
swampy plain, at the bottom of a very capacious bay, and
long was noted for the insalubrity of its atmosphere. More
recently, however, the late Baron Capellen, one of the most
enlightened governors that the Dutch ever sent out, sensible
of the superior advantages which Batavia possessed as a
place of trade, exerted himself to have the causes of its un-
B A T
healthiness removed. He accordingly widened several of Batavia,
the streets, filled up some of the canals, cleansed others, v'*-
demolished useless fortifications, cut down trees, &c.and
by the introduction of a number of judicious regulations, Ba¬
tavia has been rendered as healthy as any other town on
the island.
The bay is formed by an indentation in the northern
shore of Java ; and it is protected from the swell of the sea
by fifteen or sixteen small islands, interspersed in every
direction across its mouth. It is perfectly secure at all sea¬
sons, the water being seldom disturbed in any violent de¬
gree by the winds. The city is of an oblong form, and the
streets are quite straight and regular, crossing each other
at right angles. Each street is from 114 to 204 feet broad,
and has a canal in the middle, cased with stone, with a W
parapet on the two margins, and is planted with a row ot
evergreen trees, under the shade of which are erected little
open pavilions of wood, surrounded with seats, on which
the Dutch inhabitants, in the cool of the evening, take their
favourite refreshment of smoking. Beyond the trees is a gra¬
velled road from 30 to 60 feet wide, for the various kinds
of traffic, and it is terminated on the opposite side by a
row of evergreens. The river Jacatra, which rises in the
Blue Mountains to the south, flows through the middle of
the town, and encircles it by several branches and canals
connected with the main stream. Numerous other streams,
such as the Ankee and the Tangerang, &c., besides artifi¬
cial canals, intersect the swampy plain of Batavia in all
directions, and connect the town with the suirounding
country. ^ „ T
According to Sir Stamford Raffles, in liis account of Java,
there are now scarcely any remains of the splendour and
magnificence which formerly procured for this capital the
proud title of the Queen of the East. The public budd¬
ings consist of a Lutheran and a Portuguese church, a Ma¬
hometan mosque, a Chinese temple, the stadthouse, where
the supreme court of justice and magistracy still assemble,
the infirmary, the chamber of orphans, and some other in¬
stitutions. the great church of Batavia, which was finished
in 1760, at an expense of L.80,000, was taken down in con¬
sequence of its foundation having given way. The market
is convenient and extensive, and well supplied with provi¬
sions. The fortifications by which the city was formerly
surrounded, consisting of a wall defended by bastions, were
all pulled down before Batavia was captured by the British
in 1811. General Daendels directed the demolition of the
ramparts, with a view of improving the health of the city by
a freer circulation of air; and with the materials he built
the new cantonment of Weltevreeden, about three miles in¬
land, in a higher and more healthy situation. The castle
of Batavia, which is on the north side of the town, next to the
bay, is very spacious, and contains numerousbuildings and ex¬
tensive warehouses ; but its situation was so unhealthy, that
the troops were withdrawn to another place, and it was con¬
verted into a depot for naval and military stores and other
articles. The town of Batavia has been deserted by almost
all of the more wealthy inhabitants, who now have their
residences in the environs, principally on two roads leading
to Weltevreeden ; the one east, the other west, through
Molenvliet and llyswick. These elegant roads, shaded with
rows of trees, and having on each side sumptuous houses
surrounded with fine gardens and plantations, form the
fashionable resort at Batavia. Here are situated some o
the public buildings of the town, namely, the grand assem¬
bly-room, used by government on great occasions ; also a
large building which contains the treasury and all the otner
public offices. . ,
Batavia, being a great trading city, is resorted to by many
different nations in the East; and its population consists of
a mixture of all these, as well as of Europeans. The inha¬
bitants may be divided into the following classes, namely,
Batavia.
BAT
BAT
497
the Dutch residents, who form but a small class, and can
hardly be termed European, so completely are they inter¬
mixed with Portuguese and Malay colonists ; the different
Indian nations, originally slaves ; the Moors and Arabs, an
active and intelligent race, principally engaged in naviga¬
tion ; the Javanese, who are cultivators; the natives of
Bali, of Celebes, Borneo, Macassar, Amboyna, and Madura.
The Malays are numerous ; they are chiefly boatmen and
navigators, and profess the Mahometan faith. The Chi¬
nese form the most numerous class in Batavia. They
are here, as everywhere else, ingenious, industrious, and
mercantile in their habits. Many of them have acquired
large capitals ; and their industry embraces the whole sys¬
tem of commerce, from the greatest wholesale speculations
to the most minute transactions in the retail trade. In their
hands are all the manufactories, distilleries, potteries, &c.;
they have large coffee and sugar plantations, and gardens
well stocked with all sorts of vegetables ; and they are the
principal traders, smiths, carpenters, stone-masons, shoe¬
makers, shopkeepers, butchers, &c., in the country. But
though they form so useful a class in Batavia, they have
always been severely oppressed by the tyrannical and arbi¬
trary exactions of the Dutch government. All their reli¬
gious festivals, every public ceremony and popular amuse¬
ment, as well as every branch of industry, were subjected
to taxation. They were obliged to pay for a license to wear
their hair in a long plaited tail, according to the custom of
their country, as well as for permission to bring their greens
to market, and to sell their produce and manufactures in the
streets. A better system was introduced under the British
administration of Sir Stamford Raffles ; but on the restora¬
tion of the island to the Dutch, they again had recourse to
their former narrow and severe policy. The mean annual
temperature at Batavia is 780,3 Fahr., being in winter 78°'l,
and in summer 78°'6 ; at mid-day it is from 80° to 90°, and
at night 70°. There are several churches, the finest of
which is the Protestant church in Koninghs Plaetse, several
schools and hospitals, a theatre, museum, bank, and a so¬
ciety of arts and sciences. According to the census taken in
1842, the population consisted of 3025 Europeans and their
descendants, 23,108 natives, 14,708 Chinese, 601 Arabs,
and 12,419 slaves, making in all 53,861 persons, exclusive
of the garrison ; and may now (1853) be estimated at about
60,000.
Batavia is a great commercial depot, and is resorted to by
vessels from all the Asiatic islands, as well as from China,
the East Indies, and Europe. Its trade was indeed heavily
oppressed by the restrictions of the Dutch East India Com¬
pany, who claimed the monopoly or pre-emption of almost
all the staple articles of commerce ; and who further re¬
stricted by their regulations the freedom of navigation. A
greater latitude was allowed under the French regulations
of General Daendels, though it was still sufficiently severe ;
and in 1811, when Batavia was captured by the British, the
trade was set free from the shackles which had been im¬
posed on it, and it accordingly began to flourish, and is now
the principal trading port of those seas.
The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the ar¬
chipelago, and to the ports in the Malayan peninsula, are
rice, salt, oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java cloths,
brass ware, &c., and European, Indian, and Chinese goods.
The produce of the Eastern islands is also collected at its
ports for re-exportation to India, China, and Europe;
namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benjamin, and other
drugs; edible bird-nests, biche-de-mer, rattans, bees’ wax,
tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods from Borneo and Sumatra;
tin from Banca ; spices from the Moluccas ; fine cloths from
Celebes and Bali; and pepper from Borneo. From Bengal
are imported opium, drugs, and cloths ; from China, teas,
raw silk, silk piece goods, varnished umbrellas, coarse China
ware, nankeen, paper, and innumerable smaller articles for
VOL. IV.
the Chinese settlers. Of late, however, the Chinese have Batavorum
been superseded by the introduction of British manufac- Insula
tures. A trade is also carried on with Japan, to which 11
cloths, spices, elephants’ teeth, wood, tin, tortoise-shell, &c., Batenites-
are sent; and the return is chiefly made in fine copper, ^
China ware, lackered ware, and silk goods.
Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch general John Pie-
terson Coen, who, in 1619, took the town of Jacatra by as¬
sault, destroyed it, and founded in its stead the present city,
which soon acquired a flourishing trade, and increased in ex¬
tent and importance. The Dutch enjoyed unmolested pos¬
session of this place until the year 1811, when the states of
Holland having been incorporated with France, a British
armament was sent against the Dutch settlements in Java,
and to this force the city of Batavia surrendered on the 8th
of August. Batavia was restored to the Dutch by the
treaty of 1814. Long. 106. 51. E. Lat. 6. 10. S.
See Stavorinus’s Voyages to the East Indies; Barrow’s
Voyage to Cochin China ; Sir George Staunton’s Embassy
to China ; Thorn’s Memoir of the Conquest of Java ; Sir
Stamford Raffle’s History of Java; Temminck’s EInde
Archipelagique. (d. b—N.)
BATAVORUM INSULA, the island of the Batavi, was
bounded, according to Tacitus, by the ocean, the Rhine, and
the Vahalis, now the Waal. Caesar extends it to the Mosa,
or Meuse ; but Pliny’s description coincides with that of Ta¬
citus. This island was, however, of greater extent in the
time of Tacitus than in that of Caesar ; for, by a new canal,
Drusus, the father of Germanicus, conveyed the waters of
the Rhine into the ocean, a considerable way north of the
former mouth of that river. The Batavi were a branch of
the Catti, who, having been expelled their country in con¬
sequence of a domestic sedition, occupied the extremity of
the coast of Gaul, at that time uninhabited, together with
this island situated among shoals. The name of Batavi they
carried with them from Germany. The modern name of
this island is Betu or Eetaw.
BATE, George, an eminent physician in the time ot
Charles I. and II. After having been principal physician
to Charles I., he accommodated himself so well to the times,
that he became afterwards principal physician to Oliver
Cromwell. Upon the Restoration, he was again made
principal physician to the king, and fellow of the Royal So¬
ciety. He wrote in Latin an account of the civil commo¬
tions in England, and some other pieces.
Another George Bate wrote a work entitled The Lives,
Actions, and Execution, of the prime Actors and principal
Contrivers of that horrid Murther of our late pious and
sacred King Charles I.
Bate Isle, an island of Hindustan, belonging to the
province of Guzerat, situated at the south-western extre¬
mity of the Gulf of Cutch. This island has a good har¬
bour, well secured from the prevailing winds, but with a
rocky anchorage. The island of Bate is a great resort of
Hindu pilgrims ; and the town contains a large number of
houses chiefly inhabited by Brahmins. Bate Isle was for¬
merly a rendezvous for pirates, who were the dread of all
traders on the western coasts of India. The castle is a place
of considerable strength. In 1803 a naval force, consisting
of a British frigate and two Bombay cruisers, succeeded in
destroying several of the pirate boats and vessels ; but an
attack upon the castle, though conducted under the fire of
the ships, was repulsed with some loss. In 1807 a treaty
was entered into with the chiefs of the island, by which it
was agreed that a free and open commerce should be per¬
mitted to all British vessels. The chiefs at the same time
consented to relinquish their piratical practices, and the Bri¬
tish government stipulated to afford every just support and
protection to the Hindu temple of the island. Distance from
Baroda W. 265 miles. Lat. 22. 8. Long. 69* 10. (e.t.)
BATENITES, a sect of apostates from Mahometan-
3 R
498
BAT
Bates
II
Bath.
ism, dispersed throughout the East, who profesrf the ®
abominable practices with the Ismaehans and Kmnaua
The word properly signifies esofene. .!,ee,A®n*,S™f'rmist
BATES, William, D.D, an eminent Noncontormist
divine, born in November 1625. He was admitted to E™-
nuel College, Cambridge, and thence removed to King
College in 1644. He was one of the commissioners at the
conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the public liturgy,
and wa^concerned in "drawing up the exceptions against
the Common Prayer; notwithstanding wlncKlie was P
pointed chaplain to King Charles IL soon after the Resto
ration and became minister of St Dun. ta
bul was afterwards deprived of his benehce fa-~
formity. Dr Bates bore a good and amiable character
was honoured with the friendship of die Lorddreeper Bt g
man the Lord-chancellor Finch, the Earl of Nottingham, ana
Archbishop Tillotson. He published Selff
tTious and Pious Persons, in Latin; and after his deatn,
all his works, except his Select Lives were ^inted m one
vnl fol • aeain in 1723 ; and in 4 vols. 8vo, in 1815. tie
died in'July 1699, in the seventy-fourth year of his aSe;
BATH the chief town of Somersetshire, is, from
elegance of ite buildings and the beauty of to sfruafron, a -
lowed to be one of the handsomest cities in IKitam. It
stands *on both sides of the river Avon, mclosed by an
amphitheatre of hills belonging to the g.reat
range. The town is well laid out, rising m beautiful terraces
Lufcrescents from the river; and its sheltered position ren¬
ders the temperature mild and agreeable. It —s ^
fine public walks, and the vicinity presents a great var ety
rf bLutifiil landscapes The houses mosdy tab of
white freestone quarried.in the vicinity. The abhey churcli
is a handsome cruciform edifice, with a quadrangular tower
162 feet high, rising from the point of intersection, ft
210 feet inVngth lorn E. to W., and 126 in breadth from
N to S. There are 25 other parish churches and Episco¬
pal chapels in Bath, besides numerous chapels belonging to
the Independents, Baptists, Wesleyans, Emm"
&c. There is a free grammar school founded by Edwar
VI., and free and other schools for boys and girls. I he
Roman Catholics have a college here; and a Wesleyan
college has lately been erected. The literary and scien-
tific fnstitution, founded in 1826, is a handsome building of
the Doric order, with a laboratory, lecture-room, library,
and a museum containing a very valuable collection o
Roman remains found here. Among its public building
are the guild-hall, with an elegant Grecian front, founded m
1766; the assembly-rooms, opened in 1771, the ball-room
of which is 106 feet in length by 43 in breadth and 4,%
in height; the prison; market-house ; theatre, one of the
best out of London; and the pump-room of the king s
bath, 85 feet in length by 56 in breadth, and 34 high, con¬
taining a marble statue of the celebrated Beau Nash, to
whom the city is indebted for much of its prosperity. Bath
has five banks ; a new savings-bank, built in 1842 ; a num¬
ber of charitable institutions ; a mechanics’ institute ; and a
school of arts. The thermal springs, to which the city prin¬
cipally owes its importance, rise near the centre of the city.
They were known to the Romans, who had a station here
under the name of Aquee Calidce, or Aquve Sulis, com¬
monly Aquce Solis; and very extensive remains of Roman
baths have been discovered here. The springs supply five
distinct establishments, viz., King’s, Queen’s, Hot Cross,
and Abbey baths. The temperature vanes in the different
springs from 90° to 117° Fahrenheit, and the specific
gravity of the hot bath is 1-002. Mr R. Phillips obtained
from a quart of this water about 30 grains of foreign matter,
viz., carbonic acid, 2-4 inches ; sulphate of lime, 18-0 grains ;
chloride of soda, 6-6; sulphate of soda, 3-0; carbonate o
lime P6; silica, 0'4; oxide of iron, a trace ; but much car¬
bonic acid escapes from the springs. When fresh drawn,
BAT
it has a slight chalybeate taste; and, taken internally it Knights of
acts as a stimulant. It is very beneficial m cases of palsy, "
rheumatism, gout, leprosy, cutaneous and scrofulous diseases. ^
During the season, the city receives sometimes as many as
14 000 visitors. The Sydney Gardens have been open since
1795, and are frequently employed for horticultural exhibi¬
tions and other amusements. Negotiations are now in pio-
o-ress for the purchase of these grounds for the erection of
a handsome proprietary college. The Victoria Park was
opened in 1830. Bath now carries on no extensive manu-
factures, the fabrication of the coarse woollens known as
“ Bath coating” having much declined.
The earliest extant charter of the city is that granted by
Richard I., which was afterwards confirmed by Henry 111.
and extended to its present state by George III. The co
poration consists of a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 cou
cillors, and the town returns two members to Par^™ent-
The Great Western Railway connects Bath with Lon¬
don and Bristol; from the former of which it *107 mdes
distant, and from the latter 12 miles. The Kennet and
Avon canal, which joins the Thames at Reading, connects
Mi with London by water. The river Avon is here
crossed by two stone, two iron, and three suspension bridges.
T ° *i 03. N. Long. 2. 22. W. By the census of 1851,
it contained 7744 inhabited houses, and 54,240 mhabitants.
Bath, a seaport town, county of Lincoln, state of Ma e.
North America, one of the principal commercial towns in the
state being advantageously situated on the western bank of
the river Kennebec, 12 miles from its mouth.
is extensively carried on here. Pop. C1850) 8002. I e
are several other places of this name m the United States.
Knights of the Bath, a military order in England co
cerning the origin of which antiquaries dlff^r in tbe^
counts. The earliest intimation we have of the order is
in the reign of Henry IV, when we findf^efaT On *e
hood under the express denomination ol ^^ ^ Upn
day of his coronation in the tower of London, that king co
feme] the insignia of the order upon forty-six esquires, who
hod watched aU the night before, and had
Thenceforth it was customary for our kings to confer t
dignity on the occasion of their own e»™"a“ns »r *006
of their queens; on the birth or marriage of royal issue, ana
their first advancement to honours ; "P0" *e
expeditions against foreign enemies; at the instellation^o
knights of the Garter; and when some fan“
festivals were celebrated. The last after
made were in 1661, at the coronation of Charles H., ate
which the order was neglected until the yea " ,
George I. was pleased to revive it, and to command a book
the'order were relaxed; and, under the denominations o
companions and grand crosses, a ^at addmonal ™mte _f
persons, chiefly military men who had distinguishea
^^SSS^.rcoa^
and edged with "^^ndgfrt with a white guc e,^ ^
to which is attached a pair of wh te g houider it is
silk and gold at the end; and shorn f ^
adorned with the ensign of t ie > ancient motto,
imperial crowns or, surrounded w ^ th^ with a
Tria juncta in uno, wrought up ^ k the lace
glory or rays issuing ivom thfc C^t ]; Bath. Red breeches
of white silk worn by the knights oM^B^t ^ of
and stockings, and white liats S apnarel. The chapel
BAT
Bath-Kol banner, with plates of his arms and style, is placed over his
II respective stall, in the same manner as those of the knights
Bathing. 0f ^}ie Garter in St George’s chapel, Windsor; and the
v''—knights are allowed supporters to their arms.
Bath-KoI, “the daughter of the voice,” a species of oracle,
frequently mentioned in the Jewish books, especially the
Talmud. (See Vitringa’s Observ. Sacr. ii. pp. 341-363.)
This was a fantastic method of divination invented by the
Jews, though called by them a revelation of God’s will
made to his chosen people after all verbal prophecies had
ceased in Israel. It was, in fact, analogous to the Sortes Vir-
giliance among the Romans. For as, with the latter, the
first words they happened to turn to in the works of the
Mantuan bard were considered a kind of oracle prognostic
of future events, so with the Jews, when they appealed to
Bath-kol, the first words they heard ftom any man’s mouth
were regarded as a voice from heaven, directing them in the
matter they inquired about. Even the Christians were not
quite free from this superstition, often making the same
use of the Scriptures as the Romans did of the works of
Virgil; and it descended, through them, to later times. In
France it was the practice for several ages to use this kind
of divination at the consecration of a bishop, in order to
discover his life, manners, and future behaviour; and the
usage came into England with the Norman conquest; for
we are told that at the consecration of William, the second
Norman bishop of the diocese of Norwich, the words which
first occurred on dipping into the Bible were, “ Not this
man, but Barabbas.” William died soon after, and was suc¬
ceeded by Herbert de Lozinga, chief simony broker to king
William Rufus, on whose consecration the Bible opened at
the words in which Jesus accosted Judas Iscariot: “ Friend,
wherefore art thou come?” This circumstance so affected
Herbert that it brought him to a thorough repentance of
his crime, in expiation of which he built the cathedral church
of Norwich, the first stone of which he laid in the year 1096.
BATHGATE, a town and parish of Scotland, county of
Linlithgow, on the great road between Edinburgh and Glas¬
gow. Population in 1851, 3341, chiefly employed in weav¬
ing, and in working the limestone, coal, and ironstone in
the neighbourhood.
BATHING, the act of using or applying a bath; that
is, of immersing the body, or part of it, in water or other
fluid.
Bathing is a practice of great antiquity. It prevailed
among the Greeks as early as the heroic age ; and we
even find mention made by Homer of hot baths in the
Trojan times, although these seem to have been rare; in¬
deed Athenaeus speaks of hot baths as unusual even in
his age. Public baths were in fact discouraged, and even
prohibited, by the ancient Greeks, who were content to
perform their ablutions in private, and without either lux¬
ury or parade. The method of lavation among this people
consisted in heating water in a large three-footed vessel,
and thence pouring it on the head and shoulders of the
bather while seated in a tub, and he, on coming out, was
anointed with oil.
It was also long before the Romans came into the use of
baths; the very name of which, therma, shows that the
practice had been borrowed from the Greeks. As the an¬
cient Romans were chiefly employed in agriculture, their
custom was, every evening after work, to wash their arms
and legs, that they might sit down to supper with more
decency ; for it is to be observed that the use of linen was
then unknown, and the people of that age went with their
arms and legs bare, and consequently exposed to dust and
filth. But this was not all. Every ninth day, when they
repaired to the city, either to the nundinae or to attend
at the assemblies of the people, they bathed in the Tiber,
or some other river which happened to be nearest them.
BAT 499
This seems to have been all the bathing known till the Bathing,
time of Pompey, when the custom of bathing every day
appears to have been introduced.
The Celtic nations were not unacquainted with bathing,
although it must be confessed that some of their descend¬
ants have evinced but little taste for scrupulous ablution.
The ancient Germans bathed every day in warm water
during winter, and in cold water during summer. In Eng¬
land, the famous bath in Somersetshire is said by some to
have been in use eight centuries before Christ. Of this,
however, it must be owned, we have but slender evidence ;
although Dr Musgrave makes it probable that it was a
place of considerable resort in Geta’s time, the remains
of a statue erected to that general, in gratitude for some
benefactions he had conferred upon it, being still in ex¬
istence.
Although bathing, among the ancients, made, as it were,
a part of diet, and was used as familiarly as eating or
sleep; yet, as we learn from Strabo, Pliny, Hippocrates,
and Oribasius, it was in high esteem among their pnysicians
as a cure for certain diseases; and hence their frequent
exhortations to washing in the sea and plunging into cold
water. The first instance of cold bathing for medicinal
purposes is that of Melampus, who bathed the daughters
of the king of Argos ; and the first instance of warm bath¬
ing is that of Medea, who was said to boil people alive,
probably with some reason, since Pelias king of Thessaly
died in a hot bath under her hands. The cold bath was
used with success by Antonius Musa, physician to the
emperor Augustus, for the recovery of that prince; but
it fell into neglect after the death of Marcellus, who was
believed to have met his death from indulging in it to ex¬
cess. Towards the close of the reign of Nero, however,
it was again brought into vogue by a physician of Mar¬
seilles named Charmis; but the fashion proved short-liv¬
ed, and, during the succeeding ages, when the physical
condition of the people became as much deteriorated as
their intellectual and moral character, this cleanly prac¬
tice was altogether abandoned.
A methodical arrangement of the medical and physio- Medical
logical effects of the practice of bathing, referred to the and phy-
respective divisions of therapeutic agencies, would be ofSK),loglcal
great use in enabling us to attain a distinct idea of their
nature; but such an arrangement is, in fact, a matter of
extreme difficulty, for two reasons: Jirst, because the tem¬
perature, the continuance, and the impregnation of the
bath, are capable of being so varied, as materially to vary
the nature of the remedy without any distinct limit be¬
tween its different forms; and, secondly, because the classes
of medical agents to which several of these effects belong
are by no means distinctly defined, to say nothing of the
additional complexity arising from the division of the ef¬
fects into immediate and remote, which is often extreme¬
ly important. The remote effects, however, being of a
more general nature, and relating chiefly to the improve¬
ment or deterioration of the actions of the whole system,
it is only the immediate effects that require to be accu¬
rately analyzed and distinguished, and these we must en¬
deavour to reduce to some methodical classification of
therapeutic powers.
Baths, as depending on water, have been naturally re¬
ferred to the class of diluent remedies, in which water is
comprehended; and they have sometimes even been re¬
commended as nutrients: they may also act as excitants
of cutaneous sensation; as stimulants, or rather calefacients,
increasing the velocity of the circulation of the blood ; as
sudorifics, as diuretics, as “ sorbentia” or sorbefacients, as
refrigerants or astringents, as tonics, and as retardants of
the pulse, a capacity in which some would call them re-
*nn BATHING.
u f 1 os sea. It is true, that persons accidentally wetted with salt
Bathing, laxants, while they seem in many cases to )e ^ ^ water are but little liable to take cold; and this fact has
  antispasmodics, or to relieve certain nervous affecti , ^ su osed to indicate some stimulant property in the
bv something like a narcotic or sedative power. VY e tents of the fluid; but it may be explained with greater
also refer thf mechanical effect of f simpfldtyfrom the slower evaporation of salt water, which
the natural secretions of the skin, to process, causes it to carry off heat much less rapidly than fresh,
conducive to the preservation of health; but this^p ^ prJess being ais0 retarded by the greater
Ssendafl^portOnt toOiealth than has been ima- ^ ^'determine how far any kind of bathing may
tions of the skin has even appeared t0^e in^ , ’b i ed rapidity of the circulation of the blood. The term
occasion indolent tumours of the absorbent glands belo g in(leed5 somewhat objectionable, as imply¬
ing to the parts concerned. . , , • e;ther ing that animal heat depends solely or principally on the
If we admit that baths are ever, str;^y absor_ motion of the blood, which is not, in the present state of
diluent or nutrient, we must supp°se t ^ q_ our knowledge, the most probable opinion; and besides
bents to be the channels of these ac ’ certainiy this etymological inaccuracy, the definition of the term,
rity of authors, both ancient and / a§ imp1ying an accelerated circulation, involves a consi-
considered the skin as nnbibmg, with great facihty^^ derab|/di|culty? since we have no means of ascertaining
only water, but also any kind of substance capa « whether increased frequency of pulsation compensates or
dissolved in it; nor is there not, in any particular instance, for diminished fulness and
circumstances, the cutaneous absoibents have been to ^ ^ ^ gn the other hand, the operation of almost all
to possess such a power in a certain S ’ medical agents is such as to relieve us from this ambiguity
Seguin and Dr Currie have shown that ^ommon case ^ S ication of tbe definition ; for we can scarcely
very little or no effect is to be expected from this absop^ * remedy which materially accelerates the
tion;1 * that the strongest medical agen ’ , lge wdhout at the same time increasing its strength,
in the water of a bath, exhibited no optic .;bi There are indeed, many medicines which are often de-
tem while the skin was entire; and that no perceptib th vague denomination of stimulants, and
advantage was obtained from a continued immersion^in^a Xttv/noeV"^^
bath of nutritive fluids^notwithstanding t ^ awaken the nervous energies m general, or excite
haustion of the system in a case ^ load Lnsations of heat or pain; and this multiplicity of
deglutition; and they suPPose. thathlieitbe^o™t on significations is a sufficient reason for rejecting the term
been gained during immersion in a brined from a correct classification. It happens, however, not
occasioning its increase has been pi in pc J P . unfrequently, that astringent and febrifuge medicines ws
by the lungs retaining the moisture, which they ^ £ of tbe pulse, and increase its ful-
in abundance with the air inhaled. d ness - and it becomes necessary, for an accurate analysis
The other immediate effects of bathing must depend , operation of remedies which affect the circulation,
the contact of the fluid with the skin, either .^ simply of operat^^ ^ ^ from the
moistening and softening the cuticle, or as p b mentatives and the intensities, all of which may possibly
culiar sensation in the cutaneous nerves, whether of touc iad dent 0f tbe production of an increase of tern-
only, or of heat or cold, or, in some case«> f ^ itaPt-on’ perature ; and this increase may also in some cases be
where the skin has been previously in a state of iiritation, pe ’ ^ leagt in tbe extremities and the superficial
especially if the water contains a saline impregnation o , p apparently also in the whole system, without
lastly, as altering the state of the circulation by any of P^8’^ a?P the cfrculation, by the operation of certain
these means, especially by ^ , P f tb ’ remedies, which might be called thalptics, if it were ne-
this effect being also often modffied by the chan e distinguish them as independent agents: and
position of the body, and by the distribution of the pres ces^ ^ cla|ses we might add four others of an ex-
sure or resistance which supports its weight & opposite nature, which might be called retardants,
almost the whole surface, instead of its being confined, as ay^PP^ ^ remissives 0f the pulse, and psyctics ov
usual, to the parts on which we sit or stand. The excite- refrigerants • and the last four classes would be-
ment of the nerves of the skin appears to be salutary in & CTe^eral division of remedies comprehending those
many cutaneous diseases, which are benefited by warm g the force of animal actions; a division which
bathing, whether in fresh cr in salt water, or in sulphuie- commonly been found necessary to establish,
ous or other mineral waters, as at Harrowgate, and at it a classification of the materia medica.
Baden, and Pfeffer andLeuck in Switzerland, the bathers fo c y P ^ & that a hot bath, of a temperature ex-
sometimes remaining whole days in the water for wee 98oPPtbe usual heat of the human body, will com-
together, until a peculiar efflorescence has appeared on ceedi g , aCcelerant and an augmentative of
the skin, and has igain disappeared.* The mud baths m noils an intensitivet it may,how-
the north of Italy are of a nature somewhat similar and the pu , P j3 bJ dassed as a Calefacient, if such a
are said to be of considerable advantage m some paralytic ;Ve ^nPofPem^dies be admitted. Dr Parr* says, that
cases. But if we allow the truth of the opinion of Seguin ^e8Cr P1 ^ rendered the pulse fuller and more fre-
and Currie, we must infer that there are few instances in a bath o U ^ batb, it was slower than usual;
which the effects of bathing on the system in general can ^ temperatures the effects were still more marked;
depend much on the impregnation of the water; and we at Ingher tempe ime 71? the results were
ought perhaps to attribute the acknowledged advantage and m Ma ca d ^ ^ ob Prved (Marcard, p. 67),
of sea-bathing, in a variety of diseases, in a great measure nea^ siimla . D H y considered more fre-
to the mildness and equability of the temperature of the that in a batn 01 n* i i  
i Currie’s Medical Reports on the Effects of Water 8yo, Liverpool, 1798 p. 244
* Marcard iiber die bdder, 8. Hanov. 1793. Traduit par Parant. 8. 1 ar. 1801, P-
* De Balnea, Med. Comm. Ed. L 297 ; or Marcard by 1 arant, p. 00.
B A T H I N G.
501
Bathing, quent, and the arteries were evidently dilated. In Fin-
land, according to Martin (Marcard, p. 223), the vapour
baths are usually heated to about 120°, and they often
increase the frequency of the pulse from 70 in a minute
to 110 or 120. Fourcroy mentions a bath of 66°, which
must have been of the centigrade scale, making 151° of
Fahrenheit, and not 181°, as Marcard supposes (p. 216),
which was followed, an hour afterwards, by a fatal apo¬
plexy. Whatever exaggeration there may be in this re¬
port, it may still serve to explain to us the excesses which
were frequently committed in the use of batns by the
Greeks and Romans, and the pernicious effects attributed
to them by the ancient physicians. Hippocrates observes
(Aph. v. 16), that the too frequent employment of hot
bathing causes a softness and debility of the muscles, a
want of firmness of the nerves, and a dulness of the fa¬
culties, with occasional hemorrhages and faintings, some¬
times even terminating in death; and in the Clouds of
Aristophanes we have a mock defence of warm bathing
deduced from the usual dedication of hot springs to Her¬
cules, which implies a perfect confidence in the opinion of
the pernicious tendency of the practice, accompanied, or
followed, as it frequently was, by other indulgencies, to
which it has too often given occasion. Ihis traditional
condemnation of hot bathing has been erroneously trans¬
ferred by some of the moderns to warm or tepid bathing ,
and since it has been asserted by authors of high celebri¬
ty that air above 60° will generally occasion a sensation
of warmth, it seems to have been inferred that water above
60° must constitute a warm bath, and consequently pro¬
duce enervating and debilitating effects. The fact is, how¬
ever, that a bath below 100° is scarcely ever heating in
any material degree; and even at 100°, the pulse, thougi
somewhat accelerated, is often not at all augmented in ful¬
ness • nor are the subsequent effects materially different
from’those which usually result from an equal acceleration
produced by any kind of moderate exercise. It is observ¬
ed by Galen, in his Treatise on the Pulse {Opp. vol. m.
p 3 ed. Bas.), that “baths, when moderately warm, cause
the pulse to be full, and strong, and frequent; when ex¬
cessively hot, small and obscure, but frequent and hard,
sometimes, however, after a time, becoming slow, though
still feeble.” Of this retardation of the pulse in a very hot
bath we have no experience in modern times: it is ob¬
vious, that what Galen calls moderately warm, we shou d
at present term a hot bath ; and probably his excessive y
hot baths somewhat resembled that which is mentioned
by Fourcroy. “ Cold baths,” he says, “ at first make the
pulse slow and weak; afterwards, if they disagree, and
produce torpor, the pulse remains weak; but if the bath
is likely to strengthen the system, producing a salutary
glow, then the pulse becomes full and strong, and natural
in point of frequency.” ,, , ,
It is, however, remarkable, that the cold bath not un¬
commonly renders the pulse considerably more frequent
at the first immersion; a circumstance which was par¬
ticularly observed by Athill,1 and which, notwithstand¬
ing Marcard’s doubts, has been since fully confirmed by
Dr Stock.2 This increased frequency seems principally
to depend on the painful sensation of cold occasioned by
the first immersion, especially while it is incomplete; it is
commonly very transitory, and is succeeded by a retarda¬
tion, while the fulness of the pulsations is diminished from
the first.
The sudorific effect of the hot bath seems to be, in a great
measure, the natural consequence of the acceleration of Bathing,
the circulation, and to be nearly proportional to this acce- J t "-"
leration, being also favoured by the softening of the cuticle,
and perhaps by the dilatation of the cutaneous exhalants.
It is principally recommended in rheumatism, and it is
also considered as conducive to the cure of some cutane¬
ous affections ; and when this effect is thought particular¬
ly desirable, it is usual to take the bath late in the evening,
and to promote its operation by going into a warm bed
immediately after it.
In considering these and other changes produced m the
system by bathing, we must be careful to avoid the very
common error of applying inaccurately and indiscriminate¬
ly the laws of mechanical and physical agents to the effects
produced in the animal economy. Some of the latest and
best authors on therapeutics have talked of the expansion
of the fluids contained in the vessels, in consequence of
the elevation of temperature occasioned by the warm bath,
and of the contraction of the vessels themselves by the
cold bath, as if they were phenomena of the same kind,
and simply opposed to each other. The truth is, that the
mean temperature of all the fluids in the body is seldom
elevated more than a degree or two by the effect of a
bath of any kind; and even if the elevation were 10°, the
expansion of all the circulating fluids would not exceed
the bulk of a single additional ounce of blood or of water.
The mechanical effect of cold, on the other hand, would
immediately tend to lessen the tension of the vessels, by
contracting the fluid contained within them more than the
vessels themselves; but this effect would be scarcely
more sensible than the former, even if we allowed that the
general temperature might be depressed 10° or 12°, as it
seemed to be in some of Dr Currie’s experiments; and the
actual contraction, which is really observable in the su¬
perficial parts during immersion in the cold bath, can only
be referable to the action of living powers, which fall de¬
cidedly under the description of involuntary muscularity.
Dr Parry’s late experiments have very clearly shown the
existence of Such powers, and exhibited their temporary
and local action.3 He found, that when the carotid of a ewe
was laid bare, its circumference was 525 thousandths of
an inch ; “ but it almost immediately shrunk, through the
whole space which was exposed, so as to become in cir¬
cumference only *470; at the same time, a portion of the
artery, before the contracted part, and which had been
more recently exposed, was -635; the pulse in the dilated
part was very strong and full, that in the contracted part
very weak and soft.” Dr Parry has chosen to distinguish
these effects from those which are observed in other mus¬
cular parts by a peculiar denomination ; but the distinction
appears to be perfectly arbitrary; and Dr Young, whom
he quotes as denying the muscular powers of the arteries,
on account of the chemical nature of their coats, has ex¬
pressly asserted their muscularity, in contradiction to the
conclusions of Bichat and Berzelius. {Medical Literature,
8vo, Bond. 1813, p. 502.) But by whatever term we
choose to denote the effect, there is little doubt that an
unusual degree of cold has a tendency to produce such a
general contraction of the coats of all the superficial ca¬
pillary arteries; and the diminution of their diameter
must necessarily increase that part of the resistance to
the blood’s motion, which is derived from its friction
against the sides of the vessels, and must, therefore, tend
materially to lessen its velocity. Again, if the contrac¬
tions of the heart are at all proportional in magnitude or
i On Marcard, p.239; iffed. Gomm. 62.
a Medical Collections on the Effects of Cold, 8vo. Lend. 1805 App.; Traill, Dissert. Inaug., 1802.
3 Experimental Inquiry on the Arterial Pulse, 8vo, Bath, 1816, p. 41.
502
B A T H I N G.
Bathing, in frequency to the quantity of blood entering it, and act-
ing as a stimulus to its motions, it is not unnatural to sup¬
pose that its pulsations will be rendered feebler by the
diminution of that quantity, occasioned by the increase of
the resistance, and that the primitive retardation will be
redoubled by the operation of this cause. At the same
time, however, that the cutaneous vessels are contracted,
those of the internal parts must necessarily be enlarged.
Hence arises the sensation of oppression on the chest,
with the sobbing or panting for breath, which generally
occurs at the first immersion in cold water, from the ful¬
ness of the vessels of the lungs, and which is increased, in
some measure, when the immersion becomes total, by the
pressure of the water on the abdomen, and consequently
of the contents of the abdomen on the diaphragm. Fiom
the same cause arises also the pulsation in the descend¬
ing aorta, which has been observed to be much more dis¬
tinguishable after swimming than at other times (Medi¬
cal Transactions, vol. v.) ; the internal vessels being dis¬
tended so as to exhibit the effects of the heart s action
more violently, and the heart itself beating with more than
usual force in consequence of the exertion, while the con¬
tents of the abdomen are compressed, and are enabled,
by the presence of the surrounding fluid, to transmit the
pulsation very completely to the superficial parts, to which
the hand is applied. The diuretic effect of a cold bath
may be partly explained from a similar distension of the
renal vessels, which must be favourable to the secretion
of the kidneys ; and if the same effect is sometimes pro¬
duced in a hot bath, when the superficial vessels are rather
dilated than contracted, it is in this case much less con¬
siderable than in the cold bath, and probably only takes
place in consequence of the increased rapidity of the cir¬
culation, which affects the whole sanguiferous system.
The glow which succeeds to the first sensation of cold
may be attributed in a great measure to the increased sen¬
sibility of the nerves after a partial torpor, rendering them
more susceptible of the sensation of heat, which is always
relative to the actual temperature of the skin; but it ap¬
pears, from Dr Currie’s experiments, that there is also
sometimes a real increase of heat as measured by the
thermometer; and it is probable that the causes concern¬
ed in the production of animal heat are called up into a
more vigorous exertion, in a strong constitution, whenever
they are required for the purposes of life ; so that they
first supply the superficial parts of the body, during the
immersion, with as much heat as is necessary to overcome
the painful sensation of cold, and afterwards, by a con¬
tinuation of the same action, occasion an actual elevation
of temperature above the natural standard. Dr Currie
found, that, during the affusion of a bucket of cold salt
water on the heads and whole bodies of two healthy per¬
sons, no depression of temperature was observable ; but in
a minute or two afterwards, although they remained without
motion, the mercury rose 2° ; in a third person of a feebler
constitution, although the temperature remained equally
unchanged during the affusion, it sunk, in a minute after,
half a degree. These effects seem to be almost entirely
independent of any change in the state of the circulation,
which must be rather retarded than accelerated, while the
generation of heat is increased. It is true, that the heart
might be called into more powerful action at the same
time that the pulsation at the wrist became feeble, from
the permanent contraction of the radial artery; but the
action of the heart would still be exhibited by the caro¬
tids, undisguised by this modification; and the carotids
have not been observed to beat more strongly in the cold
bath than at other times, although Dr Currie has remark¬
ed, that when “ the pulse could hardly be felt at the wrist,
the heart pulsated with great steadiness and due force
a fact precisely analogous to Dr Parry’s interesting ex- Bathing,
periment on the carotid of the ewe.
Warm baths may be classed with propriety among the
most useful sorbefacient remedies; but it is not easy to
decide whether they are much more active in promoting
absorption than other sudorifics, or than evacuants in ge¬
neral. When the weather deprives a valetudinarian of
his accustomed walk, the bath often affords him a valuable
substitute, increasing the appetite and promoting the di¬
gestion ; but too great an appetite without muscular ex¬
ercise is sometimes an evil, and this may have been one
of the causes of the inconveniences occasioned by an
abuse of bathing. A warm bath has often been of advan¬
tage in promoting the absorption of dropsical fluids, espe¬
cially when they are of limited extent, as in cases of par¬
tial anasarcous swellings; but the most important sorbe¬
facient effect of bathing is exhibited in the cure of glan¬
dular diseases, for which sea-water, whether in the form
of a warm or a cold bath, has long been considered as a
specific remedy; and there is no doubt that a residence
by the sea-side, with a judicious employment of bathing,
and the occasional internal use of sea-water, or of some
equivalent remedy, has been of the most essential service
to many constitutions which have exhibited these symp¬
toms of general debility and languid absorption, the tonic
and sorbefacient powers of the remedy being happily com¬
bined for invigorating and calling into activity the di¬
minished energies of the constitution.
The refrigerant or astringent powers, both of warm and
of cold bathing, have been abundantly elucidated by the
late Dr Currie, who has introduced the remedy into ge¬
neral practice as a febrifuge, especially in the form of
cold or tepid affusion, with the most salutary effects. It
is not easy to determine how far the contraction of the
superficial vessels by the astringent powers of cold, and
how far the retardation of the pulse, which may possibly
be dependent on that contraction, are concerned in the
advantage derived from bathing in fevers; but. it is at
least obvious that the remedy does not operate simply by
the abstraction of heat, since the tepid affusion is often
more rapidly successful in abating fever than the cold.
We may also collect from the experiments of Marcard,
that a bath at about 90° is more efficacious in abating the
frequency of the pulse, than at any lower or higher tem¬
perature ; and these facts appear to afford a very strong
argument against the hypothesis, that the principal utility
of the cold affusion depends on the sudden shock which
is given to the nervous system. Dr Currie has frequently
found the pulse reduced by a single cold affusion from 120
or 130 to 80 or 90, and the heat from 104° or 106° to the natu¬
ral standard. But he very properly limits the employment
of the remedy to those cases in which the temperature is
considerably elevated, and the arterial system is in strong
action, without local inflammation ; and where there is less
vigour in the system, he often employs the tepid instead
of the cold affusion, or even contents himself with mois¬
tening the face and the extremities; for instance, in hec¬
tic fever, the hands and feet only, which he finds actually
hotter than the rest of the body. A late writer on con¬
sumption has very justly remarked how much of Dr Cur¬
rie’s reasoning on the effects of cold bathing had been
anticipated by Galen, although, for want of a thermome¬
ter, he had not been able to employ the remedy in fever
with safety. “ Bathing,” savs Dr Young ( On Consumptive
Diseases, 8vo, Bond. 1815, p. 135), “ is very strongly recom¬
mended in the Method of Healing, and the process is very
minutely described : first warm air is employed, next warm
water, and then cold water, and, lastly, the sweat is wiped
off. When we are fatigued or dried up by exercise, the
bath restores us to comfort, and defends us from fevers.
BATHING.
503
Bathing. A strong young man in the country will plunge into cold striking illustrations of the effects of severe cold. He em- Bathing
water at once when heated, and be much refreshed by it.
Animals also wash themselves when they are hot, by a na¬
tural instinct, as they eat when they are hungry and seek
warmth when they are cold. In fevers, if we had suffi¬
cient powers of discrimination, we might probably some¬
times derive material advantage from the use of the cold
bath, without premising the hot; and some persons have
ployed baths at the temperature of 44° and 40° ; the natu¬
ral pulse of the person subjected to the experiment was
about 70 in a minute, and it was generally raised to 85 or
more by the preparation for immersion ; but in the water
it invariably sunk to about 65, becoming firm, regular,
and small. The change of temperature, as measured un¬
der the tongue, was still more remarkable, and greater
been actually benefited by this remedy. But without a than could have been expected either from reasoning oi
more intimate knowledge of diseases than we possess, we from former observations ; for the mercury fell, wit nn a
cannot generally venture on the practice; and least of all minute or two after immersion, from . 0 oi to i
in hectic fever, where there is not strength enough to or 88°; it then rose gradually, but not regular y, in a
bear the shock. A stout young man having a fever in quarter of an hour, to about 96°. Lpon a second expo-
warm weather, without visceral inflammation, would bring sure to the wind, it fell to about 90 , and was in one in-
on a salutary perspiration by bathing in cold water; and stance lowered 2° more at the nrst immersion in a bath o
if he were in the habit of cold bathing, he might have re- 97^°, in which the natural temperature was by degrees
course to it with the more confidence; but for the hectic recovered, although not much more rapidly than it had
it is unsafe, especially when there is much emaciation : risen during the former immersion in the very cold water;
thus, in a hot and a dry summer, those who have travelled but what raised it by far the most speedily was the apph-
far, and are become thin and weak,-have no need of being cation of very hot water to the region of the stomach,
cooled, nor would it be safe for them to use the cold bath When, however, Dr Currie himself went slowly into a
without first going into the warm. For we seem to be bath of 36°, in a light flannel dress, and remained in it lor
hardened by the cold bath like iron, when heated first; two minutes, no observable alteration was produced in the
and if we previously warm ourselves by exercise, the heat of his body ; and this circumstance might almost in-
effect is the same.” Dr Currie’s relation of an adven- duce us to suspect that the other subjects of his experi-
ture of his own might almost be supposed to have been ments had incautiously allowed their mouths to be cooled
intended as a commentary on these .remarks of Galen, by the inhalation of the cold air. Dr Marcard s experi-
(Reports, p. 120.) “ On the 1st of September 1778, two ments (p. 71) not only confirm the fact of the general re¬
students of medicine at Edinburgh set out on foot on a tardation and diminution of the pulse by the cold bath;
journey, a considerable part of which lay along one of the but they show that the retardation commonly extends to
rivers of Scotland. They started by sun-rise, and pro- all temperatures below that of the human body, becoming,
ceeded with alacrity in the cool of the morning. At the indeed, much more remarkable in the tepid bath than in
end of eight miles they breakfasted, rested for an hour, a bath of the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere,
and then resumed their journey. The day grew warm which does not appear to produce the effect with equal
as it advanced, and after a march of eight miles more, uniformity. Ihus, in a bath at 60° and at 63° the pulse
they arrived heated, but not fatigued, on the banks of w as rather accelerated than retarded. In six experiments
the river above-mentioned, about eleven in the forenoon, from /0° to 80° inclusive, taking the mean of all the quan-
Urged by the fervour of the day, and tempted by the tides in order to obtain a result less liable to accidental
beauty of the stream, they stripped instantly, and threw errors, and representing all the experiments in a compen-
themselves into the river. The utmost refreshment fol- dious form, the temperature was 75°, and in 20 minutes
lowed; and when they retired to the neighbouring inn, the pulse wras reduced from /8° to iO ; in foui from 80
this was succeeded by a disposition to sleep, which they to 90°, the mean temperatuie wras 8/ , and the pulsations
indulged. In the afternoon they proceeded, and travel- were reduced in 54 minutes from 91° to /5 ; in three at
ling sixteen miles further at a single stretch, arrived at 90°, the mean reduction in 36 minutes was from 97° to
the inn where they were to sleep, a little after sunset. 75° ; and three experiments above 90 give foi a mean
The afternoon had been warm, and they perspired pro- temperature 92°, and a reduction from 82 to /0 , effect-
fusely; but the evening was temperate, and rather cool, ed in 35 minutes. Martean found a slight reduction of
They had travelled for some miles slowly, and arrived at frequency at 93° ; but at 96 , according to Dr I air, there
the end of their journey stiffened and wearied with their is commonly no observable change. (Marcard, p. 63, 66.)
exercise. The refreshment which they had experienced From these experiments Dr Marcard very justly infers,
in the morning from bathing induced, however, one of that in a great variety of cases, the wraim bath affords the
them to repeat the experiment, and he went perfectly only direct and certain mode of loweiing the pulse with-
cool into the same river, expecting to relax his limbs in out inconvenience (p. 88); and we must be contented
the water, and afterwards to enjoy profound sleep. The with the empirical knowledge of this fact, without at
consequences were very different. The Tweed, which tempting to explain why a temperature of 90° is more
was so refreshing in the morning, now felt extremely cold; favourable for the retardation of the pulse, than a much
and he left the water hastily. No genial glow succeeded, lower temperature, at which the thermometrical heat
but a feverish chill remained for some time, with a small would certainly be more rapidly reduced. Dr Stock has
frequent pulse, and flying pains over the body. Warm li- also made several observations on the effect of cold bath-
quids and frictions brought on at length considerable heat, ing on the pulse ; but, in his experiments, the retardation
and towards morning perspiration and sleep followed, was much less constantly observable than the diminution ;
Next day about noon they proceeded on foot, but the tra- a variation which frequently occurs when the temperature
veller wrho bathed was extremely feeble ; and though they is very low.
had to perform a journey of a single stage only, as some Ihe salutary effects of cold applications, in some cases
part of it was difficult and mountainous, he was obliged of gout, were well knowii to Hippocrates, and have been
to take the assistance of a carriage which overtook them
on the road. It was several days before he recovered his
usual vigour.”
The experiments of the same judicious author, publish¬
ed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792, afford some
more lately extolled by Homberg, Floyer, and Pietschen.
Marcard (p. 256) very properly states the objections to
their employment; and, notwithstanding all that Dr King-
lake has done to recommend them, they have not been
adopted by prudent practitioners, except in very recent
BATHING.
cases, and in young and unbroken constitutions. Are-
taeus prescribes the affusion of cold water for giddiness
and headache, and it has certainly been successful in some
obstinate cases of this kind (Marcard, p. 255); and has
even appeared to be a powerful palliative in some descrip¬
tions of mania. In fevers, Dr Currie found its effects
more permanent than those of the tepid affusion, althoug i
not always so speedy. . u .i
We have ample experience of the tonic powers ot bath¬
ing in more than one of its forms, although for a ong
period the great majority of practitioners in Great Bri¬
tain were disposed to confine these powers within the
limits of the cold, or at most of the tepid bath. But tra¬
vellers in warmer countries had often informed us of the
invigorating effect of a warm bath taken after fatigue;
disagree, it will be generally advisable to exchange it for
the warm; and after a time it may be proper to give the t
cold a second trial. #
It is unnecessary to enter into a minute detail of the
diseases in which bathing is useful as A tonic. It is, how¬
ever, particularly indicated in a variety of complaints
which are peculiar to females; and to weakly childien,
especially such as are ricketty and scrofulous, sea bathing
is most essentially necessary. On the other hand, cold
bathing is almost universally to be avoided where there is
any consumptive disease, or any inflammatory affection of
any of the internal parts; an exception which is easily
understood, from the natural tendency of cold to cause a
congestion of blood in the vessels ot those parts, in con¬
sequence of the contraction of the superficial vessels.
 A _ r> .1  
invigorating effect of a warm bath ta en ^ J j ’ Xhe sudorific effect of the warm bath, followed by the re-
and Bruce in particular extolled its frigerant quality of the tepid, and the tonic powers of the
salubrity, from having used it i ^ ,P T  Q cnnrpssinn nf remedies nearly analogous to
Marcard on the same subject were partly made known
through Beddoes. Count Rumford, in his thirteenth es¬
say, has exhibited, in a popular point of view, the benefits
which he himself derived from taking the warm bath ha¬
bitually in the middle of the day rather than at night;
and Dr Alexander Buchan, in his work on sea-bathing,
has assisted in dissipating the remaining prejudices against
its employment as a mild tonic. For feeble or enervated
constitutions, and for persons who have suffered from
great fatigue, it is decidedly preferable to the cold bath;
but as the strength is gradually recovered, it may often
increase its efficacy to lower the temperature by degrees.
We may begin, for instance, with a warm bath at Jb or
98°, and lower it by degrees to 90° or a little less ; and
hence the transition to the open sea in the middle of a
summer’s day will not be too abrupt, the water being often
heated to 70° or more on a coast well suited for bathing;
and if the constitution appears to acquire strength under
the experiment, the hour of bathing may be made earlier
and earlier, until the temperature is no higher than about
60°. The time of remaining in the water may also be modi-
fied according to the powers of the constitution, a sing e
immersion being the most easily supported, and a longer
continuance in the water, till the sensation of cold has
subsided, calling forth the faculty of generating heat into
fuller action; observing always not only how the health
appears to be affected, but which mode is the most con¬
ducive to the pleasure or comfort of the individual, which
will often throw some light on the operation of the re¬
medy. In most cases it will be found, that where either
warm or cold bathing agrees with the constitution, it is
followed by a sense of youth and vigour, and self-compla¬
cency, which is equally agreeable and salubrious. We
must also make allowances for peculiarities of constitu¬
tion, which may require a deviation from the temperature
usually recommended. Thus there are some persons who
have so singular a sensibility as to feel a batb of 110° not
too warm, and to be absolutely chilled by a bath of 100°;
and in such cases it is probable that at 105° the pulse
would not be materially accelerated. In other instances
the cold bath produces headache and dejection of spirits.
This inconvenience is sometimes obviated by proper eva¬
cuations, which should also always be premised to bath¬
ing, where there is any appearance of visceral disease, or
of congestion of any kind. The sea-water will answer
this purpose sufficiently well, either alone or mixed with
warm milk, or with some chamomile flowers infused in it;
but it has no material advantage over any other cathartic
which may be preferred by the patient. It is also recom¬
mended by all authors on cold bathing to plunge in head
foremost, and this precaution is highly proper where there
is any apprehension of headache; but in other cases it is
of little moment. If, after all, the cold bath continues to
cold, exhibit a succession of remedies nearly analogous to
the mode of treatment which is usually found to be most
successful in fevers of various kinds; in most of which we
begin with sudorific medicines, and proceed to astringents
and tonics. Hippocrates, in his book on the use of li¬
quids, observes that gout is one of the diseases in which
both hot and cold applications afford effectual lelief; an(l
the remark is equally just with respect to some cases, o
rheumatism ; but, more commonly, the best mode of using
baths in rheumatism is to begin with a bath raised, duiing
the immersion, to as high a temperature as the patient
can bear, so as to act as a powerful sudorific, and to con¬
tinue the course, when the pain has been relieved, at
lower and lower temperatures, ending it with cold bath¬
ing in the open sea.
Notwithstanding the acknowledged utility oi warm
bathing in a variety of circumstances, there may possibly
have been some exaggeration in the marvellous opinions
which have been sometimes entertained of its utility for
the prolongation of life. Galen has indeed mentioned a
number of persons who had attained a great age, and who
were in the habit of making daily use of the bath, which
is enough to prove that such a habit cawnot be extremely
pernicious; and if we supposed a constitution to letain al
its energies, but to have them concealed and obscured for
want of proper stimuli, the warm bath might tend to re¬
move the evil; but it is more natural to believe that the
approach of old age has a tendency to weaken the radical
powers of the constitution, which cannot afford to be
roused into disproportionate exertion; and to apprehend
that the temporary vivacity and activity superinduced by
any foreign agent, whether by warm bathing or by a re¬
moval to a warmer climate, would only tend still more to
exhaust the already diminished store of vitality.
The narcotic and sedative, or specifically antispasmodic,
effects of bathing are most effectually exhibited, in ordi¬
nary cases, by the warm or tepid bath, which is often em¬
ployed for the relief of pain, and for the removal of any
irregular or convulsive affection. Possibly also the effect
of the warm bath in retarding the pulse may be partly
derived from its sedative power as affecting the heart;
and if we take this connection for granted, we may infer
from it, that the antispasmodic effect will be most advan-
taseously obtained from a bath at 90°, which has been
found to retard the pulse most effectually. But where
there is internal inflammation, it may be desirable to di¬
late the superficial vessels by a bath somewhat hotter
than this, so as to relieve the internal parts from a part
of the fluid which distends them, but without increasing
the velocity of the circulation by too high a temperature.
The cold affusion is also a powerful remedy in ™any cases
of tetanic disease. Dippocrates (Aph. v. 21) has re¬
marked, that it often creates a glow which overpowers
BATHS.
505
the convulsive contraction, especially where the subject is
young and athletic, the weather hot, and the disease inde¬
pendent of local injury ; and the modern experience of Dr
Wright and Dr Currie has confirmed and extended the ob¬
servation. In another passage he tells us (Aph. v. 25), that
the abundant affusion of cold water generally relieves and
removes swellings and pains in the limbs, as well as spasms,
producing a moderate degree of torpor, which supersedes
the pain ; but, in fact, the relief of inflammatory affections
by cold is rather to be referred to its astringent than to its
sedative powers. This is, indeed, a point which has been
much discussed by modern theorists ; but it must be con¬
fessed that all our theories are of little importance in physic,
any further than as they assist us in clearly comprehe'nding
and distinctly remembering the facts which we derive from
immediate experience in the treatment of diseases, (t. y.)
BATHS, Balnea {fiakavtia), large ornamented build¬
ings erected by the ancients for the sake of bathing. Baths
formed a part of the ancient gymnasia, though they were
frequented more for the sake of pleasure than of health.
The most magnificent baths were those of Agrippa,
Nero, Titus, Caracalla, Paulus /Emilias, and Diocletian.
The baths of Agrippa, or Thermae Agrippinae, were built of
brick, but painted in enamel. Those of Nero, Thermae JSe-
ronianae, were not only furnished with fresh water, but had
the sea brought into them: those of Caracalla were adorned
with 200 marble columns, and furnished with 1600 marble
seats; and which, Lipsius assures us, were so large, that 1800
persons might conveniently bathe in them at the same time.
But the baths of Diocletian, Thermae Diocletianae, surpassed
all the rest in magnificence; 140,000 men having been em¬
ployed many years in building them. A considerable por¬
tion of this vast structure, as well as of the baths of Cara¬
calla, still remains ; and, from the dimensions of the arches,
the beauty of the pillars, the profusion of foreign marble,
the curious moulding of the roofs, the multitude of spacious
apartments, and a variety of other circumstances, these ruins,
may be regarded as among the most remarkable relics of
ancient luxury and splendour. It is said that at Rome there
were 856 public baths. Fabricius justly observes,, that the
excessive luxury of the Romans appeared in nothing more
than in their baths. Seneca complains that the baths of
plebeians were filled from silver pumps, and that the ffeed-
men trod on gems ; and Valerius Maximus and Pliny make
mention of one Sergius Grata, who had baths suspended in
the air. This, however, appears to have reference to the
invention of the vapour bath, in which the flooring of the
chamber was suspended over the hollow cells of the hypo-
caustum. (See Ausonius, Mosella.)
According to Dion Cassius (Iv. 7), Maecenas was the first
who erected warm swimming baths at Rome; but there were
public baths prior to his time, although they were small,
poorly decorated, and of cold water only. Agrippa, while
aedile, built 160 places for bathing, where the citizens might
be accommodated either with hot or with cold water gratis;
and, following his example, Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Domi-
tian, Severus, Caracalla, Gordian, Aurelian, Maximian, Dio¬
cletian, and most of the emperors who studied to gain the
affections of the people, erected baths inlaid with the richest
marble, and wrought according to the rules of the most de-.
licate architecture. The wealthy had baths, frequently of
great magnificence, at their own residences, especially after
the practice of pillaging the provinces had commenced ; but
these they only used on extraordinary occasions. I he great
men, and even the emperors themselves, sometimes bathed
in public with the rest of the people. Alexander Severus
was the first who allowed the baths to be opened in the
night-time during the heats of summer.
The Greek baths were usually annexed to the palaestrae
or gymnasia, of which they were considered a part; and
consisted of seven different apartments, usually separated
VOL. iy.
from one another, and intermixed with other buildings be¬
longing to different sorts of exercises. These were, the ^
cold bath, frigida lavatio; the elceothesium, or room where
they were anointed with oil; the frigidarium, or cooling
room ; the propnigeum, or entrance of the hypocaustum or
stove; the vaulted room for sweating in, or vapour bath,
called concamerata sudatio, or tepidarium; the laconicum,
or dry stove , and the hot bath, called calida lavatio> V ith
respect to the baths disjoined from the palaestrae, they appear
to have been usually double ; one for men and another for
women, but so near that the same furnace heated both.
The middle part was occupied by a large basin, which re¬
ceived water by several pipes, and was surrounded by a
balustrade, behind which there was an area for the recep¬
tion of those who waited to use the bath. These baths
were vaulted over, and only received light from the top.
In the Roman baths, the first part which appeared was a
large basin, called Ko\vppf)9pa in Greek, and natatio or pis¬
cina in Latin. In the middle was the hypocaustum, which
had a row of four apartments on each side, called halnearia;
these were the stove, hot bath, cold bath, and tepidarium.
The two stoves, called laconicum and tepidarium, were cir¬
cular, and joined together ; and their floor was hollow and
suspended, in order to receive the heat of a large furnace,
which communicated with the stoves through the vacuities
of their floor. This furnace also heated another room called
vasarium, in which were three large brazen vessels called
milliaria, containing respectively hot, warm, and cold water,
and so disposed that, by means of siphons and pipes, the
water might be made to pass out of one or other of them
into the bath, in order to adjust its temperature. Such is
the description given by Vitruvius.
At three in the afternoon, which Pliny calls hora octava
et nona, the Romans repaired to the baths, public or private.
This was called the hora halnei, or the “ bath hour.” In
summer the earliest hour of admission was eight, and in
winter nine ; whence the expression of Pliny applied to the
hour of general resort. The public baths were opened at
the sound of a bell, and always at the same hour. Those
who came too late stood a chance of obtaining only cold
water. The bathers commenced with hot water ; but when
the pores had been thus opened, and a profuse perspiration
produced, they thought it prudent to close them again, either
with the cold bath, or at least with a sprinkling of cold
water. During the bath the body was scraped with a kind
of blunt knife or strigil, such as may still be found in the
cabinets of the curious. Bathing was succeeded by unction
and perfuming, after which they went fresh to the caxnaculum.
The Romans, when they found their stomachs over¬
charged, proceeded to the bath. This we learn from Ju¬
venal, who inveighs against those who, having gorged them¬
selves with eating, were forced to go into the baths to seek
relief. They also repaired to a bath to refresh themselves
after any considerable fatigue or travel; and hence Plautus
says, on one occasion, that all the baths in this world were
not sufficient to remove the weariness he felt. After Pom-
pey’s time the passion for bathing was carried to such excess
that many were ruined, and some had brought themselves
to such a state that they could not take food without first
bathing. The Emperor Titus is said to have lost his life in
consequence of the artificial habit thus induced. Hence
Pliny inveighs against those physicians who held that hot
baths aided digestion; and the Emperor Hadrian laid a re¬
straint on the immoderate humour of bathing, by a public
edict prohibiting all persons from bathing before the eighth
hour.
Baths, Modern. The modern baths consist of hot, warm,
tepid, and cold baths, shower baths and vapour baths, in
which the water and vapour used are either pure or variously
medicated. With the exception of Russia and Turkey, baths^
are not used to any great extent among the inhabitants of
3 s
Baths.
506
BATHS.
Baths.
Europe. It is chiefly in warm countries that the bath is an
indispensable luxury to the people, and in these countries
the necessity of frequent ablutions and of attention to Ppr
sonal cleanliness is so recognized, that it has been embodied
in the religious ceremonies of the Mahometans, Hindus, &c.,
and constitutes an essential part of their worship.
The Turkish and Persian baths, in their general con¬
struction, make a close approach to the ancierttltoman baths.
Lane, in his Account of the Manners and Customs of the
Modern Egyptians, has given a full description of the
Turkish baths as they exist at Grand Cairo. In that city
there are between 60 and 70 public baths, some of which
are kept exclusively for the men, others for the women,
while others are used in the forenoon by the men, and in
the afternoon by the women. “ The building, says Lane,
“ consists of several apartments, all of which are paved with
marble, chiefly white, with an intermixture, m some parts,
of black marble, and small pieces of fine red tile. 1 he in¬
ner apartments are covered with domes, which have a num¬
ber of small round glazed apertures for the admission of
lio-ht. The bather, on entering, if he has a watch and a
purse containing more than a trifling sum of money, gives
these in charge to the mallim or keeper of the bath, who
locks them in a chest; his pipe and sword he commits to a
servant of the bath, who takes off his shoes, and supplies
him with a pair of wooden clogs, the pavement being wet.
The first apartment is called the meslukh. It generally has
two, three, or four leewans (raised part of the floor used as
a couch), cased with marble, and a fountain of cold water,
which rises from an octagonal basement, constructed of stone
cased with marble, in the centre. One of the leewans, being
designed for the accommodation of persons of the higher and
middle orders, is furnished with mattresses and cushions;
upon the other or others, which are for the lower oideis,
there is usually no furniture except mats. In many baths,
there is also in the meslukh a small kind of stall for coffee.
“ In warm weather the bathers mostly prefer to undi ess in
the meslukh; in winter they undress in an inner closed
apartment, called beytowwal, between which and the first
apartment is a short passage with two or three latnnae oil
one side. Beytowwal signifies £ first chamber; and this
name is given to the chamber here mentioned, because it is
the first of the warm apartments ; but it is less warm than
the principal apartment, of which it is the ante-chamber. In
general it has two mustubahs (raised seats). 1 he bather
receives a napkin in which to put his clothes, and another
to put round his waist; this reaches to the knees or a little
lower, and is termed makhzam ; a third, if he requires it, is
brought to him to wind round his head, in the manner of a
turban, leaving the top of the head bare; a fourth to put
over his chest, and a fifth to cover his back. When the bather
has undressed, and attired himself in the manner above
described, the lawingee (attendant) opens to him the door
of the inner and principal apartment, which is called khara-
rah. This, in general, has four leewans, like those of most
rooms in private houses, which gives it the form of a cross,
and in the centre a fountain of hot water rising from a small
shallow basin in the middle of a high octagonal seat, cased
with white and black marble, and pieces of red tile. The
khararah, together with several chambers connected with
it, may generally be described as occupying almost an
exact square. The beytowwal is at one of the angles ; two
small chambers which adjoin each other, the one containing
a tank of warm water, the other containing a trough, over
which are two taps, one containing hot and the other cold
water, termed the khanafeeyeh, occupy two other angles;
while the fourth angle of the square is occupied by the
chamber which contains the fire, over which is the boiler.
“ The bather having entered the khararah, soon perspires
profusely from the humid heat, which is produced bythe
hot water of the tanks and fountain, and by the boiler. The
operator of the bath, called mookeyyisatee, immediately
comes to him. The bather sits on one of the marble seats, —
or lies on a napkin on one of the leewans, or by the edge
of one of the tanks, to submit to the first operation, which
is that of cracking his joints. The operator cracks almost
every joint of his frame ; he wrings the body first one way
and then the other, to make several of the vertebrae crack.
Even the neck is made to crack twice by wrenching the
head round, which produces a sensation rather alarming to
an inexperienced person. Each ear is twisted round until
it cracks ; the limbs are twisted with apparent violence, but
with such skill that an untoward accident is never heard of.
The object of this process is to render the joints supple.
The operator also kneads the bather’s flesh. Alter this he
rubs the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay.
There are two kinds of rasps used for the purpose, one very
porous and rough, and its rasping surface scored with seve¬
ral lines, the other of a fine close clay; and those used by
the ladies are usually encased in thin embossed silver. The
next operation is nibbing the bather’s flesh with a small
coarse woollen bag, after which the bather dips himself in
one of the tanks. He is next taken to a khanafeeyeh, and
a napkin having been hung before its entrance, the ope¬
rator lathers the bather with leef (fibres of the palm tree)^
and soap and sweet water. The soap is then washed off
with water from the khanafeeyeh, when the bather, having
finished washing, and covered himself with dry towels, re¬
turns to the beytowwal, and reclines on a mattress provided
with cushions. Here he generally remains from half an
hour to an hour or more, sipping coffee and smoking, while
an attendant rubs the soles of the feet, and kneads the body
and limbs ; then dresses and goes out. One piastre is the
common sum to pay for all the operations above described.
The Persian bath, and the processes followed there, as
described by Sir R. Ker Porter, are almost entirely the
same as those of the Turkish bath, so that it is unnecessary
to enter into details on the subject.
The Russian bath is more properly a vapour bath, and
is well described by Kohl in his Russia. His desciiption is
graphic and complete, though what he styles the “ torture”
of the process is considerably exaggerated. “On Saturday
evening,” he says, “an unusual movement maybe seen among
the lower classes in St Petersburg; whole companies of poor
soldiers who have got a temporary furlough, troops of mecha¬
nics and labourers, whole families, men, women, and children,
are eagerly traversing the streets with towels under then
arms, and birch twigs in their hands. From the zeal and
haste manifested in their movements, they would seem to
be engaged on important business, as in fact they aie, the
most important and agreeable of the whole week. 1 icy
are going to the public baths, to forget, in the enjoyment
of its vapours, the sufferings of the past week, to make supp e
the limbs stiffened with past toil, and invigorate them for
that which is to come. The Russians are such lovers of
vapour baths, that Petersburg contains an immense number
of these establishments. Before the door the words, En¬
trance to the Baths,’ in large letters, invites the eye ; within
the doorway, so narrow that only one at a time can w oik ns
way in, sits the money-taker, who exchanges a ticket for the
bath for a few copeks. Men, wromen, boys, and girls, all hurry to
secure their tickets, as if proceeding to some favourite show.
“ The passage is divided into two behind the check-
taker’s post, one for the male, and one for the female guests.
We first enter an open space, in which a number of men
are sitting in a state of nudity on benches, all dripping with
water and perspiration, and as red as lobsters, breathing
deep, sighing, puffing, and gossipping, and busily employed
in drying themselves and dressing. These have already
bathed, and now, in a glow of pleasurable excitement, are
puffing and blowing like Tritons in the sea. Even in the
winter, I have seen these people, all melting from the hot
Baths.
BAT
BAT
507
baths, drying and dressing in the open air, or, at most, in a
sort of booth forming an outhouse to the bath. Round
this space or apartment are the doors leading to the bathing-
rooms, large wooden apartments, in which a heat of 40° or 50°
Reaumur (122° to 145° F.) is maintained. Dr Robert Lyall
mentions, that the heat is maintained by means of a large stove
filled with stones, which are heated by means of burning wood,
and over which water is thrown. The steam thence raised
fills the apartment, which is surrounded with a wooden plat¬
form of ascending stairs or steps, and according to the de¬
gree of heat desired the person ascends the higher.
“ The first sensations on entering this apartment are very
singular, chiefly from the difficulty of breathing such a hot
and moist atmosphere. On the platforms, which are raised
in the form of an amphitheatre, lie an immense number of
persons apparently inflicting torture on themselves; if not
dead, they actually seem struggling with death, for the air
they are breathing can only serve to stifle. Other persons,
their tormentors, are employed in scourging them with
birchen rods, steeped in cold water, as if to increase the
smart. Others, standing by the glowing stoves, and steam¬
ing at every pore, have ice-cold water poured over them by
pailfuls. When the first disagreeable effect of the heat is
overcome, and the transpiration commences in full activity,
then a beneficent spirit of warmth pervades the whole frame,
and a divine sense of pleasure is all that remains to us of
our existence, our whole being seeming dissolved in fleeting
vapour. All pains and stiffnesses vanish from the limbs,
and we feel light and buoyant as feathers. The rubbing
and flogging with birchen twigs increases the transpiration,
and consequently the enjoyment. All bodily pain, be it
what it may, disappears in these baths; of headache, tooth¬
ache, cramps, convulsions in the limbs or face, gout, or rheu¬
matism, there remains not a trace. It is an extraordinary
excitement, a kind of intoxication of the whole nervous
system. By one of these baths a man is washed out like a
sponge; for a sensual people I can imagine no higher en¬
joyment.” (See also Acerbi’s Travels.)
The baths in Germany, France, Italy, and Britain, are
simply hot baths, in which the person, by himself, immerses
the body for a longer or shorter time; and are chiefly used for
purposes of personal cleanliness. The baths used by the mo¬
dern Europeans and by the Americans, differ essentially from
the Turkish and Russian baths, in that the vapour of water or
steam is rarely made use of during the process of bathing;
the operation being limited to washing or immersing the
body in water of varied temperature, according as the per¬
son wishes a tepid or a hot bath. The form of the bath,
therefore, differs essentially from those above described, con¬
sisting of a large or smaller building, containing a number
of separate dressing-rooms, in each of which, or adjoining
it, is an oblong trough of marble, slate, metal, or wood,
furnished with two taps, one for the supply of the cold, the
other for that of the hot water. The demand for these
baths is very small over the greater portion of Europe, so
that even large and populous towns cannot support above
one or two bathing establishments of moderate dimensions.
One of the greatest improvements in modern times would
be the general introduction of the Russian bath into the
towns of Great Britain, &c. The vapour bath is infinitely
superior to the warm bath for all the purposes for which a
warm bath can be given ; and as a medical agent in the re¬
moval and alleviation of certain chronic diseases can scarcely
be over-praised. An effective vapour bath may be easily
had in any house, and applied even to the greatest invalid
at little cost or trouble. A pretty large firebrick is made
red hot in the kitchen fire, and placed on an iron tray, which
is raised on short feet. Over this is set a wooden chair, on
which the person who is to take the vapour bath is seated; a
four-leaved screen covered with painted canvass or cloth is
then put round him, and a blanket or thick sheet thrown
over the top of the screen, so as to convert it into a narrow Bathurst,
closet or chamber. The person being provided with a small v—-'
jug or watering-pan of hot water, pours the water very slowly
over the red-hot brick, when, being converted into steam, it
rills immediately the limited space, and almost instantane¬
ously induces the most violent and general perspiration. We
have for many years had experience of this mode of pro¬
curing an effective vapour bath, and can confidently recom¬
mend it. (J* s—k.)
BATHURST, Allen, Earl of Bathurst, one of the last
luminaries of Queen Anne’s reign, was born in the year
1684. His studies and education were equally conducive
to the brilliant figure he was destined to make in social life
and in the senate, as a polite scholar, patriot, and states¬
man. These talents he had an opportunity of displaying
as early as the year 1705, when, at the request of his fa¬
ther, Sir Benjamin Bathurst, and the solicitation of the con¬
stituency of Cirencester, he represented that borough in
parliament. He distinguished himself particularly in the
struggles and debates relative to the union between the two
kingdoms; firmly supporting a measure which he thought
calculated to strengthen the government and add to the
prosperity of the country. Though he was contented to act
a subordinate part in the opposition planned by Mr Harley
and Mr St John, his intimate friends, in order to sap the
credit of the Duke of Marlborough and his adherents, never¬
theless he did good service to his party by arraigning, with
more eloquence than truth, the conduct of the general and
of the Earl of Godolphin, whom he accused of lavishing the
treasures of the nation on conquests more splendid than
serviceable. The loss of the battle of Almanza, which hap¬
pened about this time, seconded his efforts and those of his
associates in dispelling what they called the intoxication of
former successes, and disparaging achievements which re¬
flect immortal honour on the British name. But his per¬
sonal regard for Lord Somers, president of the council, suf¬
fered no abatement, although they were of different opinions
in politics ; and when that great man was deprived of office,
Mr Bathurst acted with such tenderness and delicacy as to
preserve his esteem in a private station. In consideration
of his Zealand services, the queen, in 1711, advanced him to
the peerage by the title of Baron Bathurst, of Battlesden, in
Bedfordshire.
His lordship continued to speak his sentiments with un¬
daunted freedom in the upper house, and became a vigorous
opponent of the court measures in the reign of George I.,
and during Sir Robert Walpole’s administration. The acri¬
mony of the prosecutions carried on against the Earl of Ox¬
ford, Lord Bolingbroke, and the Duke of Ormond, stimulated
his indignation against such vindictive proceedings ; and he
observed, “ that the king of a faction was but the sovereign
of half his subjects.”
The South Sea Scheme having infected all classes with
a spirit of wild speculation, when the people awoke from
their delirium a vast number of families were involved in
ruin. Lord Bathurst publicly impeached the directors, whose
arts had enabled them to amass enormous fortunes during
the prevalence of the mania; he represented that the na¬
tional honour was concerned in stripping them of their ill-
gotten wealth; and he moved for having all the directors
of the South Sea Company punished for their sordid knavery,
by the forfeiture of their estates.
When the bill wras broughtinto the Ilouseof Lords against
that learned prelate Dr Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, his
lordship spoke against it with great vehemence. He con¬
curred with all his might in the opposition to Sir Robert
Walpole ; and when, after an obstinate struggle, this minis¬
ter was forced to resign all his employments, Lord Bathurst
was sworn of the privy council, and made captain of the
gentlemen pensioners, a post which he resigned in 1744.
In 1757 he was appointed treasurer to George III. (then
508 BAT
Bathurst Prince of Wales), and continued in the list of privy coun-
II sellers at that monarch’s accession to the throne; but, on
Bathycles. accoun^ Gf his advanced age, he declined embarking again
^ in political contentions.
Lord Bathurst’s integrity gained him the esteem even or
his opponents, while his humanity and benevolence procured
him the affection of all who knew him more intimately ; an
he added to his public virtues all the good breeding, polite¬
ness, and elegance, of social intercourse. Congreve, t an"
brugh, Swift, Prior, Rowe, Addison, Pope, Arbuthnot, Cay,
and most of the men of genius of his own time, cultivated
his friendship, and were proud of his correspondence. Pope,
in his Epistle on the Use of Riches, which is addressed to
Lord Bathurst, compliments his friend in some highly cha¬
racteristic lines. Sterne, too, in his letters to Eliza, speaks
of him in terms of affectionate admiration. “ This noble¬
man,” says he, “ is a prodigy; for at eighty-five he has all
the wit and promptness of a man of thirty; a disposition to
be pleased, and a power to please others, beyond what I
ever knew; added to which, a man of learning, courtesy,
and feeling.” . ,
Lord Bathurst was elevated to an earldom m 1772, and
lived to see his eldest son promoted to the peerage by the
title of Baron Apsley, and several years lord high chan¬
cellor of Great Britain. His lordship married Catharine,
daughter of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had two other
sons and five daughters. He died, after a few days illness,
at his seat near Cirencester, on the 16th of September 177o,
in the ninty-first year of his age.
Bathurst, Ralph, M.D., uncle of the preceding, was
born in the year 1620. He studied divinity in Trinity Col¬
lege, Oxford; but, on the breaking out of the civil war,
he changed the course of his studies, and, applying himself
to physic, took a doctor’s degree in that faculty. By dint
of assiduous application, he soon rose to eminence in his
profession, and in the time of the Commonwealth was ap¬
pointed physician to the state. At the Restoration, however,
he quitted the practice of physic; was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society, and president of his college; and, haying
entered into holy orders, was made chaplain to the king,
and afterwards dean of Wells. Soon after, he filled the
office of vice-chancellor of Oxford, and was nominated by
King William and Queen Mary to the see of Bristol; but
this honour he declined. To the accomplishments of an
orator, philosopher, and poet, he added an inexhaustible fund
of wit. Ridicule—of which he was an absolute master—was
the weapon with which he used to correct the delinquents
of his college. His poetical pieces in the Musce Anglicance
are excellent in their kind; besides which he wrote several
poems, both in English and Latin. He died June 14.
1704, in his eighty-fourth year.
Bathurst, a county in the colony of New South Wales,
lying between the rivers Lachlan and Macquarie. In the
Bathurst mountains the first great gold digging began in
May 1851. See Australia. The town of Bathurst,
98 miles W.N.W. of Sydney, has since that time greatly
increased in size and importance. Pop. of county in 1851,
6405.
This is also the name of a seaport town of Western Africa,
capital of the British colony of Senegambia, at the mouth
of the Gambia river, in N. Lat. 13. 28. W. Long. 16. 32.
Bathurst Island, on the north coast of Australia. See
Australia.
Another island of the same name lies in the arctic seas,
in Lat. 75. N. Long. 100. W. Parry traced, in 1819, its
southern coast for 75 miles, and describes it as desolate,
rugged, and precipitous.
BATHYANI. See Hungary.
BATHYCLES, of Magnesia in Lydia, the celebrated
sculptor of the throne or shrine of the Amyclsean Apollo,
so minutely described by Pausanias {Laconia). This emi-
B A T
nent artist gave a stimulus to the genius of Grecian sculp- Bathyllus
ture. He came into Greece about 600 years b.c., at the 11
time when the invasion of the Scythians and of the kings of Bataevs.
Lydia harassed the Ionian states, and fixed his abode at
Sparta.
BATHYLLUS of Alexandria, a freedman of Maecenas,
was a celebrated pantomimic dancer in the reign of Augus¬
tus. See Ballet.
BATILUS, a musical instrument of percussion, made
of metal, in the form of a staff, furnished with metallic rings.
It was used by the Armenians in their church-service.
BATISTE, in Commerce, a fine kind of cloth, of mixed
silk and woollen, manufactured in Flanders and Picardy.
BATMAN, in Commerce, a kind of weight used at
Smyrna and several other places, usually containing six okes
of 400 drachms each.
BATMANSON, John, prior of the Carthusian monas¬
tery, or Charter-house, London. He studied at Oxford,
and wrote against Erasmus and Luther, at the instigation of
Lee, archbishop of York. He died in 1531.
BATNjE (Sarug), an ancient city of Osroene in Meso¬
potamia, celebrated for its great fair, which was attended by
merchants from Syria and India.
BATNEARS or Battiest people of the northern part of
Hindustan, inhabiting the tract of country now included
within the British district of Bhutteeana, the eastern frontier
of which is situated 125 miles N.W. of Delhi. The Bat-
ties present many peculiarities in manners and customs, dis¬
tinguishing them from the other people of Hindustan. They
consist of two distinct races; the one being composed ot
Mahometans of Rajpoot descent, who constitute the influ¬
ential class, and who report among themselves that their
ancestors emigrated some centuries ago from the district ot
Jessulmere, and, after various vicissitudes, settled in the
Batnear country ; the other comprising the common people
known as Jauts, who have adopted the religion of their su¬
periors, and are consequently treated with great moderation.
Most of these people are descended from dwellers on the
western bank of the Sutlej, who were invited by a rajah ot
the Battles to cross the river and settle in his country.
Though tillers of the soil, the Battles are more generally
characterized as shepherds; and although piincipally re¬
stricted to the territory whence their name is derived, various
tribes of them are to be found in the Punjab, and they are
also scattered over the high grounds to the east of the Indus.
Notwithstanding they are Mahometans, yet their cus¬
toms are in some respects at variance with those observed
by the majority of the followers of the prophet, particulaily
in the females appearing, without any reserve, unveiled in
public, and in their associating promiscuously with the men.
The wives of the Rajpoot chiefs form an exception.
The territory above described, anterior to British sway,
was under the dominion of a supreme prince or rajah, whose
authority was acknowledged by inferior chiefs. This poten¬
tate could bring 20,000 or 30,000 men into the field, but
they were quite undisciplined, and despised the necessary
principle of subordination. His revenue arose chiefly from
the plunder of his troops; for their wars were directed more
to predatory purposes than to open contest, and the rajah,
instead of repressing the ravages of this immense banditti,
willingly participated in the spoils.
While under the influence of native rule, the Battles ap¬
pear to have formed a collection of hordes of freebooters.
They have been described as of a cruel, savage, and ferocious
disposition ; entertaining an utter abhorrence of the usages
of civilized life; being thieves from their earliest infancy,
and during their predatory incursions into the neighbour¬
ing districts, not scrupling, though unresisted, to add mur- N
der to robbery.
Many of the Battles appear to be entirely nomadic ;
changing their residence from place to place as subsistence
BAT
Batnears. fails. Their exports are horses, camels, bullocks, buffaloes,
i r ..—J and ghee ; and occasionally they sell some surplus grain
above what is necessary for their own consumption; but their
traffic is very inconsiderable. A large portion of the coun¬
try is unproductive, but along the banks of the river Cug-
gur, from Batnear to the town of Sirsuh, and also in the
vicinity of the Nullah, called the Nyewal, the soil is un¬
commonly rich, and well adapted for cultivation. The in¬
undations of these rivers fertilize their banks, and the sub¬
sidence of the waters leaves them to a great distance pre¬
pared for plentiful crops of wheat, rice, and barley, amply
rewarding the labours of the husbandman.
We are unacquainted with any river of note in this dis¬
trict, excepting the Cuggur, and even this is lost in the
sands to the westward. It is, however, in contemplation to
construct a canal from Roopur on the Sutlej, communicat¬
ing with the Cuggur near the town of Putteeala, whence
a never-failing supply of water for purposes of irrigation
would be available to a considerable portion of the Bhattee
territory.
The former capital of the Battles was Batnear, which lies
in a situation almost inaccessible to an enemy, for no water
is to be procured within twelve miles but what supplies the
inhabitants. It was taken, however, in 1398 by Timour,
more recently by the military adventurer George Thomas,
and finally in 1805, by the rajah of Beykaneer, who still
retains authority over it. The principal town is Sirsuh, be¬
tween which and Bahawulpore a 1’oute for commercial pur¬
poses has been opened. Numbers of the Batties have emi¬
grated from their native country, to establish themselves in
the western parts of the dominions of Oude ; and several
families of them are to be met with in Rohilcund. They are
practised travellers, and well trained to emigration by the
laborious journeys undertaken in crossing the great desert
to the west of their territories. During the independence
of their native rulers, expeditions were frequently made in
large parties for the purpose of a predatory incursion on
some peaceable country more remote ; and these banditti
exemplified both skill and determination in attaining their
object. Camels previously laden with provisions were de¬
spatched to different stations in the desert, which is about
130 miles in breadth, and their loads deposited there. The
most intelligent of the party about to follow were then
selected as guides, and enforced the most implicit obedience
from their companions during the journey, which closed at
the frontier of the hostile country, or rather that against
which their hostility was directed. The guides by long ex¬
perience became expert without compass or landmark, and
seldom failed to conduct the party to the appointed station
where the provisions were deposited, and thence across the
remainder of the desert in safety. If accidentally they missed
the points of rendezvous, or those where alone their neces¬
sities could be relieved, they were exposed to inevitable de¬
struction. The adventurers steered their course by the sun
in the day-time, and by the polar star at night; and by simi¬
lar aids they were enabled to retrace the way they had tra¬
velled.
The history of the Batties has attracted the notice of few
European authors. They seem to have carried on frequent
wars with neighbouring states, and were the most formid¬
able enemies opposed to the rajah of Beykaneer. 1 he lat¬
ter, however, invaded their territories in the beginning of
the present century, and obtained some temporary advan¬
tages. He erected a fortress in Batinda, now a possession of
the rajah of Putteeala, and this contributed to overawe them
for a time, and repressed their incursions into his own do¬
minions ; as, independently of the garrison, he stationed a
large body of cavalry in the fort, whose frequent sallies and
captures of cattle annoyed the Batties so much, that they
contemplated a total emigration from their own country.
But George Thomas, the military adventurer already no-
BAT
ticed, an Irishman by birth, who, endowed with singular
talents and intrepidity, had founded for himself an indepen¬
dent state in the north-west of India, was then at war with
the province of Beykaneer. Having reached its frontiers,
the Batties solicited his alliance, and, to induce him to
espouse their cause the more readily, offered him 40,000
rupees if he would reduce the obnoxious fort. It appears
that the Beykaneer forces w ere now masters of Batnear, the
capital, whither General I homas, who had accepted the
proposals of the Batties, marched to dislodge them. He
found a numerous garrison, and, having brought up his artil¬
lery, began to batter the place preparatory to an assault.
This, however, the enemy avoided by capitulation, and they
were allowed to evacuate the city with the honours of war,
when the Batties immediately took possession of it In
further prosecution of the war, several actions ensued, and
various fortresses were taken ; but it would appear that one
of the Battie chiefs, at variance with General Thomas, com¬
menced hostilities against him about the period now alluded
to ; and in this new warfare with his late allies his forces
were so much reduced by repeated encounters, that being
scarcely able to stand an engagement he fortified his camps.
The Batties, after frequent attacks, withdrew their troops
by night; whereupon General Thomas took and burnt
Futtehabad and other places, and might have occupied the
whole country, had not a neighbouring chief concluded
an alliance with the Batties, and sent 1000 cavalry to their
aid. General Thomas retreated to Jyjur, a town within his
own territory, leaving the Batties in possession of their
capital, which, however, as already mentioned, was subse¬
quently captured by the rajah of Beykaneer.
The triumphs of the British arms proved fatal to the
European adventurers who at that period had established
themselves in Northern India, and the arrangements made
with Scindia brought the British into contact with the coun¬
try of the Batties, against whom they were compelled in
1810 to march a force, which expelled the chief and trans¬
ferred the greater part of the territory to his son, who had
voluntarily proceeded to the British camp. I he previous
evils continued, however, in a great degree to prevail. In
1818 further steps became necessary, and up to a compa¬
ratively recent period much irregularity continued to prevail.
The attention of the British government, however, has
been seriously turned to its abatement. (e. t.)
BATON ROUGE, a town in the state of Louisiana, North
America, situated on the left bank of the Mississippi, 120
miles above New Orleans. It has a court-house, jail, state
penitentiary, college, &c., and in 1849 was made the capi¬
tal of the state. Pop. (1850) 4200.
Baton, or Batoon. See Baston.
Batoni, Pompeo Girolamo, a native of Lucca, who was
considered in Italy as a great painter in the eighteenth
century ; but his altar-pieces in various parts of Italy, and
his works in Lisbon, where some of his best are exhibited,
show the decay of the Roman school in that century from
the grandeur of the preceding epoch. He was born in
1708, and died at Rome in 1787. Lanzi, Storia Pittorica;
Reynolds’s Lectures.
BATRACHIANS. See Reptiles.
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, or “ battle of the frogs
and the mice,” the title of a mock heroic poem generally
ascribed to Homer, though without any good foundation.
The subject of the work is the death of Psycharpax a mouse,
son of Toxartes, who having mounted on the back of Phy-
signathus a frog, vras being conveyed to her palace to which
she had invited him ; but being seized with fear at seeing
himself in the middle of the pond, he tumbled off and was
drowned. Physignathus being suspected of having inten¬
tionally shaken off Psycharpax, the mice demanded satisfac¬
tion, and unanimously declared war against the frogs.
BATSCH, Augustus John George Charles, a dis-
509
Baton
Rouge
II
Batsch.
510
BAT
BAT
Batta
Battel.
tinguished naturalist born at Jena in 1761. He was the
author of Elenclms Fungorum, and numerous other works,
chiefly botanical, by which he acquired a high reputation.
He died in 1802.
BATTA, a Hindustanee word applied to the allowance
given to East Indian troops in the field. In garrison they are
allowed half batta.
BATTALIA, an army ranged in order of battle, or ready
for engagement.
BATTALION, the lowest integral denomination in an
army or national military force. Hence two or more bat¬
talions constitute a regiment, two or more regiments a bri¬
gade, two or more brigades a division, two or more divisions
a corps d’armee, and two or more corps darmee a grand
army. A battalion is the unit or integer in all the combi¬
nations of an armed force. A battalion usually contains
from 500 to 800 men ; but the number is not determined.
They are divided into eight or more companies, one of which
is grenadiers. Some regiments consist of but one battalion,
others are divided into four or five. See Army.
BATTAS, a fertile and populous country in the island
of Sumatra. See Sumatra.
BATTEL, or Trial by the Wager of Battle, in English
law, a species of trial of great antiquity, but now abrogated
by positive statute. See Appeal. It seems to have owed
its origin to the military genius of our ancestors, joined to
a superstitious belief that Heaven would interpose, and give,
the victory to him who had the right. The decision of
suits, by an appeal to the God of battles, is believed by
some to have been invented by the Burgundians, one of the
northern or German clans who established themselves in
Gaul; and it is certain that the earliest written injunction
of judiciary combats to be found is in the laws of Gundebal,
which are preserved in the Burgundian code. Yet it does
not seem to have been merely a local custom peculiar to
particular tribes, but the common usage of all those warlike
nations from the earliest times. From a passage in Velleius
Paterculus, it appears that the Germans, when they first be¬
came known to the Romans, were accustomed to decide all
contests of right by the sword ; for when Quintilius Varus
endeavoured to introduce among them the Roman laws and
method of trial, it was looked upon, says the historian, as
a novitas incognitce disciplines, ut solita armis decerui jure
terminarentur: and among the ancient Goths in Sweden
we find the practice of judicial duels established upon
much the same footing as they formerly were in our own
country.
This species of trial was introduced into England, along
with other Norman customs, by William the Conqueror;
but it was only used in three cases ; first, in the court mar¬
tial, or court of chivalry and honour ; secondly, in appeals
of felony ; and thirdly, upon issue joined in a writ of right,
the last and most solemn decision of real property. In the
two former cases this method of trial may seem natural
enough in a military and superstitious age, but the reason
or ground of its admission in the last is not so obvious. That
usually assigned is the difficulty, in writs of right, of deter¬
mining the jus proprietatis ; but another and more plau¬
sible pretext for allowing it, in such cases, was for the sake
of those claimants who might have the true right, but yet
by the death of witnesses or other defect of evidence might
be unable to prove it to a jury.
The last trial of battel that was waged in the court of
common pleas at Westminster,—though there was after¬
wards one in the court of chivalry in 1631, and another in
the county palatine of Durham in 1638,—took place in the
thirteenth year of Queen Elizabeth, a.d. 1571, as reported
by Sir James Dyer, and was held in Tothillfields, West¬
minster, non sine magna jurisconsultorum perturbatione,
says Sir Henry Spelman, who was himself a witness of the
ceremony. In this trial by battel, on a writ of right, the
battle was waged by champions, and not by the parties
themselves ; because in civil actions, if any party to the
suit die, the suit must abate, and be at an end for the pre-
sent; and therefore no judgment could be given for the
lands in question if either of the parties were slain. An¬
other reason was, that no person might claim an exemption
from this trial, as was allowed in criminal cases. An ac¬
count of the form and laws of the judicial combat, which are
now merely matters of history, may be found in any of the
institutional works on English law.
BATTEN, a name given to a plank of wood 7 inches
wide, 2f inches thick, and of length varying from 6 to 50
feet. Battens are now always imported with their length
in even feet; formerly they were sent cut of all lengths as
the tree would allow. When the batten is under 6 feet in
length it is styled a batten end, but its other dimensions are
the same as that of the batten.
BATTERING, the attacking with heavy artillery a for¬
tification or strong post possessed by an enemy, in order to
demolish the works.
Battering-Ram (Aries), a military engine used before
the invention of gunpowder, for beating down the walls ot
besieged fortresses. Generally speaking, it consisted of a
long heavy beam of timber, armed at the extremity with
iron fashioned something like the head of a ram, which
being violently propelled with constant successive blows
against a rampart or tower, shook the fabric of masonry,
and in time caused it to tumble down.
In its simplest form it consisted of a beam such as we
have described, which the soldiers carried in their arms, and
with one end of which they assailed the walls by main force.
The improved ram was composed of a vast beam, like the
mast of a ship, shod with iron at one end, and suspended
either by the middle, or from two points, from another beam
laid across two posts ; and hanging thus equally balanced,
it was successively drawn backwards and driven forwards
with accumulated momentum against the wall or rampart.
This is the kind described by Josephus as having been used
at the siege of Jerusalem (B. J. hi. 7. § 19). It was also
covered over with a roof, shell, or screen of boards, to pro¬
tect the men employed in working it from the stones, darts,
and other missiles discharged by the besieged from the walls;
whence it was called testudo arietaria. It was also pro¬
vided with wheels, which greatly facilitated its operations.
(Vitruv. x. 19.)
Plutarch informs us that, in the Parthian war, Mark
Antony made use of a ram 80 feet in length ; and \ itru-
vius states that this engine was sometimes 106, sometimes
even 120 feet in length; a circumstance to which we are
to ascribe its prodigious force when vigorously worked. The
battering-ram required a century of soldiers at a time to
manage it; and as the working parties were regularly re¬
lieved as they became exhausted, it was kept in continual
action, and from incessant iteration produced the most.ex¬
traordinary effects. In fact, the momentum of a battering-
ram 180 feet in length, 28 inches in diameter, armed with
a head of iron weighing a ton and a-half, and moved by the
united strength of a hundred men, must have been equal to
the momentum of a thirty-six pound shot discharged point
blank from a modern piece of heavy ordnance ; and hence
it is not difficult to conceive how effective the constant re¬
iteration of such impulses would become in the work of de¬
molition.
BATTERY, in the military art, any place where cannon
or mortars are mounted, either to attack the forces of the
enemy or to batter a fortification. Hence batteries have
various names, according to the purposes which they are e-
signed to effect*
Gun-Battery is a defence constructed of earth faced with
green sods or fascines, sometimes of gabions filled with earth.
It consists of a breastwork, epaulement, or parapet, about 8
Batten
Battery.
Battery.
BAT
feet in height, and 18 or 20 feet in thickness, with a ditch
12 feet broad at the bottom, 18 at the top, and 7 feet in
depth. The open spaces through which the muzzles of the
cannon are pointed are called embrasures, and the solid masses
between the embrasures, merlons. The distance from the
centre of one embrasure to that of another is 18 feet, and
this is also the distance at which the guns are placed from
each other; consequently the merlons are 16 feet within
and 7 without. The genouilleres, or those parts of the
parapet which cover the carriage of the gun, are generally
made 2\ feet in height from the platform to the opening ot
the embrasures ; but this height must be regulated by the
semi-diameter of the wheels of the carriage and the nature
of the gun. The platforms are plank floors made to pre¬
vent the cannon from sinking into the ground, and they are
generally 18 feet in length, 15 feet in breadth behind, and
9 feet before, with a rise of 9 or 10 inches from the parapet
to check the recoil of the guns, and to render it more easy
to bring them forward again when loaded.
Mortar-Batteries differ from gun-batteries in this, that
the parapets have no embrasures, and the platforms have no
slope, but are exactly horizontal; the shells being fired quite
over the parapet, commonly at an elevation of 45 .
Open Battery is a number of cannon, commonly field-
pieces, ranged in a row abreast on some natural elevation
of ground, or on an artificial bank raised for the purpose.
Covered or Masked Battery is when the cannon and gun¬
ners are covered by a bank or breastwork, commonly made
of brushwood, faggots, and earth.
Sunk or Buried Battery is when the platform is sunk or
let down into the ground, so that trenches must be cut in
the earth opposite the muzzles of the guns, to serve as em¬
brasures to fire through.
Cross-Batteries are two batteries which play athwart each
other upon the same object, forming there an angle, and
battering with more effect, because what one battery shakes
the other beats down.
Battery d’Enfilade is one that sweeps the whole length
of a straight line, or the face or flank of any work.
Battery en Echarpe is that which plays obliquely.
Battery de Reverse is one which plays upon the rear of
the troops appointed to defend a place.
Camerade Battery is when several guns are discharged
upon one point at the same instant.
Redan Batteries are such as flank each other at the sa¬
lient and re-entrant angles of a fortification.
Ricochet Battery, so called by its inventor Yauban, was
first used at the siege of Aeth in 1697. It is a method
of dischai’ging cannon with a very small charge of powder,
and with just elevation enough to fire over the pai’apet.
When properly managed, its effects are most destructive ;
for the shot, rolling along the opposite rampart, dismounts
the cannon and disperses or destroys the troops. Ricochet
practice is not confined to cannon alone ; small mortars and
howitzers may be effectually employed for the same pur¬
pose.
Bloating Batteries are such as are erected either on rafts
or on the hulls of ships.
Fascine and Gabion Batteries are batteries constructed
of those machines where sods are scarce, and the earth very
loose or sandy. See Artillery.
Battery, in Law, is the unlawful beating of another.
The least touching of another’s person wilfully, or in anger,
is a battery, for the law cannot draw the line between dif¬
ferent degrees of violence, and therefore totally prohibits
the first and lowest stage of it; every man’s person being
sacred, and no other having a right to meddle with it, in any
the slightest manner. Upon a similar principle, the Cor¬
nelian law de injuriis prohibited pulsation as well as ver-
beration; distinguishing verberation, which was accom¬
panied with pain, from pulsation, which was attended with
BAT 511
none. But battery is in some cases justifiable or lawful; Batticaloa
as where one having authority, a parent or master, bestows II
moderate correction on his child, his scholar, or his appren- v BattIe- y
tice. It is justifiable on the principle of self-defence ; for
if one man strike another, or only assault him, the latter may
strike in his own defence, and if sued for it, may plead that
it was the plaintiff’s own original assault which occasioned
it. It is likewise justifiable in defence of goods or posses¬
sion, and in the exercise of an office, as that of church-warden
or beadle ; but the person pleading such justification in a
civil suit, or in a criminal prosecution, must be prepared to
instruct that he has observed the moderamen inculpate tu-
telce. By reason of these and other grounds of justification,
battery is defined the unlawful beating of another ; and the
remedy is, as for assault, by action of trespass or damages,
in which the jury will or ought to give adequate compensa¬
tion.
BATTICALOA an island within an extensive lagune
on the east coast of Ceylon, in Lat. 7.44. N. Long. 81. 52.
E. It is of importance on account ot the adjacent salt
works. The territory of the same name contains a popula
tion of 30,000.
BATTIE, or Batty. See Batnears.
BATTLE, a market-town in the rape of Hastings and
county of Sussex, 56 miles from London. It is situated in
a valley, and consists of one street. Ibis ivas the scene of
the conflict in 1066 which insured to William the Norman
the crown of England. The abbey founded by him forms
a most magnificent pile of ruins, and the ancient gatehouse
is still in good preservation. The place is now celebrated
for its gunpowder manufactories. Much business is done
at its weekly and monthly fairs. Pop. in 1851, 3849.
Battle, an action or engagement between the forces of
two armies. A battle is either general or partial; general,
where the whole, or the greater part, of each army is brought
into action ; and partial, where only brigades, divisions, or
corps d’armee are engaged. But, however the numbers
may vary, the great principles to be applied in delivering
battle are in almost every case the same.
It has indeed been said, by a high military authority, that
there is nothing invariable in the art of combats ; and look¬
ing to the endless diversity of circumstances under which
battles have been fought, as well as to the apparent results,
which are often at variance with the profoundest calcula¬
tions of science, the observation would seem to have some
foundation in truth. But a closer examination will be suf¬
ficient to convince us that this is not the case, and that the
maxim in question, like many others which pass current in
the world, involves a fallacy equally glaring and dangerous.
It is no doubt true that, in the circumstances under which
battles are fought, there is nothing invariable ; on the con¬
trary, it is scarcely possible to suppose two cases, wre do not
say alike in every particular, but resembling each other even
in their great or leading features. From the very nature of
things, the data of the problem are variable ; but the grand
principles by which the solution is to be evolved continue
immutably the same. The elements which enter into the cal¬
culations of a general are constantly changing ; and it is this
circumstance which affords scope for the exercise of his
genius, his sagacity, and his military science. But it would
be manifestly absurd to maintain, that because the condi¬
tions are incessantly diversified, the principles of the art
experience equal mutations. The issue of battle is always
uncertain ; because the calculations of the general may be
defective, his combinations unscientific, his foresight limited,
or his temperament rash and impetuous ; and because, even
where none of these causes of failure exist, events which no
human sagacity could have divined may occur to defeat the
wisest plans and the ablest dispositions. But all this im¬
plies, that if everything could have been foreseen and pro¬
vided fox*, the result would not have been doubtful; and that
512 BAT
Battle, the “ grand chances” are always on the side of him who
v r ^' forms his plan with the greatest sagacity, and executes it
with corresponding vigour and ability. For, variable as the
results of battles appear, the most decisive success has gene¬
rally crowned the exertions of the greatest commanders;
and victory in the long-run has seldom failed to pay homage
to science. There is nothing, therefore, invariable in the
art of combats, except those principles which science has
established as, mutatis mutandis, universally applicable.
A battle is not only the most imposing, but also the most
important event in war. It is the consummation to which
all the previous combinations of commanders necessarily
tend ; it is that grand act of war which may decide the fate
of kingdoms and empires, as well as that of armies and cam¬
paigns. The highest and dearest interests of nations, nay
even of humanity itself, may be involved in its issue ; and
the mighty cause of civilization may be accelerated or re¬
tarded according as the scales of the battle turn. It cannot,
therefore, we should think, be uninteresting or uninstruc-
tive, if we endeavour, by recurring to the works of the great
masters, to exhibit a condensed digest of those general prin¬
ciples, by the skilful application of which the fate of battles,
in all ages, has more or less been determined.
All the combinations of a battle may be reduced to three
systems. The first, which is purely defensive, consists in
waiting for the enemy in a strong position, without any other
object than that of maintaining it against him. Such were
the dispositions of Marshal Daun at 1 orgau, and of the
Comte de Marsin in the lines at Turin ; dispositions, we may
add, which proved wholly unavailing against Frederick and
Eugene, and forcibly exemplify the danger of receiving an
attack even in the strongest position. The second system,
on the other hand, is entirely offensive. It consists in at¬
tacking the enemy wherever he can be found, as 1* rederick
did at Leuthen and at Torgau, Buonaparte at Jena and at
Ratisbon, and the allied armies at Leipsic. The third system
is in some sort a mean term between the first and second.
It consists in choosing a field of battle possessing certain
advantages both in a strategical and tactical point of view,
in order to wait there for the enemy, and, even in the day
of battle, to watch the favourable moment for assuming the
initiative, and falling upon the adversary with every chance
of success. The combinations of Buonaparte at Rivoli and
at Austerlitz, and those of Wellington at Waterloo, as well
as in the greater part of his defensive battles during the
Peninsular war, are examples of the mixed system, and must
therefore be classed under this head.
It would be difficult, not to say impossible, to lay down
any fixed rules for determining when either of these last two
systems, which are the only suitable ones, ought to be em¬
ployed. Regard must be had to the moral condition of the
troops of each party ; to the national character, considered
as more or less solid or impetuous ; and, lastly, to the ob¬
stacles presented by the ground. These are circumstances
which must always influence the decision of a general; but
allowing sufficient latitude for such considerations, the fol¬
lowing principles will nevertheless be found generally ap¬
plicable : 1^, That with veteran troops, and in an open
country, the absolute offensive or initiative of attack is always
most advantageous ; ‘Idly, That in ground which, by reason
of its physical conformation or other causes, is of difficult
access, the better course is to allow the enemy to arrive in
a position which has been previously reconnoitred, and to
assume the initiative as soon as his troops shall have been
exhausted by their first efforts ; 2>dly, That the strategical
situation of the two parties may nevertheless sometimes re¬
quire that the positions of an adversary be attacked by main
force, without regard to any local consideration whatever ;
as, for example, when it is necessary to prevent the junction
of two hostile armies, or to fall upon a portion of an army
detached, or upon a corps isolated beyond a river. In these
BAT
and in all similar cases a skilful general will direct an im- Battle-
mediate and combined attack, without concerning himself ‘
about any consideration extrinsic to the main object of '
overwhelming the body opposed to him before it can be
reinforced.
Orders of battle, or the dispositions best suited for con¬
ducting troops to the combat, ought to have for their object
to insure at once mobility and solidity; and hence they
ought neither to be too extended nor too profound. An at¬
tenuated order is weak : and troops crowded together in too
dense an order are paralyzed; for as the head of the mass
only is engaged, disorder is easily introduced, and the enemy s
artillery causes frightful ravages. To avoid this double evil,
and to fulfil both the conditions of a good order of battle,
troops which remain upon the defensive should be partly de¬
ployed and partly in columns of battalions, like the Russian
army under Beningsen at the battle of Eylau. But troops
disposed for the attack of a decisive point ought to be drawn
up in two lines of battalions, each of which, instead of being
deployed, should be formed in columns by divisions. This
order presents infinitely more solidity than a deployed line,
the fluctuations of which deprive it of the impulsion neces¬
sary for such an attack, and render it impossible for the
officers to exercise the necessary control over the troops.
Nevertheless, in order to facilitate the march, to avoid too
great depth in the mass, and to extend the front without
materially lessening the consistence of an army, it may be
advantageous to draw up the infantry in two ranks. The
battalions will thus possess greater mobility ; and, besides,
they will have all the force desirable, since the three divi¬
sions deployed will possess six ranks in depth, which is more
than sufficient; while the extended front will increase in a
corresponding ratio the effect of the musketry. In grounds
of difficult access, as vineyards, inclosures, gardens, and
wooded heights, the defensive order of battle should be com¬
posed of battalions deployed, covered by numerous platoons
of sharpshooters. But the troops destined for the attack, as
well as the reserve, may be advantageously disposed in co¬
lumns of attack by the centre. The reserve, however, may
be kept in part deployed until the moment of advance, in
order, by its apparent extent, to impose on the enemy. In
a defensive battle upon open ground, squares of battalions
may be substituted for columns, by doubling the lines of two
ranks so as to form four deep ; and each battalion will thus
present a sufficient mass, with a front varying from forty to
fifty files. This order, which was that employed by the
Duke of Wellington at Waterloo, appears advantageous when
there is reason to apprehend attacks of cavalry ; for it affoids
at once safety to the infantry, and protection to the cannon¬
eers and train of artillery. But as it has both less mobility
and less impulsion than that in columns of attack, the latter
has been judged preferable ; because, with well-disciplined
troops, squares may be easily formed in each battalion by a
simple conversion to the right and left of the division of the
centre. The Duke of Wellington, it is true, commonly
fought deployed ; but, to say nothing of the incomparable
military qualities of his troops, his lines were generally formect
four deep ; so that, after all, the exception is more apparent
than real. . .
See Jomini, Traite des Grandes Operations Mihtaires ;
Archduke Charles, Der Strategic; Rogniat, Considerations
sur VArt de la Guerre; Guibert, Essai General de lac-
tique; Bulow’s Principles of War, translated by Ma-
lortie. B r-1j
Battle-Axo, an ancient military weapon. Axes orm
a principal part of the offensive arms of the Ce tse. ie
siege of the Capitol by the Gauls under Brennus, one of the
most distinguished of their warriors was armed with a bat¬
tle-axe ; and Ammianus Marcellinus, many centuries a ter-
wards, describing a body of Gauls, states that all of them
were armed with battle-axes and swords. Some of these
B A U
Battlement weapons have been found in the sepulchres of the ancient
il Britons on the downs of Wiltshire and in the north of Scot-
Baudius. Four or five centuries ago the Irish went constantly
armed with axes. On the morning of the battle of Ban¬
nockburn, King Robert the Bruce cleft an English warrior
to the chin with one blow of his battle-axe. The Lochaber
axe remained long a formidable weapon in the hands of the
Scottish Highlanders ; and it was the principal weapon of the
City Guard of Edinburgh till the year 1817, when that body
was abolished.
BATTLEMENT. See Architecture, Glossary.
BATTORY, a name given by the Hans Towns to their
magazines or factories abroad.
BATTU, an island lying off the western coast of Suma¬
tra, 40 miles in length by 10 in average breadth, and en¬
tirely covered with wood. It is almost immediately under
the equinoctial line. Its exports are cocoa-nuts, oil, and
sea-slugs.
BATTUE, a French word in common use among sports¬
men to denote the practice of beating the bushes in order
to start the game, or to drive it within circumscribed limits.
BATUM, a seaport town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pa-
shalic of Trebizonde, and 110 miles N.E. of the town of that
name. It is situated on the Black Sea, at the mouth of the
river Tchorak. Its harbour is safe and commodious. A
British vice-consul resides there. Pop. about 3000.
BAUCIS and Philemon, in Fabulous History, an aged
couple who dwelt in a cottage in Phrygia. Jupiter and Mer¬
cury, disguised as mortals, were well received by this vene¬
rable pair, after having been refused entertainment by every
body else. To punish the people for their inhumanity,
they laid the country under water, but removed Baucis and
Philemon to the top of a mountain, where they saw the de¬
luge, and their own little hut above the waters changed into
a temple. Here the grateful gods promised to confer on
their entertainers whatever boon they might solicit. They
expressed a desire to officiate in this temple as priest and
priestess, and to die at the same moment; both of which
requests were granted. Ovid, Met. viii.
BAUDELOCQUE, Jean-Louis, an eminent French
surgeon and accoucheur, appointed by Napoleon to attend
the Empress Maria-Louisa in the latter capacity. He was the
author of JJArt des Accouchements, and numerous other
works on the diseases of women and children. He died in
1810, aged sixty-four.
BAUDELOT DE DAIRYAL, Charles-Cesar, a
learned advocate in the parliament of Paris, distinguished
by his skill in ancient monuments. He wrote a Treatise
on the Advantages of Travelling ; Letters and Dissertations
on Medals, &c. He was admitted into the Academic des
Inscriptions in 1705, and died in 1722, aged seventy-four.
BAUDIER, Michel, a gentleman of Languedoc, who
lived in the reign of Louis XIII., and published several co¬
pious and laborious historical works. Among these were,
An Inventory of the General History of the Turks ; His¬
tory of the Seraglio and Court of the Sultan; History of the
Religion of the Turks ; History of the Court of the King oj
China; The Life of Cardinal Ximenes, &c. The latter is
considered the most valuable of his works. He died in 1645.
BAUDIUS, Dominicus, professor of history in the uni¬
versity of Leyden, was born at Lisle in 1561. He studied
at Aix-la-Chapelle, at Leyden, and at Geneva, and was ad¬
mitted doctor of law in 1585. Soon after he accompanied
the ambassadors from the states to England, where he be¬
came acquainted with several persons of distinction, parti¬
cularly the famous Sir Philip Sidney. He was admitted
advocate at the Hague in January 1587; but becoming
weary of the bar, he went to travel in France, where he re¬
mained ten years. In 1592, Achilles de Flarlai, first pre¬
sident of the parliament of Paris, obtained for him the ap¬
pointment of advocate of the parliament of Paris. In 1602
VOL. iv.
B A U 513
he went to England with Christopher de Hariai, the presi- BaugS
dent’s son, who was sent as ambassador to England by Henry ||
the Great. In the course of the same year he was made Bauhin'
professor of eloquence at Leyden, and settled in that uni-
versity. In 1611 the states conferred upon him the office
of historiographer in conjunction with Meursius; and in con¬
sequence of this appointment he wrote The History of the
Truce. The disgrace he brought on himself by his irregu¬
lar life is said to have hastened his end. He died at Leyden
in 1613. As a Latin writer, both in prose and verse, Bau-
dius was excelled by few of his contemporaries.
BAUGE, an arrondissement, department of Maine and
Loire, in France, comprehending six cantons and sixty-six
communes. Area 543 square miles; pop. 79,713. The
chief place of the same name is situated on the river Cou-
anon ; pop. in 1851, 3147, principally employed in making
serges and other woollen goods.
Bauge, a drugget manufactured in Burgundy of thick
spun thread and coarse wool.
BAUHIN, Jean, a distinguished botanist, born at
Basle, in 1541. He was the son of an eminent physician,
who quitted France, his native country, on account of
religion, and settled at Basle. In early life he travelled
with Gesner, the celebrated naturalist, and collected plants
in the Alps, in France, and in Italy, for the great botanical
work which he afterwards accomplished. He first practised
medicine at Basle, where he was elected professor of rhe¬
toric in 1566. He then resided for some time at Yverdun;
and in 1570 was invited to be physician to the Duke of
Wirtemberg at Montbelliard; a situation in which he spent
the remainder of his life. He devoted his time chiefly to
botany, on which he bestowed great labour. He likewise
prosecuted other branches of natural history, and published
an account of Medicinal Waters throughout Europe. His
great work on plants was not completed at his death, which
happened in 1613. A society at Yverdun published in 1619
the Prodromus ; but it was not till 1650 and 1651 that the
work itself appeared, in three vols. folio, entitled Historia
Plantarum nova et absolutissima, cum Auctorum consensu
et dissensu circa eas. This performance, with all its defects,
has been pronounced by Haller to be without an equal. It
is still considered a standard work; and the names of John
Bauhin and his brother rank high among the founders and
first promoters of botanical science.
Bauhin, Gaspard, brother of the former, was born at
Basle in 1560. He was early devoted to physic, and pur¬
sued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the ce¬
lebrated schools in Germany. In his journeys he collected
a number of plants which had escaped his brother’s notice.
Returning to Basle in 1580, he was admitted to the degree
of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy.
In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that
university, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany.
He was afterwards made city physician, professor of the prac¬
tice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of his
faculty. Haller gives him the character of being assiduous
and laborious in collecting plants, by which means he sur¬
passed his brother in the number of them, as he also did in
the accuracy of his figures ; but he possessed less acuteness
of judgment in distinguishing varieties, and in detecting the
same species under different names. He published several
works relative to botany, of which the most valuable is his
Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu index in Theophrasti, Diosco-
ridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo scripserunt opera,
plantarum fere sex millium nomina, cum synonymiis et
differentiis. Opus XIV. annorum, 4to. The confusion that
began to arise at this time from the number of botanical
writers who described the same plant under different names,
rendered such a task as this highly necessary ; and though
there are many defects in the execution, the Pinax of Bauhin
is still a useful key to all the writers before his time. An-
514
Baumans
Hohle.
II
Baum6.
B A U
B A U
other great work which he planned was a Tlieatrum Bota-
nicum, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of which
he finished three ; only one however was published. He also
, gave a very copious catalogue of the plants growing m the
environs of Basle; and edited the works of Matthiolus with
considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy : his
principal work on this subject is Theatrum Anatomicumm-
finitis locis auctum, 4to, Frankf. 1621; which is a kind of
pinax of anatomical facts and opinions. He died m 1 -
BAUMANS Hohle, a celebrated series of natural ca¬
verns, described and figured by Leibnitz in his Protogaa.
They obtained this name from an unfortunate miner who, in
1670, ventured to explore the cave, and being there lost tor
three days and nights, died of exhaustion soon after escap¬
ing from its recesses. The cave is in a bed of limestone ot
transition, about two miles from the town of Elbmgrade,
and 18 from Goslar. The entrance is 15 feet wide, and o
feet hUh ; and leads by a rapid descent to a grand chamber,
between 40 and 50 feet in diameter, and from 10 to 20 feet
in height. From the roof depend stalactites ; and the floors
of the cavern have been all covered with stalagmite, much
broken up in the search for the fossil bones that abound there.
The bones, like those in other German caves, are those of
the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, bear, hyaena, &c., imbedded
in mud and sand mixed with water-worn pebbles. This de¬
tritus incloses the antediluvian bones, but the human bones
found in this and other similar caves have evidently a more
recent origin, being the remains of persons who have acci¬
dentally perished there. (Leibnitz, Protogcea ; Buckland s
Reliquice Diluviarux.) (T’ s‘ ,
BAUMfi, Antoine, a Parisian apothecary, distinguished
by his knowledge of chemistry, and by his practical applica¬
tion of that knowledge, was born at Senlis in 1728.. He
was the son of an innkeeper, and was put as apprentice to
the eminent chemist Geoffrey. He had to contend with the
disadvantages of a defective education; yet he neverthe¬
less prosecuted his scientific researches with great success.
In 1752 he was admitted a member of the College of Phar¬
macy ; soon after he was appointed professor of chemistry at
that establishment; and in his lectures he displayed the ex¬
cellent arrangement which is seen in his published works.
He carried to a great extent his commercial establishment
in Paris for the preparation of drugs for medicine and the
arts, such as the acetate of lead, the muriate of tin, mercu¬
rial salts, and antimonial preparations. At the same time he
published a number of papers on chemical science, and on
arts and manufactures. He established the first manufac¬
tory of sal-ammoniac in France, a substance which before
that time had been obtained from Egypt. He was the first
also who devised and set on foot a process for bleaching raw
silk. Having acquired a competency by the success of these
different undertakings, he retired from trade, and devoted
his time to the application of chemistry to the arts. He im¬
proved the process for dyeing scarlet at the manufactory of
the Gobelins, and published a cheap process for purifying
saltpetre. By the revolution he lost his fortune, but this
calamity, instead of disheartening him, stimulated him to
resume his trade. He was chosen a correspondent of the
Institute in 1796, and died in 1804, at the age of seventy-
six. He was temperate, active, and regular in his habits.
Many of his papers are published in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences. Of his separate publications, the fol¬
lowing may be mentioned here : Dissertation sur VEther,
Baum-
garten
in 12mo ; Plan d'un Cours de Chimie Expcrimentale, 1757,
in 12mo ; Opuscules de Chimie, 1798, in 8vo ; EUmens de
Pharmacie Theorique et Pratique, 2 vols. 8vo; Chimie u
Experimentale et Paisonnee, 3 vols. 8vo, 17*3. ^
BAUMGARTEN, Alexander Gottlieb, an eminent
German philosopher, born at Berlin in 1714. He pursued
his studies at Halle, and afterwards became professor of phi¬
losophy at Frankfort on the Oder ; in which city he died in
the year 1762. He was a disciple of Leibnitz and Wolf,
and was particularly distinguished for his aesthetical specu¬
lations, having been the first to develop and establish the
Theory of the Beautiful as an independent science. Baum-
garten, however, cannot properly be regarded as the founder
of aesthetics. Plato, in the Phaedrus and the Hippias, had al¬
ready made the Beautiful the object of a special analysis,
and though confounding the two qualities of goodness and
beauty, the profoundness of his speculations has thrown,
into the shade Baumgarten and all the other followers of
Wolf who have pursued the same subject. The very name
{Esthetics) by which Baumgarten distinguished the science
of the Beautiful, though now very generally adopted for the
sake of convenience, indicates the imperfect and partial na¬
ture of his analysis, pointing as it does to an element so.
variable as feeling or sensation as the ultimate ground of
judgment in questions pertaining to beauty. Yet the labours
of Baumgarten will only be contemned by those who deny
the possibility of a science of aesthetics. The principal
works of Baumgarten are the following: Disputationes de
nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus ; AEsthetica ; Metaphy-
sica ; Ethica philosophica; Initia philosophies practices
primes.
B AUR, Johann Wilhelm, an eminent Flemish painter,
and a disciple of Brendel. He spent some time at Rome,
where his studies were wholly devoted to architecture and
landscapes. He painted small figures in distemper on vel¬
lum, and etched with great spirit. His largest works are
historical. He was born at Strasburg in 1600, and died at
Vienna in 1640.
BAUTZEN, or Budissin, one of the four provinces
into which the kingdom of Saxony is divided, comprehends
the greater part of Upper Lausatia, the rest of which, toge-
therewith Lower Lausatia, was ceded to Prussia in 1815.
It has an area of 970 square miles, and is divided into the
districts of Bautzen, Camenz, Lbbau, and Stolpen; con¬
taining 14 cities, 658 villages and hamlets: pop. in 1851,
290,589. See Saxony.
Bautzen, the capital of the above province, occupies an
eminence on the right bank of the Spree, 680 feet above
the level of the sea, and 32 E.N.E. from Dresden. The
town is well built, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on
the left bank of the river. It has a cathedral, which is used
by both Protestants and Roman Catholics; five other
churches, a handsome town-house, an orphan-asylum,
several hospitals, mechanics’ institute, gymnasium, a nor¬
mal and several other schools, and two public libraries.
Its general trade and manufactures are considerable, includ¬
ing linen, cotton, and woollen goods, tobacco, leather, paper,
gunpowder, &c. Pop. (1849) 10>S18- The batt e of
Bautzen was fought here on the 21st and 22d of May 1813,
between the French under Napoleon and the allied
of Russia and Prussia ; in which, after a severe loss on both
sides, the latter were defeated. Lat. 51.11.10. N. Long. 1 .
25. 50. E.
515
BAVARIA,
Bavaria. A country in southern Germany, in former times a mar-
graviate and duchy, afterwards an electorate, and, since
Extent. 1806, a kingdom of considerable extent. It is situated
between the forty-seventh and fifty-first degrees of N.
Lat. and is of an oblong form, its greatest extent being
from N. to S. Its breadth is different in different parts,
but we may form a tolerably correct idea of the whole by
supposing a rectangular tract of country, of 200 miles in
length by 140 in breadth. Such a tract would contain a
surface equal to the Bavarian territory, exclusive of the dis¬
tant province on the Rhine ; including that province, how¬
ever, the extent of the kingdom is nearly 30,000 square
miles, or somewhat greater than that of Scotland.
History. The name in German, Baiern, is derived, like its old
Latin name Boiaria, from Boii, the name of a people of Cel¬
tic origin, who were the inhabitants of this country in the
reign of Augustus. It then formed part of the Rhsetia Vin-
delicia and Noricum of the Romans. After the fall of the
Roman power, the natives were governed by military chief¬
tains of their own till the era of Charlemagne, who succeeded
in subjugating this as well as most other parts of Germany.
After his death, Bavaria was governed by one of his grand¬
sons, whose successors bore the title of Margrave, or Lord
of the Marches. In the year 920 the ruling margrave was
raised to the rank of duke, which continued the title of his
successors for no less than seven centuries. During this
long period Bavaria was connected with Germany, nation¬
ally by language, and politically as a frontier province, but
in civilization was almost as backward as Austria, and greatly
behind Saxony, Franconia, and the banks of the Rhine. At
last, in 1620, a formidable insurrection taking place in Bo¬
hemia against Austria, the reigning Duke of Bavaria sided
with the latter, and having rendered great service to her
cause, received an important accession of territory, and was
appointed one of the nine electors of the empire. His suc¬
cessors continued faithful members of the Germanic body
and allies of Austria until the ambitious projects of Louis
XIV. of France led, in the year 1702, to a close connection
between that monarch and the elector ; the object of which
was to threaten and even attack Austria, so as to prevent
her from co-operating efficiently with England and Holland
in their great contest with France. This hostile attitude of
Bavaria, joined to the insurrectionary movements in Hun¬
gary, bore so hard on the emperor as to induce the Duke of
Marlborough, in the spring of 1704, to march his army above
300 miles from the banks of the Maese to those of the
Danube and Iser. Bavaria was now invaded, and the elec¬
tor put under the ban of the empire ; but he remained firm
to his alliance with Louis, and a French army under Mar¬
shal Tallard advanced from the Rhine to his relief. It was
over this army, joined to a strong Bavarian force, that Marl¬
borough and Prince Eugene obtained the signal victory of
Blenheim) on the 13th August 1704. The result was de¬
cisive of the fate of the electorate; the French fled to the
Rhine ; the elector fled with them, and Bavaria was governed
by commissioners appointed by the emperor. This state of
things lasted ten years ; the elector and his remaining mili¬
tary force serving in the French armies, until the peace of
Utrecht, or more properly that of Baden, in 1714, reinstated
him in his dominions.
The son and successor of this elector, untaught by the
disasters of his father, was induced to renew his connection
with France; and, in 1740, on the death of the Emperor of
Germany, he ventured to come forward as a candidate for
the imperial crown. In this he succeeded so far as to be
named to that high dignity by a majority of the electors, and
to overrun a considerable part of the Austrian territory ; but
his triumph was of short duration, for the armies of Maria Bavaria.
Theresa, aided by English subsidies, came forward in supe-
rior numbers, and not only repulsed the Bavarians, but ob¬
tained, in 1744, possession of the electorate. The elector
died soon after, and his son recovered his dominions only
by renouncing the ambitious pretensions of his father.
Bavaria now remained tranquil above thirty years, until
1778, when, by the death of the reigning elector, the
younger line of the house of Wittelsbach, the line which
had long ruled in Bavaria, became extinct. The next heir
was the Elector Palatine, the representative of the elder line
of the family of Wittelsbach ; but Austria unexpectedly laid
claim to the succession, and took military possession of part
of the country. This called into the field, on the side of
Bavaria, Frederic II. of Prussia, then advanced in years.
The armies on each side were formidable and well com¬
manded ; they made many threatening marches and counter¬
marches, but happily no bloodshed took place; and at last
Austria desisted from her pretensions, on obtaining from
Bavaria the cession of the frontier district called the Inn-
viertel, or Quarter of the Inn.
Bavaria again remained at peace for many years, until
the great contest between Germany and France began in
1793, when she was obliged to furnish her contingent as a
member of the empire. During three years her territory was
untouched, the operations being carried on in the Nether¬
lands and on the Rhine; but in the summer of 1796, a
powerful French army under Moreau advancing and occu¬
pying her capital, the consequence was a separate treaty
with France, and the withdrawal of her contingent from
the army of the empire. The next war between France
and Austria, begun in 1799, was comparatively short; but
ending disastrously for the latter, the influence of France
in the empire was greatly strengthened, so that, in 1805,
when the Austrians, subsidized by England, once more took
up arms, Bavaria was the firm ally of France, and for the
first time found advantage in the connection. In the short
space of three months, the victories of Ulm and Austerlitz
enabled Buonaparte to prescribe the conditions of peace, and
to confer on his electoral ally the title of king, along with
very considerable additions of territory.
These substantial acquisitions rendered Bavaria the will¬
ing assistant of France in the invasion of Prussia in the sub¬
sequent autumn. The battle of Jena took place, and a fur¬
ther increase of territory to Bavaria followed at the peace of
Tilsit. The consequence was, that in 1809, when the ab¬
sence in Spain of a great part of the French military force
encouraged Austria again to try the hazard of war, the Ba¬
varian troops were wholly at the disposal of Buonaparte,
and formed a main part of the great army with which he
defeated the Austrians at Eckmuhl and Wagram. The
peace that ensued gave a further aggrandizement to Bavaria;
but a few years more showed how dearly it was purchased,
when many thousands of her best troops perished in the
disastrous retreat from Russia. This sacrifice of lives, and
the horror of Buonaparte’s tyranny, excited in Bavaria, as
in the rest of Germany, an ardent wish to throw off his
yoke. Nor wras opportunity long wanting. In the following
year (1813) the allied sovereigns advanced into Saxony, and
gave assurance to the king of Bavaria, that, in the event of
his co-operating vigorously with them against France, he
should be maintained in all his late acquisitions. The king
received these assurances with satisfaction, but could not in
prudence join the allies for some months; at the end of
which the retreat of the French from Dresden, and the pro¬
bability of their falling back to the Rhine, induced him to
make an open declaration of hostility against his former allies,
516
BAVARIA.
Bavaria.
and to march an army to Hanau, on the Maine, the line of
their expected retreat. At Hanau, accordingly, m the latter
days of October, several obstinate conflicts took place be¬
tween the Bavarians and the French ; and although the lat¬
ter forced their way, it was with considerable loss. Brom
that time forward Bavaria took a decided part against Buona¬
parte, and was confirmed in her extended territory by the
definitive treaties of 1814 and 1815. She ceded to Austria
her ancient possession of the Tyrol, but received equivalents
in Franconia and the vicinity of the Rhine. , .
The duchy of Bavaria, or the country which was subject to
the dukes during the middle ages and before they were
raised to the rank of electors, was the southern half of the
present kingdom, and lay almost all to the south of the Da¬
nube. This is the Bavaria of our old maps, nearly square in
its form, extending about 100 miles from the Danube to the
Tyrol, and somewhat more from Suabia on the west to Aus¬
tria on the east. To this limited territory an important addi¬
tion was made after 1620, at the expense of the Elector 1 a-
latine, who having taken an active part in
rection in Bohemia against Austria, forfeited both his title
and his dominions to the Duke of Bavaria. His dominions
consisted of what was called the Upper Palatinate, a province
of full 3000 square miles, situated to the north of the Danube.
This country, joined to the duchy of Bavaria, constituted
during a century and a half (from 1623 to 1778) the domi¬
nions of the elector; their territorial extent being about
15 000 square miles ; and their population, in the beginning
of’that period, less than 1,000,000, but towards its close
about 1,500,000. u c +v,o
In 1778 the succession of the Rhenish branch of the
reigning familv added to the former territory of Bavaria the
palatinate of the Rhine, a district of no great extent, but
fertile and populous. By this time the nation, hitherto illi¬
terate and backward, became fit for improved institutions,
and was fortunate in the character of two successive rulers.
She was thus increasing gradually her productive industry
and political weight, when, in 1806, her progress received a
sudden impulse from political causes. Buonaparte had long
laboured to weaken the ascendancy of the greater over the
lesser states of the empire ; and in 1806 the overthrow, first
of Austria, and afterwards of Prussia, enabled him to make a
very large addition to the territory of his German allies,
above all of Bavaria. This was obtained chiefly in I ranco-
nia, a country which, being contiguous to Bavaria, and simi¬
lar to it in soil and climate, is, in general, more advanced
both in agriculture and manufactures. The valuable dis¬
tricts of the Lower Maine and the Rezat, with part of those
of the Upper Maine and Upper Danube, were all obtained
on this occasion ; not to mention the Tyrol, which was after¬
wards restored to Austria.
Present Divisions of the Kingdom, with their Areas
and Populations in December 1852.
The dense population of the circles of the Rezat and
Lower Maine clearly shows the value of the territory ac¬
quired in Franconia; while the comparative thinness of in¬
habitants in the departments of the Regen and Iser proves
the inferior soil of the Upper Palatinate, and of the southern
or mountainous part of Bavaria. Similar conclusions are
suggested by the following sketch of the respective propor-
tions of the soil which lie waste or are in a state of cultiva¬
tion. It must, however, be considered as only an approxi¬
mation to the different proportions of land in the kingdom.
Bavaria.
Proportions of 100.
In Tillage
Circles. and Pasture.
Rezat   
tipper Maine  60
Lower Maine   58
Rhine   57
Lower Danube 50
Upper Danube   50
Regen   47
Iser 35
Average of the kingdom 53
Forest
Land.
22
29
32
36
29
25
30
31
29
8
11
10
7
21
25
23
34
18
Old
Circles.
New
Circles.
Area
in
Eng¬
lish
square
miles.
Iser  Up. Bavaria
Lower 1 Lower Ba- )
Danube ) varia .... )
Rhine palatinate ..
Up. Palati-)
Regen ..
Upper
Maine
Rezat 
Lower '
Maine :
Upper I
Danube
nate
Up. Fran- ]
conia ....
Mid. Fran¬
conia  
Low. Fran¬
conia  
Suabia 
Total
6,595
4,124
2,243
3,700
2,699
Fami¬
lies.
Males,
158,059
114,347
126,812
107,241
122,506
2,919' 117,599
3,593
3,687
117,614
132,169
29,560 996,347
369,409
270,082
303,398
223,951
242,215
257,243
293,138
274,656
Females
Total.
2,234,092
365,422
279,514
308,078
244,528
257,494
276,587
302,610
291,127
734,831
549,596
611,476
468,479
499,709
533,830
595,748
565,783
2,325,360 4,559,152
The extent of forest land in Bavaria is double that of Forests,
the forest land of France, and more than six times that of
the land under wood in Great Britain. This is owing to
various causes ; the great extent of hilly and mountainous
country, the insufficient population, and the necessity ot
keeping a given extent of ground in wood for a supply of
fuel. There are, besides, many spots and even districts in
the forest lands which are under cultivation for flax, corn,
and potatoes. The forests are partly public, partly private
property. The gross annual value of the former amounts
to nearly L.350,000, but from the heavy expense attending
their management, the net value to the state amounts to
little more than half that sum. Mmintains
The frontier of Bavaria on the north-east, towards Bo- Mountain
hernia, consists of a long range of mountains; and there
are also very extensive chains in the neighbouring part
of Franconia. These, however, seldom exceed the height
of 3000 or 4000 feet; but the ridges m a very different
part of the kingdom,—those namely on the south, which
separate it from the Tyrol,—partake of all the grandeur o
the Alps, several of them being from 9000 to iO^OO feet
in height; an elevation approaching to that of Atria, amt
more than double that of the highest mountains in Scot-
land. . j* i i • 4-v*^ LakGS and
There are numerous lakes in Bavaria, particularly in the
mountainous parts. In the low country there are several
extensive tracts of marshy ground, as in all half-cultivated
countries. Of the rivers of Bavaria the most remarkable is
the Danube, which, on entering the frontier from Suabia,
is of sufficient size to be navigable, and afterwards traverses
the whole breadth of the kingdom, making with its wind¬
ings a course of 200 miles. In this long space it becomes
increased by the successive junction of the Iller, the Lech,
the Iser, and the Inn, all flowing northward from the Alps.
On the north or Franconian side, the Danube receives the
Nab, the Altmuhl, and several smaller streams. 1 hough
a considerable river even in this early part of its course,
it is not large enough to make the erection of bridges a woi
of so great labour as after the influx of the Inn; so that
there are no less than sixteen bridges across the Danube in
the course of its passage through Bavaria.
The Inn takes its rise in Switzerland, flows through the
Tyrol, and being early swelled by the mountain streams to
the right and left of its course, is navigable before it enters
the Bavarian territory. It then holds a north and nort -
east course, and receives the Salsa, a large river flowing
from Upper Austria; after which their united waters, be¬
tween 200 and 300 yards in breadth, fall into the Danube
Bavaria.
Climate.
Products.
Pasture
lands.
Minerals.
BAVARIA.
517
at Passau. The Iser or Isar has its source in the Tyrolese
Alps, flows in a curved direction nearly north-east, passes
Munich, becomes navigable, and, after receiving several
tributary streams, falls into the Danube half-way between
Ratisbon and Passau. The Lech has a similar course, but
of less length. In the northern part of the kingdom the
Maine is the only river of consequence, either for size or
for extent of navigation. It traverses Franconia with a
very winding course, and greatly facilitates the trade of that
province.
The climate of Bavaria is in general healthy, although
the degree of heat, in this as in the neighbouring country
of Austria, is very different according to local differences in
the elevation of the soil: hence the cold of Upper Bavaria
in the vicinity of the Tyrol, and the warmth of the plains
adjoining the Danube and the Maine. On the whole, the
temperature of Bavaria is considerably colder than that of
England in the winter months, and considerably hotter dur¬
ing the summer and autumn.
The extent of forest land in every province of Bavaria
is such as to supply a great quantity of wood for sale; but
the transport of it is in many parts difficult, from the bad¬
ness of the roads, and on account of the distance from
navigable rivers. The forests are chiefly on the hills and
mountains; and the level country, as well Lower Bavaria
extending northwards to the Danube, as the western and
middle parts of Franconia, is very productive in wheat, bar¬
ley, rye, oats; also in hemp, flax, hops, madder, and, in
warm situations, in vines. The last are raised chiefly in
the vicinity of the lake of Constance, and on the banks of
the Maine in the lower part of its course. On the whole,
the best cultivated districts are those in which the descent
of streams from the high grounds gives facilities to irriga¬
tion. Such is the case in the valley of the Danube and in
part of the plains of Franconia; but in most other parts of
the kingdom a great part of the arable land still remains
uncultivated. The quantity of potatoes raised annually in
the kingdom has been much increased in the last and pre¬
sent age, particularly in the northern provinces. The Spes-
sart, an extensive tract of forest land in Franconia, formerly
neglected, is now rendered very productive in this respect.
That much remains to be done before justice is rendered to
the soil, is evident, since, with a climate fully as good as ours,
and a soil inferior only in the mountainous parts, the ave¬
rage population of Bavaria is not one-third that of England.
The government has caused a few of the marshes to be
drained ; but these are merely incipient operations, and but
an inconsiderable part of what ought before this time to have
been performed.
The proportion of land under pasture appears to be nearly
the same in one circle or province as another. According
to the most recent return, the number, of horses in the
kingdom in 1840 wras 349,688; cattle, 2,625,294; sheep,
1,889,888; swine, 842,851; and goats, 107,236. Little
attention has as yet been given to the improvement of
the breed of horses or oxen; but in sheep considerable
progress has been made in adopting that improved treat¬
ment which has added so largely to the value of the wool
of Saxony.
The quantity of salt prepared annually in Bavaria is very
considerable. The gross produce in each of the three years
from 1844 to 1847 amounted severally to 5,033,122,
5,127,057, and 5,237,369 florins; and the net produce to
2,481,276, 2,463,954, and 2,439,543 florins. It is obtained
partly from brine springs in the circle of the Iser, partly frem
salt mines at Halle and other parts ; which, like most under¬
takings of magnitude on the Continent, are, and must, Com
want of capital on the part of individuals, be wrought cm ac¬
count of the government.
In so mountainous a country the quantity of iron ore is
naturally very large. The mines are numerous, but they
are on a small scale compared with those of this country. Bavaria.
The number of forges at work in 1847 was 169, with 3238
workmen. These mines are found in various parts of the
kingdom ; in the mountains of Franconia, as well as in those
of the south of the kingdom. The coal mines are in like
manner numerous, but of small extent compared with ours ;
the yearly produce of the mines in the Bavarian dominions
being only from 60,000 to 70,000 tons. Of quicksilver
there are several mines, chiefly in the province of the Rhine.
Small quantities of copper, manganese, cobalt, and mercury,
are obtained in Rhenish Bavaria. There are numerous
quarries of excellent marble, alabaster, gypsum, and build¬
ing stones; and the porcelain clay is among the finest in
Europe.
The population of Bavaria is principally agricultural. Of
the 959,099 families and 4,370,977 inhabitants in the king¬
dom in 1840, 605,693 families and 2,869,702 persons be¬
longed to the agricultural population ; the remainder re¬
presenting the commercial, industrial, and mining portion of
the inhabitants.
Manufactures are as yet very backward, even in articles Man uiac-
such as hardware, for which the raw material is supplied on tures-
the spot. Woollens, linens, and in some towns cottons, are
made, but of a quality much coarser than the corresponding
manufactures of England, or even of the Netherlands.
There are a number of mills in Franconia for making paper,
in consequence of two very distinct causes, the frequency of
water-falls and the cheapness of linen rags. The extent of
the forests, and the command of water-power, have led to the
erection of many saw-mills ; there being no less than 3366 in
the kingdom in 1847. Of glass also the quantity annually
made is considerable. As to liquor, the climate of Bavaria
being in many parts too cold for the grape, beer is the
general drink, and the breweries are very numerous. There
are upwards of 5000 breweries in the kingdom, employing
about 12,000 workmen. They are not, as in England, con¬
fined to the large towns: in a country where the means of
carriage by water are so limited, they are necessarily esta¬
blished in almost every district. The other principal
articles of manufacture are leather, tobacco, and earthen¬
ware.
The exports from Bavaria are such as may be expected Trade,
in a country chiefly agricultural; they consist of salt, timber,
cattle, pigs, corn, and madder. The imports consist of sugar,
tobacco, cottons, silks, with some woollens, and linen of the
finest qualities. The yearly value of the exports is about two
millions sterling; that of the imports nearly the same. The
government, desirous of removing whatever is pernicious in
established usages, abolished, in 1827, the privileges of
guilds and corporations; but it must do a great deal more
before trade can be raised to a flourishing condition.
The high roads in Bavaria extend in all over 5500 miles. Roads, &c.
In 1850 there were about 290 miles of railway in operation.
The principal line is that extending from Kauf beuern to
iLff, and thence to Leipzig, traversing nearly the entire
leAgth of the kingdom from south to north, and passing in its
c/jurse through Augsburg, Nuremberg, and Bamberg. A
branch of this line proceeds from Augsburg to Munich, and
another from Nuremberg to Fiirth. The principal canal
of Bavaria is the Ludwigs canal recently completed, and
which is likely to become one of the most important in
Europe. It connects the Rhine with the Danube, and ex¬
tends from Bamberg on the Regnetz to Dietfurt on the
Altmiihl.
The increase of the population of Bavaria has been re¬
gularly and even rapidly progressive since the beginning of
the present century. The following table shows its popu¬
lation in 1818, 1827, and 1846; that of 1849 has already
been given. The births during the year 1843—4 were 76,110
males, and 71,256 females (exclusive of 4300 still-born);
marriages, 29,490; deaths, 125,382. The immigrants dur-
518
Bavaria. 1!
Increasing
population.
The chief
towns.
Revenue
and expen¬
diture.
BAVARIA.
ng that period amounted to 972, and the emigrants to 5854,
f whom 4104 were to America.
1818. 1827.
Upper Bavaria   585,467 637,299
Lower Bavaria   450,895 483,741
Palatinate   446,168 517,081
Upper Palatinate   403,481 432,165
Upper Franconia  394,954 437,473
Middle Franconia   437,838 476,316
Lower Franconia  501,212 542,475
Suabia   487,951 518,019
1846.
705,544
543,709
608,470
467,606
501,163
527,866
592,080
558,436
3,707,966 4,044,569 4,504,874
The following gives the principal towns of the several
circles, with their populations in 1846:—
Pop. in
1846.
. f Munich   94,830
Upper Bavaria  { Ligolstadt  10,285
r Passau  11,275
Lower Bavaria  < Landshut 
{ Straubing  9,698
f Ratisbon  23,948
Upper Palatinate  j Araberg  10,225
r Bamberg  21,074
Upper Franconia  •! Baireuth  17’III
l Hof    8,728
Nuremberg   50,460
Fiirth  15,842
Ansbach   12,254
, Erlangen  10,770
Middle Franconia   \ Eichstiidt   7,587
Schwabach   7,125
Rottenburg   5,170
Dinkelsbuhl  5,053
f Wurzburg  29,147
Lower Franconia s Aschaffenburg ... 9,815
t Schweinfurt  7,660
(Augsburg  38,206
Kempten  8,395
Memmingen  6,821
Neuburg  6,680
Nordlingen  6,523
Lindau  4,470
Kaufbeuern  4,234
Spire, the chief town of the palatinate, has a population
of about 19,000. , ,
The palatinate or circle of the Rhine is wholly detached
Order of
importance.
1
13
10
12
16
5
14
6
7
17
2
8
9
11
20
21
25
26
4
15
19
3
18
22
23
24
27
28
westward, and having the Rhine on the east, Rhenish Prussia Bavaria,
and Hesse-Darmstadt on the north, Rhenish Prussia and
Hesse-Homburgonthewest, and France on the south. This The Rhe-
provinceis an oblong of nearly 55 miles by 40; its extent n|sh B1,0*
is 2243 square miles, and its population (see the foregoing vmce-
table) more dense than that of any other part of the kingdom.
Its surface is very uneven, for the Vosges Mountains extend
over a part of its territory. In these there are extensive pas¬
tures, and, in some places, mines of iron, coal, and quick¬
silver. In the low grounds the products are wheat, oats, bar¬
ley, and, in the warmer situations, vines. This province,
equal in extent to two of our middle-sized counties, is
divided into twelve districts and thirty-one cantons; of
which the chief towns are Spire, Landau, Deux Ponts, and
Kaiserslautern. After the great successes of the French in
1794 and 1795, this district, formerly the palatinate of the
Rhine, became, along with the whole country to the left of the
Rhine, subject to France, and so remained for nearly twenty
years, until the overthrow of Buonaparte in 1814. At that
memorable juncture it was assigned by the congress of
Vienna to Austria, and made over by the latter to Bavaria
in the subsequent exchanges.
It may be proper to explain here what was meant by the Former
Circle of Bavaria, although, like the other circles of the em-
pire, it has now ceased to have a political existence. It com- avaria-
prised the territories of the elector of Bavaria, as well as of a
number of contiguous petty states, whose respective princes
were members of the Germanic body. In addition to Ba¬
varia Proper and the Upper Palatinate, the circle comprised
the archbishopric of Salzburg and a number of lesser prin¬
cipalities, which are now mediatized or blended with their
greater neighbours ; but it contained no part of Franconia,
which was a circle by itself. The extent of the circle of
Bavaria was about 17,000 square miles, and its capital was
Ratisbon. That city was also the residence of the dukes of
Bavaria until the fourteenth century, when the acquisition
of the upper country towards the Tyrol induced them to fix
their residence at Munich.
According to the budget for the financial period from 1849
to 1855, the net annual revenue was fixed at 33,649,799
florins, or L.2,944,357, and the expenditure at 33,675,960
florins, or L.2,957,872. The national debt in 1851 amounted
from the reTof the kingdom, being near ly 100 mite to the to 136,995,620 florins, or L.l 1,987,117.
Receipts.
Direct Taxes. Florins.
Land tax 4,623,586
House, window tax, &c  592,011
Rent charge tax  262,662
Industry tax  818,237
Capital tax  550,000
Income tax  750,000
Contribution to Widows and Or- 1 51 ggg
phans’ Fund J ’
Coin tax of the Palatinate  100,000
Indirect Taxes.
Customs  5,364,648
Excise  5,500,000
Stamps  1,020,622
Miscellaneous taxes  2,700,000
Disbursements.
Revenue
and expen-
Florins. diture.
7,748,379
Royalties and State Establishments.
Salt pits and mines  2,400,000
Post-office  417,482
Railways  800,000
Sundries  37,438
14,585,270
3,654,920
Domains 7,462,884
Special duties  53,173
Other receipts    145,173
33,649,799
Public debt  9,966,000
Civil list  2,953,408
Council of state   93,424
Parliamentary expenses  400,000
Royal household and foreign affairs     213,421
Justice     >305,090
Home department    1,075,000
Provincial administration  1,565,992
Finances  774,678
Trade and public works  94,777
Education  736,765
Catholic religion  1,186,631
Protestant religion  355,631
Health   206,202
Charities:  197,565
Police    720,031
Industry, &c  171,434
Roads, bridges, &c 1,743,983
Sundry expenses  1Q6’353 5 434,595
Contributions to the provincial funds   345,495
Army    J,000
Agriculture 
Pensions to Widows and Orphans 
33,675,960
BAVARIA.
Bavaria. The military force of Bavaria is raised, as in most of the
V—other German states, by conscription, each conscript being
Amy. subject to four years’ service. The nobility and clergy are
exempted, and generally also students and persons indis¬
pensable to the maintenance of their families. Besides the
permanent army, there is a reserve destined to reinforce it;
and in the event of war, the militia, composed of all the
males between nineteen and sixty, except the nobility and
clergy, may also be called out in aid of the army, but only
in the interior. The infantry consists of sixteen regiments
of 3080 men each, with six battalions of chasseurs having
each 907 men, making a force of 54,722 men. The cavalry
is composed of two regiments of cuirassiers, and six regi¬
ments of light horse, in all 9784. The artillery corps con¬
sist of 8130; the sappers, miners, and pontoneers of 1039 ;
and the gendarmerie of 2289 men. The entire force of Ba¬
varia therefore numbers about 76,000 men, but of these a
large proportion is generally absent on furlough. It fur¬
nishes to the Germanic confederation a contingent of 35,600
men.
The military school at Munich has a high reputation.
Arms and ammunition are manufactured in different towns
in the kingdom.
Religion. Christianity appears to have been introduced into Bavaria
in the sixth century. The proportion of the different reli¬
gions in 1840 was as follows:
Roman Catholics  3,060,694
Lutherans  1,181,216
Calvinists     2,717
Jews  59,288
Moravians, Anabaptists, and lesser sects, 4,836
4,308,751
The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is altogether
free. The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Catho¬
lics, and the sovereign may be either Catholic or Protestant.
Civil immunities have not yetbeen extended to Anabaptists,
Moravians, or Jews. The latter, as in other countries, fol¬
low neither agricultural nor mechanical employments: they
are all traffickers in one way or othei*, the most respectable
being merchants, the inferior class brokers and jobbers. Of
the Roman Catholic church the heads are two archbishops
and six bishops; among the Protestants the highest authority
is the general consistory of Munich.
Education. Bavaria was formerly as backward in regard to education
as Austria, or any part of the south of Germany; but in the
course of the last and present age considerable efforts have
been made to lessen the prevailing ignorance. At Munich
there are scientific and literary academies, as well as a uni¬
versity, a lyceum, a gymnasium, and other public schools.
The university has a very numerous attendance of students,
being 1406 in 1846; and there are two provincial universities
on a small scale, one Catholic at Wurzburg, the other Protes¬
tant at Erlangen in Franconia. In the kingdom at large
there are ninelyceums, twenty-six gymnasia, about sixty pro¬
gymnasia, besides nine normal, twenty-six trade, three poly¬
technic, and about 5400 common schools, at which it is com¬
puted that about half a million of children or young people
of both sexes receive instruction in reading and writing.
These certainly form a great contrast to the indifference and
neglect of former times; and the government continues to
evince much solicitude for the diffusion of instruction. Trade
schools here, as in other parts of Germany, have been esta¬
blished for the purpose of affording to mechanics more suit¬
able education than they could otherwise obtain, including
mathematics, mechanics, drawing, chemistry, architecture,
&c. These schools are supported by the commune, aided
when necessary by the province; and commissioners are an¬
nually sent by government to examine and report upon
them to the minister of trade. The course extends over
three years, from the age of twelve to fifteen; after which
519
pupils may enter one of the three polytechnic schools, where Bavaria,
a still higher course of instruction is imparted, also extending
over three years ; but engineers have a special fourth year’s
course. A building school was established at Munich in
1823, and is chiefly intended for carpenters and masons, who
are there instructed in architecture, drawing, geometry,
stone-cutting, modelling ornaments, &c.
The national character of the Bavarians resembles that
of the Austrians; being generally marked by fidelity and
loyalty. In matters of religion they are credulous, and even
superstitious. In short, the will of their superiors is received
by the lower orders implicitly as a law in political as in eccle¬
siastical affairs. A great deal was said fifty years ago about
the masonic and other secret societies said to have been
formed in this country at the time of the French revolution,
and to have aimed at combining their efforts with similar
societies in Prussia for the overthrow of the established
governments. Such assertions, if not absolutely false, must
have rested on a very slender foundation, no people being
less inclined than the Bavarians to join in revolutionary pro¬
jects, or less capable of conceiving that any advantage could
possibly result from them.
The government of Bavaria in the early ages of the Govern-
German empire did not descend from father to son : it in- meat,
volved an important military trust, and was conferred by the
emperor on princes of different families until the thirteenth
century. Towards the close of that century Louis, of the
house of Wittelsbach, Duke of Lower Bavaria and Count
Palatine of the Rhine, left two sons, Rodolph and Louis,
between whom, according to the usage of the age, the
father’s dominions were shared, the elder receiving the pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, the latter the duchy of Bavaria. Small
as the Rhenish palatinate was, its comparative civilization
made it the more valuable of the two ; and its head had the
important privileges of an elector of the empire. From the
two princes just mentioned descended the rulers of these
respective states during five centuries and more ; until, in
1778, on the failure of the Bavarian line, Charles Theodore,
Count of the Palatinate, obtained the succession, and re¬
moved to Munich, since which time the two countries have
been governed as one state. Charles Theodore ruled Ba¬
varia above twenty years. He evinced much anxiety for
the improvement of his new subjects, but, like his contem¬
porary the Emperor Joseph II. of Austria, he made no suf¬
ficient allowance for their deficiency of culture, and their
unfitness to comprehend the advantage of many of his pro¬
posed changes. He died in 1799, and was succeeded by
Maximilian I., a prince of equal philanthropy and greater
prudence, who governed Bavaria twenty-six years. He was
succeeded in 1825 by his son Louis, who specially distin¬
guished himself by his zeal for the promotion of the fine
arts. Finding himself unequal to the emergency of the times,
he abdicated in March 1848, in favour of his son Maximilian
II., the present king.
Bavaria, like other German states, has long had its states
or parliament, composed of nobility and prelates. Its pre¬
sent form of government is founded partly on long-esta¬
blished usage, partly on a constitutional act of great length,
passed in May 1818. The country is there declared an in¬
tegral part of the Germanic confederation, and the monarchy
hereditary, with a legislative body of two houses, the upper
and lower. The title of the sovereign is simply king of
Bavaria; that of his presumptive heir is crown prince of
Bavaria. The executive power is vested altogether in the
king, whose person is declared inviolable: the responsi¬
bility rests with the ministers, whose functions are nearly
the same as those of ministers in England or France ; and
they have respectively offices for foreign affairs, for the home
department, for the treasury, the army, and the administra¬
tion of justice. The upper house of the Bavarian parlia¬
ment comprises the princes of the blood-royal, the two arch-
Bavaria
II
Baxter.
520 BAX
bishops, the barons or heads of families of landed property,
the president of the Protestant consistory, and any other
members whom the king may nominate, either as hereditary
peers or as counsellors for life ; but the latter must not ex¬
ceed a third of the hereditary members. The lower house
consists of about 140 deputies, of whom an eighth part must
be of the class of nobility, another eighth of the clergy, a
fourth part citizens or burghers, and the remaining halt lancle
proprietors. Each of the three universities also names a re¬
presentative. A general election takes place once in six
Years, and the number of members bids fair to increase ; tor
the elective law prescribes that there shall be a deputy or
member of the lower house for every 7000 families in the
kingdom. The king generally convenes the parliament once
a year ; and by the constitution it is obligatory on him to do
so at least once in three years. The direct taxes must be
granted anew under the authority of the parliament once in
six years. . , , ,
The adoption of this constitution was accompanied by the
abolition of all that remained of personal servitude among
the peasantry ; for many Bavarians of the lower class were
until lately serfs, being paid for their labour not by wages,
but by maintenance; and they were consequently very in¬
dolent. The political improvements still wanting mUa-
varia are a more complete equalization of taxes ; publicity
in the proceedings of courts of justice ; a removal of the re¬
strictions on trade with the neighbouring states ; and an
amendment of the penal code. The liberty of the press is
already complete. , ^ ^ i u u
Foreign No part of Europe, if we except the Netherlands, has been
politics. more exposed to invasion than Bavaria, and in none has
the painful interest arising from military conflicts been
Baxter.
BAX
given to a greater variety of places. Two centuries ago, Bavaria
both Bavaria and Franconia were laid waste in the Thirty
Years’ War between the Catholics and Protestants. It
was near Augsburg, on the banks of the Lech, that Gus-
tavus Adolphus obtained, in 1632, a memorable victory
over the Austrians and other Catholic allies, commanded by
Count Tilly. At Nuremberg the success of the Swedish
sovereign was for a time arrested by the talents of Wallen¬
stein ; but at Nordlingen, two years after, the death of the
king and the injuries of the Protestants were avenged in a
dreadful conflict. The French next took part in the war,
and carried devastation throughout this part of Germany.
In the succeeding age Bavaria was invaded by our country¬
men and their allies ; and it was at Schellenberg, a strong
position near the Danube, that the Duke of Marlborough
first worsted the Bavarians, in July 1704, above a month
previous to the battle of Blenheim. In the wars of the
French revolution both Franconia and Bavaria were re¬
peatedly overrun. It was at Amberg that the^Archduke
Charles stopped the advance of the French in 1 /96, and at
Wurzburg that he finally defeated them ; successes repeated
with equal effect three years after, when, in March 1 <99, he
again met their army on Bavarian ground, near the banks
of the Lech. The subsequent operations in this country
were equally pernicious to it, though very different in their
political results. The name of Hohenlinden recals the
triumph of Moreau in 1800 ; that of Ulm the surrender of
the Austrian army under Mack, in October 1805. Lastly, it
was at Eckmuhl and Ratisbon, in 1809, that Buonaparte
obtained over the Austrians victories which compelled them
to retreat with heavy loss, and opened to him the gates of
Vienna. O' L-E')
BAVIUS and M.evius, two despicable poets whose en¬
mity to Virgil and Horace has immortalized their, names.
Qui Bavium non odit amet tua carmina, Mcevi. (Virg. Ed.
iii. 90. See also Horace, Epod. x.)
BAWTRY, a market-town in the parish of Blythe, in the
west riding of Yorkshire. It is a small but well-built town,
and stands on a gentle eminence, sloping towards the river
Idle, which empties itself into the Trent, and by which some
trade is carried on. It is 153 miles from London, on the
great road to Scotland, and has a good market on Ihursday.
Pop. in 1851, 1170.
BAXTER, Andrew, a very ingenious metaphysical writer,
the son of a merchant in Old Aberdeen, was born in 1686
or 1687, and educated in King’s College there. His prin¬
cipal employment was that of private tutor to young gentle¬
men ; and among his pupils were Lord Gray, Lord Blan-
tyre, and Mr Hay of Drummelzier. About 1724 he mar¬
ried the daughter of a clergyman in Berwickshire. A few
years afterwards, he published, in quarto, but without date,
An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul, wherein its
immateriality is evinced from the principles of reason and
philosophy. In 1741 he went abroad with Mr Hay, and
resided several years at Utrecht, having Lord Blantyre also
under his care. From this place he made excursions into
Flanders, France, and Germany, his wife and family resid¬
ing in the mean time chiefly at Berwick-upon-Tweed. He
returned to Scotland in 1747, and resided till his death at
Whittingham, in the county of East Lothian. He drew up,
for the use of his pupils and his son, a piece entitled Matho,
sive Cosmotheoria puerilis, Dialogus, in quo prima ele-
menta de mundi ordine et ornatu proponuntur, See. This was
afterwards greatly enlarged, and published in English in two
volumes 8vo. In 1750 was published an appendix to his
Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul, in which he
■endeavours to remove some difficulties which had been
started against his notions of the vis inertia of matter, by
Maclaurin, in his Account of Sir Isaac Newton s P/«/o.so-
phical Discoveries. To this piece Mr Baxter prefixed a dedi¬
cation to Mr John Wilkes, with whom he had commenced
an acquaintance abroad. He died on the 23d April 1750,
after suffering for some months under a complication o
severe disorders, of which the gout was the chief.
Baxter’s learning and abilities are sufficiently manifested
in his writings. He was also greatly esteemed for the bene¬
volence and candour of his disposition, and had numerous
friends and correspondents of eminence, among whom was
Dr Warburton, bishop of Gloucester. He left many manu¬
scripts behind him, and intended, had he lived, to com¬
plete his work upon the human soul. A second edition of
it was published in two volumes 8vo in 1737, and a third in
45.
Baxter, Richard, an eminent Nonconformist divine, was
rn in the village of Rowton in Shropshire, on the 12th
member 1615. His father’s example fostered the prin-
Jes of serious piety in his youthful mind. After receiv¬
er a competent education he was sent to London, under
e patronage of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels ;
it he soon returned into the country to study divinity, and
1638 received ordination in the Church of England ; but
he conscientiously refused to subscribe to the oath ot
liversal obedience to the doctrines of the church, he left
^hen the civil war broke out he sided with the parha-
ent, and after the battle of Naseby acted as chaplain m
olonel Whalley’s regiment. Although serving under the
irliament he professed himself friendly to the Church of
ngland. In consequence of ill health he retired from his
ilitary chaplaincy in 1647. Upon the opening o e °n»
arliament he was chosen vicar of Kidderminster But n
ie heat of the civil wars he removed from that town to
BAXTER.
521
Baxter. Coventry, and preached to the garrison and inhabitants.
^ J When Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, he once
preached before him, but he declined complying with his
measures, and even once told him in a conference that
the people of England deemed the ancient monarchy a
blessing. . . , .
He came to London just before the deposition ot lucnarcl
Cromwell, and preached before the parliament the day pre¬
vious to that on which they voted the return ot Charles II.
The king, on his restoration, appointed Baxter one of his
chaplains in ordinary ; and he assisted at the conference in
the1 Savoy as one of the commissioners for settling the fun¬
damentals in religion, and reforming the liturgy. He was
offered the bishopric of Hereford, which he refused, desiring
no higher preferment than the liberty of continuing minister
of Kidderminster. This, however, was denied him, for he
was not permitted to preach there above twice or thrice after
the Restoration. He accordingly returned to London and
preached occasionally in or about the city till the Act of
Uniformity passed. In 1662 he married Margaret Charleton,
daughter of Francis Charleton, Esq., of the county of Salop.
This lady was a woman of great piety, entered thoroughly
into her husband’s views concerning religion, and cheerfully
shared all his sutferings both in and out of prison. During
the plague in 1665 Baxter retired into Buckinghamshire;
but afterwards returned to Acton, where he staid till the
act against conventicles expired, when his audience be¬
came so large that he wanted room. After this he was com¬
mitted to prison ; but having procured a habeas corpus, he
was discharged. After the indulgence in 1672, he returned
to London; but in 1682 he was seized for coming within
five miles of a corporation. In 1684 he was again seized ;
and in the reign of James II., in 1685, he was committed
prisoner to the King’s Bench, and tried before the infamous
Judo-e Jeffreys for his Paraphrase on the New Testament,
which was called a “scandalous” and “seditious” book
against the government. Mr Macaulay {History of Eng¬
land, vol. i. p. 487) gives the following graphic sketch of
the character and trial of Baxter:
“ About the same time a culprit, who bore very little re¬
semblance to Oates or Dangerfield, appeared on the floor
of the court of King’s Bench. No eminent chief of a
party has ever passed through many years of civil and reli¬
gious dissension with more innocence than Richard Baxter.
He belonged to the mildest and most temperate section of the
Puritan body. He was a young man when the civil war broke
out. He thought that the right was on the side of the
houses ; and he had no scruple about acting as chaplain to a
regiment in the parliamentary army: but his clear and some-
what sceptical understanding, and his strong sense of jus¬
tice, preserved him from all excesses. He exerted himself
to check the fanatical violence of the soldiery. He con¬
demned the proceedings of the High Court of Justice. n
the days of the commonwealth he had the boldness to ex¬
press, on many occasions, and once even in Cromwell s pie-
sence, love and reverence for the ancient institutions of the
country. While the royal family was in exile, Baxter s life
was chiefly passed at Kidderminster in the assiduous dis¬
charge of parochial duties. He heartily concurred in the
Restoration, and was sincerely desirous to bring about a
union between Episcopalians and Presbyterians. For, \vith
a liberality rare in his time, he considered questions of ec¬
clesiastical polity as of small account when compared with
the great principles of Christianity, and had never,, even
when prelacy was most odious to the ruling powers, joined
in the outcry against bishops.
“ The attempt to reconcile the contending factions failed.
Baxter cast in his lot with his proscribed friends, refused
the mitre of Hereford, quitted the parsonage of Kiddermin¬
ster, and gave himself up almost wholly to study. His
theological writings, though too moderate to be pleasing to
VOL. IV.
the bigots of any party, had an immense reputation. Zeal- Baxter
ous churchmen called him a Roundhead; and many Noncon- —
formists accused him of Erastianism and Arminianism. But
the integrity of his heart, the purity of his life, the vigour of
his faculties, and the extent of his attainments, were acknow¬
ledged by the best and wisest men of every persuasion. His
political opinions, in spite of the oppression which he and
his brethren had suffered, were moderate. He was friendly
to that small party which was hated by both whigs and
tories. He could not, he said, join in cursing the Trim¬
mers, when he remembered who it was that had blessed the
peacemakers.
“ In a commentary on the New Testament he had com¬
plained, with some bitterness, of the persecution which the
dissenters suffered. That men who, for not using the prayer-
book, had been driven from their homes, stripped of their
property, and locked up in dungeons, should dare to utter
a murmur, was then thought a high crime against the state
and the church. Roger Lestrange, the champion of the
government, and the oracle of the clergy, sounded the note
of war in the Observator. An information was filed. Bax¬
ter begged that he might be allowed some time to prepare
for his defence. It was on the day on which Oates was pil¬
loried in Palace Yard that the illustrious chief of the Puri¬
tans, oppressed by age and infirmities, came to Westminster
Hall to make this request. Jeffreys burst into a storm of
rage, ‘ Not a minute,’ he cried, ‘ to save his life. I can deal
with saints as well as with sinners. J here stands Oates on one
side of the pillory ; and if Baxter stood on the other, the
two greatest rogues in the kingdom would stand together.
“ When the trial came on at Guildhall, a crowd of those
who loved and honoured Baxter filled the court. At his
side stood Doctor William Bates, one of the most eminent
of the Nonconformist divines. Two whig barristers of great
note, Pollexfen and Wallop, appeared for the defendant.
Pollexfen had scarce begun his address to the jury, when the
chief justice broke forth : ‘ Pollexfen, I know you well. I
will set a mark on you. You are the patron of the faction.
This is an old rogue, a schismatical knave, a hypocritical
villain. He hates the liturgy. He would have nothing
but longwinded cant without book :’ and then his lordship
turned up his eyes, clasped his hands, and began to sing
through his nose, in imitation of what he supposed to be
Baxter’s style of praying, ‘ Lord, we are thy people, thy pe¬
culiar people, thy dear people.’ Pollexfen gently reminded
the court that His late Majesty had thought Baxter deserving
of a bishopric. ‘ And what ailed the old blockhead then,’
cried Jeffreys, 4 that he did not take it ?’ His fury now rose
almost to madness. He called Baxter a dog, and swore that
it would be no more than justice to whip such a villain
through the whole city. Wallop interposed, but fared no
better than his leader. 4 You are in all these dirty causes,
Mr Wallop,’ said the judge. 4 Gentlemen of the long robe
ought to be ashamed to assist such factious knaves.’ The
advocate made another attempt to obtain a hearing, but to
no purpose. 4 If you do not know your duty,’ said Jeffreys,
41 will teach it you.’ Wallop sat down ; and Baxter him¬
self attempted to put in a word. But the chief justice
drowned all expostulation in a torrent of ribaldry and invec¬
tive, mingled with scraps of Hudibras. 4 My Lord,’ said the
old man, 41 have been much blamed by dissenters for speak¬
ing respectfully of bishops.’ 4 Baxter for bishops!’ cried the
judge, ‘that’s a merry conceit indeed. I know what you mean
by bishops—rascals like yourself, Kidderminster bishops,
factious snivelling Presbyterians !’ Again Baxter essayed
to speak, and again Jeffreys bellowed, 4 Richard! Richard!
dost thou think we will let thee poison the court ? Richard !
thou art an old knave. Thou hast written books enough to
load a cart, and every book as full of sedition as an egg is
full of meat. By the grace of God, I’ll look after thee. I
see a great many of your brotherhood waiting to know what
522
BAY
BAY
Baxter
Bay Salt.
will befall their mighty Don. And there,’ he continued, fix¬
ing his savage eyes on Bates, ‘there is a doctor ot the party
at your elbow. But, by the grace, of God Almighty, I will
crush you all.’ Baxter held his peace. But one of the
junior counsel for the defence made a last effort, and unc ei-
took to show that the words of which complaint was made
would not bear the construction put on them by the infor¬
mation. With this view he began to read the context. In
a moment he was roared down ; ‘You shan’t turn the court
into a conventicle.’ The noise of weeping was heard rom
some of those who surrounded Baxter. ‘ Snivelling calves,
said the judge. Witnesses to character were in attendance,
and among them were several clergymen of the Established
Church. But the chief justice would hear nothing. ‘ Does
your lordship think,’said Baxter, ‘ that any jury will con¬
vict a man on such a trial as this ?’ ‘ I warrant you, r lr
Baxter,’ said Jeffreys ; ‘ don’t trouble yourself about that.
Jeffreys was right. The sheriffs were the tools of the govern¬
ment. The juries, selected by the sheriffs from among the
fiercest zealots of the tory party, conferred for a moment,
and returned a verdict of Guilty. ‘ My lord,5 said Baxter,
as he left the court, ‘ there was once a chief justice who
would have treated me very differently.’ He alluded to his
learned and virtuous friend Sir Matthew Hale. ‘ There i»
not an honest man in. England,’ answered Jeffreys, ‘but
looks on thee as a knave.’
“ The sentence was, for those times, a lenient one. V\ hat
passed in conference among the judges cannot be certainly
known. It was believed among the Nonconformists, and is
highly probable, that the chief justice was overruled by his
three brethren. He proposed, it is said, that Baxter should
be whipped through London at the cart’s tail. The majo¬
rity thought that an eminent divine, who, a quarter of a cen¬
tury before, had been offered a mitre, and who was now in
his seventieth year, would be sufficiently punished for a few
sharp words by fine and imprisonment.”
Baxter continued in prison two years; but was at la>t
discharged, and had his fine remitted by the king. He died
on the 8th of December 1691, and was buried in Christ
Church. His works consisted of 112 separate publications,
which were collected and published in four volumes folio in
1707. .
Baxter, William, nephew and heir to the preceding,
was an eminent schoolmaster and critic. He was born at
Llanlugan in Montgomeryshire, in the year 1650. At the
age of eighteen, when he first went to school, he knew not
one letter, nor understood one word of any language but
Welsh ; but he improved his time so well that he became a
person of great and extensive knowledge. The natural bent
of his mind led him chiefly to the study of antiquities and
philology, in which he composed several books. The first
he published was a grammar, in 1679, entitled De Analogia
sen Arte Latince Linguce Commentariolus. He also pub¬
lished a new and correct edition of Anacreon, with notes ;
an edition of Horace ; a dictionary of British antiquities,
in Latin ; and several other works. He was a great mas¬
ter of the ancient British and Irish tongues, and particularly
skilled in the Latin, Greek, northern, and oriental languages.
He died on the 31st May 1723, after being above twenty
years master of Mercer’s school in London.
BAY (Saxon, byge, an angle), an arm of the sea ex¬
tending into the land. It is smaller than a gulf, and larger
than a creek.
Bay, the Laurus nobilis, a tree belonging to the natural
order Lauracece. See Botanv.
Bay Colour denotes a sort of reddish-brown, of various
shades, approaching to chestnut. Bay horses (to which the
term is chiefly applied) are characterized by the black mane
and tail.
Bay Salt is salt made by the action of the sun and air
on sea-water, or on any water containing salt, in contradis¬
tinction to that which is manufactured by artificial evapo¬
ration.
Bay Window, a projecting window rising from the ground
or basement, either in the form of a semicircle or otherwise, ^
forming a space similar in shape to a bay : hence its name.
BAYADEER, the Indian term for a dancing girl, sup¬
posed to be a corruption of the Portuguese bailadeira, a
female dancer. See Dancing Girls.
B AYAN-KHARA, a range of mountains in Eastern Asia,
which the Chinese represent as occupying the centre of the
great high plateau of that quarter of the world, about Lat.
36. N. and Long. 100 E. (Ritter’s Asia)
BAYARD, Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de, one
of the most illustrious heroes of the chivalrous age, or rather
‘one of the latest representatives of the ancient chivalry, wa.s
descended from an ancient and noble family in Dauphine,
and was born in 1476 at the chateau of Bayard, near Grenoble.
He was esteemed by his contemporaries the model of sol¬
diers and men of honour, and denominated the knight
without fear and without reproach.” He accompanied Charles
VIII. in his expedition to Italy, and gave remarkable proofs
of his valour, especially at the battle ot Fuornuovo. He
was dangerously wounded at the storming ot Biescia, and
was nursed in the house of a lady, who on his recovery pie-
sented him with two thousand pistoles for the protection he
had afforded her familv against the soldiers. With knightly
courtesy he accepted’the gift, and bestowed it on her two
daughters for their marriage portions ; an action which has
been celebrated by many historians. On his return to France
he was made lieutenant-general of Dauphine. He fought
bv the side of Francis I. in the tremendous battle of Marig-
nano ; and that young prince afterwards insisted on being
knighted by his hand, after the manner of the ancient knights.
Durino- six’weeks he defended the town of Mezieres against
the army of Charles the Fifth. In 1524, at the retreat
of Rebec, the conduct of the rear was committed to the
Chevalier Bavard; who, though so much a stranger to the
arts of a court that he never rose to the chief command, was
always called, in times of real danger, to the posts of great¬
est difficulty and importance. He put himself at the head
of the men-at-arms; and animating them by his presence
and example to sustain the shock of the enemy s whole
troops, he enabled the rest of his countrymen to make good
their retreat. But in this service he received a mortal wound ;
and being unable to continue longer on horseback, he or¬
dered one of his attendants to place him against a tree, with
his face to the enemy ; then fixing his eyes on the guard of
his sword, which he held up instead of a cross, he addressed
his prayers to God, and, in this attitude, which became his
character both as a soldier and as a Christian, he calmly
awaited the approach of death. Bourbon, who led the fore¬
most of the enemy’s troops, found him in this situation, and
expressed pity and regret at the sight. “Pity not me,
cried the high-spirited chevalier ; “ I die as a man of honour
ought, in the discharge of my duty. They indeed are ob-
iects of pity who fight against their king, their country, and
their oath.” The Marquis de Pescara, coming up soon
after, manifested his admiration of Bayard’s virtue as well as
sorrow for his fate, with the generosity of a gallant enemy;
and finding that he could not be removed with safety from
the spot, he ordered a tent to be pitched there and ap¬
pointed proper persons to attend him. Bayard died, as his
ancestors for several generations had done, on the field o
battle. His death took place on the 30th of APnl 15 A at
the age of forty-eight. Pescara ordered the body to be
embalmed ; and the Duke of Savoy commanded it to be
received with royal honours in all the ci ies 0 b
In Dauphine, Bayard’s native province, the people
Bay
Window
Bayard.
mons.
of all ranks came out in a solemn procession to meet it. The
life of Bayard was wTitten by one of his secretaries, and has
since appeared under various forms.
BAY
Bayazid BAYAZID, or Bajazid, a city of Turkish Armenia, in
II the pashalic of Erzeroum, situated on a mountain, the sum-
Bayeux. 0f which is strongly fortified. It is surrounded by a
wall and ramparts; and contains two churches, three mosques,
and a monastery, that of Kara Killeesea, which is famous for
the beauty of its architecture, as well as for its antiquity and
grandeur. This city, which, when visited by Kinneir, had
about 30,000 inhabitants, is now in a ruinous and filthy
condition. According to the accounts given by Messrs
Smith and Dwight, the American missionaries who visited
it in 1832, the population must be considerably under 5000.
Great numbers of the Armenian inhabitants have emigrated
to the Russian territories. It is 50 miles S.S.W. of Erivan,
and 140 east of Erzeroum. Long. 43.26. E. Lat. 39.24. N.
BAYEN, Pierre, a celebrated chemist, and member of
the Institute of France, was born in 1725, at Chalons-sur-
Marne. Showing a great inclination for study, he was sent
by his parents to school at Troyes, where he went through
a course of classical education with success.
The bent of his disposition was to physical science. He
went to Paris in 1749, and became the pupil and friend of
an eminent druggist. In this situation he acquired a com¬
plete knowlege of the profession ; and, before the age of
thirty, he was appointed chief apothecary to the French
army in Germany, in the Seven Years’ War, a situation
which he filled with industry, intelligence, and integrity.
After the conclusion of peace, he returned to Paris, and was
employed for several years by the government in making
analyses of the mineral waters of France.
On his return to Paris, he made analyses of different
minerals collected chiefly during his residence in the Alpine
region of the Pyrenees. Amongst these is the marble of
Campan, of which there are two varieties, the red and the
green. They are brought from that country to Paris, where
they are used with striking effect in ornamental architec¬
ture ; as may be seen in the columns of the Great Trianon at
Versailles, in the interior of the church of St Sulpice, and in
other great buildings. These analyses are published in the
Memoires presentes a VAcademic par divers Savam, com¬
monly called Memoires des Savans Etrangers.
Bayen made most accurate experiments on the oxides of
mercury, to show that oxidation arises from the absorption
of a portion of the atmospheric air, and that the existence
of the phlogiston of Stahl could not be proved. Lavoisier,
who was present when the account ol these experiments was
read, was employed at that time in examining the metallic
oxides; and soon after brought the subject into a clearer
light, demonstrating the nature of oxygen, and the compo¬
sition of the atmosphere.
Bayen enjoyed good health till sixty, and died at the age of
seventy-six, in the year 1801. He was a man of sound
judgment, of strict integrity, and acquainted with several
other branches of knowledge besides that w'hich he parti¬
cularly cultivated. There is a collection of his works, en¬
titled Opuscules Chimiques, 1798,2 vols. 8vo. (w. A. C.)
BAYEUX, the capital of an arrondissement of the same
name in the department of Calvados, France. It is situated
in a fruitful valley on the river Aure, 17 miles W .N.V . of
Caen. The principal building is the cathedral, a majestic
edifice of great antiquity, in which is the celebrated tapestry,
said to have been the work of Matilda, queen of M illiam
the Conqueroi’, and representing the events connected with
the Norman conquest. It is now believed to be an authentic
monument of that era; and has been engraved by the So¬
ciety of English Antiquaries in the 6th volume of Monu-
menta Vetusta. Bayeux is the seat of a bishopric, and has
tribunals of primary jurisdiction and commerce, a commu¬
nal college, and a public library. Its manufactures are
linen and cotton goods, hosiery, lace, &c. Pop. (1851)
8835. The arrondissement has 6 cantons, 144 communes,
and 79,976 inhabitants.
BAY 523
B AYLA, or Bela, a town of Beluchistan, capital of the Bayla
province of Lus, on the north-eastern bank of the river 11
Poorally. About one-third of the town in the western i a ^ j
quarter is encompassed by a mud wall. The streets are
narrow; but from the elevated situation of the town, and
its rocky site, they are always clean, even in the wettest
weather. The bazaar is very neat. Bayla is the residence
of the chief of Lus, whose government is mild and equi¬
table, and insures complete protection to mercantile dealers.
His durbar or hall of audience is a large open apartment of
very ordinary structure, and he maintains little or no state.
Pop. 5000. Distance north of Khelat, 293 miles. Long.
66. 40, E. Lat. 26. 10. N.
B AYLE, Pierre, author of the Historical and Critical
Dictionary, was born on the 18th November 1647, at Car-
lat, a village in the county of Foix, in France. His father,
Jean Bayle, a Calvinist minister, took upon himself the
early education of his son, and instructed him in Latin and
Greek. The young Bayle was afterwards sent to Puylau-
rens, where he continued his studies with equal ardour and
success. He completed his rhetorical studies in this academy,
and went in 1669 to Toulouse, to study philosophy uxider
the Jesuits. There, embarrassed by some objections raised
against his religious belief, he abjured Calvinism for Catho¬
licism, which for a short time appeared to him the more ra¬
tional system: but renewed reflection and more thorough in¬
vestigation soon brought him back to his former faith. Im¬
mediately on his restoration to the reformed church, he
went to Geneva, and adopted the principles of Cartesian-
ism in preference to the Peripatetic scholasticism which he
had learnt from the Jesuits ; and there also he formed last¬
ing friendships with the celebrated professors of theology,
Pictet and Leger, and especially with a young man named
Basnage, who aftenvards distinguished himself as an author
and minister of the gospel. In the year 1675, a chair ot
philosophy was vacant at the Sedan academy. Pressed by
Basnage, who had then finished his theological studies in
this town, and who had obtained for his friend the help of
Jurieu his master, Bayle competed for the place and ob¬
tained it. He occupied this post for six years, to the satis¬
faction of all, and even of Jurieu himself, who, in spite of
his envious character, could not withhold from him his
esteem. In 1681, five years before the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, the Calvinist university of Sedan was
broken up, and Bayle went with Jurieu to Rotterdam,
where M. de Paets founded for them VEcole illustre. The
public teaching with which Bayle was there intrusted com¬
prehended philosophy and history. His lectures, and parti¬
cularly his numerous publications, soon attracted general
attention; all the savants of Europe corresponded with
him, and the learned Queen Christina of Sweden wrote
to him with her own hand. But he did not long enjoy this
celebrity undisturbed. His colleague Jurieu persecuted
him with cruel animosity. He denounced him as an atheist
to the consistory, and as a conspirator to the public autho¬
rities. His intrigues, after having for a long time proved
futile, at length succeeded. In 1693 the magistrates of
Rotterdam removed Bayle from his office, and foi'bade him to
give private instructions. His misfortune appears to have
affected him but little ; he rather congratulated himself at
having escaped from the cabals and parties so common in
the academies. In spite of the persecutions which disturbed
his latter years, he was so happy in the enjoyment of inde¬
pendence, that w hen, in 1706, the Count of Albemarle asked
him as a favour to come and live in his house at the Hague,
Bayle refused.
But he was now suffering from the malady which at last
proved fatal to him. An affection of the chest, for which he
refused to seek any remedies, as he considered it incur¬
able, made rapid progress, which he observed with perfect
calmness. His activity was never for a moment inter-
524 BAY
Bayle. rupted; his labours proceeded as perseveringly as when he
was in perfect health, till death overtook him, pen in
hand, on the 28th December 1706, in the fifty-ninth year
of his age.
The lives of few literary men have been so completely
occupied as that of Bayle. From his twentieth year he
scarcely allowed himself a moment’s repose. "1 o those who
were astonished at the rapidity with which his publications
succeeded each other, he answers, in the preface to the
second volume of his dictionary/ “ Diversions, parties of
pleasure, games, collections, country excursions, visits, and
such other recreations as are said by many men of letters to
be necessary, have no charms for me ; I lose no time. I do
not even spend any in domestic cares, or in endeavouring
to attain anything whatever, nor in solicitations, nor in any
other affairs. In this way an author accomplishes much in
few years.”
He wrote with extreme facility, and rarely revised his
first copy. “ I never (says he) make a rough draft of an
article ; I commence and finish it without stopping. What
he chiefly sought in the expressions in which he clothed his
thoughts was clearness, and his style is rather lively and
flowing, than elegant and chaste.
His erudition was immense, and at once exact and pro¬
found. His logic was equal to his learning, for he was one
of those rare geniuses with whom retentiveness of memory
does not weaken the reasoning powers. Unfortunately these
extraordinary talents were often wasted on profitless para¬
dox and bewildering scepticism. The subtility of his rea¬
soning faculties led him to doubt the most universally ac¬
knowledged facts. All the important questions which philo¬
sophy proposes to solve entangle themselves, according to
Bayle, in inextricable difficulties. The proposition that there
is one God does not, according to him, possess indisputable
evidence. Nature is an impenetrable deep. “ Man,” he says,
“ is the stumbling-block of the true and the false, and no¬
thing is so difficult for reason alone to penetrate, as what
we call a rational animal. What do we know of the na¬
ture and destiny of souls ? arguments have been equally
advanced for their materiality and immateriality, for their
mortality and immortality. The principles on which morality
rests are still less certain than those which give to the phy¬
sical sciences their tottering base and their uncertain foun¬
dation.” He gives a true character of himself when he says
(Lettre au P. Taurnemene), “ I am only Jupiter, the cloud-
compeller ; my talent is to form doubts, but they are to me
only doubts.” His scepticism enveloped every thing. He
does not attack openly and directly the dogmas which he
impugns ; his method is to oppose to the system which sup¬
ports certain doctrines some other system, ancient or modern,
which denies them, and thus to break the contradictory doc¬
trines against each other, leaving the truth buried under
their ruins.
The great work of Bayle is the Dictionnaire Historique
et Critique, which, with much that is of little interest or
value, contains a large number of articles remarkable for
erudition and critical discernment, and has exercised no in¬
considerable influence on the literature and philosophy of
Europe. The first edition was published in 1699 in 2 vols.
fol. Of the twelve subsequent editions, the best are, that of
Des Maizeaux (with life of Bayle), Basle and Amst. 1740,
4 tom. fob; and that of Beuchot, Paris, 1820, &c., 16 tom.
8vo. The latter is enriched with the critical remarks of
various authors. The English translation by Birch and
Lockman, Lond. 10 vols. fol. 1734-41, contains consider¬
able additions to the original. The Oeuvres Diverses of Bayle
were published in 1727-31, 4 tom. fol. at the Hague ; and
his Lettres Choisies at Rotterd. 1714, and Amst. 1729,
3 tom. 12mo.
(See Durevert, Histoire de Bayle, &c., Amst. 1716;
G. F. Schcetterbeck, Diss. de P. Baylio, Tubing. l719,4to;
B A Z
Feuerbach, Pierre Bayle, &c., Ansp. 1838, 8vo ; Damiron,
in the Mem. de VAcad. des Sciences Mor. et Polit., tom. xi.
p. 319; Tennemann, Geschichte der Philos.; St Beuve, in
the Rev. des Deux Mondes, Dec. 1835.)
BAYLY, Lewis, an English prelate, author of a well-
known book entitled The Practice of Piety. He was born
at Caermarthen in Wales, educated at Oxford, appointed
minister of Evesham about 1611, made chaplain to King
James, and promoted to the see of Bangor in 1616. He
died in 1632.
BAYONET, from the French baionette, and so called,
it is said, because this weapon was first made at Bayonne.
It is a kind of three-sided dagger-like weapon, which was
originally screwed into the muzzle of the gun ; and thus it
could only be used after the piece was discharged. I he
bayonet is now made with a hollow iron handle, which em¬
braces the muzzle exteriorly, so that the soldier fires with
his bayonet fixed. The original invention as well as the
subsequent improvement of this weapon is due to the French,
who were also the first to employ it, and, according to Fo-
lard, gained important advantages in consequence, before
the use of it became general. Its great advantage consists
in rendering the musket a pike, and thus providing the sol¬
dier with a weapon which he can at all times employ, either
to resist an attack of cavalry, or to charge the enemy’s in¬
fantry. See Guibert, Essai General de Tactique. This
weapon was formerly called dagger ; and in some old Eng¬
lish authors it is written bayonet.
BAYONNE, the ancient Lapurdum, a first-class fortified
city of France, in the department of Lower Pyrenees, and
capital of an arrondissement of the same name. It is well
built, and agreeably situated at the confluence of the Nive and
Adour, about three miles from the sea. A bar at the mouth
of the river prevents large vessels from entering except at
high water, when at spring tides there is a depth of from 13 to
15 feet, and from 9 to 11 feet at neaps. Ihe citadel is one
of the finest works of Vauban, and the cathedral is a small
but elegant Gothic structure of the thirteenth century.
Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric, and has courts of primary
jurisdiction and commerce, an exchange, a mint, theatie,
naval and commercial docks, schools of commerce and navi¬
gation, &c.; with distilleries, sugar refineries, glass works,
&c. Its export trade is considerable, particularly in choco¬
late, liqueurs, cream of tartar, and hams. The Nive and
Adour divide the town into three nearly equal parts, com¬
municating with each other by bridges. I he Bayonne,
which lies on the left bank of the Nive, contains the old
castle; Little Bayonne, whei’e the new castle stands, is
situated between the Nive and the Adour ; and the suburb
Saint Esprit occupies the right bank of the Adour. The
last is not comprehended in the commune of Bayonne, but
forms a separate commune in the department of Landes.
The bayonet derives its name from this place, where it is
said to have been invented. Bayonne, though often be¬
sieged, has never been taken, and is one of the few places that
refused to participate in the massacre of St Bartholomew.
Pop. of commune in 1851, 16,299. The arrondissement of
the same name contains 8 cantons, 53 communes, and (in
1851) 88,185 inhabitants.
BAZA, a city of Granada, in the Sierra Nevada, with a
population of 10,133, a cathedral, and a seminary for the
education of priests. It stands in a fruitful valley. Lat. 37.
30. N. Long. 2. 50. W. .
BAZAAR, or Bazar, a denomination among the lurks
and Persians, given to a kind of exchange, or place where
stuffs and other wares are sold. The word bazaar is of er-
sic origin, and literally denotes sale or exchange of goo s.
Some of the Eastern bazaars are open, like the market-places
in Europe, and serve the same purposes, more particularly for
the sale of the bulky and less valuable commodities.. Others,
again, are covered with lofty ceilings, or domes, pierced to
Bayly
Bazaar.
B A Z B E A 525
Bazas give light; and it is in these that the jewellers, goldsmiths,
j| and other dealers in the richer wares, have their shops. The
Bazeegurs. bazaar or maidan of Ispahan is one of the finest places in
Persia, and greatly surpasses all the exchanges in Europe.
The bazaar of Tauris was famed for its extent, having seve¬
ral times contained 30,000 men ranged in order of battle ;
and the bazaar of Ali Pacha at Adrianople is of very large
dimensions. At Constantinople there are the old and the
new bazaar, which are large square buildings, covered with
domes, and sustained by arches and pilasters. The name
of bazaar has lately been given to various establishments in
London and other cities, where all sorts of goods and wares
are exhibited for sale.
BAZAS, an arrondissement in the department of the
Gironde, in France, extending over 604 square miles, and
comprehending 7 cantons and 68 communes, with a popula¬
tion of 55,112 persons. The chief place is a market-town
of the same name, which in 1851 contained 4437 inhabitants,
employed in various kinds of manufactures, particularly glass.
Long. 0. 12. 25. W. Lat. 44. 25. 55. N.
BAZAT, or Baza, in Commerce, a long, fine-spun cot¬
ton, which is brought from Jerusalem, whence it is called
Jerusalem cotton.
BAZEEGURS, a tribe of Indians, inhabiting different
parts of the peninsula of Hindustan. They are recognised
by several appellations, as Bazeegurs, Panchperee, Kunjura,
or Nuts ; they follow a mode of life distinguishing them
from the Hindus, among whom they dwell; and abstain from
intermixing their families with the Hindus, and from any
intercourse by which they can be united. They are dis¬
persed throughout the whole of India, partly in wandering
tribes, partly adhering to fixed residences, but the greater
proportion lead a nomadic life.
The Bazeegurs are divided into seven castes ; but besides
those who are united into sets or castes, there are individuals
who wander about endeavouring to pick up a precarious
livelihood. Although the Bazeegurs are distinguished by
their manners and customs from the natives of Hindustan,
their features do not certainly discriminate them as a sepa¬
rate race. Some of their women are reputed very beauti¬
ful, and are thence sought after in those temporary alliances
common in the East. The Bazeegurs, more especially dis¬
tinguished by that name, are the most civilized of the
whole ; they are Mahometans in food, apparel, and religion.
The Panchperee profess no system of faith in preference,
adopting indifferently that of any village, whither their wan¬
derings may guide them. Some traverse the country as
Mahometan Fakeers, and live on the ill-directed bounty of
devotees; and a particular association among them, of bad
repute or abject superstition, has been accused of sacri¬
ficing human victims.
The chief occupation of the Bazeegurs seems to consist
in feats of address and agility to amuse the public, in which
both males and females are equally skilful. The former are
extremely athletic, and the women are taught dancing, which,
instead of the graceful motions seen in the north, consists
principally of a display of lascivious gestures. Most, if not
all the men, are jugglers, tumblers, and actors, in which
they are very adroit. The people of each sect, or drama¬
tis persona, are hired out by a sirdar or manager of a com¬
pany, for a definite period, generally one year, after which
they are at liberty to join any other party. Both males and
females pursue such a systematic course of debauchery, that
few live beyond forty, and many do not attain their thirtieth
year. From the pursuits of the females being productive to
their parents, their marriages are deferred to a later period
than is usual in India.
The females who do not attend the juggling exhibitions
of the men, or their feats of activity, practise physic and
cupping, and perform a kind of tattooing on the skin of the
Hindus of their own sex, called godna. The men, besides
their usual occupations, collect medicinal herbs, which are Bazgendges
prepared by their wives as curatives, especially of the com- II
plaints of their own sex. In this manner, or by the sale of I5eacons-
trinkets, they find employment in the towns, though these , y
occupations afford them but a precarious subsistence. Some
tribes also exhibit wild beasts to the vulgar, or offer for sale
mats fabricated by themselves. Before the establishment of
the British government in Bengal, the Bazeegurs were sub¬
ject to the arbitrary exactions of a tax-gatherer, whom they
greatly dreaded; and the apprehension of the renewal of that
officer’s powers has proved a considerable impediment to in¬
vestigating their manners and customs.
The Bazeegurs are supposed to present many features
analogous to the gipsies scattered over Europe and Asia,
where they subsist as a distinct race from all the other in¬
habitants of the countries frequented by them. The Bazee¬
gurs, as well as the gipsies, have a chief or king ; each has a
peculiar language, bearing some reciprocal analogy, and dif¬
ferent from that of the people among whom they reside; and
this analogy is so decided, that it is difficult to deny that in
both cases it has had a common origin. Another resem¬
blance, which has probably been lost in the lapse of time, is
supposed to consist in the three-stringed viol introduced
into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century, which
is exactly similar to the instrument now used in Hindustan.
Disjoined, these analogies may not carry conviction of the
identity of the European gipsies with the Indian Bazeegurs ;
but, on combining the whole, it does not seem unlikely, that
if Asia be their original country, or if they have found their
way from Egypt to India, they may also have emigrated far¬
ther at a period of remote antiquity, and reached the boun¬
daries of Europe. (j.g.d.)
BAZGENDGES, the name of a substance used by the
Turks and other Eastern nations in scarlet-dyeing.
BAZZANO, a city of Italy, in the papal delegation of
Bologna, on the canal of St Giovanni. Pop. 2600.
BDELLIUM, a gum-resin of a dark-reddish colour, and
bitter and pungent to the taste. It is used as a perfume,
and sometimes in medicine as a weak deobstruent.
BEACHY-HEAD, a promontory on the coast of Sussex,
between Hastings and Brighton, where the French defeated
the English and Dutch fleet in 1690. It has a lighthouse
with a revolving light 285 feet above high-water mark, in
Long. 0. 13. E. Lat. 50. 44. N.
BEACON (Saxon beacen,) an ancient species of signal,
consisting generally of a long pole to which was fastened a
pitch-barrel to be fired by night, and to produce smoke by
day. These were erected on conspicuous eminences, to give
notice of an approaching invasion.
Beacons are also marks and signs erected on the coasts for
guiding and preserving vessels at sea by night as well as by
day. The erection of beacons, lighthouses, and sea-marks, is a
branch of the royal prerogative. The sovereign has the exclu¬
sive power, by commission under the great seal, to cause them
to be erected in fit and convenient places, as well upon the
lands of the subject as upon the demesnes of the crown,
which power is usually vested by letters-patent in the office
of lord high admiral. By statute 8th Elizabeth, cap. 13,
the corporation of the Trinity-house is empowered to setup
any beacons or sea-marks wherever they shall think such
necessary; and the owner of the land or any other person
destroying these, or taking down any steeple, tree, or other
known sea-mark, is declared liable to severe penalties.
BEACONAGE, money paid towards the maintenance
of a beacon.
BEACONSFIELD, a market-town in the hundred of
Burnham, county of Buckingham, 23 miles from London, on
the road to Oxford. It consists of four streets crossing
each other at right angles. This place is celebrated as the
residence of the poet Waller and Edmund Burke ; and both
are buried here. Market-day Wednesday. Pop. in 1851,1684.
Beam
526 B E A
Bead BEAD, a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and
I! made of different materials, as pearl, steel, garnet, coral, dia-
IJeale. moncp amber, crystal, pastes, glass. The Romanists make
V'—great use of beads in rehearsing their Ave-Marias and
Pater-nosters and a similar custom obtains among the re¬
ligious orders throughout the East, as well Mahometan as
heathen. A string of such beads is called a rosary.
Glass beads were used by the Spaniards to barter with the
natives of South America for gold; and to this day they are
a favourite article of traffic with all savage nations. Sir v\ il-
liam Beechy made considerable use of them during his visit
to Behring’s Straits in 1828.
BEAD-Proof, a term formerly used by distillers to denote
that the spirit manufactured by them wasof the legal strength.
This was ascertained by immersing in the spirit Wilson s 01
Lovi’s beads, which consisted of hollow balls or beads of glass
so graduated that each would only maintain its equilibi him
in a fluid of a certain density. The beads being all fitted
for certain different densities, were thrown into the fluid to be
tested, and the bead which was of the exact density of the
fluid remained suspended in the fluid, the others sinking or
floating according as the fluid was too dense or too thin for
them. These beads are now quite superseded by Sykes’s
hydrometer. See Hydrodynamics.
Bead-Roll, among Roman Catholics, a list of persons for
the rest of whose souls a certain number of prayers is to be
repeated, which are counted by telling the beads.
BEADLE (from the Saxon bydel, or Imdel, a messenger),
a crier or messenger of a court, who cites persons to appear
and answer. He is also called a summoner or apparitor.
Beadle is likewise an officer of a university, whose chief
business is to walkbefbrethe masters with a mace at all public
processions. There are, besides, church beadles, whose
business is to punish petty offenders.
BEAGLE (French, bigle), a small sort of hound or
hunting dog. Beagles are of different kinds; as the southern
beagle, something less and shorter but thicker than the deep-
mouthed hound; the fleet northern or cat beagle, smaller
and of a finer shape than the southern, and a harder runner.
From these two, by crossing the strains, is bred a third sort,
considered preferable to either. There is also a smaller
sort, scarcely bigger than a lap-dog, which affords an agree¬
able diversion in hunting the rabbit or even the young hare
in dry weather.
BEAK or Beak-head, that external part of a ship
before the forecastle which is fastened to the stem and sup¬
ported by the main-knee. The beak, called by the Greeks
epjSoXos, by the Latins rostrum, was an important part in
the ancient ships of war, which were hence called naves ros-
tratce. The beak was made of wood, fortified with brass,
and fastened to the prow, for the purpose of damaging the
enemy’s vessels. Its invention is attributed to Pisseus, an
Etruscan. The first beaks were made long and high ; but
afterwards a Corinthian, named Ariston, made them short and
strong, and placed so low as to pierce the enemy’s vessels
under water. By means of these great havoc was made
by the Syracusans in the Athenian fleet. See Rostrum.
BEAKED, in Heraldry. When the beak and legs of a
fowl are of a different tincture from the body, the technical
expression is, beaked and membered of such a tincture.
BEALE, Mary, distinguished for her skill in painting,
was the daughter of Mr Cradock, minister of Walton-upon-
Thames, and is said to have learned the rudiments of the art
from Sir Peter Lely. She painted in oil, in water-colours,
and in crayons, and was greatly employed. Her portraits
were executed in the Italian style, which she acquired by
copying pictures and drawings from Sir Peter Lely’s and the
royal collections. She also imitated Vandyk. Her paintings
have a good deal of nature, but the colouring is stiff and
heavy. Her master, says Walpole, was supposed to have had
a tender attachment to her, but as he was reserved in com-
B E A
municating to her all the resources of his pencil, it was pro¬
bably a gallant rather than a successful one. Mrs Beale 11
died in Pall Mall on the 28th December 1697, aged sixty- v Bean'
five.   
BEAM, in weaving, a long thick wooden cylinder, placed
lengthwise on the back part of the loom of those who work
with a shuttle. That cylinder on which the stuff is rolled as
it is weaved is also called the beam or roller, and is placed
on the fore-part of the loom.
Beams of a Ship are the great main cross-timbers which
hold the sides of the ship from falling together, and also sup¬
port the deck and the orlops. The main beam is next the
main-mast, and from it they are successively reckoned as first,
second, third, and so on. The greatest beam of all is called
the midship beam. A ship is said to be on her beam-ends
when she inclines so much to one side that her beams approach
to a vertical position.
Beam- Compass, an instrument consisting of a square
wooden or brass beam, with sliding sockets that carry steel
or pencil points. Beam-compasses are used for describ¬
ing larger circles than can conveniently be drawn by the
common compasses.
BEAMINSTER, or Beminster, a market-town in the
parish of Netherbury, and county of Dorset. It is situated
in a fruitful district surrounded with orchards, on the banks
of the river Birt. It has some manufactures of sailcloth
and other flaxen goods, coarse woollens, pottery, and tin,
copper, and iron wares. Market-day Thursday. 1 he town
is well built, with a handsome church and free grammar-
school. Pop. in 1851,2085.
BEAN, the seed of certain leguminous plants cultivated for
food all over the world, and furnished by three genera, Faba,
Phaseolus, and Dolichos. The common bean, in all its va¬
rieties, as cultivated in this country and on the continents
of Europe and America, is the produce of the Baba vulgaris.
The French bean, kidney bean, or haricot, is the seed of the
Phaseolus vulgaris; but in India several other species of this
genus of plants are raised, and form no small portion of the
diet of the inhabitants. From the genus Dolichos, again, the
natives of India and South America procure beans or pulse,
of no small importance as articles of diet, such as the D. ensi-
formis, or sword bean of India, the Lima beans, &c.; and two
of the species D. bulbosus and tetragonolobus yield also
tuberose roots, held in much estimation by the natives of
India. These now form separate genera in modern botani¬
cal arrangements. Hie common bean is even more nutri¬
tious than wheat; containing 84 per cent, of nutritive
matter, whereas wheat contains only 74 per cent. The
principle use of beans is to feed horses, for which they are
admirably adapted, as being far more nourishing than oats.
In this country French beans are chiefly, almost exclusively,
used in the green state, and the whole pod is eaten as a, sub¬
stitute for green peas. It is a wholesome and nutritious
vegetable, and it is to be regretted that we do not follow the
Dutch and Germans in preserving it for winter and spring
use, when other green vegetables cannot be had. In
Holland and Germany the pods of the French bean are
preserved in salt by almost every family. Ihe green pods
are cut across obliquely, most generally by a machine in¬
vented for the purpose, and salted in barrels. In this state
they keep the whole winter and spring. When wanted
for use they are steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and
broiled or stewed, when they form an agreeable addition to
the diet at a time when no other vegetable may be had. hor
the cultivation, &c., of the common bean, see Agriculture.
The ancients made use of beans in gathering the votes ot
the people, and for the election of magistrates. w n e
bean signified “ absolution,” and a black one condemna¬
tion.” Beans had a mysterious use in the lemurahanad
parentalia, where the master of the family, after washing
his hands three times, threw black beans over his head nine
B E A
B E A
527
Bean-Cod times, still repeating the words, “ I redeem myself and
II family by these beans.” Ovid gives a lively description of
Beard, jjjg whole ceremony. Abstinence from beans was enjoined
by Pythagoras, one of whose symbols is Kvd/xwv dTrixeaOai,
abstinere a fabis. The Egyptian priests held it a crime to
look at beans, judging the very sight unclean: and among
the Romans Xha jiamen dialis was not permitted even to
mention the name. The precept of Pythagoras has been va¬
riously interpreted. Some understand it to imply forbearing
to meddle in trials and verdicts; others, resting on the equi¬
voque of the word Kva./ios, which signifies equally a bean and
a human testicle, explain it by abstinence from venery.
Clemens Alexandrinus grounds the prohibition against beans
on their alleged quality of rendering women barren; and
this is confirmed by Theophrastus, who asserts that some
other plants have the same property. Cicero suggests an¬
other reason for this abstinence, namely, that beans are
great enemies to tranquillity of mind. Hence Amphiaraus
is said to have abstained from beans, even before Pythagoras,
that he might enjoy a clearer divination by dreams.
Bean-Cod, a small fishing vessel, or pilot-boat, common
in Portugal. It is extremely sharp forward, having its stem
bent above into a great curve inward, plated on the fore¬
side with iron, and fortified with bolts. It is commonly
navigated with a large lateen sail.
Be an-Fly, in Natural History, a very beautiful fly, of a
pale purple colour, frequently found on bean-flowers. It is
produced from the maggot called mida.
BEAR. See Mammalia, Index.
Beak, in Astronomy. See Ursa Major, and Astronomy.
Order of the Bear was a military order in Switzerland,
instituted by the Emperor Frederick II. in 1213, by way of
acknowledgment for the service the Swiss had done him,
and in favour of the abbey of St Gall. To the collar of the
order hung a medal, on which was represented a bear raised
on an eminence of earth.
Bear or Here Island, on the S.W. coast of Ireland, in
Bantry Bay, is about six miles in length and one and a half
broad. It lies twelve miles from Bantry, and is of a hilly
and rugged aspect.
Bear Lake, Great, an extensive sheet of fresh water in
the N.W. part of North America ; between 65. and 67. N.
Lat. and 117. and 123. W. Long. It is of a very irregular
shape, and has an estimated area of 14,000 square miles.
The Bear Lake River carries its waters into the Mackenzie
River. It is upwards of 200 feet above the sea.
BEARD, the hair growing on the chin and adjacent
parts of the adult male in the human subject.
Various have been the ceremonies and customs of nations
in regard to the beard. The Tartars, from a religious prin¬
ciple, waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, de¬
claring them infidels merely because they would not cut
their whiskers after the fashion of Tartary; and we find
that a considerable branch of the religion of the ancients
consisted in the management of their beards. Hie Greeks
wore their beards till the time of Alexander the Great; but
that prince ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest the
beard should afford a handle to their enemies. According
to Varro and Pliny, the Romans did not begin to shave till
the year b.c. 300, when P. Ticinius Mamas or Maena
brought barbers from Sicily.
Consecration of the beard was a ceremony among the
Roman youth, who, when shaved for the first time, on as¬
suming the toga virilis, kept a day of rejoicing, and were
particularly careful to put the hair of their beard into a box,
of silver or gold, and make an offering of it to some god,
particularly to Jupiter Capitolinus, as was done by Nero,
according to Suetonius.
The fashion of the beard has varied in different ages and
countries; some cultivating one part of it, some another.
The Hebrews wear a beard on the chin, but not on the
upper lip or cheeks. Moses forbids them to cut off entirely Beard,
the angle or extremity of their beard; that is, to manage it
after the Egyptian fashion, leaving only a little tuft of beard
at the extremity of the chin; whereas the Jews to this day
suffer a little fillet of hair to grow from the lower end of
their ears to their chins, where, as well as on their lower
lips, their beards are in a pretty long bunch. The Jews,
in time of mourning, neglected to trim their beards or cut
off the superfluous growth on the upper lips and cheeks.
In time of grief and great affliction they also plucked out
the hair of their beards.
Anointing the beard with unguents -was an ancient prac¬
tice both among the Jews and Romans, and still continues
in use among the Turks. One of the principal ceremonies
observed among the latter in serious visits, is to throw sweet-
scented water on the beard of the visitant.
The discipline of the church has varied in the matter of
beards. Ecclesiastics have sometimes been enjoined to
wear them, from a notion of there being too much effemi¬
nacy in shaving, and that a long beard was more suitable to
the ecclesiastical gravity; and sometimes again they have
been forbidden to do so, from an idea that pride lurked be¬
neath a venerable beard. The Greek and Roman churches
have long differed on this important subject. Since the
time of their separation, the Romanists seem to have given
more into the practice of shaving by way of opposition to
the Greeks; and have even made some express constitu¬
tions de radendis barbis. The Greeks, on the contrary,
espouse very zealously the cause of long beards, and are
extremely scandalized at the beardless images of saints in
the Roman churches. By the statutes of some monas¬
teries, it appears that the lay-monks were to let their beards
grow, and the priests were enjoined to shave ; and that the
beards of all who wTere received into the monasteries were
blessed with a great deal of ceremony. There are still ex¬
tant the prayers used in consecrating the beard to God
when an ecclesiastic was shaven.
Le Comte observes that the Chinese affect long beards
extravagantly; but nature has balked them by only giving
them a scanty growth, which however they cultivate with
infinite care. Chrysostom observes that the kings of Persia
had their beards woven or matted together with gold thread.
The sculptures brought from Nineveh by Layard show the
extreme care of their beards by that ancient race ; and
some of the first kings of France had their beards knotted
and buttoned with gold.
Among the Turks, it is more infamous for any one to
have his beard cut off, than among us to be publicly whipt
or branded with a hot iron. The Arabs make the preser¬
vation of their beards a capital point of religion, because
Mahomet never cut his. Hence the razor is never drawn
over the face of the Sultan; and the Persians, who clip
their beards and shave above the jaw, are reputed down¬
right heretics. The slaves who serve in the seraglio have
their beards shaven as a sign of their servitude.
The most celebrated ancient writers, and also some of
later times, have spoken honourably of the fine beards of
antiquity. Homer commemorates the white beard of Nes¬
tor, and that of old King Priam. Virgil describes that of
Mezentius, which was so thick and long as to cover all his
breast; and Chrysippus praises the noble beard of Timo-
theus, a famous player on the flute. Pliny the younger tells
us of the white beard of Euphrates, a Syrian philosopher;
and he takes pleasure in relating the respect and awe with
which it inspired the people. Plutarch speaks of the long
white beard of an old Laconian who on being asked why
he let it grow to such length, replied, “ It is that having my
white beard continually before my eyes, I may do nothing
unworthy of its whiteness.” Strabo relates that the Indian
philosophers called gymnosophists were particularly atten¬
tive to have their beards of sufficient length to “ captivate”
528
BEARD.
Beard.
the veneration of the people ;—Diodorus gives a very cir¬
cumstantial history of the beards of the Indians ; Juvenal
does not forget that of Antilochus the son of Nestor—
Fenelon, in describing a priest of Apollo in all his magnifi¬
cence, tells us that he had a white beard down to his gir¬
dle ;—and Persius, convinced that a beard was the symbol
of wisdom, thought he could not bestow a greater encomium
on Socrates than by calling him the bearded master, Ma-
gistrum barbatum.
Whilst the Gauls were under the sway of their native
sovereigns, none but the nobles and Christian priests weie
permitted to wear long beards. But the Franks, having
made themselves masters of Gaul, assumed the same au¬
thority as the Romans ; the bondmen wrere expressly com¬
manded to shave their chins; and this law continued in
force until the entire abolition of servitude in France.
So, likewise, in the time of the first race of kings, a. long
beard was the sign of nobility and freedom ; and t.ie
kings, as being the highest nobles in their kingdom, wcie
emulous to display the largest beards. Eginhard, secretary
to Charlemagne, speaking of the last kings of the first
race, says they came to the assemblies in the field of Mai s
in a carriage drawn by oxen, and sat on the throne with
their hair dishevelled, and a very long beard, crine profuso,
barba submissa, solio residerent, ut speciem dominantis
effingerent.
To touch any one’s beard, or cut off a bit of it, was, among
the early French, the most sacred pledge of protection and
confidence. For a long time all letters that came from the
sovereign had, for greater sanction, three hairs of his beard
in the seal; and there is still in being a charter of 1121
which concludes with the following words: Quod ut ratum
et stabile perseveret in posterum, prcesenti scripto sigilli
mei robur apposui cum tribus pihs barbee niece.
Several great men received or adopted the surname of
Bearded. The Emperor Constantine IV. is distinguished
by the epithet of Pogoniates ;—in the time of the Crusades,
we find there was a Geoffrey the Bearded ;—Baldwin IV.,
Earl of Flanders, was surnamed Handsome-Beard ; and,
in the illustrious house of Montmorenci there was a famous
Bouchard who took a pride in the surname of Bearded,
and was always the declared enemy of the monks, doubtless
because they were shavelings.
In the tenth century, we find that King Robert of France,
the rival of Charles the Simple, was not more famous for
his exploits than for his long white beard. In order that it
might be more conspicuous to the soldiers when he was in
the field, he used to let it hang down outside his cuirass ;
and this venerable sight encouraged the troops in battle,
and served to rally them when defeated. A celebrated
painter in Germany, called John Mayo, had so large a beard
that he was nicknamed John the Bearded. He wore it
fastened to his girdle; and though he was a very tall man, it
hung upon the ground when he stood upright. John would
sometimes untie it in the presence of the Emperor Charles
V., who took great pleasure in seeing the wind make it fly
against the faces of the lords of his court. In England, the
chancellor Sir Thomas More, one of the greatest men of
his time, was able, when on the fatal scaffold, to procure
respect for his beard, and saved it by a pleasantry. When
he had laid his head on the block, he drew his beard aside,
observing, “ My beard has not been guilty of treason ; it
would be an injustice to punish it.”
Every one has admired on medallions and in portraits the
beard of the renowned Henry IV. of France, “which gave to
the countenance of that prince a majestic dignity, and which
ought to serve as a model for that of every great king, as
the beard of his illustrious minister should for that of every
statesman.” But there is little dependence on the stability
of the things of this world. By an event equally fatal and
unforeseen, the beard, which had arrived at its highest degree
of glory, all of a sudden lost its favour, and was at length
entirely proscribed. The unexpected death of Henry the v—
Great, and the youth of his successor, were the sole causes
of this revolution. Louis XIII. mounted the throne of his
glorious ancestors without a beard. Every one concluded
immediately that the courtiers, seeing their young king with
a smooth chin, would look upon their own as too rough; and
the conjecture proved correct. They presently reduced
their beards to whiskers, and a small tuft of hair under the
nether lip. But the people at first refused to follow this
dangerous example. The Duke of Sully also persisted in
clinging to his beard. I his man, great as a general and a
minister, was likewise so in his retirement, and had the
courage to keep his long beard, nay, to appear with it at
the court of Louis XIII., when called thither to give his
advice in an affair of importance. The young smooth-shaven
courtiers laughed outright at the grave look and old-fashioned
appearance of the venerable minister; on which the latter,
probably jealous of the honour of his beard, observed to the
king, “ Sir, when your father, of glorious memory, did me
the honour to consult me on his great and important affairs,
the first thing he did was to send away all the buffoons and
stage-dancers of his court.”
The Czar Peter had the boldness to impose a tax on the
produce of his subjects’ chins. He ordered that the noble¬
men and gentlemen, tradesmen and artisans, should pay a
hundred rubles for the privilege of retaining their beards,
and that the lower class of people should pay a copec for
the same liberty ; and he established clerks at the gates of
the different towns to collect these duties. Such a new and
singular impost troubled the vast empire of Muscovy, and
both religion and manners were thought in imminent dan¬
ger. But Peter was inflexible, and shaving began in good
earnest; the Russians very generally coming to the conclu¬
sion that it was better to cut off their beards than to give
serious offence to a man who had the power of cutting off
their heads. . j j •
Example, more powerful than authority, produced in
Spain what the Czar Peter had not accomplished in Russia
without great difficulty. Philip V. ascended the tin one
with a shaven chin. The courtiers imitated the ^prince,
and the people in turn imitated the courtiers. This re¬
volution however, although brought about gradually, and
without violence, caused much lamentation and murmur¬
ing; the gravity of the Spaniards lost by the change, and
they said, Desde que no hay barba, no hay mas alma;
“ since we have lost our beards, we have lost our souls. In
fact, among those European nations which have been most
curious in beards and whiskers, we must distinguish Spain.
This grave romantic people has always regarded the beard
as an ornament which ought to be peculiarly prized, and in¬
deed has often made the loss of honour consist in that of
their whiskers. Nor have the Portuguese, whose national
character is much the same, been behind them in this re¬
spect. In the reign of Catherine queen of Portugal, the
brave John de Castro had taken the castle of Diu in India.
Victorious, but in want of everything, he found himseit
obliged to ask the inhabitants of Goa to lend him a thou¬
sand pistoles for the maintenance of his fleet; and as a secu¬
rity for that sum he sent them one of his whiskers, telling
them,—“ All the gold in the world cannot equal the value
of this natural ornament of my valour; and I deposit it m
your hands as a security for the money. 1 he whole tow
was penetrated with his heroism, and every one inter^^
himself about this invaluable whisker : even t ic women .
desirous to give marks of their zeal for so brave a ’
several sold their bracelets to Increase the
and the inhabitants of Goa sent him .mmediately both the
TnTol'xin’freign, whiskers (moustaches) attained
the highest degree of favour, at the expense of the expiring
Beard.
B E A
Bearing, beards. In those days of gallantry, not yet empoisoned by
wit, they became the favourite occupation of lovers. A
fine black mustachio, elegantly turned up, was a very power¬
ful recommendation to the favour of the fair sex. They
were still in fashion in the beginning of Louis XIV.’s reign;
and this king, with all the great men of his time, took a
pride in wearing them. They were consequently the orna¬
ment of Turenne, Conde, Colbert, Corneille, Moliere, &c.
It was then no uncommon thing for a favourite lover to have
his moustaches turned up, combed, and dressed by his mis¬
tress ; and hence a man of fashion took care to be always
provided with every little necessary article, especially whisker-
wax. It was highly flattering to a lady to have it in her
power to praise the beauty of her lover’s moustaches, which,
far from being disagreeable, gave his person an air of vivacity;
and several even thought them an incitement to love. But
the levity of the French caused several changes both in
their form and name; there were Spanish, Turkish, guard-
dagger whiskers, nay, even royal ones, which were the last
worn; the smallness of these proclaiming their approaching
fall.
Kissing the Beard. The Turkish wives kiss their hus¬
bands’ beards, and children their fathers’, as often as they
come to salute them. The men kiss one another’s beards
reciprocally on both sides when they salute in the streets,
or return from a journey.
Bearded Women. Of these there have been several re¬
markable instances. In the cabinet of curiosities of Stuttgard
in Germany, there is the portrait of a woman called Bartel
Graetje, whose chin is covered with a very large beard. Her
portrait was painted in 1587, at which time she was only
twenty-five years of age. It is said that the Duke of Saxony
had the portrait taken of a poor Swiss woman, remarkable
for her long bushy beard; and those who attended the carni¬
val at Venice in 1726 saw a female dancer astonish the spec¬
tators not more by her talents than by her chin covered with
a black bushy beard. Charles XII. had in his army a female
grenadier, who had both the beard and courage of a man.
She was taken prisoner at the battle of Pultowa, and carried
to Petersburg, where she was presented to the Czar in 1724 ;
her beard measured a yard and a half. A woman was once
seen at Paris who had not only a bushy beard on her
face, but her body likewise covered all over with hair.
Amongst a number of examples of this nature, that of Mar¬
garet, the Governess of the Netherlands, is very remarkable.
She had a very long stiff beard, on which she prided herself;
and being persuaded that it contributed to give her an air
of majesty, she took care not to lose a single hair of it. The
Lombard women, it is said, when they went to war, made
themselves beards with the hair of their heads, which they
ingeniously arranged on their cheeks, in order that the enemy
might take them for men.
Beard of a Comet, the rays which the comet emits to¬
wards that part of the heavens to which its proper motion
seems to direct it, is distinguished from the tail, which de¬
notes the rays emitted towards that part from which its mo¬
tion appears to carry it.
BEARING, in Navigation, an arch of the horizon inter¬
cepted between the nearest meridian and any distant object,
either discovered by the eye and referred to a point on the
compass, or resulting from the spherical proportion ; as, in
the first case, “ at four p.m. Cape Spado, in the isle of Candia,
bore S. by W. by the compass.” In the second, the longi¬
tudes and latitudes of any two places being given, and con¬
sequently the difference of latitude and longitude between
them, the bearing of one from the other is discovered by
the following analogy : As the meridional difference of lati¬
tude is to the difference of longitude, so is the radius to the
tangent of the bearing.
Bearing is also the situation of any distant object esti¬
mated from some part of the ship according to her position.
VOL. iv.
B E A 529
An object so discovered must be either ahead, astern, abreast, Bearings
on the bow, or on the quarter. If the ship sails with a side jl
wind, it alters in some measure the names of such bearings, ^eatltude;
since a distant object on the beam is then said to be to lee-
ward or to windward ; on the lee-quarter or bow, and on the
weather-quarter or bow.
Bearings, in Heraldry, a term used to express a coat of
arms.
BEAST, a general appellation given to all four-footed
animals, fit either for food, labour, or sport.
BEAT, in the Manege. A horse is said to heat the dust
when at each stroke or motion he does not take in ground
or wray enough with his fore-legs.
Beat of Drum, in the military art, is a succession of
strokes, varied in different ways, for particular purposes; as,
an alarm of sudden danger; a notice to repair immediately
to arms or quarters ; or an order to obey a movement either
in advance or retreat. To heat the tattoo, is to give notice
for retiring to quarters by a very rapid succession of strokes
on the drum.
Beat, St, a town of France, in the department of Upper
Garonne, at the confluence of the Garonne and the Pique.
It stands in a narrow ravine, which renders it gloomy. The
houses are chiefly built of marble. Pop. 1400.
BEATERS. See Gold-Beaters.
BEATIFICATION, an act by which the pope declares
a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is the first
step towards canonization, or raising any one to the honour
and dignity of a saint. The corpse and relics of the future
saint are exposed to the veneration of all good Christians ;
his images are crowned with rays, and a particular office is
set apart for him, but his body and relics are not carried in
procession. Indulgences and remissions of sins are likewise
granted on the day of his beatification.
BEATING the Wind, was a practice in use in the an¬
cient method of trial by combat. If one of the comba¬
tants did not appear in the field at the time appointed, the
other was to make so many flourishes with his weapon,
by which he was entitled to all the advantages of a con¬
queror.
Beating Time, in Music, a method of measuring and
marking the time for performers in concert, by a motion of
the hand or foot up and down successively and in equal
times. The Romans had an officer called portisculus in each
galley, whose business it vras to beat time to the rowers by
a pole or mallet, or by his voice alone. The ancients marked
the rhythm in their musical compositions; but to make it
more observable in practice, they beat the measure or time,
and this in different manners. The most usual method con¬
sisted in a motion of the foot, which was raised from and
struck alternately against the ground. This was commonly
the province of the master of the music, called yaead^opos
and Kopv(f)aio<;, because placed in the middle of the choir of
musicians, and in an elevated situation, in order to be more
easily seen and heard by the whole company. These beaters
of measure were also called by the Greeks Trodoi/zd^oi, be¬
cause of the noise of their feet; the Latins denominated
them pedarii, podarii, and pedicularii. To make the beats
or strokes more audible, their feet were generally shod with
a sort of sandals made of wood or iron, called by the Greeks
Kpoinre^ia, KpovrraXa, Kpovirera, and by the Latins pedicula,
scahella, or scahilla, because resembling little stools or foot¬
stools. The ancients also beat time or measure with shells,
as oyster shells, and bones of animals, which they struck
against one another, in the manner of the modern casta¬
nets and similar instruments. Other noisy instruments, as
drums, cymbals, and citterns, were also used for the same
purpose.
Beating, in Navigation, the operation of making progress
at sea against the wind, by steering in a zigzag course.
BEATITUDE imports the supreme good, or the highest
3 x
*
B E A
exertion of the inventive powers can furnish representations
equal to these immediate copies from nature. Such is that
picture in the small poem which he calls Retirement.
“ Thy shades, thy silence, now be mine,
Thy charms my only theme;
My haunt the hollow cliff whose pine
Waves o’er the gloomy stream ;
Whence the scared owl on pinions gray
Breaks from the rustling boughs,
And down the lone vale sails away
To more profound repose:’
Such also, among many others in the Minstrel, are those
beautiful pictures contained in the 20th and 21st stanzas
of the first canto. j j • j
In this secluded place Beattie was discovered and noticed
by Mr Garden, afterwards Lord Gardenstown, then sheriff
of the county, and by Lord Monboddo. In 1757 he be¬
came a candidate for the situation of usher in the grammar-
school of Aberdeen. He was at this time foiled in the com¬
petition ; but next year, on the occasion of a new vacancy,
he was requested to accept the office. Lastly, he was re¬
moved, in 1760, to the professorship of Moral Philosophy
and Logic in the Marischal College. Here he passed the
remainder of his life, occupied in the zealous discharge of
his professional duties, and in literary pursuits. Here, too,
he possessed all the advantages of a congenial society in the
company of Dr George Campbell, Dr Reid, Dr Gerard, and
other celebrated men who then adorned the university of
Aberdeen. . . . , ^ .
His first publication was a small collection entitled (Jrt-
qinal Poems and Translations, which was printed in 1760
or 1761. Of many of the pieces contained in this little
... . . , , . rii . volume he was afterwards ashamed, and not only omitted
T’^V'D;^V'hmM735 a^SirencS them in the subsequent selections which he published, but
poet, was born on the 25th of October 1735, at La e endeavoured, as far as possible, to obliterate all traces and
kirk, then an obscure hamlet, in the county of Kincardine endeavoured,^ , 
530 B E A
Beaton degree of happiness human nature is susceptible of; in
II other words, the most perfect state of a rational being, wherein
Beattie. tjie sou\ pas attained to the utmost excellency and dignity it
is capable of. In this sense it is equivalent to what we call
“ blessedness,” or “sovereign felicity,” the Greeks evhcupovia,
and the Latins summum bonum, beatitudo, anti beatitas.
Beatitude, in a theological sense, denotes the beatific vision,
or the fruition of God in a future life to all eternity. is
term is also used in speaking of the opening theses of Chris s
sermon on the mount. 1  ~
BEATON, David (Cardinal Beaton), archbishop ot
St Andrews, an eminent Scottish statesman and ecclesiastic,
born in 1494. He was made a cardinal by Pope 1 aul 111. in
December 1538 ; and having been employed by James V. m
negotiating his marriage at the court of France, he was there
consecrated bishop of Mirepoix. Soon after his instalment
as archbishop of St Andrews, he promoted a furious perse¬
cution of the reformers in Scotland; but the kings death
put a stop for a time to his arbitrary proceedings. He was
excluded from the management of public affairs, and thrown
into confinement; but he soon raised so strong a party that,
upon the coronation of the young Queen Mary, he was ad¬
mitted of the council, made chancellor, and procured a lega¬
tee commission from the court of Rome. He now began
to renew his persecution of heretics; and, amongst others,
the famous Protestant preacher George \\ ishart suffered
death at the stake in front of the cardinal s residence at St
Andrews. It is alleged that Wishart, in the midst of the
flames, foretold that Beaton would die a violent death; a
prediction which probably proved the cause of its own tul
ment, as the persecutor was assassinated in his chamber,
Mav 29, 1547. See Scotland.
BEATTIE, James, LL.D., a distinguished moralist and
Beattie.
in Scotland; near which place his father rented a small farm.
He received his early education at the common school
of the parish, of which it is recorded that Ruddiman had
been teacher about forty years before. His acquirements
are said to have been interrupted at this time by want ot
books ; a difficulty which has excited commiseration in more
instances than that of Beattie, but which is so little able to
control natural genius that it seems almost an incitement
to its exertions; as “all impediments in fancys course
are motives to more fancy.” He first became acquamte
with English versification through Ogilby’s translation o
^ ify his father’s death he had been thrown, while yet of
tender age, on the care of his elder brother, David Beattie ;
who, observing his natural endowments, afforded him, not¬
withstanding his own limited means, every aid in his power
towards a liberal education, and in the year 1749 placed
him at Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he soon after¬
wards obtained a bursary or exhibition. Here he had the
advantage of pursuing his studies under Dr Thomas Black-
well, author of the Life of Homer, Dr Gerard, and other
eminent men. In addition to his academical course, he began
eminent men. In addition to his academical course, he began J & G ^ and Dr Blacklock
at this time to instruct himself m the Italian language, an P f , work appeared in most c
appears to have bad a strong predilection for Metastasio.
In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun, a
small village at the foot of the Grampian Mountains, where
he likewise performed the duty of precentor or parish
clerk, usually attached to that office in Scotland. Here
he indulged the propensities of the youthful poet, and fre¬
quently wandered during a whole night in the fields,
“ chewing the cud of sweet and bitter fancy ;” and it was
from a height in this neighbourhood that his eye first caught
a glimpse of the ocean. From the scenery of this se¬
cluded spot he appears to have derived, as might be ex¬
pected, many of those images which he afterwards trans¬
ferred into his poetical compositions; and certainly no
recollection of them. Of these lesser pieces, The Hermit
is best known ; which, though it cannot be considered as a
finished composition, is full of pathos and beauty. In Ine
Battle of the Pigmies and Cranes, translated from the
Latin of Addison, he has displayed a greater command of
terse and happy expression than in most of his original
^Beattie was married, in 1767, to Miss Mary Dun daugh¬
ter of Dr James Dun, rector of the grammar-school ot
Aberdeen. This connection, at first every way auspi¬
cious for his happiness, proved in the sequel a source of the
deepest distress; for in the course of a few years Mrs
Beattie, whose mother had laboured under a similar malady,
showed unequivocal symptoms of mental disorder, which
terminated in a state of confirmed insanity.
In the year 1770 Beattie published his Essay on the
Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to Sophistry
and Scepticism. His design was “ to prove the universality
and immutability of moral sentiment;” and his motives for
the undertaking are sufficiently evident from the title whic
he has prefixed to the book. He appears to have been par¬
ticularly encouraged to the prosecution of this task y ie
opinions of Dr John Gregory and Dr Blacklock. A gene¬
ral outline of the work, which appeared in m°sf °”he1J°ur‘
nals previously to its publication, was prepared by the latter.
His original intention, as expressed by himself in one ot
letters, was, “first, to have considered the permanency of
truth in general;” and, secondly, to have applied the pr
ciples which he should have established “to the illustration
of certain truths of morality and religion, to whmh the rea¬
sonings of Helvetius, of Mr Hume in his Essays, and of
some^other modern philosophers, seemed un&vmirable.
Of this plan the former part only was completed. It is well
known that, in the execution of it, the author did not spare
die opinions of those whom he considered the enem es of
eligious and moral truth, and particularly treated the
B E
Beattie, writings of Hume without reserve or qualification. The
friends of the latter took up arms in return, representing the
Essay as a piece of personal and unprovoked hostility; and,
some time after, the opinions which it contained were can¬
vassed in a more public manner, and with much severity, in
an Examination by Dr Priestley. These attacks or retalia¬
tions were met by Beattie with the same firmness which he
had displayed in the original publication of his sentiments;
nor would he ever consent to abate either the plainness or
spirit with which he had expressed them.
In proportion to the censure which this publication called
forth from a certain number of persons, was its favourable
reception with a different class. It was the means of gain¬
ing for its author the unsolicited good offices of George
Lord Lyttleton, Dr Johnson, Hurd bishop of Worcester,
Percy bishop of Dromore, and many others. From the
great success of the work, a second edition of it was called
for in 1771. Beattie visited London in the same year, and
again in 1773. On the last of these occasions he re¬
ceived some flattering marks of public notice and distinc¬
tion. He had the honour of being admitted to a private
and long interview with His Majesty; received from the
university of Oxford an honorary degree of doctor of laws
at the same time with Sir Joshua Reynolds ; and was after¬
wards requested by the latter to sit for his portrait. The
reputation of his Essay, and still more, perhaps, the mo¬
tives and general character of the author, likewise procured
for him about this time a yearly pension of L.200 from the
crown.
In the course of the same year, 1773, he published the
first part of his Minstrel, or the Progress of Genius; to
which he added a second part in 1774. His object, as de¬
scribed by himself, was “ to trace the progress of a poetical
genius, born in a rude age, from the first dawning of fancy
and reason till that period at which he may be supposed
capable of appearing in the world as a minstrel; that is, as
an itinerant poet and musician ; a character which, accord¬
ing to the notion of our forefathers, was not only respect¬
able but sacred.” It appears from his letters that he little
anticipated the favourable reception which this poem ob¬
tained from the public; a doubt which was probably founded
on the want of incident and variety of character in the com¬
position. Its merit, however, was quickly acknowledged;
and by it the author’s reputation as a poet and a man of
genius was raised to its height.
On occasion of a vacancy which occurred soon after in
the chair of natural and experimental philosophy at Edin¬
burgh, it was proposed that Dr Beattie should become a
candidate ; to which step he was strongly urged by some of
his friends, particularly Lord Hales; and about the same
period he received various offers of preferment in the Eng-
flish church. These plans of promotion, however, he suc¬
cessively declined, considering the situation which he held
as best adapted to his abilities, and affording him the greatest
opportunities of usefulness. His reluctance to accept a chair
in the university of Edinburgh arose partly, indeed, from
the remaining effect of those heats which controversial me¬
taphysics had produced. “ I am so great a lover of peace,”
he says in a letter to one of his friends on this occasion,
‘ and so willing to think well of my neighbours, that I do
not wish to be connected with one person who dislikes me.”
Between the years 1780 and 1793 he published his Ele¬
ments of Moral Science, and various other works, moral and
critical, which are well known, and deservedly popular. He
enjoyed the acquaintance and friendship of many distin¬
guished characters in different classes of society. Among
his literary correspondents in England were Bishop Porteous,
Mrs Montagu, Scott the poet of Amwell, and Gray. He
531
was intrusted by the latter, in 1768, with superintending Beattie,
an edition of his poems, printed by Foulis. '
During the latter period of his life Dr Beattie experienced
a new train of domestic calamities, which, added to the un¬
fortunate situation of Mrs Beattie, gradually undermined his
health and impaired his intellectual powers. The first and
severest of these trials was the loss of his eldest son, James
Hay Beattie, who died in 1790; in whose society he had
found one of his greatest enjoyments, and who had already
been associated with him in the professorship of moral phi¬
losophy, at the early age of nineteen.1 Some years after,
his only remaining son, Montagu Beattie, likewise died, after
a short illness. This event he intimated to one of his friends,
by a letter written on the same day, in the terms of calm and
unaffected resignation. But his mind had been violently
shaken even before this blow; and when he looked on the
dead body of his son for the last time, he gave way to the
scene, and exclaimed, “ Now I have done with this world.”
Its first effect was the loss of memory respecting his deceased
son. Yet it was found that, by the mention of what the lat¬
ter had suffered during his sickness, his recollection could
usually be recalled. He continued to discharge his duty as
professor; but, notwithstanding some returns of a more vi¬
gorous intellect and fancy, he did not from this time resume
his studies, and seldom answered the letters which he re¬
ceived. He was attacked with palsy in 1799, and afterwards
sustained repeated shocks, the last in 1802. He lingered
till the 18th of August 1803, when he expired at the age of
sixty-eight. A particular account of his life and writings,
by Sir William Forbes of Pitsligo, who had long been his
friend and confidant, was published in 1806, in which are to
be found some interesting selections from his private corre¬
spondence.
The character of Dr Beattie is delineated in his writings,
of which the most prominent features are purity of senti¬
ment, and warm attachment to the principles of religion and
morality. His dispositions were gentle and modest, and he
possessed great tenderness of heart. He was laborious in
his literary pursuits, yet fond at all times of conversation and
society. Towards the latter period of his life he was subject
to an irritability of nerves, by which his temper was sensibly
affected; and though, to appearance, his bodily frame was
robust, he had impaired his strength by excessive study. He
possessed considerable talents both for music and drawing.
His abilities as a writer may be said to have already un¬
dergone that ultimate test which is to be found in public
opinion ; and it has ranked him high as a moralist, a critic,
and a poet. His Essay on Truth became a very popular
book, particularly in England, and has gone through many
editions. It must be confessed that this work is not with¬
out considerable faults as a philosophical composition. Its
leading doctrine has been thus stated by himself: “ As we
know nothing of the eternal relations of things, that to us
is and must be truth which we feel that we must believe ;
and that to us is falsehood which we feel that we must dis¬
believe. I have shown that all genuine reasoning does ulti¬
mately terminate in certain principles, which it is impossi¬
ble to disbelieve, and as impossible to prove; that, therefore,
the ultimate standard of truth to us is common sense, or that
instinctive conviction into which all true reasoning does re¬
solve itself.” What constitutes the chief defect of the Essay
is a want of that strictness and precision which a discussion
of the metaphysical parts of the subject necessarily requires.
His Elements of Moral Science, and his different critical and
philological treatises, are compositions of a very pleasing cha¬
racter ; and it was chiefly by them that his reputation was
established in other countries. Some of his books were early
translated into the Dutch and other languages. A French
A T T I E.
nnU.^V1 *n^eresting account of his life and character, by Dr Beattie, with a small collection of his compositions in prose and verse, was
published in the year 1800. ^ r ’
532
B E A
Beaucaire translation of his Essays on Poetry and Music was printed
at Paris in 1798. But it is chiefly as the author of the Min¬
strel that Beattie is known, and will continue to be admired.
This poem, or rather poetical fragment, for the design w as
not completed, stands fully confirmed in the public favoui.
A single stanza may suffice to show the author’s exquisite
appreciation of the beauties of nature :
“ 0, how canst thou renounce the boundless store
Of charms which Nature to her votary yields!
The warbling woodland, the resounding shore,
The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields;
All that the genial ray of morning gilds,
And all that echoes to the song of even,
All that the mountain’s sheltering bosom shields,
And all the dread magnificence of heaven; - .
0, how canst thou renounce, and hope to be forgiven!
It has been objected to the second part of this poem
that it contains too much philosophy. But, though the in¬
struction conveyed in it be frequently addressed to the un¬
derstanding, it is never abstruse, and the lessons are those
of a poet not less than of a moralist. Like the Castle °fjn-
dolence, it is in scope and design a didactic piece. Bot
commence in the highest strain of descriptive and pathetic
poetry ; and the subsequent depression of tone in both is a
necessary result of this lofty preparation. But the criticism
is more just when applied to the work of 1 homson than to
the Minstrel,
The following is a list of Dr Beattie’s writings: Poems,
first published in 1760; Essay on Truth, 1771; Minstrel,
1771, 1774; Essays, viz., On Poetry and Music—On
Laughter and Ludicrous Composition—On Classical Learn¬
ing, 1776; Dissertations, viz., On Memory and Imagina-
tjon—On Dreaming—On the Theory of Language—On
Fable and Romance—On the Attachments of Kindred—
and Illustrations of Sublimity, 1783; Evidences of Chris¬
tianity, 1706; and Elements of Moral Science, 1790, 1793.
He likewise published, in 1790, an edition of Mr Addison’s
papers in the Tatler, Spectator, Guardian, and Freeholder,
and of his Treatise on the Christian Religion, with his Life
of Tickell, and some original Notes, Edinburgh 4 vols.
8vo. (J# (77rr>^
BEAUCAIRE, the ancient Ugernum, a tovyn of brance,
department of Gard, and arrondissement of Nismes. Lat.
43. 48. 32. N. Long. 4. 38. 50. E. It is situated on the
right bank of the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with which it is
connected by a magnificent suspension-bridge of four arches,
and 1456 feet in length. The town is generally well built,
but has no public buildings worthy of notice, and the streets
are narrow and crooked. Its ancient castle is now in
ruins. It gives name to the canal which communicates
with the sea, and also connects it with the canal of Lan¬
guedoc, forming part of the line of communication be¬
tween the Rhone and the Garonne. It is also connected
with Nismes and Alais by a railway opened in 1839. The
manufactures are few and unimportant. The town derives
its celebrity from the annual fair held here from the 1st to
the 28th of July, and to which merchants come from all parts
of Europe, and even from Persia and Armenia. An exten¬
sive meadow on the banks of the Rhone is set apart for the
fair, which exhibits almost every kind of article, whether of
convenience or luxury. Though now less frequented than
formerly, it is said that still as many as 100,000 persons at¬
tend. Pop. of town in 1846, 8536.
BEAUFORT, Cardinal, son of John of Gaunt, See
England.
Beaufort, a town of France, department of Maine and
Loire, with a castle, sixteen miles E. of Angiers. Pop. 3000.
BEAUHARNOIS, Eugene, step-son of Napoleon, who
treated him and his sister as children of his own. He was
born in 1780, and in 1806 married the Princess Augusta
Amelia of Bavaria. He was viceroy of the kingdom of Italy
from 1805 to 1814. He accompanied Buonaparte in his
B E A
Italian campaigns, and in Egypt; was with him in the dis- Beaulieu
astrous Russian campaign of 1812-13 ; and after Napoleon ||
and Murat left the army, the chief command devolved on J5e^“ar-
Eugene, who had shown skill and courage during the re- , cnais-
treat. He appears to have been an amiable and judicious
man. After the overthrow of Napoleon in 1814, he with¬
drew to Munich, and died there in 1824, at the age of
forty-five. . . ,
BEAULIEU, Sebastien de Pontault de, a celebrated
French engineer and field-marshal under Louis XIV. He
published plans of all the military expeditions of his master,
with military disquisitions annexed. He died in 1674.
BEAULY, a village of Scotland, county of Inverness,
situated on the north side of the river Beauly, where it flows
into the Moray Firth. On this river there is a fine cascade
called the Falls of Kilmorack. Beauly has the remains of
a Cistercian abbey, founded in the year 1230. The port is
accessible to vessels of ninety tons burden. The trade car¬
ried on is inconsiderable. Distance west of Inverness, ten
miles. Long. 4. 21. W. Lat. 57. 29. N.
BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Caron de, ap¬
pears to have been one of those persons who, from restless¬
ness of disposition and singularity of character, obtain, in
their own age, more celebrity than they are entitled^to from
their merit or talents. He was born at Paris in 1 < 32, and
was the son of a clockmaker, who brought him up to his
own trade. From his earliest youth, however, he discovered
an inclination for literature, together with a remarkable
talent for music. His proficiency in this art proem ed him
an introduction to the French court, where he was employed
to teach the princesses, daughters of Louis XV., to play °n
the guitar. At their concerts, which he attended, he be¬
came acquainted with the banker Duverney, by whom he
was instructed in business, and placed in a situation which
was likely to lead to fortune. Beaumarchais first attracted
public attention by his drama of Eugenie, which was pub¬
lished in 1767; but he was chiefly indebted for the notoriety
he obtained to the various law-suits in which he became in¬
volved after the death of his patron Duverney. The chiet
advantage which he acquired from these various processes
was the astonishing interest and admiration which were uni¬
versally excited in France by the Factums or Memoires
which he wrote in his defence ; in which the most logical
and convincing argument is diversified with the bitterest
sarcasm, the keenest raillery, and the relation of incidents as
strange and amusing as any which are met with in romance.
These able and lively productions, however, procured him
many enemies, as they discovered him to be a man of a
most resentful and calumnious disposition. 1 hough occu¬
pied with these processes and various literary pursuits, Beau¬
marchais did not neglect the improvement of his fortune.
He engaged in various speculations, of which the most
profitable was his project of supplying the Americans with
arms and ammunition during the war with this country.
Having thus gained a considerable fortune, he built a mag¬
nificent villa in the Faubourg St Antoine, which he em¬
bellished with much taste and at great expense. He after
wards lost some part of the money he had acquired by an
expensive and ill-executed edition of the works of Vol¬
taire ; and neither the early support which he gave to the
principles of the French revolution, nor his importation ot
fire-arms for the use of the French forces, was sufficient to
preserve his property from confiscation, or his person from
proscription. The sufferings and dangers v ic ie ex
perienced during this period have been detailed by him m
a work entitled Mes Six Epoqnes, which is written with
considerable force and interest. After he ha en met every
species of accusation and persecution, and had passed some
time as an exile from his native country, he letuine c
France when the storms of the revolution had subsided into
a more settled tyranny; and having recovered possession
B E A
Beaumaris of his villa in the Faubourg St Antoine, he remained there
il till his death, which happened suddenly in the year 1799.
Beaumont Besides his Memoires, Beaumarchais is the author of vari-
anj* ous dramatic productions, which made a great noise, and
Fletc er.^ gajnecj considerable reputation in Paris at the time they
appeared. His works were published at Paris in 1809, in
8 vols. 8vo ; and in 1827, in 6 vols. 8vo. (w. h-z-t.)
BEAUMARIS, a borough and market-town of Angle¬
sey, North Wales. It is situated on the bay of Beaumaris,
at the northern entrance of the Menai Straits, in Lat. 53.
16. N. Long. 4. 5. W. The town consists of several neat
streets, and at the extremity of the principal one stands the
castle. This fortress was built by Edward I. about 1295.
It covers a great extent of ground, but its imposing effect
is somewhat lessened by its low position, which was so de¬
signed that the fosse might communicate with the sea, so
that vessels might unload beneath its walls. The chapel
dedicated to the Virgin is a spacious structure containing
r several fine monuments. A free school was founded here
in 1603. The principal buildings are the town-hall, county-
hall, prison, custom-house, assembly-room, and national
school. Beaumaris has no manufactures, but is much fre¬
quented as a bathing-place. The corporation consists of a
mayor, four aldermen, and nine councillors. It unites with
Holyhead, Amlwch, and Llangefni, in returning a member to
parliament. Market-day Saturday. The bay affords good
anchorage, having seven fathoms of water at the lowest ebb.
Pop. in 1851, 2599.
BEAUMONT, Sir George Howland, the seventh
baronet of a family in Leicestershire, was a distinguished
amateur of the fine arts, and an excellent landscape painter.
He w'as a munificent contributor to the National Gallery,
and to that of Dulwich. He was born in 1753, and died
in 1827.
Beaumont, Sir John, the elder brother of Francis
Beaumont the famous dramatic poet, was born in the year
1582, and in 1626 had the dignity of baronet conferred
upon him by Charles I. In his youth he applied him¬
self to poetry with tolerable success, and wrote The Crown
of Thorns, a poem, in eight books ; a miscellany, entitled
Bosworth Field; Translations from the Latin poets; and
several poems on religious and political subjects. He died
in 1628. His poetic genius was celebrated by Ben Jonson,
Michael Drayton, and others.
Beaumont and Fletcher, two celebrated English dra¬
matic writers, who flourished in the reign of James I., and
were so closely connected, both as authors and as friends,
that it has been judged not improper to give them under
one article.
Francis Beaumont was descended from an ancient family
at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, where he was born about
the year 1585 or 1586, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
His grandfather, John Beaumont, was Master of the Rolls,
and his father, Francis Beaumont, one of the judges of the
Common Pleas. He was educated at Cambridge, and after¬
wards admitted of the Inner Temple. It does not, how¬
ever, appear that he made any great proficiency in the law,
a study which may be presumed to have been too dry and
unentertaining for a man of his fertile and sprightly genius.
Indeed we should scarcely be surprised to find that he had
given no application to any study but poetry, nor attended
on any court but that of the Muses: our attention might
rather fix itself on the opposite extreme, and fill us with
admiration of the extreme assiduity of his genius and rapidity
of pen, when we consider the voluminousness of his works,
and the brief space allowed him for their composition ; works,
the execution of which might well have occupied a long
life. For although, out of fifty-three plays which are collected
together as the joint labours of these brother-authors, Beau¬
mont was concerned in much the greater part, yet he did not
live to complete his thirtieth year. He died in the beginning
B E A 533
of March 1616, on the ninth day of which he was interred Beaumont
in the entrance of St Benedict’s Chapel, in Westminster ai‘']i
Abbey. There is no inscription on his tomb ; but there are v e " wv‘y
two epitaphs to his memory, one by his elder brother Sir
John Beaumont, and the other by Bishop Corbet. He left
a daughter, Frances Beaumont, who died in Leicestershire
some time after the year 1700. She had in her possession
several poems of her father’s composition ; but these were
lost at sea in a voyage from Ireland, where she had lived for
some time in the Duke of Ormond’s family.
John Fletcher was not more meanly descended than his
poetical associate ; his father, the Rev. Dr Fletcher, having
first been made bishop of Bristol by Queen Elizabeth, and
afterwards by the same princess, in the year 1593, translated
to the rich see of London. The poet was born in 15 <6 ;
and, like his friend, was educated at Cambridge, where he
made great proficiency in his studies, and was accounted a
very good scholar. A natural vivacity of wit, for which he
was remarkable, soon rendered him a devotee of the Muses ;
and his close attention to their service, and fortunate con¬
nection with a genius equal to his own, soon raised him to
one of the highest places in the temple of poetical fame. As
he was born near ten years before Beaumont, so also he
survived him by an equal period; the plague, which broke
out in the year 1625, having carried him off in the forty-
ninth year of his age.
During the joint lives of these two great poets, it appears
that they wrote nothing separately, excepting one little
piece each, which seemed of too trivial a nature for either
to require assistance in, namely, The Faithful Shepherd, a
pastoral, by Fletcher; and The Masque of Grafs Inn
Gentlemen, by Beaumont. Yet what share each had in
the writing or designing of the pieces composed by them
jointly, there is no possibility of determining. It is however
generally allowed that Fletcher’s peculiar talent was wit,
and Beaumont’s, though much the younger man, judgment.
Nay, so extraordinary was the latter property in Beaumont,
that it is recorded of Ben Jonson, who seems to have been
by no means wanting in a good opinion of his own abilities,
that he constantly, during the lifetime of Beaumont, sub¬
mitted his own writings to his censure, and, as is thought,
availed himself of his judgment at least in the correction, if
not even in the contrivance of all his plots. It is probable,
therefore, that Beaumont’s share of the work generally con¬
sisted in forming the plots and contriving the conduct of
the fable, as well as writing the more serious and pathetic
parts, and lopping off the redundant branches of Fletcher’s
wit, whose luxuriance, it is said, stood frequently in need of
castigation. Fletcher, again, whose conversation with the
fashionable world (to which indeed both of them from their
birth and station in life had been ever accustomed), added
to the volatile and lively turn he possessed, rendered him per¬
fectly master of dialogue and polite language, probably exe¬
cuted the designs formed by the other, and raised the super¬
structure of those lively and spirited scenes of which Beau¬
mont had only laid the foundation. In this he was so suc¬
cessful, that although his wit and raillery were extremely
keen and poignant, yet they were at the same time so per¬
fectly polished, that they used rather to please than disgust
the very persons on whom they seemed to reflect. Yet that
Fletcher was not entirely excluded from a share in the con¬
duct of the drama, may be gathered from a story related by
Winstanley, that the two bards having concerted the rough
draught of a tragedy over a bottle of wine at a tavern, Flet¬
cher said he would undertake to “ kill the kingwhich
words being caught by the waiter, who had not overheard
the context of their conversation, he lodged an information
of treason against them. But on their explanation that it
only meant the compassing the death of a theatrical monarch,
and their loyalty being moreover unquestioned, the affair
ended in a jest.
534 B E A
Beaune The works of Beaumont and Fletcher, par nobile fra-
II trum, possess great and enduring merit; and some of their
Beauty, dramas deservedly stand on the list of the stock pieces of
the theatre. The plots are ingenious, interesting, and well
managed; the characters are strongly marked; and the
dialogue is sprightly and natural; yet there is in the latter
a coarseness which is not suitable to the politeness of the
present age, and a fondness for repartee, which frequently
runs into obscenity, and which we may suppose to have
been the vice of the time, since even fehakspeare himself is
not entirely free from it. But as these authors have more
of that kind of wit than the “ Swan of Avon,” it is not to be
wondered if, in the licentious reign of Charles II., their
works were preferred to his. Now, however, the tables are
entirely turned; and while Shakspeare s immortal works
form our constant and daily study, those of Beaumont and
Fletcher are only occasionally dipped into. Some of their
plays were printed in quarto during the lives of the authors ;
and in the year 1645 there was published in folio a collection
of such of their plays as had not been printed before, amount¬
ing to between thirty and forty. This collection was pub¬
lished after the shutting up of the theatres, by Shirley, and
dedicated to the Earl of Pembroke by ten of the most
famous actors. In 1679 there was an edition of all their
plays published in folio; and another appeared in 1711 by
Mr Tonson, in seven volumes 8vo. The finest edition is
that of Weber, in 14 vols. 8vo. Another edition, by Mr
Dyce, in 11 vols. 8vo, is worthy of mention.
BEAUNE, an arrondissement of the department of Cote
d’Or, in France, extending over 769 square miles, and com¬
prehending 10 cantons and 201 communes. Population
B E A
(1851) 124,206. The chief city, of the same name, is situ-Beaupreau
ated on the river Buozeoise, twenty-three miles S.S.W. of II
Dijon on the Paris and Lyons railway, in a district highly ^ Heaiity. ^
productive of the best Burgundy wine. Pop. (1851) 10,800.
BEAUPRfiAU, an arrondissement in the department of
the Maine and Loire, in France, extending over 629 square
miles, and containing 7 cantons and 75 communes. Pop.
121,375. The chief town, of the same name, is on the river
Evre, 27 miles S.W. of Angers. Pop. (1851) 3448.
BEAUSOBRE, Isaac de, a learned Protestant writer,
of French origin, was born at Niort in 1659. He was
forced into Holland to avoid the execution of a sentence
which condemned him to make the amende honorable for
having broken the royal signet, which was put upon the
door of a church of the reformers to prevent the public pro¬
fession of their religion. He went to Berlin in 1694, and
was made chaplain to the king of Prussia, and counsellor of
the royal consistory. He died in 1738, aged seventy-nine,
after having published several works, among which may be
mentioned, 1. Defense de la Doctrine des Reformes. 2. A
Translation of the New Testament, with Notes, jointly
with M. Lenfant; much esteemed among Protestants. 3.
Dissertation sur les Adamites de Boheme ; a curious work.
4. Histoire Critique de Manichee et du Manicheisme, 2 tom.
4to. This is a very learned and valuable work ; discussing,
as Gibbon observes, “ many deep questions of Pagan and
Christian theology, and forming a rich treasury of facts and
opinions.” 5. Several dissertations in the Bibliotheque Bri-
tannique. Beausobre had strong sense with profound eru¬
dition, and was one of the best writers of his time; and he
preached as he wrote, with spirit and ability.
BEAUTY,
That property in objects by which they ate recommend¬
ed to the power or faculty of taste—the reverse of ugliness
—the primary or more general object of love or admira¬
tion.
Necessary These, we confess, are rather explanations of the word
imperfee- than definitions of the thing it signifies ; and can be of no
tion of the value, even as explanations of the word, except only to
definition. tilose w}10 understand, without explanation, all the other
words they contain. For, if the curious inquirer should
proceed to ask, “ And what is the faculty or power of
taste ?” we do not see what other answer we could give,
than that it was that of which beauty was the object,
or by which we were enabled to discover and to relish
what was beautiful. It is material, however, to observe,
that if it could be made out, as some have alleged, that
our perception of beauty was a simple sensation, like
our perception of colour; and that taste was an original
and distinct sense, like that of seeing or hearing; this
would be truly the only definition that could be given,
either of the sense or of its object; and all that we could
do in investigating the nature of the latter, would be to
digest and enumerate the circumstances under which it
was found to present itself to its appropriate organ. All
that we can say of colour, if we consider it very strictly,
is, that it is that property in objects by which they are
recommended to the faculty of sight; and the faculty of
sight can scarcely be defined in any other way than as
that by which we are enabled to discover the existence
of colour. When we attempt to proceed farther, and say
that green is the colour of grass, and red of roses or blood,
it is plain that we do not in any respect explain the na¬
ture of those colours, but only give instances of their oc¬
currence ; and that one who had never seen them could
learn nothing whatever from these pretended definitions.
Complex ideas, on the other hand, and compound emo¬
tions, may be always defined, and explained to a certain
extent, by enumerating the parts of which they are made
up, or resolving them into the elements of which they are
composed; and we may thus acquire not only a substan¬
tial knowledge of their nature, but a practical power in
their regulation or production.
It becomes of importance, therefore, in the very outset State of
of this inquiry, to consider whether our sense of beauty be the ques*
really a simple sensation, like some of those we have enu-tl0n*
merated, or a compound or derivative feeling, the sources
or elements of which may be investigated and ascertained.
If it be the former, we have then only to refer it to the
peculiar sense or faculty of which it is the object, and to
determine, by repeated observation, under what circum¬
stances it occurs; but, if it be the latter, we have to pro¬
ceed, by a joint process of observation and reflection, to
ascertain what are the primary feelings to which it may
be referred, and by what peculiar modification of them it
is produced and distinguished. We are not quite pre¬
pared as yet to exhaust the whole of this important dis¬
cussion, to which we shall be obliged to return in the se¬
quel of our inquiry; but it is necessary, in order to ex¬
plain and to set forth, in their natural order, the difficul¬
ties with which the subject is surrounded, to state here, in
a very few words, one or two of the most obvious, and, as
we think, decisive objections against the notion of beauty
being a simple sensation, or the object of a separate and
peculiar faculty.
The first, and perhaps the most considerable, is the want
of agreement as to the presence and existence of beauty
in particular objects, among men whose organization is
perfect, and who are plainly possessed of the faculty,
whatever it may be, by which beauty is discerned. Now,
beauty.
Beauty, no such thing happens, we imagine, or can be conceived to
happen, in the case of any other simple sensation, or the
First rea- exercise of any other distinct faculty. Where one man sees
son against light, all men who have eyes see light also. All men allow
of beauty11 grass green> and sugar to be sweet, and ice to be cold;
being a pe-an(l unavoidable inference from any apparent disagree-
culiar qua-ment in such matters necessarily is, that the party is insane,
lity, and or entirely destitute of the sense or organ concerned in the
the object perception. With regard to beauty, however, it is obvious
°.{ a at first sight that the case is quite different. One man
or faculty. sees ^ perpetually, where to another it is quite invisible,
or even where its reverse seems to be conspicuous. Nor
is this owing to the insensibility of either of the parties;
for the same contrariety exists where both are keenly alive
to the influences of the beauty they respectively discern.
A Chinese or African lover would probably see nothing at
all attractive in a belle of London or Paris: and, undoubt¬
edly, an elegans formarum spectator from either of these
cities would discover nothing but deformity in the Venus
of the Hottentots. A little distance in time produces the
same effects as distance in place: the gardens, the furni¬
ture, the dress, which appeared beautiful in the eyes of
our grandfathers, are odious and ridiculous in ours. Nay,
the difference of rank, education, or employments, gives
rise to the same diversity of sensation. The little shop¬
keeper sees a beauty in his roadside box, and in the star¬
ing tile roof, wooden lions, and clipped boxwood, which
strike horror into the soul of the student of the picturesque;
whilst he is transported in surveying the fragments of
ancient sculpture, which are nothing but ugly masses of
mouldering stone in the judgment of the admirer of neat¬
ness. It is needless, however, to multiply instances, since
the fact admits of no contradiction. But how can we be¬
lieve that beauty is the object of a peculiar sense or fa¬
culty, when persons undoubtedly possessed of the faculty,
and even in an eminent degree, can discover nothing of it
in objects where it is distinctly felt and perceived by
others with the same use of the faculty ? This one con¬
sideration, we confess, appears to us conclusive against the
supposition of beauty being a real property of objects, ad¬
dressing itself to the power of taste as a separate sense
or faculty, and seems to point irresistibly to the conclu¬
sion, that our sense of it is the result of other more ele •
mentary feelings, into which it may be analyzed or re¬
solved.
Second A second objection, however, if possible of still greater
reason. force, is suggested by considering the prodigious and al¬
most infinite variety of things to which this property of
beauty is ascribed, and the impossibility of imagining any
one inherent quality which can belong to them all, and
yet at the same time possess so much unity as to be the
peculiar object of a separate sense or faculty. All simple
qualities that are perceived in any one object are imme¬
diately recognised to be the same when they are again per¬
ceived in another; and the objects in which they are thus
perceived are at once felt so far to resemble each other,
and to partake of the same nature. Thus snow is seen to
be white, and chalk is seen to be white; but this is no
sooner seen than the two substances, however unlike in
other respects, are felt at once to have this quality in
common, and to resemble each other in all that relates to
the quality of colour and the sense of seeing. Now, is
this felt, or could it even be intelligibly asserted, with re¬
gard to the quality of beauty ? Take even a limited and
specific sort of beauty,—for instance the beauty of form.
The form of a fine tree is beautiful,—and the form ot a
fine woman,—and the form of a column, and a vase, and
a chandelier. Yet how can it be said that the form of a
woman has any thing in common with that of a tree or
a temple ? or to which of the senses by which forms are
535
distinguished, does it appear they have any resemblance Beauty,
or affinity ?
The matter, however, becomes still more inextricable
when we recollect that beauty does not belong merely to
forms or colours, but to sounds, and perhaps to the objects
of other senses; nay, that in all languages and in all na¬
tions, it is not supposed to reside exclusively in material
objects, but to belong also to sentiments and ideas, and
intellectual and moral existences. Not only is a tree beau¬
tiful, as well as a palace or a waterfall; but a poem is beau¬
tiful, and a theorem in mathematics, and a contrivance
in mechanics. But if things intellectual and totally segre¬
gated from matter may thus possess beauty, how can it
possibly be a quality of material objects ? Or what sense
or faculty can that be, whose proper office it is to intimate
to us the existence of some property which is common to
a flower and a demonstration, a valley and an eloquent dis¬
course ?
The only answer which occurs to this is plainly enough Agrcealk-
a bad one ; but the statement of it, and of its inefficiency,”^' of thf
will serve better, perhaps, than any thing else to develope
the actual difficulties of the subject, and the true state oftheir'com_
the question with regard to them. It may be said, then, mon qua-
in answer to the questions we have suggested above, that lity.
all these objects, however various and dissimilar, agree at
least in being agreeable ; and that this agreeableness, which
is the only quality they possess in common, may probably
be the beautv which is ascribed to them all. Now, to
those who are accustomed to such discussions, it would be
quite enough to reply, that though the agreeableness of
such objects depends plainly enough upon their beauty, it
by no means follows, but quite the contrary, that their
beauty depends upon their agreeableness; the latter be¬
ing the more comprehensive or generic term, under which
beauty must rank as one of the species. Its nature, there¬
fore, is no more explained, nor is less absurdity substan¬
tially committed, by saying that things are beautiful be¬
cause they are agreeable, than if we were to give the
same explanation of the sweetness of sugar; for no one,
we suppose, will dispute, that though it be very true that
sugar is agreeable because it is sweet, it would be mani¬
festly preposterous to say that it was sweet because it was
agreeable. For the benefit, however, of those who wish or
require to be more regularly initiated in these mysteries,
we beg leave to add a few observations.
In the first place, then, it seems evident that agree¬
ableness in general cannot be the same with beauty, be¬
cause there are very many things in the highest degree
agreeable that can in no sense be called beautiful. Mo¬
derate heat, and savoury food, and rest, and exercise, are
agreeable to the body; but none of these can be called
beautiful: and, among objects of a higher class, the love
and esteem of others, and fame, and a good conscience,
and health, and riches, and wisdom, are all eminently
agreeable; but not at all beautiful, according to any in¬
telligible use of the word. It is plainly quite absurd,
therefore, to say that beauty consists in agreeableness,
without specifying in consequence of what it is agree¬
able ; or to hold that any thing whatever is taught as to
its nature, by merely classing it among our pleasurable
emotions.
In the second place, however, we may remark, that among
all the objects that are agreeable, whether they are also
beautiful or not, scarcely any two are agreeable on account
of the same qualities, or even suggest their agreeableness
to the same faculty or organ. Most certainly there is no
resemblance or affinity whatever between the qualities
which make a peach agreeable to the palate, and a beau¬
tiful statue to the eye; which soothe us in an easy chair
by the fire, or delight us in a philosophical discovery.
536
BEAUTY.
Beauty. The truth is, that agreeableness is not properly a quality
we take to be the true solution of the difficulty. In our Beauty,
opinion, then, our sense of beauty depends entirely on our
tain qualities, the nature of which we can generally define previous experience of simpler pleasures or emotions, anc^ nronosed,
pretty exactly, or of which we know at least with cer- consists in the suggestion of agreeable or interesting sen-
tainty that they manifest themselves respectively to some sations with which we had formerly been familiar by the
one particular sense or faculty, and to no other ; and direct and intelligible agency of our common sensibilities;
consequently it would be just as obviously ridiculous to and that vast variety of objects, to which we give the
suppose a faculty or organ, whose office it was to perceive common name of beautiful, become entitled to that ap-
agreeableness, as to suppose that agreeableness was a dis- pellation, merely because they all possess the power of
tinct quality that could thus be perceived. recalling or reflecting those sensations of which they have
The class of agreeable objects, thanks to the bounty been the accompaniments, or with which they have been
op jg exceedingly large. Certain things are associated in our imagination by any othei more casual
agreeable to the palate, and others to the smell and to the bond of connection. According to this view of the mat-
touch. Some, again, are agreeable to our faculty of ima- ter, therefore, beauty is not an inheient property or qua-
gination, to our understanding, or to our moral feelings; lity of objects at all, but the result of the accidental rela-
and none of all these we call beautiful. But there are tions in which they may stand to our experience of plea-
others which we do call beautiful; and those we say are sures or emotions,—and does not depend upon any parti-
agreeable to our faculty of taste: yet when we come to cular configuration of parts, proportions, or colours, in
ask what is the faculty of taste, and what are the quali- external things, nor upon the unity, coherence, or simpli-
ties which recommend them to that faculty, we find our- city of intellectual creations, but merely upon the asso-
selves just where we were at the beginning of the discus- ciations which, in the case of every individual, may enable
sion, and embarrassed with all the difficulties arising from these inherent, and othei wise indifferent qualities, to sug-
the prodigious diversity of objects which seem to possess gest or recall to the mind emotions of a pleasurable or in-
these qualities. teresting description. It follows, therefore, that no object
We know pretty well what is the faculty of seeing or is beautiful in itself, or could appear so, antecedently to
hearing ; or, at least, we know that what is agreeable to our experience of direct pleasures or emotions; and that,
one of those faculties, has no effect whatever on the other, as an infinite variety of objects may thus reflect interest-
We know that bright colours afford no delight to the ear, ing ideas, so all of them may acquire the title of beauti-
nor sweet tones to the eye ; and are therefore perfectly ful, although utterly diverse and disparate in their nature,
assured that the qualities which make the visible objects and possessing nothing in common but this accidental
agreeable, cannot be the same with those which give power of reminding us of other emotions,
pleasure to the ear. But it is by the eye and by the ear This theory, which we believe is now very generally
that all material beauty is perceived ; and yet the beauty adopted, though under many needless qualifications, shall
which discloses itself to these two separate senses, and be further developed and illustrated in the sequel. But
plainly depends upon qualities which have no sort of affi- at present we shall only remark, that it serves at least
nity, is supposed to be one distinct quality, and to be per- to solve the great problem involved in the discussion, by
ceived by a peculiar sense or faculty! The perplexity rendering it easily conceivable how objects which have no
becomes still greater when we think of the beauty of inherent resemblance, nor indeed any one quality in corn-
poems or theorems, and endeavour to imagine what quali- mon, should yet be united in one common relation, and
ties they can possess in common with the agreeable mo- consequently acquire one common epithet, just as all the
difications of light or of sound. things that belonged to a beloved individual may serve
It is in these considerations undoubtedly that the diffi- to remind us of him, and thus to awake a kindred class of
culty of the subject consists. The faculty of taste, plain- emotions, though just as unlike each other as any of the
- . ly, is not a faculty, like any of the external senses, the objects that are classed under the general name of beau-
the subject fa e wjlose is limited and precise, as well as tiful. His poetry, for instance, or his slippers, his acts of
co!1 the qualities by which they are gratified or offended; bounty, or his saddle-horse, may lead to the same chain
and beauty, accordingly, is discovered in an infinite vari- of interesting remembrances, and thus agree in possessing
ety of objects, among which it seems at first sight im- a power of excitement, for the sources of which we should
possible to discover any other bond of connection. Yet look in vain through all the variety ot their physical or
boundless as their diversity may appear, it is plain that metaphysical qualities.
they must resemble each other in something, and in some- By the help of the same consideration, we get rid of
thing more definite and definable than in merely being all the mystery of a peculiar sense or faculty, imagined
agreeable; since they are all classed together, in every for the express purpose of perceiving beauty; and dis-
tongue and nation, under the common appellation of beau- cover that the power of taste is nothing more than the
tiful, and are felt indeed to produce emotions in the mind habit of tracing those associations, by which almost all
that have some sort of kindred or affinity. The words objects may be connected with interesting emotions. It
beauty and beautiful, in short, must mean something, and is easy to understand, that the recollection of any scene
are universally felt to mean something, much more defi- of delight or emotion must produce a certain agreeable
nite than agreeableness or gratification in general; and sensation, and that the objects which introduce these re¬
while it is confessedly by no means easy to describe or collections should not appear altogether indifferent to us:
define what that something is, the force and clearness of nor is it, perhaps, very difficult to imagine, that recollec-
our perception of it is demonstrated by the readiness with tions thus strikingly suggested by some real and present
which we determine, in any particular instance, whether existence should present themselves under a different
the object of a given pleasurable emotion is or is not pro- aspect, and move the mind somewhat differently frorn
perly described as beauty. those which arise spontaneously in the ordinary^ course of
What we have already said, we confess, appears to us
conclusive against the idea of this beauty being any fixed
or inherent property of the objects to which it is ascribed,
or itself the object of any separate and independent facul¬
ty ; and we will no longer conceal from the reader what
In what
the diffi-
cultv of
our reflections, and do not thus grow out of a direct and
peculiar impression.
The whole of this doctrine, however, we shall endea¬
vour by and by to establish upon more direct evidence;
but having now explained, in a general way, both the
BEAUTY.
537
Beauty.
Yiewofthe
theories
proposed
on the sub¬
ject.
Specula¬
tions of
Plato.
|
difficulties of the subject, and our suggestion as to their
true solution, it is proper that we should take a short re¬
view of the more considerable theories that have been
proposed for the elucidation of this curious question;
which is one of the most delicate, as well as the most
popular, in the science of metaphysics,—was one of the
earliest which exercised the speculative ingenuity of phi¬
losophers,—and has at last, we think, been more success¬
fully treated than any other of a similar description.
In most of these speculations we shall find rather im¬
perfect truth than fundamental error,—or, at all events,
such errors only as arise naturally from that peculiar dif¬
ficulty which we have already endeavoured to explain, as
consisting in the prodigious multitude and diversity of the
objects in which the common quality of beauty was to be
accounted for. Those who have not been sufficiently
aware of the difficulty have generally dogmatized from a
small number of instances, and have rather given examples
of the occurrence of beauty in some few classes of objects,
than afforded any light as to that upon which it essenti¬
ally depended in all; whilst those who felt its full force
have very often found no other resource than to repre¬
sent beauty as consisting in properties so extremely vague
and general (such, for example, as the power of exciting
ideas of relation), as almost to elude our comprehension,
and, at the same time, of so abstract and metaphysical a
description, as not to be very intelligibly stated as the
radicals of a strong, familiar, and pleasurable emotion.
This last observation leads us to make one other remark
upon the general character of these theories; and this is,
that some of them seem necessarily to imply the existence
of a peculiar sense or faculty for the perception of beauty,
as they resolve it into properties that are not in any way
interesting or agreeable to any of our known faculties.
Such are all those which make it consist in proportion,—
or in variety, combined with regularity,—or in waving
lines,—or in unity,—or in the perception of relations,—
without explaining, or attempting to explain, how any of
these things should affect us with any delight or emotion.
Others, again, do not require the supposition of any such
separate faculty; because in them the sense of beauty is
considered as arising from other more simple and familiar
emotions, which are in themselves and beyond all dispute
agreeable. Such are those which teach that beauty de¬
pends on the perception of utility, or of design, or of fit¬
ness, or in tracing associations between its objects and
the common joys or emotions of our nature. Which of
these two classes of speculation (to one or other of which,
we believe, all theories of beauty may be reduced) is the
most philosophical in itself, we imagine can admit of no
question; and we hope, in the sequel, to leave it as little
doubtful, which is to be considered as most consistent
with the fact. In the meantime, we must give a short
account of some of the theories themselves.
The most ancient of which it seems necessary to take
any notice, is that which may be traced in the Dialogues
of Plato,—though we are very far from pretending that it
is possible to give any intelligible or consistent account of
its tenor It should never be forgotten, however, that it
is to this subtile and ingenious spirit that we owe the
suggestion that it is Mind alone that is beautiful; and
that, in perceiving beauty, it only contemplates the sha¬
dow of its own affections;—a doctrine which, however
mystically unfolded in his writings, or however combined
with extravagant or absurd speculations, unquestionably
carries in it the germ of all the truth that has since been
revealed on the subject. By far the largest dissertation,
however, that this great philosopher has left upon the na¬
ture of beauty, is to be found in the dialogue entitled The
Greater Hippicos, which is entirely devoted to that inquiry.
VOL. rv.
We do not learn a great deal of the author’s own opinion, Beauty,
indeed, from this performance; for it is one of the dia-
logues which have been termed anatreptic or confuting,—
in which nothing is concluded in the affirmative, but a
series of sophistical suggestions or hypotheses are succes¬
sively exposed. The plan of it is to lead on Hippias, a
shallow and confident sophist, to make a variety of dog¬
matical assertions as to the nature of beauty, and then to
make him retract and abandon them upon the statement
of some obvious objections. Socrates and he agree at first
in the notable proposition, “ that beauty is that by which
all beautiful things are beautifuland then, after a great
number of suggestions, by far too childish and absurd to
be worthy of any notice, such as, that the beautiful may
peradventure be gold, or a fine woman, or a handsome
mare, they at last get to some suppositions, which show
that almost all the theories that have since been pro¬
pounded on this interesting subject, had occurred thus
early to the active and original mind of this keen and cu¬
rious inquirer. Thus Socrates first suggests that beauty
may consist in the fitness or suitableness of any object
to the place it occupies; and afterwards more generally
and directly, that it may consist in utility; a notion which
is ultimately rejected, however, upon the subtile considera¬
tion that the useful is that which produces good, and that
the producer and the product being necessarily different, it
would follow, upon that supposition, that beauty could not
be good, nor good beautiful. Finally, he suggests, that
beauty may be the mere organic delight of the eye or the
ear,—to which, after stating very slightly the objection,
that it would be impossible to account upon this ground
for the beauty of poetry or eloquence, he proceeds to
rear up a more refined and elaborate refutation, upon such
grounds as these: If beauty be the proper name of that
which is naturally agreeable to the sight and hearing, it
is plain that the objects to which it is ascribed must pos¬
sess some common and distinguishable property besides
that of being agreeable, in consequence of which they are
separated and set apart from objects that are agreeable
to our other senses and faculties, and, at the same time,
classed together under the common appellation of beauti¬
ful. Now we are not only quite unable to discover what
this property is, but it is manifest that objects which
make themselves known to the ear can have no property
as such in common with objects that make themselves
known to the eye ; it being impossible that an object which
is beautiful by its colour, can be beautiful from the same
quality with another which is beautiful by its sound.
From all which it is inferred, that, as beauty is admitted
to be something real, it cannot be merely what is agree¬
able to the organs of sight or hearing.
There is no practical wisdom, we admit, in those fine¬
drawn speculations; nor any of that spirit of patient ob¬
servation by which alone any sound view of such objects
can ever be attained. There are also many marks of that
singular incapacity to distinguish between what is abso¬
lutely puerile and silly, and what is plausible, at least,
and ingenious, which may be reckoned among the cha¬
racteristics of “ the divine philosopher,” and in some de¬
gree of all the philosophers of antiquity: but they show
clearly enough the subtile and abstract character of Greek
speculation, and prove at how early a period, and to how
great an extent, the inherent difficulties of the subject
were felt, and produced their appropriate effects.
There are some hints on these subjects in the works of
Xenophon, and some scattered observations in those of
Cicero, who was the first, we believe, to observe that the
sense of beauty is peculiar to man; but nothing else, we
believe, in classical antiquity which requires to be analyzed
or explained. It appears that St Augustin composed a
3 Y
538
BEAUTY.
Beautv.
dr^;
large treatise on beauty, and it is to be lamented that the
speculations of that acute and ardent genius on such a
Doctrine of su|5ject imve been iost. We discover, from incidental
St Angus- notjces jn other parts of his writings, that he conceived
the beauty of all objects to depend on their unity, or on the
perception of the principle or design which fixed the re¬
lations of their various parts, and presented them to the
intellect or imagination as one harmonious whole. It
would not be fair to deal very strictly with a theory with
which we are so imperfectly acquainted: but it may be
observed, that, while the author is so far in the light as
to make beauty consist in a relation to mind, and not in
any physical quality, he has taken far too narrow and cir¬
cumscribed a view of the matter, and one which seems
almost exclusively applicable to works of human art; it
being plain enough, we think, that a beautiful landscape,
or a beautiful horse, has no more unity, and no more tiaces
of design, than one which is not beautiful.
We do not pretend to know what the schoolmen taught
upon this subject during the dark ages, but the discussion
does not seem to have been resumed for long after the re¬
vival of letters. The followers of Leibnitz were pleased
to maintain that beauty consisted in perfection ; but what
constituted perfection they did not attempt to define. M.
Opinions Crouzas wrote a long essay to show that beauty depend-
of Crouzas ed on these five elements, variety, unity, regularity, order,
and An- an(j proportion; and the Pere Andre, a still longer one
to prove, that, admitting these to be the true foundations
of beauty, it was still most important to consider, that the
beauty which results from them is either essential, or na¬
tural, or artificial, and that it may be greater or less, ac¬
cording as the characteristics of each of these classes are
combined or set in opposition.
Among ourselves we are not aware of any considerable
publication on the subject till the appearance of Lord
Shaftesbury’s Characteristics, in which a sort of rapturous
Platonic doctrine is delivered as to the existence of a pri¬
mitive and supreme good and beauty, and of a certain in¬
ternal sense, by which both beauty and moral merit were
distinguished. Addison published several ingenious pa¬
pers in The Spectator on the pleasures of the imagination,
and was the first, we believe, who referred them to the
specific sources of beauty, sublimity, and novelty. He
did not enter much, however, into the metaphysical dis-
Dr Ffuche- cussion of the nature of beauty itself; and the first philo-
son’s doc- sophical treatise of note that appeared on the subject may
trine. sa}d to have been the Inquiry of Dr Hutcheson, first
published, we believe, in 1725.
In this work the notion of a peculiar internal sense, by
which we are made sensible of the existence of beauty, is
very boldly promulgated, and maintained by many inge¬
nious arguments. Yet nothing, we conceive, can be more
extravagant than such a proposition ; and nothing but the
radical faults of the other parts of the hypothesis could
possibly have driven the learned author to its adoption.
Even after the existence of this sixth sense was assumed,
he felt that it was still necessary that he should explain
what were the qualities by which it was gratified, and
these, he was pleased to allege, were nothing but the
combinations of variety with uniformity; all objects, as he
has himself expressed it, which are equally uniform being
beautiful in proportion to their variety, and all objects
equally various being beautiful in proportion to their uni¬
formity. Now, not to insist upon the obvious and radical
objection that this is not true in fact, as to flowers, land¬
scapes, or indeed of any thing but architecture, if it be
true of that, it could not fail to strike the ingenious au¬
thor that these qualities of uniformity and variety were
not of themselves agreeable to any of our known senses
or faculties, except when considered as symbols of utility
of Lord
Shaft es-
burv;
of Addi¬
son.
or design, and therefore could not intelligibly account for Beauty,
the very lively emotions which we often experience from
the perception of beauty, where the notion of design or
utility was not at all suggested. He was constrained,
therefore, either to abandon this view of the nature of
beauty altogether, or to imagine a new sense or faculty,
whose characteristic and description it should be to re¬
ceive delight from the combinations of uniformity and
variety, without any consideration of their being signifi¬
cant of things agreeable to our faculties; and this being
accomplished by the mere force of the assumption and the
definition, there was no room for further dispute or diffi¬
culty in the matter. .
Some of Hutcheson’s followers, such as Gerard and Attempts ;;
others, who were a little startled at the notion of a sepa- to resolve :
rate faculty, and yet wished to retain the doctrine
beauty depending on variety and uniformity, endeavoured,
accordingly, to show that these qualities were naturally ty-
agreeable to the mind, and were recommended by consi¬
derations arising from its most familiar properties. Uni¬
formity or simplicity, it is said, renders our conception of
objects easy, and saves the mind from all fatigue and dis¬
traction in the consideration of them; whilst variety, if
circumscribed and limited by an ultimate uniformity,
gives it a pleasing exercise and excitement, and keeps its
energies in a state of pleasurable activity. Now this ap¬
pears to us to be mere trifling. The varied and lively
emotions which we receive from the perception of beauty
obviously have no sort of resemblance to the pleasure of
moderate.intellectual exertion ; nor can any thing be con¬
ceived more utterly dissimilar than the gratification we
have in gazing on the form of a lovely woman, and the
satisfaction we receive from working an easy problem in
arithmetic or geometry. If a triangle is more beautiful
than a regular polygon, as those authors maintain, merely
because its figure is more easily comprehended, the num¬
bershould be more beautiful than the number three
hundred and twenty-seven, and the form of a gibbet far
more agreeable than that of a branching oak. The radi¬
cal error, in short, consists in fixing upon properties that
are not interesting in themselves, and can never be con¬
ceived, therefore, to excite any emotion, as the fountain¬
spring of all our emotions of beauty; and it is an absur¬
dity that must infallibly lead to others,—whether these
take the shape of a violent attempt to disguise the truly
indifferent nature of the properties so selected, or of the
bolder expedient of creating a peculiar faculty, whose of¬
fice it is to find them interesting. I
The next remarkable theory was that proposed by Ed- Theory of
mund Burke, in his Treatise of the Sublime and Beautiful. Burke.
But of this, in spite of the great name of the author, we
cannot persuade ourselves that it is necessary to say much.
His explanation is founded upon a species of materialism,
—not much to have been expected from the general cha¬
racter of his genius, or the strain of his other specula¬
tions,—for it resolves entirely into this, that all objects
appear beautiful which have the power of producing a pe¬
culiar relaxation of our nerves and fibres, and thus indu¬
cing a certain degree of bodily langour and sinking. Of
all the suppositions that have been at any time hazarded
to explain the phenomena of beauty, this, we think, is the
most unfortunate, and the most weakly supported. There
is no philosophy in the doctrine; and the fundamental
assumption is in every way contradicted by the most fa¬
miliar experience. There is no relaxation of the fibres in
the perception of beauty, and there is no pleasure in the
relaxation of the fibres. If there were, it would follow
that a warm bath would be by far the most beautiful thing
in the world, and that the brilliant lights and bracing N
airs of a fine autumn morning would be the very reverse
BEAUTY.
539
Beauty of beautiful. Accordingly, though the treatise alluded
to will always be valuable on account of the many fine
and just remarks it contains, we are not aware that there
is any accurate inquirer into the subject (with the excep¬
tion, perhaps, of Mr Price, in whose hands, however, the
doctrine assumes a new character), by whom the funda¬
mental principle of the theory has not been explicitly
abandoned.
Theory of A yet more extravagant doctrine was soon afterwards
jiderot. inculcated, and in a tone of great authority, in a long
article from the brilliant pen of Diderot, in the French
Encyclopedic, and one which exemplifies, in a very striking
manner, the nature of the difficulties with which the dis¬
cussion is embarrassed. This ingenious person, perceiv¬
ing at once that the beauty which we ascribe to a parti¬
cular class of objects could not be referred to any peculiar
and inherent quality in the objects themselves, but de¬
pended upon their power of exciting certain sentiments
f in our minds,—and being, at the same time, at a loss to
discover what common power could belong to so vast a
variety of objects as pass under the general appellation of
beautiful, or by what tie all the various emotions which
are excited by the perception of beauty could be united,—
was at last driven, by his sense of the necessity of keeping
his definition sufficiently wide and comprehensive, to ha¬
zard the strange assertion, that all objects were beautiful
which excite in us the idea of relation ; that our sense of
beauty consisted in tracing out the relations which the
object possessing it might have to other objects ; and that
its beauty was in proportion to the number and clearness
of the relations thus suggested and perceived. It is
scarcely necessary, we presume, to expose by any argu¬
ments the manifest fallacy, or rather the palpable absur¬
dity, of such a theory as this. In the first place, we con¬
ceive it to be obvious, that all objects whatever have an
infinite, and consequently an equal number of relations,
and are equally likely to suggest them to those to whom
they are presented: at all events, it is certain that ugly
and disagreeable objects have just as many relations as
those that are agreeable, and ought, therefore, to be just
as beautiful, if the sense of beauty consists in the percep¬
tion of relations. In the next place, it seems to be suffi¬
ciently certain, from the experience and common feelings
of all men, that the perception of relations among objects
is not in itself accompanied by any pleasure whatever, and
in particular has no conceivable resemblance to the emo¬
tion we receive from the perception of beauty. When we
perceive one ugly old woman sitting exactly opposite to
two other ugly old women, and observe at the same mo¬
ment that the first is as big as the other two taken to¬
gether, we humbly conceive that this clear perception of
the relations in which these three graces stand to each
other cannot well be mistaken for a sense of beauty, and
that it does not in the least abate or interfere with our
sense of their ugliness. Finally, we may observe, that the
sense of beauty results instantaneously from the percep¬
tion of the object; whereas the discovery of its relations
to other objects must necessarily be a work of time and
reflection, in the course of which the beauty of the object,
so far from being created or brought into notice, must, in
fact, be lost sight of and forgotten.
Theory of Another more plausible and ingenious theory was sug-
Father gested by the Pere Buffier, and afterwards adopted and
Buffierand illustrated with great talent in the Discourses of Sir Jo-
Iteynold 8hua Reynolds. According to this doctrine, beauty con-
s‘ sists, as Aristotle held virtue to do, in mediocrity, or con¬
formity to that which was most usual. Thus a beautiful
nose, to make use of Dr Smith’s very apt illustration of
this doctrine, is one that is neither very long nor very
short, very straight nor very much bent, but of an or¬
dinary form and proportion compared with all the ex- Beauty,
tremes. It is the form, in short, which nature seems to
have aimed at in all cases, though she has more frequent¬
ly deviated from it than hit it; but deviating from it in all
directions, all her deviations come nearer to it than they
ever do to each other. Thus the most beautiful in every
species of creatures bears the greatest resemblance to the
whole species, while monsters are so denominated because
they bear the least; and thus the beautiful, though in
one sense the rarest, as the exact medium is but seldom
hit, is invariably the most common, because it is the cen¬
tral point from which all the deviations are the least re¬
mote. This view of the matter is adopted by Sir Joshua
in its full extent, and is even carried so far by this great
artist, that he does not scruple to conclude, “ That if we
were more used to deformity than beauty, deformity
would then lose the idea that is now annexed to it, and
take that of beauty just as we approve and admire fa¬
shions in dress, for no other reason than that we are used
to them.”
Now, not to dwell upon the very startling conclusion
to which these principles must lead, viz. that things are
beautiful in proportion as they are ordinary, and that it
is merely their familiarity which constitutes their beauty,
we would observe, in the first place, that the whole theory
seems to have been suggested by a consideration of ani¬
mal forms, or perhaps of the human figure exclusively.
In these forms, it is quite true that great and monstrous
deviations from the usual proportions are extremely dis¬
agreeable. But this, we have no doubt, arises entirely
from some idea of pain or disaster attached to their exist¬
ence, or from their obvious unfitness for the functions they
have to perform. In vegetable forms, accordingly, these
irregularities excite no such disgust; it being, in fact, the
great object of culture, in almost all the more beautiful
kinds, to produce what may be called monstrosities. And,
in mineral substances, where the idea of suffering is still
more completely excluded, it is notorious that, so far from
the more ordinary configurations being thought the most
beautiful, this epithet is scarcely ever employed but to
denote some rare and unusual combination of veins, co¬
lours, or dimensions. As to landscapes, again, and almost
all the works of art, without exception, the theory is
plainly altogether incapable of application. In what sense,
for example, can it be said that the beauty of natural
scenery consists in mediocrity; or that these landscapes
are the most beautiful that are the most common? or
what meaning can we attach to the proposition, that the
most beautiful building, or picture, or poem, is that which
bears the nearest resemblance to all the individuals of
its class, and is, upon the whole, the most ordinary and
common ?
To a doctrine which is liable to these obvious and radi¬
cal objections, it is not perhaps necessary to make any
other; but we must remark further, jirst, That it neces¬
sarily supposes that our sense of beauty is, in all cases,
preceded by such a large comparison between various in¬
dividuals of the same species, as may enable us to ascer¬
tain that average or mean form in which beauty is suppos¬
ed to consist, and, consequently, that we could never dis¬
cover any object to be beautiful antecedently to such a
comparison ; and, secondly. That, even if we were to allow
that this theory afforded some explanation of the superior
beauty of any one object compared with others of the
same class, it plainly furnishes no explanation whatever of
the superior beauty of one class of objects compared with
another. We may believe, if we please, that one peacock
is handsomer than another because it approaches more
nearly to the average or mean form of peacocks in gene¬
ral ; but this reason will avail us nothing whatever in ex-
540
BEAUTY.
Beauty.
Opinions
of Dr Ge¬
rard, Dr
Blair, &c.
Later and
more im¬
portant
specula¬
tions.
Alison’s
theory.
plaining why any peacock is handsomer than any pelican
or penguin. We may say, without manifest absurdity,
that the most beautiful pig is that which has least of the
extreme qualities that sometimes occur in the tribe ; but
it would be palpably absurd to give this reason, or any
thing like it, for the superior beauty of the tribe of ante¬
lopes or spaniels.
The notion, in short, seems to have been hastily adopt¬
ed by the ingenious persons who have maintained it, partly
upon the narrow ground of the disgust produced by
monsters in the animal creation, which has been already
sufficiently explained,—and partly in consequence of the
fallacy which lurks in the vague and general proposition
of those things being beautiful which are neither too big
nor too little, too massive nor too slender, &c.; from which
it was concluded that beauty must consist in mediocrity:—
not considering that the particle too merely denotes those
degrees which are exclusive of beauty, without in any way
fixing what those degrees are. For the plain meaning of
these phrases is, that the rejected objects are too massive or
too slender to be beautiful; and, therefore, to say that an ob¬
ject is beautiful which is neither too big nor too little, &c.
is really saying nothing more than that beautiful objects
are such as are not in any degree ugly or disagreeable.
The illustration as to the effects of use or custom in the
article of dress is singularly inaccurate and delusive ; the
fact being, that we never admire the dress which we are
most accustomed to see,—which is that of the common
people,—but the dress of the few who are distinguished
by rank or opulence ; and that we require no more custom
or habit to make us admire this dress, whatever it may
be, than is necessary to associate it in our thoughts with
the wealth and dignity of those who wear it.
We need say nothing in this place of the opinions ex¬
pressed on the subject of beauty by Dr Gerard, Dr Blair,
and a whole herd of rhetoricians, because none of them
pretend to have any new or original notions with regard
to it, and, in general, have been at no pains to reconcile
or render consistent the various accounts of the matter
which they have contented themselves with assembling
and laying before their readers altogether, as affording
among them the best explanation that could be offered of
the question. Thus they do not scruple to say, that the
sense of beauty is sometimes produced by the mere or¬
ganic affection of the senses of sight or hearing; at other
times by a perception of a kind of regular variety ; and
in other instances by the association of interesting con¬
ceptions ;—thus abandoning altogether any attempt to
answer the radical question, how the feeling of beauty
should be excited by such opposite causes,—and con¬
founding together, without any attempt at discrimination,
those theories which imply the existence of a separate
sense or faculty, and those which resolve our sense of
beauty into other more simple or familiar emotions.
More recently, however, we have had three publications
on the subject, of a far higher character,—we mean Mr
Alison’s Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, Mr
Payne Knight’s Analytical Inquiry into the same objects,
and Mr Dugald Stewart’s Dissertations on the Beautiful,
and on Taste, in his volume of Philosophical Essays. All
these works possess an infinite deal of merit, and have
among them disclosed almost all the truth that is to be
known on the subject; though, as it seems to us, with
some little admixture of error, from which it will not, how¬
ever, be difficult to separate it.
Mr Alison maintains, that all beauty, or at least that
all the beauty of material objects, depends on the associa¬
tions that may have connected them with the ordinary
affections or emotions of our nature; and in this, which
is the fundamental point of his theory, we conceive him to
be no less clearly right, than he is convincing and judici- Beauty
ous in the copious and beautiful illustration by which he
has sought to establish its truth. When he proceeds,
however, to assert that our sense of beauty consists not
merely in the suggestion of ideas of emotion, but in the
contemplation of a connected series of such ideas, and in¬
dicates a state of mind in which the faculties, half active
and half passive, are given up to a sort of reverie or mus¬
ing, in which they may wander, though among kindred
impressions, far enough from the immediate object of
perception, we will confess that he not only seems to us
to advance a very questionable proposition, but very es¬
sentially to endanger the evidence, as well as the consist¬
ency, of his general doctrine. We are far from denying,
that, in minds of sensibility and of reflecting habits, the
contemplation of beautiful objects will be apt, especially
in moments of leisure, and when the mind is vacant, to
give rise to such trains of thought, and to such protracted
meditations; but we cannot possibly admit that their ex¬
istence is necessary to the perception of beauty, or that
it is in this state of mind exclusively that the sense of
beauty exists. The perception of beauty, on the contrary,
we hold to be, in most cases, quite instantaneous, and al¬
together as immediate as the perception of the external
qualities of the object to which it is ascribed. Indeed, it
seems only necessary to recollect, that it is to a present
material object that we actually ascribe and refer this
beauty, and that the only thing to be explained is, how
this object comes to appear beautiful. In the long train
of interesting meditations, however, to which Mr Alison
refers,—in the delightful reveries in which he would make
the sense of beauty consist,—it is obvious that we must
soon lose sight of the external object which gave the first
impulse to our thoughts; and though we may afterwards
reflect upon it, with increased interest and gratitude, as
the parent of so many charming images, it is impossible,
we conceive, that the perception of its beauty can ever
depend upon a long series of various and shifting emo¬
tions.
It likewise occurs to us to observe, that if every thing
were beautiful which was the occasion of a train of ideas
of emotion, it is not easy to see why objects that are called
ugly should not be entitled to that appellation. If they
are sufficiently ugly not to be viewed with indifference,
they too will give rise to ideas of emotion ; and those ideas
are just as likely to run into trains and series as those of
a more agreeable description. Nay, as contrast itself is
one of the principles of association, it is not at all unlike¬
ly that, in the train of impressive ideas which the sight
of ugly objects may excite, a transition may be ultimately
made to such as are connected with pleasure ; and, there¬
fore, if the perception of the beauty of the object which
first suggested them depended upon its having produced
a series of ideas of emotion, or even of agreeable emotions,
there seems to be no good reason for doubting that ugly
objects may thus be as beautiful as any other, and that
beauty and ugliness may be one and the same thing. Such
is the danger, as it appears to us, of deserting the object
itself, or going beyond its immediate effect and impression,
in order to discover the sources of its beauty. Our view
of the matter is safer, we think, and far more simple. We
conceive the object to be associated, either in our past ex¬
perience, or by some universal analogy, with pleasures or
emotions that upon the whole are pleasant; and that these
associated pleasures are instantaneously suggested, as
soon as the object is presented, and by the first glimpse of
its physical properties, with which, indeed, they are con-
substantiated and confounded in our sensations.
The work of Mr Knight is more lively, various, and dis- Knight’s
cursive, than Mr Alison’s, but not so systematic or conclu- theory.
beauty.
541
Reautv. sive. It is the cleverer book of the two, but not the
most philosophical discussion of the subject. He agrees
with Mr Alison in holding the most important, and, in¬
deed, the only considerable part of beauty, to depend upon
association; and has illustrated this opinion with a great
variety of just and original observation. But he main¬
tains, and maintains stoutly, that there is a beauty inde¬
pendent of association—prior to it, and more original and
fundamental—the primitive and natural beauty of colours
and sounds. Now this we look upon to be a heresy, and
a heresy inconsistent with the very first principles of
catholic philosophy. We shall not stop at present to give
our reasons for this opinion, which we shall illustrate at
large before we bring this article to a close; but we beg
leave merely to suggest at present, that if our sense ot
beauty be confessedly in most cases the mere image or
reflection of pleasures, or emotions that have been associat¬
ed wdth objects in themselves indifferent, it cannot fail
to appear strange that it should also on some few oc¬
casions be a mere organic or sensual gratification of the
particular organs. Language, it is believed, affords no
other example of so whimsical a combination of differ¬
ent objects under one appellation, or of the confound¬
ing of a direct physical sensation with the suggestion of
a social or sympathetic moral feeling. We would ob¬
serve also, that while Mr Knight stickles so violently for
this alloy of the senses in the constitution of beauty, he
admits unequivocally, that sublimity is, in every instance
and in all cases, the effect of association alone. Yet sub¬
limity and beauty, in any just or large sense, and with
a view to the philosophy of either, are manifestly one
and the same; nor is it conceivable to us, that, if subli¬
mity be always the result of an association with ideas of
power or danger, beauty can possibly be, in any case, the
result of a mere pleasurable impulse on the nerves of the
eye or the ear. We shall return, however, to this discus¬
sion hereafter. Of Mr Knight we have only further to
observe, that we think he is not less heretical in maintain¬
ing that we have no pleasure in sympathizing with dis¬
tress or suffering, but only with mental energy ; and that,
in contemplating the sublime, we are moved only with a
sense of power and grandeur, and never with any feel¬
ing of terror or awe. These errors, however, are less in¬
timately connected with the subject of our present dis¬
cussion.
With Mr Stewart we have less occasion for quarrel;
chiefly, perhaps, because he has made fewer positive as¬
sertions, and entered less into the matter of controversy.
His Essay on the Beautiful is rather philological than me¬
taphysical. The object of it is to show by what gradual
and successive extensions of meaning the word, though at
first appropriated to denote the pleasing effect of colours
alone, might naturally come to signify all the other pleas¬
ing things to which it is now applied. In this investiga¬
tion he makes many admirable remarks, and touches, with
the hand of a master, upon many of the disputable parts
of the question; but he evades the particular point at
issue between us and Mr Knight, by stating that it is quite
immaterial to his purpose whether the beauty of colours
be supposed to depend on their organic effect on the eye,
or on some association between them and other agreeable
emotions; it being enough for his purpose that this was
probably the first sort of beauty that was observed, and
that to which the name was at first exclusively applied.
It is evident to us, however, that he leans to the opinion
of Mr Knight, as to this beauty being truly sensual or or¬
ganic. In observing, too, that beauty is not now the name Reality,
of any one thing or quality, but of very many different v
Stewart’s
Essay.
OI anyone uung m  ^    Q,,pstion-
qualities, and that it is applied to them all merely because
they are often united in the same objects, or perceived at trine
the same time and by the same organs, it appears to us that
he carries his philology a little too far, and disregards
other principles of reasoning of far higher authoi ity. To
give the name of beauty, for example, to every thing that
interests or pleases us through the channel of sight, in¬
cluding in this category the mere impulse of light that
is pleasant to the organ, and the presentment of objects
whose whole charm consists in awakening the memory of
social emotions, seems to us to be confounding things to¬
gether that must always be separate in our feelings, and
giving a far greater importance to the mere identity of the
organ of perception than is warranted either by the ordi¬
nary language or ordinary experience of men. Upon the
same principle, we should give this name of beautiful, and
no other, to all acts of kindness or magnanimity, and, in¬
deed, to every interesting occurrence which took place in
our sight, or came to our knowledge by means of the eye .
nay, as the ear is also allowed to be a channel for impies-
sions of beauty, the same name should be given to any in¬
teresting or pleasant thing that we hear ; and good news
read to us from the gazette should be denominated beau¬
tiful, just as much as a fine composition of music. Ihese
things, however, are never called beautiful, and are felt,
indeed, to afford a gratification of quite a different nature.
It is no doubt true, as Mr Stewart has observed, that
beauty is not one thing, but many, and does not produce
one uniform emotion, but an infinite variety of emotions.
But this, we conceive, is not merely because many plea¬
sant things may be intimated to us by the same sense, but
because the things that are called beautiful may be asso¬
ciated with an infinite variety of agreeable emotions, of
the specific character of which their beauty will conse¬
quently partake. Nor does it follow, from the fact of
this great variety, that there can be no other principle of
union among these agreeable emotions than that of a name,
extended to them all upon the very slight ground of their
coming through the same organ; since, upon our theory,
and indeed upon Mr Stewart’s, in a vast majority of in¬
stances, there is the remarkable circumstance of their
being all suggested by association with some present sen¬
sation, and all modified and compounded to our feelings
by an actual and direct perception.
It is unnecessary, however, to pursue these criticisms,
or, indeed, this hasty review of the speculation of other
writers, any further. The few observations we have al¬
ready made will enable the intelligent reader both to un¬
derstand in a general way what has been already done on
the subject, and in some degree prepare him to appreciate
the merits of that theory, substantially the same with Mr
Alison’s, which we shall now proceed to illustrate some¬
what more in detail.
The basis of it is, that the beauty which we impute to * urthe]r.
outward objects is nothing more than the reflection oU^^the-
our own inward emotions, and is made up entirely °f cer-ory 0fasso-
tain little portions of love, pity, and affection, which havecjatjons
been connected with these objects, and still adhere as it
were to them, and move us anew whenever they are pre¬
sented to our observation. Before proceeding to bring
any proof of the truth of this proposition, there are two
things which it may be proper to explain a little more
distinctly ; jirst,x What are the primary affections, by the
suggestion of which we think the sense of beauty is pro-
1 A considerable part of the sequel of this article has already appeared in a critique (by the same author) upon Mr Alison’s Etsay,
in the Edinburgh Review for May 1811.
542
BEAUTY.
may be the
basis of
beauty.
Beauty, duced ? and, secondly, What is the nature of the connec-
tion by which we suppose that the objects we call beauti¬
ful are enabled to suggest these affections ?
What af- With regard to the first of these points, it fortunately
fections is not necessary either to enter into any tedious details,
or to have recourse to any nice distinctions. All sensa¬
tions that are not absolutely indifferent, and are, at the
same time, either agreeable when experienced by our¬
selves, or attractive when contemplated in others, may
form the foundation of the emotions of sublimity or beau¬
ty. The love of sensation seems to be the ruling appe¬
tite of human nature; and many sensations, in which the
painful seems to bear no little share, are consequently
sought for with avidity, and recollected with interest,
even in our own persons. In the persons of others, emo¬
tions still more painful are contemplated with eagerness
and delight; and therefore we must not be surprised to
find, that many of the pleasing sensations of beauty or
sublimity resolve themselves ultimately into recollections
of feelings that may appear to have a very opposite cha¬
racter. The sum of the whole is, that every feeling which
it is agreeable to experience, to recall, or to witness, may
become the source of beauty in external objects, when it
is so connected with them as that their appearance re¬
minds us of that feeling. Now, in real life, and from daily
experience and observation, we know that it is agreeable,
in the first place, to recollect our own pleasurable sensa¬
tions, or to be enabled to form a lively conception of the
pleasures of other men, or even of sentient beings of any
description. We know, likewise, from the same sure au¬
thority, that there is a certain delight in the remembrance
of our past, or the conception of our future emotions, even
though attended with great pain, provided they be not
forced too rudely on the mind, and be softened by the
accompaniment of any milder feeling. And, finally, we
know, in the same manner, that the spectacle or concep¬
tion of the emotions of others, even when in a high de¬
gree painful, is extremely interesting and attractive, and
draws us away, not only from the consideration of indif¬
ferent objects, but even from the pursuit of light or frivo¬
lous enjoyments. All these are plain and familiar facts,
of the existence of which, however they may be explain¬
ed, no one can entertain the slightest doubt, and into
which, therefore, we shall have made no inconsiderable
progress, if we can resolve the more mysterious fact, of
the emotions we receive from the contemplation of subli¬
mity or beauty.
Our proposition then is, that these emotions are not
original emotions, nor produced directly by any qualities
in the objects which excite them ; but are reflections or
images of the more radical and familiar emotions to which
we have already alluded, and are occasioned, not by any
inherent virtue in the objects before us, but by the acci¬
dents, if we may so express ourselves, by which these may
have been enabled to suggest or recall to us our own past
sensations or sympathies. We might almost venture, in¬
deed, to lay it down as an axiom, that, except in the plain
and palpable case of bodily pain or pleasure, we can never
be interested in any thing but the fortunes of sentient
beings; and that every thing partaking of the nature of
mental emotion must have for its object the feelings, past,
present, or possible, of something capable of sensation.
Independently, therefore, of all evidence, and without the
help of any explanation, we should have been apt to con¬
clude that the emotions of beauty and sublimity must
have for their objects the sufferings or enjoyments of sen¬
tient beings ; and to reject as intrinsically absurd and
incredible the supposition, that material objects, which
obviously do neither hurt nor delight the body, should yet
excite, by their mere physical qualities, the very powerful
emotions which are sometimes excited by the spectacle Beauty,
of beauty.
Of the feelings, by their connection with which exter-Nature of
nal objects become beautiful, we do not think it neces-theassorai-
sary to speak more minutely; and therefore it only re- t'°”s ^-v
mains, under this preliminary view of the subject, to ex-^jch l)b-
plain the nature of that connection by which we conceive p6eCaiS
this effect to be produced. Here, also, there is but little tifui.
need for minuteness, or fulness of enumeration. Almost
every tie by which two objects can be bound together in
the imagination, in such a manner as that the present¬
ment of the one shall recall the memory of the other, or,
in other words, almost every possible relation which can
subsist between such objects, may serve to connect the
things we call sublime or beautiful, with feelings that are
interesting or delightful. It may be useful, however, to
class these bonds of association between mind and matter
in a rude and general way.
It appears to us, then, that objects are sublime or beau¬
tiful, first, When they are the natural signs and perpe¬
tual concomitants of pleasurable sensations, or, at any rate,
of some lively feeling or emotion in ourselves or in some
other sentient beings; or, secondly, W’hen they are the
arbitrary or accidental concomitants of such feelings; or,
thirdly. When they bear some analogy or fanciful resem¬
blance to things with which these emotions are necessarily
connected. In endeavouring to illustrate the nature of
these several relations, we shall be led to lay before our
readers some proofs that appear to us satisfactory of the
truth of the general theory.
The most obvious and the strongest association that First class
can be established between inward feelings and external of asso-
objects is, where the object is necessarily and universallyciatlons-
connected with the feeling by the law of nature, so that
it is always presented to the senses when the feeling is
impressed upon the mind,—as the sight or the- sound of
laughter, with the feeling of gaiety,—of weeping, with dis¬
tress,—of the sound of thunder, with ideas of danger and
power. Let us dwell for a moment on the last instance.
—Nothing, perhaps, in the whole range, is more strikingly
and universally sublime than the sound we have just men¬
tioned ; yet it seems obvious that the sense of sublimity is
produced, not by any quality that is perceived by the ear,
but altogether by the impression of power and of danger
that is necessarily made upon the mind whenever that
sound is heard. That it is not produced by any peculi¬
arity in the sound itself, is certain, from the mistakes that
are frequently made with regard to it. The noise of a
cart rattling over the stones is often mistaken for thun¬
der ; and as long as the mistake lasts, this very vulgar
and insignificant noise is actually felt to be prodigiously
sublime. It is so felt, however, it is perfectly plain, mere¬
ly because it is then associated with ideas of prodigious
power and undefined danger; and the sublimity is de¬
stroyed the moment the association is dissolved, though
the sound itself, and its effect on the organ, continue ex¬
actly the same. This, therefore, is an instance in which
sublimity is distinctly proved to consist, not in any phy¬
sical quality of the object to which it is ascribed, but in
its necessary connection with that vast and uncontrolled
Power which is the natural object of awe and veneration.
We may now take an example a little less plain and Other ex¬
elementary. The most beautiful object in nature, perhaps, amples.
is the countenance of a young and beautiful woman;—
and we are apt at first to imagine, that, independently of
all associations, the forms and colours which it displays
are in themselves lovely and engaging, and would appear
charming to all beholders, with whatever other qualities
or impressions they might happen to be connected. A
very little reflection, however, will probably be sufficient
BEAUTY.
543
Beauty, to convince us of the fallacy of this impression, and to
satisfy us, that what we admire is not a combination of
forms and colours, which could never excite any mental
emotion, but a collection of signs and tokens of certain
mental feelings and affections, which are universally re¬
cognised as the proper objects of love and sympathy.
Laying aside the emotions arising from difference of sex,
and supposing female beauty to be contemplated by the
pure and unenvying eye of a female, it seems quite obvious
that, amongst its ingredients, we should trace the signs of
two different sets of qualities, that are neither of them the
object of sight, but of a higher faculty;—in the first place,
of youth and health; and, in the second place, of inno¬
cence, gaiety, sensibility, intelligence, delicacy or vivacity.
Now, without enlarging upon the natural effect of these
suggestions, we shall just suppose that the appearances,
which must be admitted at all events to be actually signi¬
ficant of the qualities we have enumerated, had been by
the law of nature attached to the very opposite qualities ;
—that the smooth forehead, the firm cheek, and the full
lip, which are now so distinctly expressive to us of the gay
and vigorous periods of youth,—and the clear and bloom¬
ing complexion, which indicates health and activity,—had
been in fact the forms and colours by which old age and
sickness were characterized; and that, instead of being
found united to those sources and seasons of enjoyment,
they had been the badges by which nature pointed out
that state of suffering and decay which is now signified to
us by the livid and emaciated face of sickness, or the
wrinkled front, the quivering lip, and hollow cheek of
a°-e: if this were the familiar law of our nature, can it be
doubted that we should look upon these appearances, not
with rapture, but with aversion,—and consider it as abso¬
lutely ludicrous or disgusting to speak of the beauty of
what was interpreted by every one as the lamented sign
of pain and decrepitude ? Mr Knight himself, though a
firm believer in the intrinsic beauty of colours, is so much
of this opinion, that he thinks it entirely owing to those
associations that we prefer the tame smoothness and com¬
paratively poor colours of a youthful face, to the richly
fretted and variegated countenance of a pimpled drunkard.
Such, we conceive, would be the inevitable effect of
dissolving the subsisting connection between the animating
ideas of hope and enjoyment, and those visible appearances
which are now significant of these emotions, and derive
their whole beauty from this signification. But the effect
would be still stronger if we could suppose the moral ex¬
pression of these appearances to be reversed in the same
manner. If the smile which now enchants us as the ex¬
pression of innocence and affection, were the sign attach¬
ed by nature to guilt and malignity,—if the blush which
expresses delicacy, and the glance that speaks intelligence,
vivacity, and softness, had always been found united with
brutal passion or idiot moodiness,—is it not certain that the
whole of their beauty would be extinguished, and that our
emotions from the sight of them would be exactly the re¬
verse of what they now are ?
Beauty of That the beauty of a living and sentient creature should
inanimate depend, in a great degree, upon the qualities peculiar to
objects, a creature, rather than upon the mere physical attri¬
butes which it may possess in common with the inert mat¬
ter around it, cannot indeed appear a very improbable
supposition to any one. But it may be more difficult for
some persons to understand how the beauty of mere dead
matter should be derived from the feelings and sympathies
of sentient beings. It is absolutely necessary, therefore,
that we should give an instance or two of this derivation.
Beauty of Xt is easy enough to understand how the sight of a pic-
landscapes. ture or statue should affect us nearly in the same way as
the sight of the original; nor is it much more difficult to
conceive, how the sight of a cottage should give us some- Beauty,
thing of the same feeling as the sight of a peasant’s fami-
ly, and the aspect of a town raise many of the same ideas
as the appearance of a multitude of persons. We may
begin, therefore, with an example a little more complicat¬
ed? Take, for instance, the case of a common English
landscape—green meadows, with fat cattle—canals or na¬
vigable rivers—well-fenced, well-cultivated fields—neat,
clean, scattered cottages—humble antique church, with
church-yard elms, and crossing hedge-rows—all seen un¬
der bright skies, and in good weather: there is much
beauty, as every one will acknowledge, in such a scene.
But in what does the beauty consist ? Not certainly in
the mere mixture of colours and forms ; for colours more
pleasing, and lines more graceful (according to any theory
of grace that may be preferred), might be spread upon a
board, or a painter’s pallet, without engaging the eye to a
second glance, or raising the least emotion in the mind;
but in the picture of human happiness that is presented to
our imaginations and affections,—in the visible and une¬
quivocal signs of comfort, and cheerful and peaceful en¬
joyment,—and of that secure and successful industry that
insures its continuance,—and of the piety by which it is
exalted,—and of the simplicity by which it is contrasted
with the guilt and the fever of a city life,—in the images
of health and temperance and plenty which it exhibits to
every eye,—and in the glimpses which it affords to warm¬
er imaginations, of those primitive or fabulous times, when
man was uncorrupted by luxury and ambition, and of
those humble retreats in which we still delight to imagine
that love and philosophy may find an unpolluted asylum.
At all events, however, it is human feeling that excites
our sympathy, and forms the object of our emotions. It
is man, and man alone, that we see in the beauties of the
earth which he inhabits or, if a more sensitive and ex¬
tended sympathy connect us with the lower families of
animated nature, and make us rejoice with the lambs that
bleat on the uplands, or the cattle that ruminate in the
valley, or even with the living plants that drink the bright
sun and the balmy air beside them, it is still the idea of
enjoyment—of feelings that animate the existence of sen¬
tient beings—that calls forth all our emotions, and is the
parent of all the beauty with which we proceed to invest
the inanimate creation around us.
Instead of this quiet and tame English landscape, let us
now take a Welsh or a Highland scene, and see whether
its beauties will admit of being explained on the same
principle. Here we shall have lofty mountains, and rocky
and lonely recesses,—tufted woods hung over precipices,—
lakes intersected with castled promontories,—ample soli¬
tudes of unploughed and untrodden valleys,—nameless and
gigantic ruins,—and mountain echoes repeating the scream
of the eagle and the roar of the cataract. This, too, is
beautiful; and, to those who can interpret the language
it speaks, far more beautiful than the prosperous scene
with which we have contrasted it. Yet, lonely as it is, it
is to the recollection of man and of human feelings that its
beauty also is owing. The mere forms and colours that
compose its visible appearance, are no more capable of ex¬
citing any emotion in the mind, than the forms and colours
of a Turkey carpet. It is sympathy with the present or
the past, or the imaginary inhabitants of such a region,
that alone gives it either interest or beauty ; and the de¬
light of those who behold it will always be found to be in
exact proportion to the force of their imaginations, and
the warmth of their social affections. The leading impres¬
sions here are those of romantic seclusion and primeval
simplicity; lovers sequestered in these blissful solitudes,
“ from towns and toils remote and rustic poets and phi¬
losophers communing with nature, at a distance from the
544
BEAUTY.
Beauty, low pursuits and selfish malignity of ordinary mortals ;—
then there is the sublime impression of the Mighty Power
which piled the massive cliffs upon one another, and rent
the mountains asunder, and scattered their giant fragments
at their base,—and all the images connected with the mo¬
numents of ancient magnificence and extinguished hosti¬
lity—the feuds, and the combats, and the triumphs of its
wild and primitive inhabitants, contrasted with the still¬
ness and desolation of the scenes where they lie interred,
—and the romantic ideas attached to their ancient tradi¬
tions and the peculiarities of their present life,—their
wild and enthusiastic poetry,—their gloomy superstitions,
—their attachment to their chiefs,—the dangers, and the
hardships, and enjoyments of their lonely huntings and
fishings,—their pastoral shielings on the mountains in
summer,—and the tales and the sports that amuse the
little groups that are frozen into their vast and trackless
valleys in the winter. Add to all this the traces of vast
and obscure antiquity that are impressed on the language
and the habits of the people, and on the cliffs, and caves,
and gulfy torrents of the land,—and the solemn and touch¬
ing reflection perpetually recurring, of the weakness and
insignificance of perishable man, whose generations thus
pass away into oblivion with all their toils and ambition,
while nature holds on her unvarying course, and pours
out her streams, and renews her forests, with undecaying
activity, regardless of the fate of her proud and perishable
sovereign.
Beauty of We have said enough, we believe, to let our readers
spring. understand what we mean by external objects being the
natural signs or concomitants of human sympathies or
emotions. Yet we cannot refrain from adding one other
illustration, and asking on what other principle we can ac¬
count for the beauty of spring? Winter has shades as
deep, and colours as brilliant, and the great forms of nature
are substantially the same through all the revolutions of
the year. We shall seek in vain, therefore, in the acci¬
dents of mere organic matter, for the sources of that “ ver¬
nal delight and joy” which subject all finer spirits to an an¬
nual intoxication, and strike home the sense of beauty even
to hearts that seem proof against it under all other aspects.
And it is not among the dead, but among the living, that
this beauty originates. It is the renovation of life and of
joy to all animated beings that constitutes this great jubi¬
lee of nature,—the young of animals bursting into exist¬
ence,—the simple and universal pleasures which are dif¬
fused by the mere temperature of the air and the profu¬
sion of sustenance,—the pairing of birds,—the cheerful
resumption of rustic toils,—the great alleviation of all the
miseries of poverty and sickness,—our sympathy with the
young life, and the promise and the hazards of the vege¬
table creation,—the solemn yet cheering impression of the
constancy of nature to her great periods of renovation,—
and the hopes that dart spontaneously forward into the
new circle of exertions and enjoyments that is opened up
by her hand and her example. Such are some of the con¬
ceptions that are forced upon us by the appearances of re¬
turning spring, and that seem to account for the emotions
of delight with which these appearances are hailed by
every mind endowed with any degree of sensibility, some¬
what better than the brightness of the colours, or the
agreeableness of the smells, that are then presented to
our senses.
Beauty of They are kindred conceptions that constitute all the
childhood, beauty of childhood. The forms and colours that are pe¬
culiar to that age are not necessarily or absolutely beau¬
tiful in themselves ; for, in a grown person, the same forms
and colours would be either ludicrous or disgusting. It
is their indestructible connection with the engaging ideas
of innocence,—of careless gaiety,—of unsuspecting con¬
fidence, made still more tender and attractive by the re- Beauty,
collection of helplessness, and blameless and happy igno-
ranee,—of the anxious affection that watches over all their
ways,—and of the hopes and fears that seek to pierce
futurity, for those who have neither fears nor cares nor
anxieties for themselves.
These few illustrations will probably be sufficient to
give our readers a general conception of the character
and the grounds of that theory of beauty which, we think,
affords the only true or consistent account of its nature.
They are all examples, it will be observed, of the first
and most important connection which we think may be
established between external objects and the sentiments
or emotions of the mind, or cases, in which the visible phe¬
nomena are the natural and universal accompaniments of
the emotion, and are consequently capable of reviving that
emotion, in some degree, in the breast of every beholder.
If the tenor of those illustrations has been such as to Second
make any impression in favour of the general theory, class of as-
we conceive that it must be very greatly confirmed bysociat;ions
the slightest consideration of the second class of cases,
or those in which the external object is not the natural
and necessary, but only the occasional or accidental, con¬
comitant of the emotion which it recalls. In the former
instances some conception of beauty seems to be insepa¬
rable from the appearance of the objects; and being im¬
pressed, in some degree, upon all persons to whom they
are presented, there is evidently room for insinuating that
it is an independent and intrinsic quality of their nature,
and does not arise from association with any thing else.
In the instances, however, to which we are now to allude,
this perception of beauty is not universal, but entirely de¬
pendent upon the opportunities which each individual has
had to associate ideas of emotion with the object to which
it is ascribed; the same thing appearing beautiful to
those who have been exposed to the influence of such as¬
sociations, and indifferent to those who have not. Such
instances, therefore, really afford an experimentum crucis as
to the truth of the theory in question; nor is it easy to
conceive any more complete evidence, both that there is
no such thing as absolute or intrinsic beauty, and that it
depends altogether on those associations with which it is
thus found to come and to disappear.
The accidental or arbitrary relations that may thus be Diversity
established between natural sympathies or emotions, and °f wa^07<a?
external objects, may be either such as occur to wholetastes'
classes of men, or are confined to particular individuals.
Among the former, those that apply to different nations
or races of men, are the most important and remark¬
able ; and constitute the basis of those peculiarities by
which national tastes are distinguished. Take, again,
for example, the instance of female beauty, and think
what different and inconsistent standards would be fixed
for it in the different regions of the world; in Africa, in
Asia, and in Europe; in Tartary and in Greece ; in Lap-
land, Patagonia, and Circassia. If there were any thing
absolutely or intrinsically beautiful in any of the forms
thus distinguished, it is inconceivable that men should
differ so outrageously in their conceptions of it. If beauty
were a real and independent quality, it seems impossible
that it should be distinctly and clearly felt by one set of
persons, where another set, altogether as sensitive, could
see nothing but its opposite ; and if it were actually and
inseparably attached to certain forms, colours, or propor¬
tions, it must appear utterly inexplicable that it should be
felt and perceived in the most opposite forms and propor¬
tions in objects of the same description. On the other
hand, if all beauty consist in reminding us of certain na¬
tural sympathies and objects of emotion, with which they
have been habitually connected, it is easy to perceive how
\
BEAUTY.
Reauty. the most different forms should be felt to be equally beau-
tiful. If female beauty, for instance, consist in the visible
signs and expressions of youth and health, and of gentle¬
ness, vivacity, and kindness; then it will necessarily hap¬
pen, that the forms, and colours, and proportions which
nature may have connected with these qualities, in the
different climates or regions of the world, will all appear
equally beautiful to those who have been accustomed to
recognise them as the signs of such qualities; while they
will be respectively indifferent to those who have not learn¬
ed to interpret them in this sense, and displeasing to those
whom experience has led to consider them as the signs of
opposite qualities. The case is the same, though perhaps
to a smaller degree, as to the peculiarity of national taste
in other particulars. The style of dress and architecture
in every nation, if not adopted from mere want of skill, or
penury of materials, always appears beautiful to the na¬
tives, and somewhat monstrous and absurd to foreigners;
and the general character and aspect of their landscape,
in like manner, if not associated with substantial evils and
inconveniences, always appears more beautiful and en¬
chanting than the scenery of any other region. The fact
is still more striking, perhaps, in the case of music; in
the effects of those national airs, with which even the
most uncultivated imaginations have connected so many
interesting recollections; and in the delight with which
all persons of sensibility catch the strains of their native
melodies in strange or in distant lands. It is owing
chiefly to the same sort of arbitrary and national associa¬
tion, that white is thought a gay colour in Europe, where it
is used at weddings,—and a dismal colour in China, where
it is used for mourning; that we think yew-trees gloomy,
because they are planted in churchyards,—and large masses
of powdered horse hair majestic, because we see them on
the heads of judges and bishops.
Effect of Next to those curious instances of arbitrary or limited
education associations that are exemplified in the diversities of na-
on taste. tjonai taste, are those that are produced by the differences
of instruction or education. If external objects were sublime
or beautiful in themselves, it is plain that they would appear
equally so to those who were acquainted with their origin,
and to those to whom it was unknown. Yet it is not easy,
perhaps, to calculate the degree to which our notions of
beauty and sublimity are now influenced over all Europe
by the study of classical literature ; or the number of im¬
pressions of this sort which the well-educated consequent¬
ly receive, from objects that are utterly indifferent to un¬
instructed persons of the same natural sensibility. Upon
this subject we gladly avail ourselves of the beautiful
expressions of Mr Alison.
“ The delight which most men of education receive
from the consideration of antiquity, and the beauty that
they discover in every object which is connected with an¬
cient times, is in a great measure to be ascribed to the
same cause. The antiquarian, in his cabinet, surrounded
by the relics of former ages, seems to himself to be re¬
moved to periods that are long since past, and indulges
in the imagination of living in a world which, by a very
natural kind of prejudice, we are always willing to believe
was both wiser and better than the present. All that is
venerable or laudable in the history of these times pre¬
sents itself to his memory. The gallantry, the heroism,
the patriotism of antiquity, rise again before his view,
softened by the obscurity in which they are involved, and
rendered more seducing to the imagination by that ob¬
scurity itself, which, while it mingles a sentiment of re¬
gret amid his pursuits, serves at the same time to stimu¬
late his fancy to fill up, by its own creation, those long
Intervals of time of which history has preserved no record.
I be relics he contemplates seem to approach him still
VOL. iv.
nearer to the ages of his regard. The dress, the furni¬
ture, the arms of the times, are so many assistances to his
imagination, in guiding or directing its exercise; and, offer¬
ing him a thousand sources of imagery, provide him with
an almost inexhaustible field in which his memory and his
fancy may expatiate. There are few men who have not
felt somewhat, at least, of the delight of such an employ¬
ment. There is no man in the least acquainted with the
history of antiquity, who does not love to let his imagina¬
tion loose on the prospect of its remains, and to whom
they are not in some measure sacred, from the innumera¬
ble images which they bring. Even the peasant, whose
knowledge of former times extends but to a few gene¬
rations, has yet in his village some monument of the
deeds or virtues of his forefathers, and cherishes with a
fond veneration the memorial of those good old times to
which his imagination returns with delight, and of which
he loves to recount the simple tales that tradition has
brought him.
“ And what is it that constitutes that emotion of sub¬
lime delight which every man of common sensibility feels
upon the first prospect of Rome ? It is not the scene of
destruction which is before him. It is not the Tiber, di¬
minished in his imagination to a paltry stream, flowing
amid the ruins of that magnificence which it once adorned.
It is not the triumph of superstition over the wreck of
human greatness, and its monuments erected upon the
very spot where the first honours of humanity have been
gained. It is ancient Rome which fills his imagination.
It is the country of Caesar, and Cicero, and Virgil, which
is before him. It is the mistress of the world which he
sees, and who seems to him to rise again from her tomb,
to give laws to the universe. All that the labours of his
youth or the studies of his maturer age have acquired
with regard to the history of this great people, opens at
once before his imagination, and presents him with a field
of high and solemn imagery, which can never be exhaust¬
ed. Take from him these associations—conceal from him
that it is Rome that he sees, and how different would be
his emotion!”
The influences of the same studies may be traced, in¬
deed, through almost all our impressions of beauty ; and
especially in the feelings which we receive from the con¬
templation of rural scenery, where the images and recol¬
lections which have been associated with such objects, in
the enchanting strains of the poets, are perpetually re¬
called by their appearance, and give an interest and a
beauty to the prospect, of which the uninstructed cannot
have the slightest perception. Upon this subject, also,
Mr Alison has expressed himself with his usual warmth
and elegance. After observing that, in childhood, the
beauties of nature have scarcely any existence for those
who have as yet but little general sympathy with mankind,
he proceeds to state that they are usually first recom¬
mended to notice by the poets, to whom we are introduced
in the course of education; and who, in a manner, create
them for us, by the associations which they enable us to
form with their visible appearance.
“ How different from this period become the senti¬
ments with which the scenery of nature is contemplated
by those who have any imagination ! The beautiful forms
of ancient mythology with which the fancy of poets
peopled every element, are now ready to appear to their
minds upon the prospect of every scene. The descrip¬
tions of ancient authors, so long admired, and so deserv¬
ing of admiration, occur to them at every moment, and,
with them, all those enthusiastic ideas of ancient genius
and glory which the study of so many years of youth so
naturally leads them to form. Or, if the study of modern
poetry has succeeded to that of the ancient, a thousand
3 z
545
Beauty.
546 B E A
Beauty, other beautiful associations are acquired, which, instead
of destroying, serve easily to unite with the former, and
to afford a new source of delight. The awful forms of
Gothic superstition, the wild and romantic imagery which
the turbulence of the middle ages, the crusades, and the
institution of chivalry, have spread over every country of
Europe, arise to the imagination in every scene; accom¬
panied with all those pleasing recollections of prowess,
and adventure, and courteous manners, which distinguish¬
ed those memorable times. With such images in their
minds, it is not common nature that appears to surround
them. It is nature embellished and made sacred by the
memory of Theocritus and Virgil, and Milton and Tasso;
their genius appears still to linger among the scenes which
inspired it, and to irradiate every object where it dwells,
and the creation of their fancy seems the fit inhabitants
of that nature which their descriptions have clothed with
beauty.”
Other It is needless, for the purpose of mere illustration, to
effects. pursue this subject of arbitrary or accidental association
through all the divisions of which it is susceptible; and,
indeed, the task would be endless, since there is scarce¬
ly any class in society which could not be shown to have
peculiar associations of interest and emotion with objects
which are not so connected in the minds of any other class.
The young and the old—the rich and the poor the artist
and the man of science—the inhabitant of the city and
the inhabitant of the country—the man of business and
the man of pleasure—the domestic and the dissipated—
nay, even the followers of almost every different study 01
profession,—have perceptions of beauty, because they have
associations with external objects, that are peculiar to
themselves, and have no existence for any other persons.
But, though the detail of such instances could not fail to
show, in the clearest and most convincing manner, how
directly the notion of beauty is derived from some more
radical and familiar emotion, and how many and various
are the channels by which such emotions are transmitted,
enough, perhaps, has been already said to put our readers
in possession of the principles and general bearings of an
argument which we must not think of exhausting.
The effect Before entirely leaving this branch of the subject, how-
of fashion, ever, let us pause for a moment on the familiar but very
striking and decisive instance of our varying and contra¬
dictory judgments as to the beauty of the successive
fashions of dress that have existed within our own remem¬
brance. All persons who still continue to find amusement
in society, and are not old enough to enjoy only the recol¬
lections of their youth, think the prevailing fashions be¬
coming and graceful, and the fashions of twenty or twenty-
five years old intolerably ugly and ridiculous. The younger
they are, and the more they mix in society, this impres¬
sion is the stronger; and the fact is worth noticing, be¬
cause there is really no one thing as to which persons
judging merely from their feelings, and therefore less like¬
ly to be misled by any systems or theories, are so very
positive and decided, as that established fashions are beau¬
tiful in themselves ; and that exploded fashions are intrin¬
sically and beyond all question preposterous and ugly.
We have never yet met a young lady or gentleman, who
spoke from their hearts, and without reserve, who had the
least doubt on the subject, or could conceive how any per¬
son could be so stupid, as not to see the intrinsic elegance
of the reigning mode, or not to be struck with the ludi¬
crous awkwardness of the habits in which their mothers
were disguised. Yet there can be no doubt, that if these
ingenious critics had been born with the same natural
sensibility to beauty, but twenty years earlier, they would
have joined in admiring what they now laugh at, as cer¬
tainly as those who succeed them twenty years hereafter
U T Y.
will laugh at them. It is plain, then, and we think scarce- Beauty,
ly disputed out of the circles to which we have alluded,
that there is, in the general case, no intrinsic beauty or
deformity in any of those fashions; and that the forms,
and colours, and materials, that are, we may say, univer¬
sally and very strongly felt to be beautiful while they are
in fashion, are sure to lose all their beauty as soon as the
fashion has passed away. Now the forms, and colours, and
combinations, remain exactly as they were; and, there¬
fore, it seems perfectly obvious that the source of their
successive beauty and ugliness must be sought in some¬
thing extrinsic, and can only be found in the associations
which once recommended and ultimately degraded them
in our estimation. While they were in fashion, they were
the forms and colours which distinguished the rich and
the noble,—the eminent, the envied, the observed in so¬
ciety. They were the forms and the colours in which all
that was beautiful, and admired, and exalted, were habi¬
tually arrayed. They were associated, therefore, with
ideas of opulence, and elegance, and gaiety, and all that
is captivating and bewitching in manners, fortune, and
situation,—and derived the whole of their beauty from
those associations. By and by, however, they were de¬
serted by the beautiful, the rich, and the elegant, and
descended to the vulgar and dependent, or were only
seen in combination with the antiquated airs of faded
beauties or obsolete beaux. They thus came to be asso¬
ciated with ideas of vulgarity and derision, and with the
images of old and decayed persons, whom it is difficult for
their juniors to believe ever to have been young or attrac¬
tive ;—and the associations being thus reversed, in which
all their beauty consisted, the beauty itself naturally dis¬
appears. , # .
The operation of the same causes is distinctly visible
in all the other apparent irregularities of our judgments as
to this description of beauty. Old people have in general
but little toleration for the obsolete fashions of their later
or middle years, but will generally stickle for the intrin¬
sic elegance of those which were prevalent in the bright
days of their early youth,—as being still associated in
their recollections with the beauty with which they were
first enchanted, and the gay spirits with which they were
then inspired. In the same way, while we laugh at the
fashions of which fine ladies and gentlemen were proud
in the days of our childhood, because they are now asso¬
ciated only with images of decrepitude and decay, we
look with some feelings of veneration on the habits of
more remote generations, the individuals of which are
only known to us as historical persons ; and with unmin¬
gled respect and admiration on those still more ancient
habiliments which remind us either of the heroism of the
feudal chivalry, or the virtue and nobleness of classical
antiquity. The iron mail of the Gothic knight, or the
clumsy shield and naked arms of the Roman warrior,
strike us as majestic and graceful, merely because they
are associated with nothing but tales of romantic daring
or patriotic prowess ; while the full-bottomed periwigs that
were added to the soldier’s equipment in the days of
Louis XIV. and King William, and no doubt had a noble
effect in the eyes of that generation, now appear to us
equally ridiculous and unbecoming, merely because such
appendages are no longer to be seen but upon the heads
of sober and sedentary lawyers, or in the pictures of anti¬
quated esquires.
We cannot afford, however, to enlarge any further upon Associa-
these considerations, and are inclined indeed to think,tionsiiec^
that what has been already said on the subject of associa- ^jua^3i
tions, which, though not universal, are common to whole
classes of persons, will make it unnecessary to enlarge on
those that are peculiar to each individual. It is almost N
beauty.
547
Beauty, enough, indeed, to transcribe the following short passage
from Mr Alison.
“ There is no man who has not some interesting asso¬
ciations with particular scenes, or airs, or books, and who
does not feel their beauty or sublimity enhanced to him
by such connections. The view of the house where one
was born, of the school where one was educated, and
where the gay years of infancy were passed, is indifferent
to no man. They recall so many images of past hap¬
piness and past affections, they are connected with so
many strong or valued emotions, and lead altogether to
so long a train of feelings and recollections, that there is
hardly any scene which one ever beholds with so much
rapture. There are songs, also, that we have heard in
our infancy, which, when brought to our remembrance
in after years, raise emotions for which we cannot well
account; and which, though perhaps very indifferent in
themselves, still continue, from this association, and from
the variety of conceptions which they kindle in our minds,
to be our favourites through life. The scenes which have
been distinguished by the residence of any person whose
memory we admire produce a similar effect. Movemur
enim, nescio quo pacto, locis ipsis, in quibus eorum, quos
diligimus aut admiramur, adsunt vestigia. The scenes
themselves may be little beautiful; but the delight with
which we recollect the traces of their lives blends itself
insensibly with the emotions which the scenery excites;
and the admiration which these recollections afford seems
to give a kind of sanctity to the place where they dwelt,
and converts every thing into beauty which appears to
have been connected with them.”
There are similar impressions,—as to the sort of scene¬
ry to which we have long been accustomed,—as to the
style of personal beauty by which we were first enchant¬
ed,—and even as to the dialect, or the form of versifica¬
tion, which we first began to admire,—that bestow a secret
and adventitious charm upon all these objects, and enable
us to discover in them a beauty which is invisible, because
it is non-existent to every other eye.
Third class In all the cases we have hitherto considered, the ex-
ofassocia- ternal object is supposed to have acquired its beauty by
being actually connected with the causes of our natural
emotions, either as a sign of their existence, or as being
locally present to their ordinary occasions. There is a
relation, however, of another kind, to which it is necessary
to attend, both to elucidate the general grounds of the
theory, and to explain several appearances that might
otherwise expose it to objections. This is the relation
which external objects may bear to our internal feelings,
and the power they may consequently acquire of suggest¬
ing them, in consequence of a sort of resemblance or ana¬
logy which they seem to have to their natural and appro¬
priate objects. The language of poetry is founded in a
great degree upon this analogy; and all language, indeed,
is full of it, and attests, by its structure, both the extent
to which it is spontaneously pursued, and the effects that
are produced by its suggestion. We take a familiar in¬
stance from the elegant writer to whom we have already
referred.
“ What, for instance, is the impression we feel from
the scenery of spring? The soft and gentle green with
which the earth is spread, the feeble texture of the plants
and flowers, and the remains of winter yet lingering among
the woods and hills,—all conspire to infuse into our minds
somewhat of that fearful tenderness with which infancy
is usually beheld. With such a sentiment, how innumer¬
able are the ideas which present themselves to our ima¬
gination !—ideas, it is apparent, by no means confined to
the scene before our eyes, or to the possible desolation
which may yet await its infant beauty, but which almost
tions.
involuntarily extend themselves to analogies with the life Beauty,
of man, and bring before us all those images of hope or
fear which, according to our peculiar situations, have the
dominion of our hearts. The beauty of autumn is accom¬
panied with a similar exercise of thought: the leaves be¬
gin then to drop from the trees; the flowers and shrubs
with which the fields were adorned in the summer months
decay; the woods and groves are silent; the sun himself
seems gradually to withdraw his light, or to become en¬
feebled in his power. Who is there who at this season
does not feel his mind impressed with a sentiment of me¬
lancholy ? or who is able to resist that current of thought
which, from such appearances of decay, so naturally leads
him to the solemn imagination of that inevitable fate
which is to bring on alike the decay of life, of empire, and
of nature itself?” •
A thousand such analogies, indeed, are suggested to Further il-
us by the most familiar aspects of nature. The morning lustrations,
and the evening present the same ready picture of youth
and of closing life as the various vicissitudes of the year.
The withering of flowers images out to us the languor of
beauty or the sickness of childhood. The loud roar of
troubled waters seems to bear some resemblance to the
voice of lamentation or violence; and the softer murmur
of brighter streams, to be expressive of cheerfulness and
innocence. The purity and transparency of water or of
air, indeed, is itself felt to be expressive of mental purity
and gaiety; and their darkness or turbulence, of mental
gloom and dejection. The genial warmth of autumn sug¬
gests to us the feeling of mild benevolence;—the sunny
gleams and fitful showers of early spring remind us of the
waywardness of infancy;—flowers waving on their slender
stems impress us with the notion of flexibility and light¬
ness of temper. All fine and delicate forms are typical
of delicacy and gentleness of character; and almost all
forms bounded by waving or flowing lines suggest ideas
of ease, pliability, and elegance. Rapid and impetuous
motion seems to be emblematical of violence and pas¬
sion ;—slow and steady motion, of deliberation, dignity,
and resolution ;—fluttering motion, of inconstancy or ter¬
ror;—and waving motion, according as it is slow or swift,
of sadness or playfulness. A lofty tower or a massive
building gives us the idea of firmness and elevation of
character;—a rock battered by the waves, of fortitude in
adversity. Stillness and calmness in the water or the
air seem to shadow out tenderness, indolence, and pla¬
cidity ;—moonlight we call pensive and gentle ;—and the
unclouded sun gives us an impression of exulting vigour,
and domineering ambition and glory.
It is not difficult, with the assistance which language Existence
affords us, to trace the origin of all these and a thousand of certain
other associations. In many instances, the qualities which analogies
thus suggest mental emotions do actually resemble their P^vg®^-v
constant concomitants in human nature, as is obviously ture o^
the case with the forms and motions which are sublime oriangU:ilTe
beautiful; and, in some, their effects and relations bear
so obvious an analogy to those of human conduct or feel¬
ing, as to force itself upon the notice of the most careless
beholder. But, whatever may have been their original,
the very structure of language attests the vast extent to
which they have been carried, and the nature of the sug¬
gestions to which they are indebted for their interest or
beauty. If we speak familiarly of the sparkling of wit,
and the darkness of melancholy, can it be at all difficult
to conceive that bright light may be agreeable, because
it reminds us of gaiety, and darkness oppressive, because
it is felt to be emblematical of sorrow ? It is very remark¬
able, indeed, that, whilst almost all the words by which
the affections of the mind are expressed seem to have
been borrowed originally from the qualities of matter, the
BEAUTY.
548
Beauty, epithets by which we learn afterwards to distinguish such
material objects as are felt to be sublime or beautiful, are
all of them epithets that had been previously appropriated
to express some quality or emotion of mind. Colours are
said to be gay or grave—motions to be lively, or delibe¬
rate, or capricious—forms to be delicate or modest—
sounds to be animated or mournful—prospects to be cheer¬
ful or melancholy—rocks to be bold—waters to be tran¬
quil—and a thousand other phrases of the same import;
all indicating most unequivocally the sources from which
our interest in matter is derived, and proving that it is
necessary in all cases to confer mind and feeling upon it,
before it can be conceived as either sublime or beautiful.
The great charm, indeed, and the great secret of poetical
diction, consists in thus lending life and emotion to all the
objects it embraces ; and the enchanting beauty which we
sometimes recognise in descriptions of very ordinary phe¬
nomena, will be found to arise from the force of imagina¬
tion, by which the poet has connected with human emo¬
tions a variety of objects, to which common minds could
not discover their relation. What the poet does for his
readers, however, by his original similes and metaphors in
these higher cases, even the dullest of these readers do in
some degree every day for themselves ; and the beauty
which is perceived, when natural objects are unexpectedly
vivified by the glowing fancy of the former, is precisely of
the same kind that is felt when the closeness of the analogy
enables them to force human feelings upon the recollec¬
tion of all mankind. As the poet sees more of beauty in
nature than ordinary mortals, just because he perceives
more of these analogies and relations to social emotion,
in which all beauty consists; so, other men see more or
less of this beauty, exactly as they happen to possess that
fancy, or those habits, which enable them readily to trace
out these relations.
From all these sources of evidence, then, we think it is
pretty well made out, that the beauty or sublimity of ex¬
ternal objects is nothing but the reflection of emotions
excited by the feelings or condition of sentient beings,
and is produced altogether by certain little portions, as it
were, of love, joy, pity, veneration, or terror, that adhere
to those objects which are present on occasion of such emo¬
tions. Nor, after what we have already said, does it seem
to be necessary to reply to more than one of the objec¬
tions to which we are aware that this theory is liable.
Objections If beauty be nothing more than a reflection of love,
answered, pity, or veneration, how comes it, it may be asked, to be
distinguished from these sentiments ? They are never con¬
founded with each other either in our feelings or our lan¬
guage. Why, then, should they all be confounded under
the common name of beauty? and why should beauty, in
all cases, affect us in a way so different from the love or
compassion of which it is said to be merely the reflection ?
Now, to these questions we are somewhat tempted to
answer, after the manner of Scotchmen, by asking, in our
turn, whether it be really true that beauty always affects
us in one and the same manner, and always in a different
manner from the simple and elementary affections which
it is its office to recall to us ? In very many cases it ap¬
pears to us that the sensations which we receive from ob¬
jects that are felt to be beautiful, and that in the highest
degree, do not differ at all from the direct movements of
tenderness or pity towards sentient beings. If the epithet
of beauty be correctly (as it is universally) applied to
many of the most admired and enchanting passages in
poetry, which consist entirely in the expression of affect¬
ing sentiments, the question would be speedily decided;
and it is a fact, at all events, too remarkable to be omitted,
that some of the most powerful and delightful emotions
that are uniformly classed under this name, arise altoge¬
ther from the direct influence of these pathetic emotions, Beauty,
without the intervention of any material imagery. We do
not wish, however, to dwell upon an argument which cer¬
tainly is not applicable to all parts of the question; and,
admitting that, on many occasions, the feelings which we
experience from beauty are sensibly different from the
primary emotions in which we think they originate, we
shall endeavour, in a very few words, to give an explana¬
tion of this difference, which seems to be perfectly con¬
sistent with the theory we have undertaken to illustrate.
In the first place, it should make some difference on theExplana-
primary affections to which we have alluded, that, in thetions.
cases alluded to, they are reflected from material objects,
and not directly excited by their natural causes. The
light of the moon has a very different complexion from
that of the sun, though it is in substance the sun’s light;
and glimpses of interesting, or even of familiar objects,
caught unexpectedly from a mirror placed at a distance
from these objects, will affect us, like sudden allusions in
poetry, very differently from the natural perception of
those objects in their ordinary relations. In the next
place, the emotion, when suggested in the shape of beau¬
ty, comes upon us, for the most part, disencumbered of
all those accompaniments which frequently give it a pecu¬
liar and less satisfactory character, when it arises from di¬
rect intercourse with its living objects. The compassion,
for example, that is suggested by beauty of a gentle and
winning description, is not attended with any of that dis¬
gust and uneasiness which frequently accompany the spec¬
tacle of real distress, nor with that importunate sugges¬
tion of the duty of relieving it from which it is almost in¬
separable. Nor does the temporary delight which we re¬
ceive from beauty of a gay and animating character, call
upon us for any such expenditure of spirits, or active de¬
monstrations of sympathy, as are sometimes demanded by
the turbulence of real joy. In the third place, the emo¬
tion of beauty being partly founded upon illusion, is far
more transitory in its own nature, and is both more apt to
fluctuate and vary in its character, and more capable of
being dismissed at pleasure, than any of the primary af¬
fections, whose shadow and representative it is. In the
fourth place, the perception of beauty implies a certain
exercise of the imagination that is not required in the case
of direct emotion, and is sufficient of itself both to give a
new character to every emotion that is suggested by the
intervention of such an exercise, and to account for our
classing all the various emotions that are so suggested un¬
der the same denomination of beauty. When we are in¬
jured we feel indignation,—when we are wounded we feel
pain,—when we see suffering we feel compassion,—and
when we witness any splendid act of heroism or generosity
we feel admiration, without any effort of the imagination,
or the intervention of any picture or vision in the mind.
But when we feel indignation, or pity, or admiration, in
consequence of seeing some piece of inanimate matter
that merely suggests or recalls to us the ordinary causes
or proper objects of these emotions, it is evident that our
fancy is kindled by a sudden flash of recollection ; and that
the effect is produced by means of a certain poetical crea¬
tion that is instantly conjured up in the mind. It is this
active and heated state of the imagination, and this divid¬
ed and busy occupation of the mind, that constitute the
great peculiarity of the emotions we experience from the
perception of beauty.
Finally, and this is perhaps the most important consi¬
deration of the whole, it should be recollected, that, along
with the shadow or suggestion of associated emotions,
there is always present a real and direct perception, which
not only gives a force and liveliness to all the images which
it suggests, but seems to impart to them some share of its
beauty
549
Beauty, own reality. That there is an illusion of this kind in the before us, which is all that we can hope to give in the Beauty,
case, is sufficiently demonstrated by the fact, that we in- limits to which this article is confined. It may be ob-
variably ascribe the interest which we think has been served, however, that we have spoken only of those sorts
proved to arise wholly from these associations, to the ob- of beauty which we think capable of being resolved into
ject itself) as one of its actual and inherent qualities, and some passion, or emotion, or pretty lively sentiment of
consider its beauty as no less a property belonging to it our nature ; and though these are undoubtedly the highest
than any of its physical attributes. The associated inte- and most decided kinds of beauty, it is certain that there
rest, therefore, is beyond all doubt confounded with the are many things called beautiful which cannot claim so
present perception of the object itself; and a livelier and lofty a connection.
more instant impression is accordingly made upon the It is necessary, therefore, to observe, that, though every Associa-
mind, than if the interesting conceptions had been merely thing that excites any feeling worthy to be called an erao-tions with
excited in the memory by the usual operation of reflec- tion by its beauty or sublimity, will be found to be re‘*0^|0°t
tion or voluntary meditation. Something analogous to lated to the natural objects of human passions or affec'„en;USj ’
this is familiarly known to occur in other cases. When tions, there are many things which are pleasing or agree-p0Wej/or
we merely think of an absent friend, our emotions are in- able enough to be called beautiful in consequence of their splendour,
comparably less lively than when the recollection of him relation merely to human convenience and comfort,— are also
is suddenly suggested by the unexpected sight of his pic- many others that please by suggesting ideas of human sources of
ture, of the house where he dwelt, or the spot on which skill and ingenuity,—and many that obtain the name of eau -'
we last parted from him; and all these objects seem for beautiful by being associated with human fortune, vanity,
the moment to wear the colours of our own associated af- or splendour. After what has been already said, it will
fections. When Captain Cook’s companions found, in the not be necessary either to exemplify or explain these sub-
remotest corner of the habitable globe, a broken spoon ordinate phenomena. It is enough merely to suggest
with the word London stamped upon it, and burst into that they all please upon the same great principle of sym-
tears at the sight, they proved how differently we are pathy with human feelings, and are explained by the sim-
moved by emotions thus connected with the real presence pie and indisputable fact, that we are pleased with the
of an actual perception, and by the mere recollection of direct contemplation of human comfort, ingenuity, and
the objects on which those emotions depend. Every one fortune. All these, indeed, obviously resolve themselves
of them had probably thought of London every day since into the great object of sympathy—human enjoyment,
he left it, and many of them might have been talking of Convenience and comfort is but another name for a lower
it with tranquillity but a little before this more effectual but very indispensable ingredient of that emotion. Skill
appeal was made to their sensibility. and ingenuity readily present themselves as means by
If we add to all this, that there is necessarily something which enjoyment may be promoted; and high fortune,
of vagueness and variableness in the emotions most gene- and opulence, and splendour, pass, at least at a distance,
rally excited by the perception of beauty, and that the for its certain causes and attendants. The beauty of fit-
mind wanders with the eye over the different objects ness and adaptation of parts, even in the works of nature,
which may supply these emotions with a degree of un- is derived from the same fountain, partly by means of its
steadiness and half voluntary half involuntary fluctuation, obvious analogy to works of human skill, and partly by
we may come to understand how the effect not only should suggestions of that creative power and wisdom to which
be essentially different from that of the simple present- human destiny is subjected. The feelings, therefore, as-
ment of any one interesting conception, but should acquire sociated with all these qualities, though scarcely rising to
a peculiarity which entitles it to a different denomination, the height of emotion, are obviously in a certain degree
Most of the associations of which we have been last speak- pleasing or interesting ; and, when several of them happer\
ing, as being founded on the analogies or fanciful resem- to be united in one object, may accumulate to a very great
blances that are felt to exist between physical objects and degree of beauty. It is needless, we think, to pursue
qualities and the interesting affections'of mind, are in- these general propositions through all the details to which
trinsically of this vague and wavering description; and they so obviously lead. We shall confine ourselves, there-
when we look at a fine landscape, or any other scene of fore, to a very few remarks upon the beauty of architec-
complicated beauty, a great variety of such images are ture,—and chiefly as an illustration of our general position,
suddenly presented to the fancy, and as suddenly succeed- There are few things about which men of virtu are
ed by others, as the eye ranges over the different features more apt to rave, than the merits of the Grecian architec-
of which it is composed, and feeds upon the charms which ture ; and most of those who affect an uncommon purity
it discloses. Now, the direct perception in all such cases and delicacy of taste talk of the intrinsic beauty of its
not only perpetually accompanies the associated emotions, proportions as a thing not to be disputed, except by bar-
but is inextricably confounded with them in our feelings, barian ignorance and stupidity. Mr Alison, we think, was
and is even recognised upon reflection as the cause, not the first who gave a full and convincing refutation of this
merely of their unusual strength, but of the several pecu- mysterious dogma; and, while he admits, in the most ample
liarities by which we have shown that they are distin- terms, the beauty of the objects in question, he has shown,
guished. It is not wonderful, therefore, either that emo- we think, in the clearest manner, that it arises entirely
tions so circumstanced should not be classed along with from the combination of the following associations :—ls£,
similar affections, under circumstances extremely different, The association of utility, convenience, or fitness for the
or that the perception of present existence, thus mixed purposes of the building; 2c#y, Of security and stability,
up, and indissolubly confounded with interesting concep- with a view to the nature of the materials; Mly, Of the
tions, should between them produce a sensation of so dis- skill and power requisite to mould such materials into forms
tinct a nature as naturally to be distinguished by a pecu- so commodious; \thly. Of magnificence, and splendour,
liar name, or that the beauty which results from this com- and expense; bthly. Of antiquity ; and, 6*%, Of Roman
bination should, in ordinary language, be ascribed to the and Grecian greatness. His observations are summed up
objects themselves, the presence and perception of which in the following short sentence.
is a necessary condition of its existence. “ The proportions,” he observes, “ of these orders, it is
What we have now said is enough, we believe, to give to be remembered, are distinct subjects of beauty, from
an attentive reader that general conception of the theory the ornaments with which they are embellished, from the
550
BEAUTY.
Beauty, magnificence with which they are executed, from the pur- visible objects affect us with a sense of beauty in conse
poses of elegance they are intended to serve, or the scenes
of grandeur they are destined to adorn. It is in such
scenes, however, and with such additions, that we are ac¬
customed to observe them; and, while we feel the effect
of all these accidental associations, we are seldom willing
quence of the pleasurable impression they make upon the
sense, and that our pevcention of beauty is, in these in¬
stances, a mere organic sensation. Now we have already
stated that it would be something quite unexampled in
the history either of mind or of language, if certain phy-
Beauty.
to examine
what are the causes of the complex emotion sical and bodily sensations should thus be confounded
we feel, and readily attribute to the nature of the archi¬
tecture itself the whole pleasure which we enjoy. But,
besides these, there are other associations we have with
these forms, that still more powerfully serve to command
our admiration ; for they are the Grecian orders, they
with moral and social feelings with which they had no
connection, and pass familiarly under one and the same
name. Beauty consists confessedly, in almost all cases,
in the suggestion of moral or social emotions, mixed up and
modified by a present sensation or perception; and it is
derive their origin from' those times, and were the orna- this suggestion, and this identification with a present ob-
ment of those countries, which are most hallowed in our ject, that constitutes its essence, and gives a common cia-
imaginations ; and it is difficult for us to see them, even in racter to the whole class of feelings it produces, sufficient
their modern copies, without feeling them operate upon to justify their being designated by a common appellation,
our minds as relics of those polished nations where they If the word beauty, in short, must mean something, and
first arose, and of that greater people by whom they were if this be very clearly what it means in all remarkable m-
afterwards borrowed.”
This analysis is to us perfectly satisfactory. But, in¬
deed, we cannot conceive any more complete refutation
of the notion of an intrinsic and inherent beauty in the
stances, it is difficult to conceive that it should occasion¬
ally mean something quite different, and denote a mere
sensual or physical gratification, unaccompanied by the
  -    suggestion of any moral emotion whatever. According
proportions”of"the Grecian architecture, than the fact of to Mr Knight, however, and, indeed, to most other wri¬
the admitted beauty of such very opposite proportions in ters, this is the case with regard to the beauty of colours,
the Gothic. Opposite as they are, however, the great which depends altogether, they say, upon the delight
elements of beauty are the same in this style as in the which the eye naturally takes in their contemplation;
0t]ier>—the impressions of religious awe and of chivalrous this delight being just as primitive and sensual as that
recollections, coming here instead of the classical asso- which the palate receives from the contact of agreeable
ciations which constitute so great a share of the interest flavours. .
of the former. It is well observed by Mr Alison, that the It must be admitted, we think, in the first place, that Reasons
great durability and costliness of the productions of this such an allegation is in itself extremely improbable, and ispu
art have had the effect, in almost all regions of the world, contrary to all analogy, and all experience ol the struc-^s^.^
of rendering their fashion permanent, after it had once ture of language, or of the laws of thought. It is further
attained such a degree of perfection as to fulfil its sub- to be considered, too, that if the pleasures of the senses
stantial purposes. are ever to be considered as beautiful, those pleasures
“ Buildings,” he observes, “ may last, and are intended which are the most lively and important would be the
to last, for centuries. The life of man is very inadequate most likely to usurp this denomination, and to take rank
to the duration of such productions; and the present pe- with the higher gratifications that result from the peicep-
riod of the world, though old with respect to those arts tion of beauty. Now, it admits of no dispute, that the
which are employed upon perishable subjects, is yet young mere organic pleasures of the eye are far inferior to those
in relation to an art which is employed upon so durable of the palate, the touch, and indeed almost all the otaer
materials as those of architecture. Instead of a few years, senses,—none of which, however, are m any case con-
therefore, centuries must probably pass before such pro- founded with the sense of beauty. In the next place, it
ductions demand to be renewed; and, long before that should follow, that if what affords organic pleasure to the
period is elapsed, the sacredness of antiquity is acquired eye be properly called beautiful, what offends 01 gives
by the subject itself, and a new motive given for the pre- pain to it should be called ugly. Now, excessive or daz-
servation of similar forms. In every country, accordingly, zling light is offensive to the eye, but, considered by it-
the same effect has taken place; and the same causes self, it is never called ugly, but only painful or disagree-
which have thus served to produce among us, for so many able. The moderate excitement of light, on the other
years, a uniformity of taste with regard to the style of hand, or the soothing of certain bright but temperate
Grecian architecture, have produced also among the na- colours, when considered in this primary aspect, is scarce-
tions of the East, for a much longer course of time, a simi- ly called beautiful, but only agreeable or refreshing. So
lar uniformity of taste with regard to their ornamental far as the direct injury or comfort of the organ, in short,
style of architecture; and have perpetuated among them is concerned, the language which we use refers merely to
the same forms which were in use among their forefathers physical or bodily sensation, and is not confounded with
before the Grecian orders were invented.” that which relates to mental emotion; and we really see
It is not necessary, we think, to carry these illustra- no ground for supposing that there is any exception to
tions any farther, as the theory they are intended to ex- this rule.
plain is now, we believe, universally adopted, though with It is very remarkable, indeed, that the sense whose or-
some limitations, which we see no reason to retain. Those ganic gratification is here supposed to constitute the feel¬
ing of beauty, should be one, in the first place, whose di¬
rect organic gratifications are of very little force or in¬
tensity; and, in the next place, one whose office it is,
suggested by Mr Alison, we have already endeavoured
to dispose of in the few remarks we have made upon his
publication; and it only remains to say a word or two - j . . x - . • i i
more upon Mr Knight’s doctrine as to the primitive and almost exclusively, to make us acquainted with the exist-
independent beauty of colours, upon which we have al- ence and properties of those external objects whic i are
ready hazarded some remarks. naturally interesting to our inward feelings and affections.
Knight’s Agreeing as he does with Mr Alison, and all modern This peculiarity makes it extremely probable, that ideas
doctrine asjnqUirerSj that the whole beauty of objects consists, in the of emotion should be associated with the perceptions of
to beauty £>ar greater number of instances, in the associations to this sense, but extremely improbable that its naked and
examined which we have alluded, he still maintains that some few unassociated sensations should in any case be classed with
BEAUTY.
551
Beauty, such emotions. If the name of beauty were given to what
directly gratifies any sense, such as that of tasting or
smelling, which does not make us acquainted with the
nature or relations of outward objects, there could be less
room for such an explanation. But when it is the busi¬
ness of a particular sense or organ to introduce to our
knowledge those objects which are naturally connected
with ideas of emotion, it is easy to understand how its
perceptions should be associated with these emotions, and
an interest and importance thus extended to them, that
belong to the intimations of no other bodily organ. But,
on those very accounts, we should be prepared to suspect,
that all the interest they possess is derived from this as¬
sociation ; and to distrust the accuracy of any observa¬
tions that may lead us to conclude that its mere organic
impulses ever produced any thing akin to these associated
emotions, or entitled to pass under their name. This cau¬
tion will appear still more reasonable, when it is consider¬
ed that all the other qualities of visible objects, except
only their colours, are now admitted to be perfectly in¬
different in themselves, and to possess no other beauty
than they may derive from their associations with our or¬
dinary affections. There are no forms, for example, even
in Mr Knight’s opinion, that have any intrinsic beauty, or
any power of pleasing or affecting us, except through
their associations, or affinities to mental affections, either
as expressive of fitness and utility, or as types and sym-
hnls of certain moral or intellectual qualities, in which the
sources of our interest are obvious. Yet the form of an
object is as conspicuous an ingredient of its beauty as its
colour, and a property, too, which seems at first view to
be as intrinsically and independently pleasing. Why,
then, should we persist in holding that colours, or com¬
binations of colours, please from being naturally agreeable
to the organ of sight, when it is admitted that other visi¬
ble qualities, which seem to possess the same power of
pleasing, are found, upon examination, to owe it entirely
to the principle of association ?
The only reason that can be assigned, or that actually
exists, for this distinction, is, that it has been supposed
more difficult to account for the beauty of colours, upon
the principles which have accounted for other beauties, or
to specify the particular associations by virtue of which
they could acquire this quality. Now it appears to us
that there is no such difficulty; and that there is no rea¬
son whatever for holding that one colour, or combination
of colours, is more pleasing than another, except upon the
same grounds of association which recommend particular
forms, motions, or proportions. It appears to us, that the
organic pleasures of the eye are extremely few and insig¬
nificant. It is hurt, no doubt, by an excessive glare of
light; and it is in some degree gratified, perhaps, by a
moderate degree of it. But it is only by the quantity or
intensity of the light, we think, that it is so affected. The
colour of it, we take it, is, in all cases, absolutely indiffe¬
rent. But it is the colour only that is called beautiful or
otherwise; and these qualities, we think, it very plainly
derives from the common fountain of association.
Beauty of In the first place, we would ask, whether there is any
colours de-colour that is beautiful in all situations ? and, in the next
rived from p]ace> whether there is any colour that is not beautiful in
some situation ? With regard to the first, take the colours
that are most commonly referred to as being intrinsically
beautiful—bright and soft green—clear blue—bright pink,
or vermilion. The first is unquestionably beautiful in ver¬
nal woods and summer meadows,—and, we humbly con¬
ceive, is beautiful because it is the natural sign and con¬
comitant of those scenes and seasons of enjoyment. Blue,
again, is beautiful in the vernal sky,—and, as we believe,
for the sake of the pleasures of which such skies are pro-
association
alone.
lific ; and pink is beautiful on the cheeks of a young woman Beauty,
or the leaves of a rose, for reasons too obvious to be stat-
ed. We have associations enough, therefore, to recom¬
mend all these colours, in the situations in which they are
beautiful; but, strong as these associations are, they are
unable to make them universally beautiful,—or beautiful,
indeed, in any other situations. Green would not be
beautiful in the sky, nor blue on the cheek, nor vermi¬
lion on the grass. It may be said, indeed, that, though they
are always recognised as beautiful in themselves, their
obvious unfitness in such situations counteracts the effect
of their beauty, and makes an opposite impression, as of
something monstrous and unnatural; and that,accordingly,
they are all beautiful in indifferent situations, where there
is no such antagonist principle—in furniture, dress, and
ornaments. Now the fact, in the first place, is not so;—
these bright colours being but seldom and sparingly ad¬
mitted in ornaments or works of art; and no man, for ex¬
ample, choosing to have a blue house, or a green ceiling,
or a pink coat. But, in the second place, if the facts were
admitted, we think it obvious that the general beauty of
these colours would be sufficiently accounted for by the
very interesting and powerful associations under which all
of them are so frequently presented by the hand of nature.
The interest we take in female beauty,—in vernal de¬
lights,—in unclouded skies,—is far too lively and too con¬
stantly recurring, not to stamp a kindred interest upon the
colours that are naturally associated with such objects, and
to make us regard with some affection and delight those
hues that remind us of them, although we should only meet
them upon a fan or a dressing-box, the lining of a curtain
or the back of a screen. Finally, we beg leave to observe,
that all bright and clear colours are naturally typical of
cheerfulness and purity of mind, and are hailed as emblems
of moral qualities, to which no one can be indifferent.
With regard to ugly colours, again, we really are not
aware of any to which that epithet can safely be applied.
Dull and dingy hues are usually mentioned as in them¬
selves the least pleasing; yet these are the prevailing
tints in many beautiful landscapes and many admired pic¬
tures. They are also the most common colours that are
chosen for dress, for building, for furniture, where the
consideration of beauty is the only motive for the choice.
In fact, the shaded parts of all coloured objects pass into
tints of this description; nor can we at present recollect
any one colour which we could specify as in itself disa¬
greeable, without running counter to the feelings and
the practice of the great mass of mankind. If the fact,
however, were otherwise, and if certain muddy and dull
colours were universally allowed to be disagreeable, we
should think there could be no difficulty in referring these,
too, to natural associations. Darkness, and all that ap¬
proaches it, is naturally associated with ideas of melan¬
choly, of helplessness, and danger; and the gloomy hues
that remind us of it, or seem to draw upon it, must share
in the same associations. Lurid skies, too, it should be
observed, and turbid waters, and unfruitful swamps, and
dreary morasses, are the natural and most common wear¬
ers of these dismal liveries. It is from these that we first
become acquainted with them; and it is needless, there¬
fore, to say that such objects are necessarily associated
with ideas of discomfort, and sadness, and danger; and
that the colours that remind us of them can scarcely fail
to recall some of the same disagreeable sensations.
Enough, however, and more than enough, has been said Beauty of
about the supposed primitive and independent beauty ofmixed or
separate colours. It is chiefly upon the intrinsic beauty
of their mixture or combinations that Mr Knight and hisco ours'
adherents have insisted; and it is no doubt quite true,
that, among painters and connoisseurs, we hear a great
552
BEAUTY.
Beauty, deal about the harmony and composition of tints, and the
charms and difficulties of a judicious colouring. In all
this, however, we cannot help suspecting that there is no
little pedantry and no little jargon; and that these phrases,
when used without reference to the practical difficulties
of the art, which must go for nothing in the present ques¬
tion, really mean little more than the true and natural
appearance of coloured objects, seen through the same
tinted or partially obscure medium that commonly consti¬
tutes the atmosphere. In nature, we know ot no discord¬
ant or offensive colouring, except what may he referred to
some accident or disaster that spoils the moral or senti¬
mental expression of the scene, and disturbs the associa¬
tions upon which all its beauty, whether of forms or of
hues, seems to us very plainly dependent. We are per¬
fectly aware, that ingenious persons have been disposed
to dogmatize and to speculate very confidently upon these
subjects ; and have had the benefit of seeing various learn¬
ed treatises upon the natural gamut of colours, and the in¬
herent congruity of those that are called complementary,
with reference to the prismatic spectrum. But we con-
fess we have no faith in any of those fancies ; and believe,
that, if all these colours were fairly arranged on a plain
board, according to the most rigid rules of this supposed
harmony, nobody but the author of the theory would per¬
ceive the smallest beauty in the exhibition, or be the least
offended by reversing their collocation.
We do not mean, however, to dispute that the laws of
colouring, insisted on by learned artists, will produce a
more pleasing effect upon trained judges of the art, than a
neglect of these laws; because we have little doubt that
these combinations of colour are recommended by certain
associations, which render them generally pleasing to per¬
sons so trained and educated;—all that we maintain is,
that there are no combinations that are originally and uni¬
versally pleasing or displeasing to the eye, independent of
such associations; and it seems to us an irresistible proof
of this, that these laws of harmonious colouring are per¬
petually and deliberately violated by great multitudes of
persons, who not only have the perfect use of their sight,
but are actually bestowing great pains and expense in
providing for its gratification, in the very act of this viola¬
tion. The Dutch trader, who paints over the outside of
his country-house with as many bright colours as are to be
found in his tulip-bed, and garnishes his green shutters
with blue facings, and his purple roof with lilac ridges,
not only sees as well as the studied colourist, who shud¬
ders at the exhibition, but actually receives as much plea¬
sure, and as strong an impression of beauty, from the
finished lusthaus, as the artist does from one of his best
pictures. It is impossible, then, that these combinations
of colours can be naturally or intrinsically offensive to the
organ of sight; and their beauty or ugliness must depend
upon the associations which different individuals may have
happened to foim with regard to them. We contend,
however, for nothing more; and are quite willing to allow
that the associations which recommend his staring tawd¬
riness to the buigomaster, are such as could not easily
have been formed in the mind of a diligent and extensive
observer of nature, and that they would probably be re¬
versed by habits of reflection and study. But the same
thing, it is obvious, may be said of the notions of beauty
of any other description that prevail among the rude,
the inexperienced, and uninstructed; though, in all other
instances, we take it for granted that the beauty which
is perceived depends altogether upon association, and in
no degree on its power of giving a pleasurable impulse to
the organ to which it addresses itself. If any consider¬
able number of persons, with the perfect use of sight, ac¬
tually take pleasure in certain combinations of colours,
that is complete proof that such combinations are not na- Beauty,
turally offensive to the organ of sight, and that the plea-
sure of such persons, exactly like that of those who dis¬
agree with them, is derived, not from the sense, but from
associations with its perceptions.
With regard, again, to the effect of broken masses ofEffects of
light and shadow, it is proper, in the first place, to remem- light and
her, that by the eye we see colour only; and that lights shadow,
and shadows, as far as the mere organ is concerned, mean
nothing but variations of tint. It is very true, no doubt,
that we soon learn to refer many of those variations to
light and shade, and that they thus become signs to us of
depth, and distance, and relief. But is n»t this of itself
sufficient to refute the idea of their affording any primi¬
tive or organic pleasure? In so far as they are mere
variations of tints, they may be imitated by unmeaning
daubs of paint on a pallet;—in so far as they are signs, it
is to the mind that they address themselves, and not to the
organ. They are signs, too, it should be recollected, and
the only signs we have, by which we can receive any cor¬
rect knowledge of the existence and condition of all ex¬
ternal objects at a distance from us, whether interesting
or not interesting. Without the assistance of variety of
tint, and of lights and shadows, we could never distinguish
one object from another, except by the touch. These
appearances, therefore, are the perpetual vehicles of al¬
most all our interesting perceptions ; and are consequent¬
ly associated with all the emotions we receive from visi¬
ble objects. It is pleasant to see many things in one pro¬
spect, because some of them are probably agreeable; and
it is pleasant to know the relations of those things, be¬
cause the qualities or associations, by means of which they
interest us, depend generally upon that knowledge. The
mixture of colours and shades, however, is necessary to
this enjoyment, and consequently is a sign of it, and a
source of associated interest or beauty.
Mr Knight, however, goes much farther than this ; and Knight’s
maintains, that the beauty which is so distinctly felt in opinion as
many pictures of objects in themselves disagreeable, is t0LOtllf 0f
be ascribed entirely to the effect of the brilliant and har- Cg^1'^ °
monious tints, and the masses of light and shadow, thatpjctures
maybe employed in the representation. The filthy and refuted,
tattered rags of a beggar, he observes, and the putrefying
contents of a dunghill, may form beautiful objects in a pic¬
ture ; because, considered as mere objects of sight, they
may often present beautiful effects of colouring and shadow;
and these are preserved or heightened in the imitation,
disjoined from all their offensive accompaniments. Now,
if the tints and shades were the exclusive sources of our
gratification, and if this gratification was diminished, in¬
stead of being heightened, by the suggestion which, how¬
ever transiently, must still intrude itself, that they appear¬
ed in an imitation of disgusting objects, it must certainly
follow, that the pleasure and the beauty would be much
enhanced if there was no imitation of any thing whatever,
and if the canvass merely presented the tints and shades,
unaccompanied with the representation, of any particular
object. It is perfectly obvious, however, that it would be
absurd to call such a collection of coloured spots a beau¬
tiful picture; and that a man would be laughed at who
should hang up such a piece of stained canvass among the
works of the great artists. Again, if it were really pos¬
sible for any one but a student of art to confine the at¬
tention to the mere colouring and shadowing of any pic¬
ture, there is nothing so disgusting but what might form
the subject of a beautiful imitation. A piece ot putrid
veal, or a cancerous ulcer, or the rags that are taken from
it, may display the most brilliant tints and the finest dis¬
tribution of light and shadow. Does Mr Knight, however,
seriously think that either of these experiments would
B E A
Beauty, succeed ? Or are there, in reality, no other qualities in
’'-''V'*-*' the pictures in question, to which their beauty can be
ascribed, but the organic effect of their colours? We
humbly conceive that there are, and that far less ingenuity
than his might have been able to detect them.
There is, in the first place, the pleasing association of
the skill and power of the artist,—a skill and power which,
we know, may be employed to produce unmingled delight,
whatever may be the character of the particular effort
before us. But, in the second place, we do humbly con*
ceive that there are many interesting associations con¬
nected with the subjects which have been represented as
purely disgusting. The aspect of human wretchedness
and decay is not, at all events, an indifferent spectacle;
and, if presented to us without actual offence to our senses,
or any call on our active beneficence, may excite a sym¬
pathetic emotion, which is known to be far from unde-
lightful. Many an attractive poem has been written on
r the miseries of beggars ; and why should painting be sup¬
posed more fastidious ? Besides, it will be observed that
the beggars of the painter are generally among the most
interesting of that interesting order;—either young and
lovely children, whose health, and gaiety, and sweet ex¬
pression, form an affecting contrast with their squalid
garments, and the neglect and misery to which they
seem to be destined,—or old and venerable persons,
mingling something of the dignity and reverence of age
with the broken spirit of their condition, and seeming to
reproach mankind for exposing heads so old and white to
the pelting of the pitiless storm. While such pictures
suggest images so pathetic, it looks almost like a wilful
perversity to ascribe their beauty entirely to the mix¬
ture of colours which they display, and to the forgetful¬
ness of these images. Even for the dunghill we think it
is possible to say sometlamg, though we confess we have
never happened to see/afiy picture of which that useful
compound formed the peculiar subject. There is the
display of the painter’s art and power here also; and the
dunghill is not only useful, but is associated with many
pleasing images of rustic toil and occupation, and of the
simplicity, and comfort, and innocence of agricultural
life. We do not know that a dunghill is at all a disagree¬
able object to look at, even in plain reality, provided it
be so far off as not to annoy us with its odour, or to soil
us with its effusions. In a picture, however, we are safe
from any of these disasters; and considering that it is
usually combined, in such delineations, with other more
pleasing and touching remembrancers of humble happi¬
ness and contentment, we really do not see that it was at
all necessary to impute any mysterious or intrinsic beauty
to its complexion, in order to account for the satisfaction
with which we can then bear to behold it.
Beauty of Having said so much with a view to reduce to its just
derived^ vahie, as an ingredient of beauty, the mere organical de-
from asso- which the eye is supposed to derive from colours, we
elation, really have not patience to apply the same considerations
to the alleged beauty of sounds that are supposed to be
insignificant. Beautiful sounds in general, we think, are
beautiful from association only,—from their resembling
the natural tones of various passions and affections, or
from their being originally and most frequently presented
to us in scenes or on occasions of natural interest or emo¬
tion. With regard, again, to successive or co-existent
sounds, we do not, of course, mean to dispute that there
are such things as melody and harmony, and that most
men are offended or gratified by the violation or obser¬
vance of those laws upon which they depend. This, how¬
ever, it should be observed, is a faculty quite unique, and
unlike any thing else in our constitution; by no means
universal, as tliei sense of beauty is, even in cultivated so-
VOL. iv.
u T Y. 553
cieties, and apparently withheld from whole communities Beauty,
of quick-eared savages and barbarians. Whether the
kind of gratification which results from the mere musical
arrangement of sounds would be referred to a sense of
beauty, or would pass under that name, if it could be pre¬
sented entirely detached from any associated emotions,
appears to us to be exceedingly doubtful. Even with the
benefit of these combinations, we do not find that every
arrangement which merely preserves inviolate the rules
of composition is considered beautiful; and we do not
think that it would be consonant, either to the common
feeling or common language of mankind, to bestow this
epithet upon pieces that had no other merit. At all
events, and whatever may be thought of the proper name
of this singular gratification of a musical ear, it seems to
be quite certain that all that rises to the dignity of an
emotion in the pleasure we receive from sounds, is as
clearly the gift of association as in the case of visible
beauty,—of association with the passionate tones and mo¬
dulations of the human voice,—with the scenes to which
the interesting sounds are native,—with the poetry to
which they have been married,—or even with the skill
and genius of the artist by whom they have been arranged.
Hitherto we have spoken of the beauty of external ob- Beauty of
jects only. But the whole difficulty of the theory consists immaterial
in its application to them. If that be once adjusted, the objects re¬
beauty of immaterial objects can occasion no perplexity.
Poems, and other compositions in words, are beautiful insourc'es.
proportion as they are conversant with beautiful objects,
or as they suggest to us, in a more direct way, the moral
and social emotions on which the beauty of all objects de¬
pends. Theorems and demonstrations are beautiful, ac¬
cording as they excite in us emotions of admiration for
the genius and intellectual power of their inventors, and
images of the magnificent and beneficial ends to which
such discoveries may be applied; and mechanical contri¬
vances are beautiful when they remind us of similar talents
and ingenuity, and at the same time impress us with a
more direct sense of their vast utility to mankind, and of
the great additional conveniences with which life is con¬
sequently adorned. In all cases, therefore, there is the
suggestion of some interesting conception or emotion as¬
sociated with a present perception, in which it is appa¬
rently confounded and embodied; and this, according to
the whole of the preceding deduction, is the distinguish¬
ing characteristic of beauty.
Having now explained, as fully as we think necessary, Conse-
the grounds of that opinion as to the nature of beauty quences of
which appears to be most conformable to the truth, we411^11160^-
have only to add a word or two as to the necessary con¬
sequences of its adoption upon several other controversies
of a kindred description.
In the first place, then, we conceive that it establishes
the substantial identity of the sublime, the beautiful, and
the picturesque, and consequently puts an end to all
controversy that is not purely verbal as to the difference
of those several qualities. Every material object that in¬
terests without actually hurting or gratifying our bodily
feelings, must do so, according to this theory, in one and
the same manner, that is, by suggesting or recalling some
emotion or affection of ourselves or some other sentient
being, and presenting, to our imagination at least, some
natural object of love, pity, admiration, or awe. The in¬
terest of material objects, therefore, is always the same,
and arises in every case, not from any physical qualities
they may possess, but from their association with some
idea of emotion. But, though material objects have but
one means of exciting emotion, the emotions they do
excite are infinite. They are mirrors that may reflect all
shades and all colours, and, in point of fact, do seldom
4 A
554
BEAUTY.
Beauty-
reflect the same hues twice. No two interesting objects,
perhaps, whether known by the name of beautiful, sub¬
lime, or picturesque, ever produced exactly the same
emotion in the beholder; and no one object, it is most pro¬
bable, ever moved any two persons to the very same con¬
ceptions. As they may be associated with all the feelings
and affections of which the human mind is susceptible, so
they may suggest those feelings in all their variety, and,
in fact, do daily excite all sorts of emotions, running
through every gradation, from extreme gaiety and eleva¬
tion, to the borders of horror and disgust.
Now, it is certainly true, that all the variety of emo¬
tions raised in this way, on the single basis of association,
may be classed in a rude way under the denominations of
sublime, beautiful, and picturesque, according as they par¬
take of awe, tenderness, or admiration; and we have no
other objection to this nomenclature except its extreme
imperfection, and the delusions to which we know that it
has given occasion. If objects that interest by their asso¬
ciation with ideas of power, and danger, and terror, are to
be distinguished by the peculiar name of sublime, why
should there not be a separate name also for objects that
interest by associations of mirth and gaiety,—another for
those that please by suggestions of softness and melan¬
choly,—another for such as are connected with impressions
of comfort and tranquillity,—and another for those that are
related to pity, and admiration, and love, and regret, and
all the other distinct emotions and affections of our nature?
These are not in reality less distinguishable from each
other than from the emotions of awe. and veneration that
confer the title of sublime on their representatives; and
while all the former are confounded under the comprehen¬
sive appellation of beauty, this partial attempt at distinc¬
tion is only apt to mislead us into an erroneous opinion of
our accuracy, and to make us believe both that there is a
greater conformity among the things that pass under the
same name, and a greater difference between those that
pass under different names, than is really the case. We
have seen already that the radical error of almost all pre¬
ceding inquirers, has lain in supposing that every thing
that passed under the name of beautiful must have some
real and inherent quality in common with every thing else
that obtained that name. And it is scarcely necessary for
us to observe, that it has been almost as general an opi¬
nion, that sublimity was not only something radically dif¬
ferent from beauty, but actually opposite to it; whereas
the fact is, that it is far more nearly related to some sorts of
beauty than many sorts of beauty are to each other; and
that both are founded exactly upon the same principle of
suggesting some past or possible emotion of some sentient
beinS- . . . •
Upon this important point we are happy to find our opi¬
nions confirmed by the authority of Mr Stewart, who, in
his Essay on the Beautiful, already referred to, has ob¬
served, not only that there appears to him to be no incon¬
sistency or impropriety in such expressions as the Sublime
Beauties of nature, or of the sacred Scriptures; but has
added, in express terms, that, “ to oppose the beautiful to
the sublime, or to the picturesque, strikes him as some¬
thing analogous to a contrast between the beautiful and
the comic, the beautiful and the tragic, the beautiful and
the pathetic, or the beautiful and the romantic.”
The only other advantage which we shall specify as
likely to result from the general adoption of the theory
we have been endeavouring to illustrate, is, that it seems
calculated to put an end to all these perplexing and vexa¬
tious questions about the standard of taste, which have
given occasion to so much impertinent and so much ela¬
borate discussion. If things are not beautiful in them¬
selves, but only as they serve to suggest interesting con¬
ceptions to the mind, then every thing which does in point Beauty,
of fact suggest such a conception to any individual, is
beautiful to that individual; and it is not only quite true
that there is no room for disputing about tastes, but that
all tastes are equally just and correct, in as far as each
individual speaks only of his own emotions. When a man
calls a thing beautiful, however, he may indeed mean to
make two very different assertions ;—he may mean that
it gives him pleasure, by suggesting to him some interest¬
ing emotion; and, in this sense, there can be no doubt
that, if he merely speak truth, the thing is beautiful, and
that it pleases him precisely in the same way that all
other things please those to whom they appear beautiful.
But if he mean further to say that the thing possesses
some quality which should make it appear beautiful to
every other person, and that it is owing to some preju¬
dice or defect in them if it appear otherwise, then he is
as unreasonable and absurd as he would think those who
should attempt to convince him that he felt no emotion of
beauty.
AH tastes, then, are equally just and true, in as far as
concerns the individual whose taste is in question; and
what a man feels distinctly to be beautiful, is beautiful to
him, whatever other people may think of it. All this fol¬
lows clearly from the theory now in question : but it does
not follow from it that all tastes are equally good or de¬
sirable, or that there is any difficulty in describing that
which is really the best, and the most to be envied. The
only use of the faculty of taste is to afford an innocent
delight, and to aid the cultivation of a finer morality; and
that man certainly will have the most delight from this
faculty who has the most numerous and the most power¬
ful perceptions of beauty. But if beauty consist in the
reflection of our affections and sympathies, it is plain that
he will always see the most beauty whose affections are
warmest and most exercised, whose imagination is the
most powerful, and who has most accustomed himself to
attend to the objects by which he is surrounded. In as
far as mere feeling and enjoyment are concerned, there¬
fore, it seems evident that the best taste must be that
which belongs to the best affections, the most active fancy,
and the most attentive habits of observation. It will fol¬
low pretty exactly, too, that all men’s perceptions of beau¬
ty w ill be nearly in proportion to the degree of their sen¬
sibility and social sympathies; and that those who have
no affections towards sentient beings, will be just as in¬
sensible to beauty in external objects, as he who cannot
hear the sound of his friend’s voice must be deaf to its
echo.
In so far as the sense of beauty is regarded as a mere
source of enjoyment, this seems to be the only distinction
that deserves to be attended to; and the only cultivation
that taste should ever receive, with a view to the gratifi¬
cation of the individual, should be through the indirect
channel of cultivating the affections and powers of obser¬
vation. If we aspire, however, to be creators as well as
observers of beauty, and place any part of our happiness
in ministering to the gratification of others—as artists, or
poets, or authors of any sort—then, indeed, a new dis¬
tinction of tastes, and a far more laborious system of cul¬
tivation, will be necessary. A man who pursues only his
own delight will be as much charmed with objects that
suggest powerful emotions in consequence of personal and
accidental associations, as with those that introduce simi¬
lar emotions by means of associations that are universal
and indestructible.. To him, all objects of the former
class are really as beautiful as those of the latter—and,
for his own gratification, the creation of that sort of
beauty is just as important an occupation ; but if he con¬
ceive the ambition of creating beauties for the admiration
B E C
Beauty of others, he must be cautious to employ only such objects
II as are the natural signs, or the inseparable concomitants
IBeccafumi. 0f ernotions, of which the greater part of mankind are sus-
ceptible ; and his taste will then deserve to be called bad
and false, if he obtrude upon the public, as beautiful, ob¬
jects that are not likely to be associated in common minds
with any interesting impressions.
For a man himself, then, there is no taste that is either
bad or false ; and the only difference worthy of being at¬
tended to, is that between a great deal and a very little.
Some who have cold affections, sluggish imaginations, and
no habits of observation, can with difficulty discern beauty
in any thing; while others, who are full of kindness and
sensibility, and who have been accustomed to attend to
all the objects around them, feel it almost in every thing.
It is no matter what other people may think of the objects
of their admiration; nor ought it to be any concern of
theirs that the public would be astonished or offended if
L they were called upon to join in that admiration. As long
as no such call is made, this anticipated discrepancy of
feeling need give them no uneasiness; and the suspicion
of it should produce no contempt in any other person. It
is a strange aberration indeed of vanity that makes us de¬
spise persons for being happy, for having sources of en¬
joyment in which we cannot share; and yet this is the
true account of the ridicule which is so generally poured
upon individuals who seek only to enjoy their peculiar
tastes unmolested; for, if there be any truth in the
theory we have been expounding, no taste is bad for any
other reason than because it is peculiar, as the objects in
which it delights must actually serve to suggest to the in¬
dividual those common emotions and universal affections
BEG 555
upon which the sense of beauty is everywhere founded. Beauty
The misfortune is, however, that we are apt to consider II
all persons who make known their peculiar relishes, and Beccana-
especially all who create any objects for their gratification,
as in some measure dictating to the public, and setting up
an idol for general adoration ; and hence this intolerant
interference with almost all peculiar perceptions of beau¬
ty, and the unsparing derision that pursues all deviations
from acknowledged standards. This intolerance, we ad¬
mit, is often provoked by something of a spirit of prose-
lytism and arrogance, in those who mistake their own
casual associations for natural or universal relations ; and
the consequence is, that mortified vanity dries up the
fountain of their peculiar enjoyment, and disenchants, by
a new association of general contempt or ridicule, the
scenes that had been consecrated by some innocent but
accidental emotion.
As all men must have some peculiar associations, all
men must have some peculiar notions of beauty, and, of
course, to a certain extent, a taste that the public would
be entitled to consider as false or vitiated. For those
Avho make no demands on public admiration, however, it
is hard to be obliged to sacrifice this source of enjoyment;
and, even for those who labour for applause, the wisest
course, perhaps, if it were only practicable, would be to
have two tastes,—one to enjoy, and one to work by; one
founded upon universal associations, according to which
they finished those performances for which they chal¬
lenged universal praise; and another guided by all casual
and individual associations, through which they looked
fondly upon nature, and upon the objects of their secret
admiration. (f. j.)
BEAUVAIS (the Caesaromagus and Bellovaci of anti¬
quity), an arrondissement, department of Oise, in France,
containing twelve cantons and 234 communes. Area 756
square miles. Pop. (in 1851) 101,983. The chief city, of
the same name, is in a beautiful situation on the river The-
rain, 21 miles N.W. of Paris. Pop. 12,508, employed in
woollen, flax, cotton, earthenware, and carpet manufactures.
The cathedral of Beauvais is one of the largest in France.
BEAVER, or Castor, an amphibious quadruped of the
order Rodentia, with a thick glossy fur, and horizontally
flattened tail, abounding in North America and Siberia, and
still found in the north of Europe. It formerly appears to
have been known as far south as the Rhone and the Danube;
and though with us now extinct, was formerly an inhabitant
of Great Britain. The fur of the beaver forms a consider¬
able article of commerce. Among traders the skins are dis¬
tinguished into three kinds: 1. The fresh beaver, which is
obtained in winter, before the animal has shed any of its
hair, and consequently that is most esteemed by furriers.
2. The dry or lean beaver, which is captured in summer,
when the animal is moulting. 3. The fat beaver, which dif¬
fers from the fresh only in having acquired additional soft¬
ness and oiliness from being worn for some time on the per¬
sons of the native hunters. This is the kind that is chiefly
used in hat-making. The substance called castor is found
in pouches in the inguinal region of the beaver. It is re¬
garded as a powerful antispasmodic. See Mammalia.
Beaver, that part of a helmet which covers the face.
BECAFICO, or Beccafigo {Italian), the fig-pecker,
a bird like the nightingale, and much esteemed for its song
and for its delicate flavour as food.
BECCAFUMI, Domenico Mecherino, was a painter of
the school of Siena, where he was born in 1484, and where his
best pictures are. His finest performances are small figures
in distemper. He painted less happily in oil; but he is
commended both by Vasari and by Lanzi. He died in 1549.
BECCARI A, Calsar Bonesana, Marquis of, author of
the wTeli-known treatise on Crimes and Punishments, was
born at Milan in the year 1735. His early studies were
carried on in the college of the Jesuits at Parma. He pos¬
sessed a quick apprehension ; but, being naturally taciturn
and inclined to reflection, he seldom communicated the pro¬
gress of his ideas, and was with difficulty prevailed upon to
complete his exercises. It is related, as another peculiarity
of his disposition, that he never received praise from his
teachers without betraying evident marks of pain and humi¬
liation. These unusual indications of a susceptible mind,
which, outstripping the course of his instructors, delighted
in its own pursuits, and derived little complacency from a
sense of its actual attainments, gave him, to common ob¬
servers, a certain air of slowness, or even of stupidity, and
characterized his features and deportment during the whole
of his life. Having left college at the age of seventeen, he
applied himself, with unremitting diligence, to the study of
mathematics and the philosophy of man.
His propensity to the study of jurisprudence and political
philosophy was first excited or confirmed by the Lettres
Persannes of Montesquieu ; a production capable, indeed, of
alluring a less enthusiastic mind than that of Beccaria. But
his industry in the pursuit of knowledge appears to have been
chiefly stimulated by the patriotic and honourable desire of
diffusing instruction among his countrymen, particularly
the inhabitants of Milan, whom he represents, in one of
his letters, as abandoned to a state of lamentable and uni¬
versal ignorance. In the prosecution of these laudable
designs, he fortunately possessed the confidence, and was
encouraged by the protection, of Count Firmiani, then go¬
vernor of that part of the Austrian dominions;—an accom¬
plished nobleman, who, with comprehensive views of po¬
licy, concurred in every plan for improving the state of the
provinces and the condition of their inhabitants.
Beccaria first appeared as an author in the year 1762,
556
Beccaria.
BECCARIA.
when he published some observations on the Derange¬
ment of the Currency in the Milanese States, and a plan
for its amendment. Soon after this he established a small
literary society at Milan, in concert with some associates
of character and sentiment similar to his own ; among
others, Alessandro and Pietro Verri, who at that time like¬
wise contributed, by their talents and public spirit, to
distinguish the reign of Maria Teresa in Lombardy.1 As¬
sisted by these friends, and countenanced by Firmiani,
he commenced a periodical publication under the name of
the Caffe ; a plan said to h'ave been suggested to them by
the celebrity of Addison’s Spectator, and the general be¬
lief of its influence on the opinions and taste of the people
of England. Various papers, contributed by the members
of this society, on subjects of literature, ethics, and physi¬
cal science, were published during the years 1764i and 1765.
But by far the most remarkable production to which
this society gave rise, and that by which the reputation of
Beccaria has been chiefly perpetuated among other na¬
tions, was the treatise on Crimes and Punishments (Dei
Delitti e delle Pene). This essay is said to have been
undertaken at the earnest solicitation of Count Alex¬
ander Verri, who then discharged the functions of Pro¬
tector of Prisoners (Protettore de Carcerati) at the court
of Milan. It was written at the house of his brother,
Peter Verri, where the meetings of the society were held;
and in concert with him the author, every evening, re¬
vised and corrected what he had written during the day.
In this manner the work was completed within two months,
and was printed in the course of the year 1764, with the
mark of the Lucca press.2
In this small but noted work the author appears as the
advocate of reason and sound policy no less than of huma¬
nity. It was his purpose, by examining the foundation,
the objects, and consequently the boundaries, of penal
law, to expose the inefficacy as well as injustice of many
provisions in the judicial code of his own country, and
in those of other European nations, which, derived from
remote times, and established under a different order of
society, had been perverted and debased during succes¬
sive ages of barbarism. The authority of positive institu¬
tions formed almost the only basis of law, even in coun¬
tries the furthest advanced in civilization; and that au¬
thority was in many of them drawn too servilely from the
Roman system. Montesquieu had already thrown many
penetrating glances at the foundation and structure of
these ancient fabrics; but it was still reserved for others
to scrutinize them more closely, and to draw forth, and
present to general view, those direct inferences which
that examination suggested. In no part were the exist¬
ing codes more defective and vicious than in the depart¬
ment of the criminal law ; and it was to this, accordingly,
that Beccaria’s attention was exclusively directed. Nor
does he offer the work as a general system or theory even
of penal law, in which light it would be found every way
imperfect, but only as an attempt to analyze parts of a
system which he found actually existing. Among the
most prominent of those points to which his reasoning is
applied, are, the due proportion between crime and pu¬
nishment, and the violations of that proportion, whether
by unnecessary severity of punishments, or the want of a Beccaria.
scale and distribution of them suited to the amount and
danger of particular offences ; the inconsistency of certain
rules then established on the subject of legal evidence;
secret accusations, fictitious crimes, the use of torture as
an instrument for the discovery of truth; imprisonment
not authorized by law, or of uncertain duration, and the
sale of offices of justice ; along with other vices in the con¬
stitution of the courts. In treating these various topics,
he seldom deduces his argument from remote sources, or
pursues it to subtile refinements. That some propositions
are advanced in the course of the work which are of a
questionable nature, cannot be denied; and there are par¬
ticular illustrations which have an exclusive reference to
certain forms of government then existing in the Italian
states. But, in general, the author reasons on few and
acknowledged principles, and makes his appeal to the
universal feelings of mankind. As one of the most im¬
portant conclusions which result from his reasoning, or
rather as concentrating a number of these conclusions, he
closes his book with the following proposition: “ In or¬
der that a punishment may not be an act of violence of
one, or of many, against an individual member of society,
it is essential that it should be public, prompt, and neces¬
sary, the least possible in the given case, and determined
by the law.”
His style in this work, with the exception of one or two
passages, where he intentionally addresses himself only to
the lesser number, is uniformly perspicuous, and, like that
of all his other writings, though often eloquent, is un¬
adorned. He employs, in some parts of it, that species
of ridicule which, on a similar occasion, had been used
with so great eifect by Montesquieu. Thus, while treat¬
ing the subject of torture, he proposes, among others, the
following query in the form of a mathematical problem :
“ The force of the muscles and the sensibility of the
nerves of an innocent person being given, it is required
to find the degree of pain necessary to make him confess
himself guilty of a given crime ?” Peculiar traits of the
writer’s dispositions and train of sentiment are likewise to
be found in other passages. Thus having, in a later edi¬
tion, under that part which relates to fraudulent bankrupt¬
cy, modified some sentiments which he had originally ex¬
pressed, but which, on reflection, appeared to himself too
severe, he adds, in a note, “ I am ashamed of what I for¬
merly wrote on this subject. I have been accused of ir-
religion without deserving it; I have been accused of dis¬
affection to the government, and deserved it as little; I
was guilty of a real attack upon the rights of humanity,
and I have been reproached by nobody.”
If many of the views exhibited in this work are now
divested of novelty, and if, through the general adoption
of them by the most cultivated nations, we are led to for¬
get that they were once hidden or excluded, such is the
fate of all improvement as well as of all discovery. Nor
does it detract from the true character of this interesting
performance, that in some enlightened countries, and in
the more propitious climates of political liberty, many of
the important doctrines which it inculcated were already
recognised in the systems of the law.3 Beccaria was
1 A small publication which appeared about that time, under the title of Thoughts on Happiness, was written by the former. His
literary pursuits were, soon after, suspended by his appointment to a public situation. .
2 These particulars, communicated in a letter of Count A. Yerri to the Abbate Isidore Bianchi, in 1802, are repeated by the a er
in his Elogio on Pietro Yerri. . .
3 In the most favoured countries of liberty, however, the reception of some of these principles had been comparatively recent;
while of others, the establishment seems even yet to be remote. That work which has tended most to diffuse a knowle ge o ^ e
progress and spirit of the English laws, viz. the Commentaries of Sir William Blackstone, was not^published till the close o e year
1765, although his plan of delivering a public lecture on the judicial system of his country was formed in 1753. The pro essors ip
at Oxford, which gave full effect to that plan, was instituted by Mr Viner in 1758.
beccaria.
557
Beccaria. among the first by whom these principles were publicly
avowed, under a government in whose institutions they
had no place, and over whose judicial administration they
exercised no influence; and, when the age and country
in which he wrote are considered, the boldness of his
statements is not less to be admired than the justness of
his reasoning. It is his honourable distinction, likewise,
and that of the friends who shared his labours and his
views, to have preserved, in the prosecution of these ob¬
jects, an unblemished loyalty towards their prince, and,
while combating, with manly perseverance, the errors
which prevailed in the fundamental principles of legisla¬
tion, to have abstained from all attacks which might either
directly weaken the authority of the laws, or disturb the
administration of the government.
According to the just exposition given by the author
himself, the true tendency of such a work is not to lessen
the power of the law, but to increase its influence, inas¬
much as opinion has a greater command over the minds
of men than force. It has frequently been repeated, in¬
deed, that national manners must precede laws; and in
the only allowable sense of that maxim, the same might
be said, perhaps, with equal truth, of opinions.. But the
authority of this dictum, and the extent to which it may
be followed, are not unfrequently mistaken. An import¬
ant distinction is apt to be overlooked, between those
general laws, which, as they are founded in permanent
principles of our nature, admit of being drawn from the
first springs, but which have been disturbed by ignorance,
or a barbarous policy, or the temporary dominion of some
prevailing passion—and those artificial or secondaiy ar¬
rangements, which the circumstances and stages of poll-
tical society may equally render necessary in times of
knowledge, and tranquillity, and civilization. It is to the
latter class only that the maxim referred to can have any
just application. But it may well be questioned, whether,
in any case whatever, the popular feeling and opinion
should be allowed to precede, by any considerable inter¬
val, the act of the legislature. It seems, on the contrary,
to be a valuable secret in legislation, and one of its most
important ends, to seize the proper moment for accom¬
plishing that union. Above all, it is expedient, in those
branches of the law which are interwoven with and de¬
rive their support from the moral feelings, that a legisla¬
tor should seek to anticipate every better tendency of
public sentiment. Through want of a well-timed inter¬
ference in such cases, many advantages are relinquished,
as well in the concocting and framing of the laws them¬
selves, as in that silent influence which a well-directed
system of jurisprudence carries into the opinions and ha¬
bits of a community. . ,
Of the prospects which Beccaria himself entertained
as to the probable influence of his work, a judgment may
be formed from the sentence of Lord Bacon, which he
prefixed to some of the editions. “ It is not to be ex¬
pected in any difficult undertaking, of whatever kind, that
the same person who sows the seed should also reap the
harvest; but there must, of necessity, be a preparation,
and gradual progress to maturity.” #
The book was received in foreign countries with avidity,
and procured for its author an immediate and high repu¬
tation. “ Never,” says a writer in the BiograplmUm-
verselle, “ did so small a book produce so great an effect.
The medal given by the Academy of Bern was instantly
bestowed upon Beccaria; and the empress Catherine II.
invited him to St Petersburg, with the offer of an honour¬
able station at her court; a proposal which was partly the
means of procuring him a similar distinction at home,
the reception which the work obtained in France, paiti-
cularly among the literary societies of Paris, evidence is
afforded by the correspondence of the Baron de Grimm. Beccaria.
“ This book,” he writes, in a letter dated 1st August 1765,
“ is by M. Beccaria, a Milanese gentleman, who is said by
some to be an abbe, by others a lawyer, but who, I answer
for it, is one of the best heads at this moment in Europe.”
“ You will not find in the Milanese philosopher,” he else¬
where observes, “ either the pitch or compass of genius
which characterize the writings of the President Montes-
quieu ; but you will discover a mind that is luminous, pio-
found,’ correct, and penetrating.” And he justly adds,
that his is one of the few precious books, gut font penser.
It was translated into French by the Abbe Morellet in
1766 • and Voltaire soon after published a commentary
upon it, under the assumed title of Un Avocat de Besan-
con With respect to the former production, the trans¬
lator took some liberties with the method and distribu¬
tion of the work, which were not altogether warrantable.
Voltaire’s commentary is written in the light style pecu¬
liar to him; and was evidently intended as a vehicle for
certain opinions of his own, with which the spirit and ob¬
ject of the original publication are entirely unconnected.
But the circumstance itself sufficiently marks the im¬
pression which that publication had made, and the promi¬
nence of the views which it developed. It was rapidly
translated into various other languages ; its maxims
became a species of current coin through a great part
of Europe; and the sanction of the author’s reasoning
was thought not unworthy of being resorted to in British
tribunals. . ,
Although followed by many others, Beccana s was the
first work of note, in which the application of a milder
and more sound system of penal jurisprudence was ex¬
plicitly enforced. Nor would it be at all extravagant to
refer some of the great improvements which from tlm
era were successively introduced into the written laws of
different European monarchies, to the direct influence of
the opinions thus generally diffused. Many such enact¬
ments, at least, were from this time promulgated in a
tone more consonant than heretofore with the dictates of
humanity and equitable rule. Of this desciiption were,
among others, not only the urbarium, or regulations con¬
cerning villanage, issued in 1764, by the empress Maria
Teresa, but also the more extended designs which took
effect, at a somewhat later period, in the various reformed
codes, published by the empress Catherine, the emperor
Joseph II., the grand duke of Tuscany, and the Danish
government under the administration of the late Count
Bernstorf.
At one period a storm seemed to be preparing against
the marquis in his own country, by those who probably
intended, in this form, a service to the government; but
it was soon dispersed by the authority of the government
itself. Beccaria had considered it his duty to communi¬
cate to Count Firmiani the offers which had been made
to him by the empress Catherine, and the intelligence
was transmitted by the viceroy to his own court. I he
conduct of Prince Kaunitz-Ritzberg, on the occasion, is
highly honourable to that minister and to his sovereign.
Instead of treating the communication as a matter of no
account, he makes it the subject of a long dispatch, and
of repeated instructions. In one of these papers, dated
27th April 1767, after requiring particular information re¬
specting the personal character of Beccaria, he adds, “ Sup¬
posing his good qualities to preponderate, it would be de¬
sirable that the country should not lose a man whose fund
of knowledge is so considerable, and who, as appears from
his book, possesses a mind habituated to reflection, above
all in our present penury of thinking and philosophical
men; besides that it would do little honour to the whole
administration to be anticipated by foreigners in the due
558
BECCARIA.
Beccaria. estimation of talents.”1 Nor were these merely empty
professions ; they were almost immediately followed by an
imperial order for establishing, in the palatine college at
Milan, a professorship of public law and economics, under
the title of Scienze Camerali. To this chair, expressly
endowed for him by a distinction so honourable, the mar¬
quis was appointed on the 1st of November 1768, and
commenced the duties of it in the month of January fol¬
lowing. from the preliminary discourse {proluzione)
which he pronounced on this occasion, and in which he
briefly sets forth the objects of the institution, and some
of his own leading opinions regarding them, it appears
that the only instructions which he received from the re¬
gency on his appointment, consisted in an order to de¬
liver his discourses in the vulgar tongue; an injunction of
which the motives are honourable to that government, in
common with all the circumstances attending this trans¬
action. His lectures, which he received a special per¬
mission to deliver in his own house, attracted much no¬
tice. They were not published during his life ; but have
since appeared, under the title of Elementi di Economia
Pubblica, in the compilation of the Scrittori Classici Ita-
liani di Economia Politica, printed at Milan.2
As he had, in his former work, set out with stating the
object of municipal law to be “ the greatest happiness of
the greatest number,” so here the same universal principle
serves him for a guide; and he assumes it as the aim of
public economy “ to provide with peace and safety, things
necessary and convenient for the whole community.” He
classes the objects of political economy under five heads;
agriculture, manufactures, commerce, finance, and policy;
comprehending, under the latter, those laws and institu¬
tions which have a respect to the sciences, to education,
to police in the modern sense of that word, and to the
various means of public defence and security. The de¬
sign was not completed; no trace, at least, appears in the
work published under the above title relative to the sub¬
jects of finance or public policy.3 In estimating the value
of these speculations, it is no less necessary than in the case
of the former work, to consider them with a reference to
the state of science at the time, rather than to the present
extension of knowledge in this department. Under the first
three divisions he enters at considerable length into some
of the most interesting discussions which have arisen in
this wide field; particularly as to the principles of public
policy in regard to agriculture, to the commerce of grain,
and foreign commerce generally, and to money and ex¬
change.4 In perspicuity of language, and distinct and pa¬
tient illustration, the style of these discourses bears a con¬
siderable resemblance to that of the Wealth of Nations ;
but the coincidence between the two works, in some ge- Beccaria.
neial and fundamental doctrines, is still more remarkable '
and interesting. Beccaria does not appear to have adopt¬
ed the particular theory of the brench economists, which
was developed about that time; although his practical
doctrines on some of the most important points were con¬
formable to the conclusions deduced from that system.5
Among other inferences, to which the course of his rea¬
soning leads him, as it were, by many different roads, may
be noticed one, which he has himself ventured to state as
a general proposition, and which marks the caution as
well as enlargement of his mind in subjects of compli¬
cated inquiry. “ Every restriction on freedom,” he ob¬
serves, “ whether in the case of commerce or any other,
ought to be a result from the necessity of preventing an
actual disorder, not the effect of a purpose or aim at ame¬
lioration. And he has repeated the same doctrine under
different views in various other passages.6 On all these
subjects he exercises, without ostentation, the privilege
of examining and judging for himself; and in doing so,
although he expresses himself with plainness and energy,7
he is never dogmatical. He observes this further dictate
of a sound philosophy,—to refrain as long as possible from
any very general conclusions; and, although he appears
to have disengaged his mind from the power of common
and hereditary notions respecting political economy> he
does not, by a transition too often made, substitute" dan¬
gerous or extravagant positions in their place. He is
even more distinguished by the temperate use which he
makes of his liberty, than by the independence which se¬
cured him from the chain.
During the same period in which he pursued these la¬
bours, Beccaria undertook another literary task of a very
different description, and commenced an Inquiry into the
Nature of Style? A first part of this Inquiry was pub¬
lished in 1770; but the author does not appear to. have
prosecuted his intention, and only one detached portion
of the remainder was found among his papers.9 The apo-
logy which he makes for this apparent deviation from his
usual objects of pursuit, drawn from a consideration of
the connection subsisting between the study of the fine
arts, and that of moral and political science, affords a
pleasing proof of the natural expansiveness of his mind.10 *
His scientific and literary studies were now to be inter¬
rupted, however, by new and more flattering marks of dis¬
tinction from his government. By an imperial order of
the 29th April 1771, he was appointed a member of the
Supreme Economic Council; on the suppression of which,
he was transferred to the magistracy of state; and, lastly,
by a dispatch of the 17th January 1791, he was named one
2 tJ16 °?ginals ^iese dispatches are among the state papers in the public archives of Milan.
ed ParEin 177fiStateS ^ I,ublication was made from a C(W of the discourses, transcribed for the author himself when he visit-
3 Some of the others, too, are treated rather briefly. He has himself defended this method of teaching by the following iust and
striking observations, in that part of the work where he discourses of Interest: “ But woe to the teacher who would say all that is to
be said, and leave nothing to the penetration of the learner. What is heard slips away and vanishes from the hearer’s7 8mind, unless
tL0PP°rtUnity 0t-0pp0uing the re-actlon> as it were, of his own intellect, to the impressions of his instructor; and more
light is thrown upon a science by one process of exact reasoning which we carry on for ourselves, and it is more deeply and firmly
rooted m us by that single operation, than by many and repeated trains of reasoning conducted by another.”
* Under the head of Agriculture, he proposes the scheme of an experimental farm to be carried on at the nublic exnense as a
school of that science, and enters into some detail of its objects and regulations. P PenSe’ aS H
of QuesnayCaU'S Economi(lue had aIreadJ appeared in the publication entitled La Philosophic Rurale; as well as various papers
, example, “ Hie operations of Economics amount only to not permitting, and most frequently to letting alone.”
he a A.m’pVnf hlfl vlSore.’” as be ^as himself some where expressed it. But on occasions where he conceived that there might
formed and impaberR1multtitudeS”10nS, ^ ^ claimed the tribute due to llim for employing a style “ beyond the reach of the unin-
8 Ricerche intorno alia Natura dello Stile.
•This additional chapter is given in the edition printed at Milan in 1809.
than in^bp tw; 118 ^ enlargemeInt his comprehension, as well as soundness of his judgment, more to be remarked,
than in the Treatise on the State of Currency, which was his first publication, and written at the age of twenty-seven.
BECCAR1A.
559
Beccaria. of the Board for Reform of the Judicial Code, civil and
criminal. His activity and usefulness in the discharge of
these great trusts are best proved by the circumstance,
that some of the most important matters in those different
departments were committed to his direction, and regu¬
lated by his counsels. The most remarkable of his state
papers were, various Ordinances relative to the grain; a
very important Dispatch transmitted to the Court in 1771,
which gave rise to the reform of the public money in
1778; a Plan proposed in 1780 for effecting a unifor¬
mity in the weights and measures ; and certain Proposals,
in 1786, founded on the tables of the population. His
writings of this description are characterized by method,
perspicuity, and precision. It deserves to be particular-
as a new example to prove how mixed is the nature of Beccaria.
our frame; how imperfectly the understanding acts upon
the will, and the will upon the moral part; and how many
things appear to be within the jurisdiction of our reason,
which, nevertheless, are superior to its control.
This is not the place to engage in a more particular ex¬
amination of the spirit and scope of Beccaria’s writings.
He is said to have expressed, at least during the early
part of his life, too unqualified an approbation of the works
of Helvetius, and others belonging to the same school of
philosophy. On this score some excuse may, perhaps, be
found for him in the attractions which the style of the
author now mentioned possesses for a youthful and ardent
^  ^ ^    ^ mind. It is to be observed, likewise, that, when he ex-
ly noticed respecting his scheme for the equalization of pressed this admiration of the productions alluded to, the
measures, that, of the different natural bases for exact Systeme de la Nature had not yet made its appearance,
measurement, he explicitly recommends that which may Nor is it to be supposed that he could be insensible to
be obtained from the celestial bodies, and, in the appli- the notice and the applause of such men as then held the
cation of it, proposes to employ the decimal method of di- stations of greatest eminence in the scientific world. Yet
vision ; being the same system which was afterwards whatever temptations he may have been exposed to from
adopted by the late government of France.1 the influence of some of his literary associates, it is con-
In the year 1776 Beccaria made a journey to France, solatory to reflect, that, neither in the works which he
in company with his friend Alessandro Verri. He/ re- himself gave to the public, nor in those which have been
mained at Paris for about three weeks, which he passed brought to light since his death, are sentiments to be
chiefly in the society of D’Alembert and other eminent found which have a tendency to subvert any one founda-
men of letters ; and, on his return, he visited Voltaire, tion of private or of public good. His labours were bene-
Tliis journey seems to have been the only considerable in- ficent, and their natural fruits the dissemination of useful
cident which, during a period of twenty-five years, diver- knowledge, the increase of industry, and the improvement
sified his manner of life, or interrupted his official duties, of social order. But he was not fated to witness the spec-
He died of apoplexy, in the year 1793. According to tacle which ensued, or to be an observer of that moral crisis,
the editor of his Elementi, in 1804, his death was unno- of the results of which it may be questioned, if, hitherto,
ticed by his country, and his tomb remained without a they have less disturbed the calculations of the friends of
name or an epitaph. humanity, than baffled the counsels of its foes.
Beccaria was twice married. He was stedfast in his Some further information with respect to Beccaria’s
friendships; modest, but tenacious of his opinions. He publications will be found in the Notizie prefixed to his
took pleasure in the society of literary men, and avoided Economia Pubblica (Scrittori Classici Italiani, tom. xi.) ;
that of the great. It is related of him, that the king of in the fourth volume of the Biographie Universelle, print-
Naples, while at Milan, twice attempted to visit him at ed at Paris in 1811; and in the fourth and fifth volumes of
his house ; but that the marquis found means, on both the Correspondence par le Baron de Grimm. In the corn-
occasions, to escape the honour intended for him by his pilation first mentioned are contained (besides his Ele-
majesty. His exertions in the service of the public, and, mentV) republications of his Relazione della Riduzione
above all, his earnest endeavours to promote, by every delle Misure di lunghezza all' Uniformitd, per lo stato di
means, the cause of science, and a liberal system of edu- Milano ,* of his Prolusione letta nell apertura della nuova
cation, formed the chief feature of his life. On the latter cattedra de Scienze Camerali; and of his inquiry Del Dis-
topic he has made many forcible and eloquent appeals, in ordine e De Rimedi delle Monete. In the same collection is
the course of his different writings ; and some passages of likewise to be found a paper written by him for the periodi-
this description, which are interspersed in his discourses of cal work called II Caffe ; viz. Tentativo Analitico su i Con-
Political Economy, are not less to be admired for their in- trabbandi, being an attempt to apply the algebraical me-
trinsic excellence, than they are interesting from the cir- thod to certain subjects of political economy. A new
- - - ' ’ ’ edition of Morellet’s French translation of the Treatise on
Crimes and Punishments was published by M. Roederer
in 1797 ; and a version of the same treatise in modern
Greek, by Coray, was published at Paris in 1802. (j.g.d.)
Beccaria, Giambattista, a very ingenious and industri-
cumstances in which they were written, and the contrasts
which they indirectly exhibit.
One trait of his constitutional disposition or confirmed
habit has been recorded, as furnishing a remarkable ex¬
ception to the general vigour of his intellectual character,
—that, notwithstanding the force with which he combated ous electrician and practical astronomer, was born at Mon-
the prejudices and unreasonable apprehensions of other dovi on the 2d of October 1716, and entered the religious
men, he was himself subject, when left alone, to an un- order of the Pious Schools in 1/32. He became a profes-
conquerable timidity. We are not told whether this ten- sor of experimental physics, first at Palermo, and then at
dency was ascribed to early habits and a faulty education, Rome, and was appointed to the same situation at luiin
or supposed to be the consequence of some sudden and in 1 /48: he was afterwards made tutoi to the young
fatal impression, which remained indissolubly associated princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to
with certain outward circumstances, or in what other man- reside principally at 1 urin during the remainder of his life.
ner it was formed and perpetuated. On a superficial view,
it seems to denote a mind radically weak. But this is not
a necessary or a just inference. The fact is, indeed, sin¬
gular, and deeply impressive ; but, in truth, it only serves
In May 1755 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
of London, to which he afterwards communicated several
papers relating to his favourite pursuits. He died on the
27th of May 1781.
1 In the mathematical calculations connected with this subject, he was assisted, as he himself states, by Frisi, Brofessor of Mathe.
matics at Pisa; and in the mechanical part by his brother Annibale.
560 B E C C
Beccaria. 1. The most voluminous and most important of his
works, entitled Dell' Elettrismo Artificiale e Naturali, ap¬
peared at Turin, 1753, 4to, and was reprinted in 1772.
It was translated into English, and published, with the
original engravings, under the title of A Treatise tipon Ar¬
tificial Electricity, and an Essay on the Mild and Slow
Electricity of the Atmosphere. Lond. 1771, 4to.
2. Risposta ad una Lettera intorno al suo Elettrismo.
Milan, 1753, 4to.
3. Lettere delV Elettrismo Atmosferico. 2da, Ed. 2. Turin,
1758, 4to.
4. Experimenta et Observationes quibus Ebectricitas vin-
dex late constituitur atqne explicatur. Graz. 4to.
The accurate and elaborate experiments related in these
works obtained for their author the warm and repeated
encomiums of the scientific historian Dr Priestley, and
the approbation and friendship of other contemporary
philosophers; although it must be confessed that, amidst
the multitude of important facts recorded in them, we
sometimes observe a want of clearness of arrangement and
closeness of reasoning; nor must we attempt to claim for
Beccaria either the originality of a Franklin, the mathe¬
matical precision of an iEpinus, the enlarged views of a
Cavendish, or the neatness and inventive talent of a Volta.
The most remarkable novelties which deserve to be dis¬
tinguished among our author’s experiments and opinions
relate to the limited conducting power of water, to the
electrification of the air and smoke, to the velocity of
electricity, to the reduction of metals by its powers, to the
illumination of the solar phosphor! by the spark, to the
light excited by the motion of the air, and to a variety of
meteorological phenomena, especially lightning, storms,
rain, water-spouts, and atmospherical magnetism. The
resistance exhibited by water to the passage of the elec¬
tric fluid is demonstrated by the luminous appearance of
its path, while it passes through more perfect conductors
without producing light, as well as by the explosion of
glass tubes containing water, through which the spark is
taken ; and this experiment is extended to the construc¬
tion of an electrical water-gun, which is said to have car¬
ried a small bullet with considerable force.
Father Beccaria observed, about the same time with
Mr Canton, that the air surrounding an electrified body
was capable of becoming electric by slow degrees, and
that it also parted slowly with its electricity; and, by
means of some property of this kind, he produced the ap¬
pearance of a luminous atmosphere about an electrified
ball, to which another was presented, in a partial vacuum.
The smoke of colophony, surrounding an electrified body,
enabled it to give longer sparks ; but this smoke was little
attracted by the body when the heated spoon containing
the colophony was insulated. Respecting the velocity of
electricity, he relates some experiments, which amply de¬
serve to be confirmed or confuted. He found the effect
of a spark occupy at least half a second in passing through
500 feet of wire, and six and a half through a hempen
cord of the same length, although when the cord was
wetted, it passed through it in two or three seconds. It
is well known, that, in the earlier experiments of Watson,
a shock was transmitted through a much longer circuit of
wire, without occupying any perceptible interval of time
in its passage. Many of the metals were revived from
their oxyds, and mercury was reproduced from cinnabar
by the powers of electricity; and our author fancied that
he had discovered a common principle in the different
metals, as several of them gave the same colour to the
surface of the glass to which they were attached. The
brilliancy of the electric light was demonstrated by the
permanency of its effect on the solar phosphori; and this
subject was afterwards pursued by various experiments
ARIA.
of Canton and others. The light often exhibited by the Beccaria
air rushing into a vacuum is attributed by Beccaria to the v
friction of the air against the sides of the glass. It may
be remarked that the phenomenon is, in all probability,
ol the same kind as the appearance of light observed
long ago in the air-gun by its first inventor, Ctesibius
of Alexandria. With respect to atmospherical electri¬
city, Beccaria’s researches were most laborious and ex¬
tensive, and he made a great variety of experiments illus¬
trative of the nature of lightning, and of storms in general;
showing, for instance, the facility with which small bodies
are forced into the course of the electric current, as light
clouds are made to assist in conveying a stroke of lightning;
and proving that evaporation, and the deposition of vapour,
are always accompanied by electrical changes. Thunder¬
storms, in general, he attributes to terrestrial electricity,
and supposes the clouds to be merely the channels by which
the fluid is carried from one part of the earth’s surface to
another, the equilibrium having been first disturbed by
chemical changes within the earth; and it must be confess¬
ed that this opinion is in some measure countenanced by
the frequent connection which is observable between these
phenomena and those of earthquakes and volcanic erup¬
tions. Water-spouts, he assures us on the authority of
several eye-witnesses, may certainly be dispersed by point¬
ing swords and knives at them ; and, with respect to con¬
ductors erected for safety, though he appreciates their
utility very highly, he thinks that every large building
should be furnished with more than one or two. The
electricitas vindex, so often mentioned, is the electricity
made sensible in one body by the removal of another
which has been situated near it;—a property which after¬
wards led to the elegant inventions of the electrophorus
and the condenser of Wilke and Volta. Our author ap¬
pears to be somewhat disposed to exaggerate the import¬
ance of electrical changes as the causes of other atmo¬
spherical phenomena, and, in particular, to overrate the in¬
timacy of the connection of electricity with magnetism.
The appearance of the aurora borealis he attributes to the
circulation of electricity through the higher regions of
the atmosphere, and he was well aware of the magnetical
changes which usually accompany this remarkable occur¬
rence.
5. His papers in the Philosophical Transactions are all
in Latin. The first is entitled Experiments in Electricity,
in a Letter to Dr Franklin. {Phil. Trans. 1760, p. 514.)
These experiments relate principally to the subject of
electrical attractions and repulsions, which the author at¬
tempts to reduce to the effect of currents of air displaced
by the immediate action of the electric fluid. He sup¬
poses the air between two bodies, in dissimilar states, to
be rarefied by the interchange of their electricity, so as
to produce the appearance of attraction; and when the
bodies are in similar states, he imagines the air interposed
to be the immediate object of their apparently mutual re¬
pulsion. The paper is accompanied by a note of Dr Frank¬
lin, explanatory of the apparatus employed.
6. An Account of the Double Refractions in Crystals.
{Phil. Trans. 1762, p. 486.) The double refraction of
rock crystal had been observed by Huygens. Beccaria
seems to have imagined that it was not discoverable when
the surfaces concerned were parallel to each other; but
later observations have shown that his observations were
defective in this respect, at the same time that they have
confirmed his conjecture respecting the existence of a si¬
milar property in almost all crystallized substances.
7. Novorum quorundam in re Electrica Experimentorum
Specimen. {Phil. Trails. 1766, p. 105.) In this paper our
author defends the simpler theory of Franklin against Mr
Symmer’s doctrine of the existence of two separate elec-
B E C
Beccaria. trie fluids. He also enumerates a great variety of cases
of the excitement of positive or negative electricity by the
friction of different substances with glass, hare-skin, a silk
stocking, sealing-wax, and sulphur.
8. A second paper, with the same title, appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1767, p. 297. It contains
an account of a repetition of experiments on the modifica¬
tion produced in the charge of two or more glass plates,
by separating them, and by removing and replacing their
coatings. These investigations were principally suggest¬
ed by the well-known observations of the Jesuits, made at
Pekin many years before, and by some subsequent expe¬
riments of Mr Symmer. The author calls the effect an
oscillation of electricity; it depends on the same causes
as the “ vindicating electricity,” which he has elsewhere
described.
9. De Atmosphcera Electrica libellus. (Phil. Trans.
1770, p. 277.) The phenomena of induced electricity are
here discussed, but not with great precision : the author
adverts, however, to the Newtonian demonstration of the
equilibrium of the force of a gravitating substance, distri¬
buted through the surface of a sphere, with respect to a
particle within it, and gives somewhat clearer views of
the theory of electricity than his former works had exhi¬
bited, but still falls far short of the perfection which iEpi-
nus had attained more than ten years before.
10. A short Letter to Mr John Canton, on his new phos¬
phorus receiving several colours, and only emitting the same,
is printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1771, p.
212. Our author admitted the sun’s light through green,
red, and yellow glass, and found that the pieces of sulphu-
reted lime exposed to it emitted only a light similar to
that which had been thrown on them. A multiplicity of
later experiments have however shown, that the contrary
result is by far the most common; and Zanotti s earlier
observations have been fully confirmed by Wilson, Grosser,
and Seebeck.
11. In 1759 Beccaria received orders from his sovereign,
in consequence of a suggestion of Boscovich, to measure
the length of a degree of the meridian in the immediate
neighbourhood of Turin: the measurement was completed
in 1768, and an account of it was published under the
title of Gradus Taurinensis, Turin, 1774, 4to; prefaced
by a proper compliment to the memory of the monarch
who patronized the undertaking, and to the virtues of his
successors, under whose auspices it was completed. 4 he
result did not, however, exhibit the appearance of any
great accuracy or good fortune ; for there is not only a dif¬
ference of one seventieth of the whole in the lengths of
the degree computed from the northern and southern por¬
tions of the arc, of 27' and 41' respectively, but the length
deduced from the whole arc, which is 57468'59 French
toises, is 445 toises more than would be inferred from
other measurements in the neighbouring latitudes ; hence
it appears to have been thought necessary by later astro¬
nomers to reject the northern portion altogether, and to
make some corrections in the calculation from the south¬
ern, by which the length of the degree has been reduced
to 57069 toises. The zenith sector employed for the ob¬
servations was made on Boscovich s construction, the
length of the tangent being measured instead of that of
the arc, a method by no means calculated to lessen the
chances of error. A portable syphon barometer is also
described, by means of which the elevations were ascer¬
tained; and a number of heights of places in the moun¬
tains of Piedmont are recorded.
12. This volume appears to have been the last of Bec-
caria’s publications: An Essay on Storms and Tempests
mentioned without approbation in the Dictionnaire His-
torique, but it was probably extracted from some of his
VOL. IV.
BEG 561
other works. In his private history and adventures there Beccles
appears to have been little for a biographer to relate : his
ambition having been in a great measure limited, by the \
religious profession which he had adopted, to the acquire-
ment of literary celebrity, his taste was guided by his pre¬
vailing pursuits. His only luxuries consisted in his library
and instruments ; and on these he expended a considerable
part of the remuneration which he received for his services
to the public and to his royal pupils. (t.y.)
BECCLES, a market-town and borough, county of Suf¬
folk, hundred of Wangford, on the right bank of the river
Waveney, 32 miles N.N.E. of Ipswich. It consists of several
streets, is well built, and contains a fine old parish church,
several dissenting places of worship, a free school founded
in the reign of James L, a free grammar-school with ten ex¬
hibitions at Emanuel College, Cambridge, a handsome town-
house, custom-house, &c. By means of the river, which is
navigable to Yarmouth, a considerable trade in coals and
groceries is carried on. Market-day Saturday. Pop. 18ol,
4398.
BECERRA, Gaspard, an eminent Spanish fresco-painter
and sculptor, born about the year 1520, at Bajeza, in An-
dalucia. He studied at Rome under Michael Angelo, and
adorned with his paintings many churches in Spain. His
chef-d’oeuvre is a statue of the Virgin at Madrid, where he
died in 1570.
BECHER, Johann Joachim, a celebrated chemist, born
at Spires in 1635. He was connected with the most learned
men in Europe; and the emperor, the electors of Mentz
and Bavaria, and other persons of high rank, furnished him
with the means of making experiments in natural philoso¬
phy, medicine, and chemistry. As his thoughts had been
much directed to economical subjects, and particularly to
the means of increasing the revenues of a state, he was in¬
vited to Vienna, where he contributed greatly to the esta¬
blishment of several manufactures, a chamber of commerce,
and an Indian company. But the jealousy of some of the
ministers eventually occasioned his disgrace and ruin.
Equally unfortunate at Mentz, Munich, and Wurzburg, he
determined to repair to Haerlem, and here he invented a
machine for working a great quantity of silk in a little time,
and with few hands. But new misfortunes forced him to
seek refuge in England, and he died at London in 1682.
He wrote many works, the principal of which are, 1. Phy-
sica Subterranea, which was printed at Leipsic in 1703 and
1739, in octavo, with a small treatise, by E. Stahl, entitled
Specimen Becherianwm ; 2. Experimentum chymicum no¬
vum, 8vo; 3. Character pro Notitia Linguarum univer-
sali ; 4. Institutiones Chymicce, sen Manuductio ad Philo-
sophiam Hermeticam, 4to ; 5. Institutionis Chymicce, seu
(Edipus Chemicus, 12mo; 6. Experimentum novum ac cu-
riosum de Miniaria arenaria perpetua, &c.
BECK, or Beke (Saxon, becc; Dutch, beck), a word
which imports a small stream of water issuing from some rill
or spring. Hence hellbecks, little brooks in the rough and
wild mountains about Richmond in Yorkshire, so called from
their ghastliness and depth. Beck is also used in the com¬
position of names of places originally situated on rivulets;
hence Walbeck, Bournbeck, &c. The Germans use beck
or bach in the same manner ; as Liibeck, Griesbach.
Beck, or Beek, David, an eminent portrait-painter, born
in 1621 at Arnheim in Guelderland. He became a disciple
of Vandyk, from whom he acquired the fine manner of
pencilling and sweet style of colouring peculiar to that great
master and to all the disciples trained up under his direc¬
tion. He possessed likewise that freedom of hand, and
readiness or rather rapidity of execution, for which Van¬
dyk was so remarkable; insomuch that when King Charles
I. observed the expeditious manner of Beck’s painting, he
exclaimed, “ Faith! Beck, I believe you could paint riding
4 B
EEC
post.” He was appointed portrait-painter and chamberlain
to Queen Christina of Sweden ; and he executed portraits
of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn her gallery.
He lived in the highest favour with his royal mistress, and left
the court of Sweden much against her inclination. He died
soon after, at the Hague; and it was suspected that he had
been poisoned. This happened in 1656, when Beck had
only attained his thirty-fifth year. A very singular adven¬
ture happened to this artist as he travelled through Germany.
Having been taken suddenly and violently ill at the inn
where he lodged, he seemed to all appearance quite dead, and
was laid out as a corpse. His valets expressed the strongest
grief for the loss of their master, and while they sat beside
his bed, drank very freely, by way of consoling themselves.
At last one of them, getting much intoxicated, said to his
companions, “ Our master was fond of his glass while alive,
and out of gratitude let us give him a glass now he is dead.
The rest of the servants having assented to the proposal,
he raised up the head of his master, and endeavoured to
pour some of the liquor into his mouth. From the fia-
grance of the wine, or probably from the irritation produced
by a small quantity getting down his throat, Beck revived
and opened his eyes; when the drunken servant, forgetting
that his master was considered as dead, compelled him to
swallow the whole contents of the glass. The painter gra¬
dually recovered, and by proper care and management was
soon restored to perfect health.
BECKET, Thomas a, lord chancellor of England, and
archbishop of Canterbury, in the twelfth century. The story
of his birth is as extraordiuary as that of his life. It is re¬
lated that his father Gilbert Becket, sometime sheriff of
London, went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he was
surprised and enslaved by a party of Saracens. His master s
daughter fell in love with him, and when he made his es¬
cape, she followed him to London. So singular an instance
of heroic affection made a deep impression on his mind; and,
after consulting with some bishops, he had her baptized by
the name of Matilda, and then married her. From this mar¬
riage sprung the haughty Thomas a Becket. Raised to the
primacy, a Becket began the dispute between the crown and
the tiara, and sided with the pope in the quarrel. At this
King Henry II. was greatly offended; and convoking an
assembly of the bishops at W estminster, offered six articles
against papal encroachments, to which he urged a Becket to
assent. Yielding to the importunities of several lords, a Becket
signed the articles; but speedily relapsing into his former
opinions he was ordered to be tried as a traitor; upon which
he fled into Flanders. The king lost no time in banishing
all his relations, and a Becket retaliated by excommunicating
all his opponents. At last, after seven years spent in un¬
availing hostility, by the intercession of the French king and
the pope he was allowed to I'eturn ; but he peremptorily
refused to absolve the bishops and others whom he had ex¬
communicated ; upon which the king, enraged at his obsti¬
nacy, exclaimed, “ that he was an unhappy prince, who main¬
tained a great number of lazy insignificant persons about
him, none of whom had gratitude or spirit enough to re¬
venge him on a single insolent prelate who gave him so
much disturbance.” The deadly hint was understood ; and
four gentlemen, or rather ruffians, of the court, immediately
formed a design against the archbishop’s life, which they
executed in the cathedral church of Canterbury on the 29th
of December 1171. Superstitiously afraid of polluting the
sanctuary with blood, more especially with that of a mitred
priest, they endeavoured to drag him out of the church; but
finding they could not effect this without difficulty, they
killed him at the altar. Afraid they had gone too far in
violating the sanctity of the church, the assassins durst not
return to the king’s court at Normandy, but retired to
Knaresborough in Yorkshire, where everybody avoided their
company; scarcely any one, however low, deigning to eat
EEC
or drink with them. Finding the curse of murder pursue Becket.
them, they at length took a voyage to Rome, and being ad-
mitted to penance by Pope Alexander III. set out for Je¬
rusalem, where, according to the pope’s orders, they spent
the remainder of their lives in penitential austerities. They
died in the Black Mountain, and were buried at Jerusalem,
outside the door of the church belonging to the Templars.
King Henry affected to be much disturbed at the news of
a Becket’s death, and despatched an embassy to Rome to clear
himself from the imputation of having caused or suggested
it. The celebration of divine offices was discontinued in the
church of Canterbury for a year, deducting nine days; at
the end of which period it was reconsecrated by order of
the pope. Two years after this a Becket was canonized; and
Henry returning to England the ensuing year, went to
Canterbury, where he did penance in testimony of his regret
for the murder of a Becket. When he came within sight of
the church where the archbishop lay buried, he alighted
from his horse, and walked barefooted in the habit of a pil¬
grim till he came to a Becket’s tomb, where, after he had
prostrated himself and prayed for a considerable time, he
submitted to be scourged by the monks, and passed all that
day and night without any refreshment, kneeling upon the
bare stones. In 1221, fifty years after the murder, a Becket’s
body was disinterred in the presence of King Henry III.
and a great concourse of the nobility and others, and depo¬
sited in a rich shrine, erected at the expense of Stephen
Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. It was soon visited
from all parts, and enriched with the most costly gifts and
offerings; and the miracles said to have been wrought at
the tomb of the saint were so numerous that Gervase of
Canterbury tells us two large volumes kept in the cathe¬
dral church were filled with accounts of them. The monks
used to raise his body every year; and the day on which
this annual resurrection was performed, called the “ day of
his translation,” was kept as a general holiday. Every
fiftieth year a jubilee was celebrated in his honour, which
lasted fifteen days; plenary indulgences were then granted
to all who visited his tomb; and 100,000 pilgrims were re¬
gistered at a time in Canterbury. The worship of the saint
in that city indeed had quite effaced the adoration of the
Deity, nay, even that of the Virgin. At God’s altar, for in¬
stance, there were offered in one year only L.3, 2s. 6d.; at
the Virgin’s L.63, 5s. 6d.; but at St Thomas s, L.832,12s. 3d.
And next year the disproportion was still greater; for at
God’s altar not a penny was offered; the Virgin’s obtained
only L.4, Is. 8d. ; while St Thomas got for his share
L.954, 6s. 3d.;—a large sum, if the value of money in those
times be considered, and a correspondingly strong proof of
the hold which superstition then possessed over men s minds.
Even Louis VII. of France made a pilgrimage to this mi¬
raculous tomb, and bestowed on the shrine a jewel which
was esteemed the richest in Christendom. But Henry VIII.,
to whom a saint of so high character was naturally very ob¬
noxious, not only pillaged the rich shrine dedicated to St
Thomas, but caused the saint himself to be cited to appear
in court, and to be tried and condemned as a traitor; at the
same time ordering his name to be struck out of the calen¬
dar, the office for his festival to be expunged from all bre¬
viaries, and his bones to be burnt, and the ashes thrown in
the air. A Becket was the subject of poetical legends; and
The Lives of the Saints in verse, a manuscript which is sup¬
posed to belong to the fourteenth century, contains an ac¬
count of his martyrdom and translation. We also learn from
Peter de Blois that the palace of a Becket was perpetually
filled with bishops highly accomplished in literature, who
passed their time there in reading, disputing, and deciding
important questions relating to the state. “ These prelates,
though men of the world, were a society of scholars; yet
very different from those who frequented the universities,
in which nothing was taught but words and syllables, un-
EEC
EEC
563
Beckford profitable subtilties, elementary speculations, and trifling dis-
II tinctions.” De Blois was himself eminently learned, and
Seckmann. Qne 0f most distinguished ornaments of a Becket’s house-
hold. John of Salisbury, his intimate friend, the companion
of his exile, and the writer of his life, was scarcely exceeded
by any man of his time for his knowledge in philological and
polite literature. (See Dr Giles’, A Bechet and His Times.)
BECKFORD, William, was the son of alderman Beck-
ford, noted for his uncourtly reply to George III. on the
presentation of an address from the city of London. He was
born in 1761, and at the age of nine he inherited an im¬
mense fortune from his father. In early life he travelled in
Italy, Sicily, Spain, and Portugal, and resided some time in
the latter kingdom, where he had a princely residence. He
afterwards returned to England, and built a fine residence at
Fonthill, on which he expended in about eighteen years
the enormous sum of L.273,000. This, together with its
splendid library and pictures, he sold to Mr Farquhar in
1822; but soon after, a tower of 260 feet fell down and
buried part of the villa in the ruins. Mr Beckford afterwards
began the erection of another lofty structure on Lansdowne-
hill, near Bath, where he continued to reside till his death,
which happened in 1844. He was a powerful and original
writer. His first work, Biographical Memoirs of Extraor¬
dinary Painters, which appeared in 1780, exhibits much
knowledge of the art. In 1784 he published in French the
singular tale entitled History of the Caliph Vathek, which
soon afterwards appeared in English. In 1834 his first Con¬
tinental tour appeared under the title of Letters from Italy,
with Sketches of Spain and Portugal, a work never perhaps
surpassed for striking description and refined sarcasm. His
latest production, published in 1835, was entitled Recollec¬
tions of an Excursion to Alcobaza and Batallia in 1794.
All these works exhibit uncommon power of vivid descrip¬
tion, and a cultivated taste. He left two daughters, the
eldest of whom was married to the late Duke of Hamilton.
BECKMANN, Johann, the author of the History of
Inventions, was born at Hoya in the electorate of Hano¬
ver, in 1739. His father, who was receiver of taxes and
postmaster in that town, occupied himself in the cultiva¬
tion of a small piece of land, and appears to have inspired his
son with a taste for agriculture. All the honour of his edu¬
cation belongs, however, to his mother, who, having become
a widow when young Beckmann was scarcely seven years
old, sent him, in his fifteenth year, to the school at Stade,
placing him under the care of Gehlen. Being intended for
the clerical function, he repaired in 1759 to Gottingen, to
finish his studies there; but, whether the advice of Holl-
mann, who testified much kindness towards him, produced
a change in his plans, or that the instructions of the mathe¬
maticians Kaestner and Tobias Mayer had greater attrac¬
tions for him than theology, he abandoned the career on
which he had entered, in order to devote himself entirely to
the natural sciences, and principally to the application of
these sciences to economical purposes. His first studies
were not without their use to him; he derived from them a
methodical habit of mind, and a considerable knowledge of
languages, which, in the sequel, assisted him greatly in the
pursuits to which he owed his celebrity. In 1762, having
lost his mother, and with her his former means of subsistence,
he accepted the offer of Busching, who invited him to come
and fill the situation of professor of natural philosophy in the
Lutheran Academy at St Petersburg, of which this cele¬
brated geographer had at that time the direction ; but Busch¬
ing quitting the institution shortly after, and dissensions
having arisen among the superintendents, Beckmann gave
up his place, and made a journey through Sweden to acquire
a detailed knowledge of the mines of that country, and of the
manner of working them. Linnaeus having received him
hospitably at Upsal, he prolonged his stay there, and availed
himself of the friendship as well as the instructions of that
great naturalist. In 1766, the governors of the university Beckmann,
of Gottingen appointed him, on the recommendation of ^
Busching, professor to that celebrated establishment, of
which he became one of the principal ornaments. His mind,
entirely directed to the practical uses of human knowledge,
had early conceived the idea of an academical classification
of the arts and different branches of economy, both political
and domestic, which had hitherto been left to routine and
accident. He composed, to serve him as a guide in this
course of instruction, Treatises on Rural Economy, on
Policy, on Finance, on Commerce, and other departments
of practical knowledge; which, though since carried to a
higher degree of perfection, owed to Beckmann their pri¬
mary elements and their first scientific form. His lectures,
which had at the time the recommendation of novelty, were
attended by the flower of the studious youth, whom the most
civilized nations of Europe sent to the university of Gottin¬
gen ; and it may be added, that the most distinguished states¬
men and public functionaries of Germany were among his
auditors. He was in the habit of accompanying them him¬
self into the workshops, to give them a knowledge of the
different processes and handicrafts of which he had explained
to them the theory. He never relinquished his public lec¬
tures ; but his private studies took insensibly a direction
altogether historical, the motives for which it will not, per¬
haps, be uninteresting to point out.
At Gottingen it is considered that a professor, in teach¬
ing a particular science, cannot be excused from explaining
the progress of that science in all the civilized nations of
Europe at the same time. Any one who, two years after the
appearance of a work of importance in his department, pub¬
lished in any country of Europe, should not have read and
analyzed it in ordei to refute or else enrich his own obser¬
vations from it, would not regard himself as a worthy suc¬
cessor to the chair of Haller, of Mosheim, of Gesner, and
Michaelis. Beckmann, in particular, having studied at Got¬
tingen at a time when the example of these great men dic¬
tated the law and gave the tone there, was determined to
advance in a line with his age, and not to be ignorant of any
of the steps which were being made in the numerous and
extensive sciences which furnished the foundation and the
subjects of practical principles. But these steps were the
steps of a giant; and whatever might be his ardour or his
love of study, it was impossible to read and digest all the
important works which appeared from the year 1770, on
chemistry theoretical and practical, on physics, natural his¬
tory, and mathematics. His disappointment ended in chagrin,
and excited in him a degree of anger against the new ideas,
methods of reasoning, and materials, which changed the face,
enlarged the limits, and facilitated the study of these sciences.
Flis course of lectures, turning only on practical matters,
suffered little from this circumstance; but feeling that his
writings would be open to the objection of being behind the
advanced state of the sciences which were the subject of
them, he directed the researches with which he wished to
occupy the attention of the public to the history of arts and
trades. He employed, in illustration of the subject, the ma¬
terials to which he had access in the Gottingen library, as¬
sisted by general information, a mind peculiarly fitted for
this kind of study, and indefatigable industry. It is to these
labours that we owe the Notices of Beckmann on the History
of Discoveries in the most common Arts of Life; for instance,
the history of watch-making, of distillation, of almanacs, of
insurance, of the lighting of streets, of the original country
and migrations of the fruits and flowers in our gardens, of
the common materials for dyeing, of bellows, of fire-arms,
of mills, of grinding corn, of carriages, of different parts of
our dress, of different household utensils, of a multitude of
machines and mechanical contrivances employed in com¬
mon trades; and of most of the products of industry, such
as the gathering of saffron, the preparation of alum, the
564 B E C
Beckmann, printing-press, of fulling-mills, of book-keeping, of the
digging of turf, of gazettes and newspapers, of stamped pa¬
per, of the pearl fishery, of pavings, of chimneys, of collec¬
tions of natural curiosities, of mile-stones, of pharmacy, o
quarantine, of painted paper, of ruffles, of milking, of pawn¬
brokers, of looking-glasses and glass in general, of soap, o
musical glasses, of watchmen, of ices to be eaten, of the ana¬
tomy of plants, of exchange, of pens for writing, of instru¬
ments of husbandry, of fireworks, of the working of pewter,
of the procuring of amber, of indigo, of the gilding of wea¬
ther-cocks, of furs, of steel, of gardening, of crayons, o
knives and forks, of corks, of sal-ammoniac, of hops, or weav¬
ing, of lotteries, of hospitals for orphans and foundlings, o
infirmaries, of lazarettoes, of fighting-cocks, of saltpetre, ot
gunpowder, of aquafortis, &c. &c. We should form to om-
selves a very false idea of these Notices if w e expected to
find in them only some general account ot these arts, and ot
the different manner of practising them used in different
times and places. Beckmann traces their first geim from
the most remote periods of antiquity; he follows their de¬
velopment through the obscurity of the middle ages, and
exhibits their latest improvements amongst the civilized na¬
tions of modern Europe, with a patience and a depth of learn¬
ing which can only be equalled by the sagacity and the va¬
riety of knowledge displayed in his researches. We have
thought it would be interesting to the reader to see a list
of the most remarkable among these notices, in the order in
which they were published. They make five volumes in oc¬
tavo, published at Leipzig from 1783 to 1805, and furnish
the most invaluable materials to the individual, or society of
men of letters, who may hereafter venture to undertake the
general history of the origin and progress of the mechanical
arts, which are so important a branch in that of civilization.
It is almost needless to add, that the most exact references
to original authorities accompany each article, and give it a
new value in the eyes of those who are unwilling to take
things upon trust, or may be desirous to push still further the
inquiries of the author. It has been translated into English.
The same merits belong to his History of the earliest
Voyages made in modern times; a highly interesting col¬
lection, which occupied the last years of his life, and which
he left at the eighth number. Another result of the literary
application and industry of Beckmann was a return to the
studies of humanity, to which we are indebted for editions
of the work De Mirahilihus Auscultationibus, attributed
to Aristotle (1786); of the Wonderful Histories of Anti-
gonus Carystius (1791); and of Marbodius’s Treatise on
Stones (1799);—editions which required the rare union
of physical knowledge and natural sagacity with philological
learning. The Royal Society of Gottingen had, in the year
1772, admitted Beckmann among its members; and, from
that period to 1783, he supplied their proceedings with
interesting memoirs, among which are the following: On
the Reduction of Fossils to their Original Substances ; On
the History of Alum; On the Sap of Madder; On the
Froth of the Sea, from which the Heads are formed for the
Nicotian Fistula:; On the History of Sugar} But from
this period he withdrew from all further share in the labours
of this learned body, probably from the same motives that
we have assigned above for the change in the objects of his
own particular studies. He was, besides, modest to an ex¬
treme degree; and his natural timidity did not find any¬
thing to counteract it in the traditional jealousy of reputa¬
tion, which the example of his predecessors, who had
founded the glory of Gottingen, had transmitted to a gene¬
ration more confident of its powers, and more vain of its
merit, but still restrained by habits difficult to lay aside,
when the respect for great authorities had originally sanc¬
tioned them. His candour, his sincerity, his fidelity in friend-
B E D
ship, his affability to his scholars, have been celebrated with
one accord by his coadjutors and his auditors. Schlaetzer,
whom he had known from his youth in Russia, was the one
among his colleagues with whom he maintained the most
uninterrupted intimacy. He was better qualified than al¬
most any one else to appreciate the researches of Beckmann,
as he had himself insisted with so much force on the neces¬
sity of introducing into history a view of the influence ex¬
ercised on social institutions by the efforts of industry, and
by the birth or maturity of the most common arts. Beck¬
mann died on the 3d of February 1811, after having been
admitted into almost all the learned societies of Germany
and the north, and after having impressed a tendency to
pursuits of practical utility on the minds of a multitude of
distinguished young men who had attended his lectures, and
whom his celebrity drew to Gottingen during the forty-five
years of his professorship. A portrait of him will be found
at the head of the twelfth volume of the Economical En¬
cyclopaedia of Krunitz, and it has been engraved separately
by Raid, Schwenterley, and Grape. Beckmann married the
daughter of Hollmann, his tutor and friend; she survived
him only a few weeks, and they left a son and daughter
grown up. His eulogium was pronounced by his colleague,
the illustrious Heyne, and was published at Gottingen with
this title, Memoria Joan. Beckmann, Soc. R. Sci. Gbtting.
sodalis in concessu Soc. Publico D. 16 Febr. 1811, com-
mendata. (w* h-z-t.)
BECTASSE, or Bektachs, an order or set of religion¬
ists among the Turks, so called from their founder Bectach,
preacher to Sultan Amurath. The habit of the Bectasse is
white; and on their heads they wear white caps of several
pieces, with turbans of wool twisted ropewise. I hey ob¬
serve constantly the hour of prayer, which they perform in
their own assemblies, and make frequent declarations of the
unity of God.
BED, an article of furniture on which to stretch the body
for sleep or repose. The modern bed is usually a sack or
case of ticken, filled with feathers, chaff, wool, or other soft
materials, placed upon a raised framework which is called the
bedstead. In the first ages it was universally the practice for
mankind to sleep upon skins of beasts. This was originally
the custom of the Greeks and Romans, as also of the ancient
Britons previous to the Roman invasion ; and the skins thus
employed were spread on the floor of their apartments. But
they were afterwards changed for loose rushes and heath ;
and in process of time the Romans suggested to the central
Britons the use, and the introduction of agriculture supplied
them with the means, of the greater convenience of straw
beds. The beds of the Roman patricians at this period
were generally filled with feathers, and those of the inns with
the soft down of reeds. But for many ages the beds of the
Italians had been constantly composed of straw; it still formed
those of the officers and soldiers present at the conquest of
Lancashire; and from both, it is probable, our countrymen
learnt the use of it. It appears, however, to have been used
only by gentlemen, as the common Welsh had their beds
thinly stuffed with rushes as late as the end of the twelfth
century ; and with the gentlemen it continued for many ages
afterwards. Straw was used in the royal chambers ot Eng¬
land as late as the close of the thirteenth century. Most of
the peasants in different parts of the country sleep on chaff
beds at present; in the Highlands heath is also very much
employed as bedding; and in France and Italy straw beds
remain in general use to this day.
Dining Bed, lectus tricliniaris or discubitorius, that on
which the ancients reclined at meals. The dining or dis-
cubitory beds were four or five feet in height. I hreeof
beds were ordinarily ranged by a square table (whence both
the table and the apartment where it stood were called tn-
Bectasse l
1 See Novi Commentarii Soc. Sc, G. tom. ii.-viii.; and Commentar. tom. i. v.
BED
Bed of clinium), in such a manner that one of the sides of the table
Justice remained open andaccessible to the waiters. See Accubation.
II Bed of Justice {Litde Justice), in France, under the old
Beddoes. rggjme? a throne upon which the king sat when he went to
the parliament. The king never held a bed of justice un¬
less for affairs that concerned the state, and then all the of¬
ficers of parliament were clothed in scarlet robes. This
ceremony in process of time became synonymous with an
act of arbitrary power on the part of the sovereign. The
last occasion on which a lit de justice was held, was on the
6th of August 1787, when the proposition for assembling the
states-general was rejected.
Bed-Chamber, Lords of the, officers of the royal house¬
hold under the groom of the stole. They are twelve in
number, and attend in turn, a week each. There are also
thirteen grooms of the bed-chamber who wait by turn. Sala¬
ries are attached to these offices. A queen regnant in like
manner is attended by Ladies of the Bed-chamber.
I BED A, commonly called Venerable Bede, one of our
most ancient historians, was born about the year 673, in the
neighbourhood of Wearmouth, in the bishopric of Durham.
He was educated by the abbot Benedict, in the monastery
of St Peter, near the mouth of the river Wear. He was or¬
dained deacon at the age of nineteen, and priest at the age of
thirty. About this time he was invited to Rome by Pope
Sergius; but there is no good reason for believing that he
accepted the invitation. In the year 731 he published his
Ecclesiastical History ; a work of great value, notwithstand¬
ing the legendary tales with which it is deformed. This
work was first printed at Eslingen by Conrad Fyner in 1474,
an edition extremely rare. Bede died in the year 735, of
a lingering consumption, probably brought on by sedentary
habits, and a long uninterrupted application to study and
literary composition. He was buried in the church of his
convent at Jarrow ; but his bones were afterwards removed
to Durham, and there deposited in the same coffin with
those of St Cuthbert. Bede was undoubtedly a singular
phenomenon in a rude and illiterate age. His learning,
for the times, was extensive; his application incredible ;
his piety exemplary; and his modesty extreme. He was
universally admired, consulted, and esteemed, during his life;
and his writings are deservedly considered as the foundation
of our ecclesiastical history. His language is neither ele¬
gant nor pure, but it is perspicuous and easy. All his works
are in Latin. The first general collection of them appeared
at Paris in 1544, in three volumes folio; and they were
printed again at the same place in 1554, in eight volumes.
They were also published in the same size and number of
volumes at Basle in 1563, and reprinted at Cologne in 1612,
and again in 1688. Besides this general collection, there
are several of his compositions which have been printed
separately, or in collections of the writings of ancient au¬
thors ; and some manuscripts ascribed to him have been
preserved in the different libraries of Oxford and Cambridge.
A complete edition of the works of Bede, by Dr Giles,
with an English translation of the historical treatises, was
published at London in 1843-44, in 12 vols. 8vo.
BEDARRI^UX, a town of France, department of He-
rault, on the Orbe, 18 miles north of Beziers. It is a neat,
well-built town, and has very considerable manufactures of
cloth, silk, hats, oil, paper, and soap, with dye-works and
tanneries. Pop. (1846) 8722.
BEDDOES, Thomas, a physician of equal eminence
for his talents and philanthropy, was born at Shiffnall, in
Shropshire, April 13. 1760. His family was of Welsh extrac¬
tion. He received the first rudiments of his education at
a school in his native town, and afterwards at a seminary at
Brood, in Staffordshire. The strength of his intellectual
powers was apparent at a very early period; and he wTas
remarkable from his infancy for his insatiable thirst for books,
and his indifference to those amusements which usually cap-
BED 565
tivate the attention of children. His rising abilities were Beddoes.
justly appreciated by his grandfather; and to this intelligent ^
relative he was deeply indebted for many of the advantages of
his early education, and for the decision of his father to educate
him for one of the learned professions. When he was only
nine years old, the circumstance of an accident which befell
his benefactor, and which, after being followed by some
remarkable symptoms, terminated fatally, was calculated to
make a deep and lasting impression on a mind like that of
young Beddoes. By the extraordinary acuteness and in¬
terest which he manifested on this occasion, he attracted the
notice of Mr Yonge, the surgeon who attended the sufferer;
and a foundation was thus laid for the friendship which ever
after subsisted between them, and which appears to have
had a considerable influence in his choice of that profession
in which he was destined to run so brilliant a career. At
the free grammar-school in Bridgenorth he made rapid pro¬
gress in classical learning; and when about thirteen years
of age, he was placed as a pupil with the Rev. Mr Dickenson,
rector of Plymhill in Staffordshire, with whom he continued
about two years. On quitting Mr Dickenson, he entered at
Pembroke College, Oxford, in Michaelmas term 1776. The
simplicity of his appearance, and the rusticity of his manners
and address, could not long conceal the superiority of his
mental powers. The themes and declamations of young
Beddoes were remarkable for their elegant Latinity; and
he soon acquired distinguished reputation as a classical
scholar. Success in one acquisition wras to him but an in¬
ducement to the possession of another. He was found one
morning by a friend, who casually entered his apartment,
very busily engaged with a French grammar and dictionary
before him; and when his friend expressed his surprise
that he should attempt to learn French without a master,
he replied that he should be able to conquer the diffi¬
culties of the language by himself in about two months.
His friend called upon him again at the expiration of that
time, and inquired whether he had mastered the language.
Beddoes answered in the affirmative, and proved his asser¬
tion by reading in English, with perfect fluency, a French
book which the latter presented to him. From the French
he proceeded to the Italian, which, from its analogy with the
former, he acquired with greater ease. The German lan¬
guage presented more serious difficulties; but his persever¬
ance triumphed over them without the aid of a master. He
afterwards added the Spanish language to his other acquisi¬
tions.
While attending the university, chemistry and the other
sciences more closely connected with his future profession
were always his favourite objects of pursuit. The splendid
discoveries of Black and Priestley, which had opened a new
field of discovery, were powerfully calculated to inflame the
ardour of his inquisitive and sanguine spirit; and he accord¬
ingly soon became perfectly conversant with the new doc¬
trines of pneumatic chemistry, and used to exhibit with great
delight the experiments which supported them, to his friends
in Shropshire, during the vacations. He was also much
occupied with mineralogy and botany ; and for the former
of these sciences, especially, retained throughout life a re¬
markable fondness.
Having taken his bachelor’s degree at one-and-twenty,
he repaired to London, in order to commence the study of
his profession. He became a pupil of the celebrated Shel¬
don, and devoted his time to the details of practical anatomy,
and the physiological inquiries connected with it. It was
while he was engaged in these studies that he gave to the
world, in 1784, a translation from the Italian of Spallanzani’s
Dissertations on Natural History; a work which, in 1790,
went through a second edition. In the year following, 1785,
he published a translation of Bergman’s Essays on Elective
Attractions, the first work to which Beddoes affixed his name,
accompanied by numerous original notes, which display an
566 B E D D O E S.
Beddoes. accurate acquaintance with all the modern improvements in
the physical sciences. In 1786 he became again known to
the public as the editor of Scheele’s Chemical Essays. Pre¬
vious to this, in 1783, he took his degree of master of arts;
and, in the autumn of 1784, removed to Edinburgh, where
he remained during three successive winters and one summer.
Shortly after his arrival, he became a member of the Medical
Society and of the Natural History Society of that place,
and took an active part in the series of physiological expe¬
riments in which some of the members of the former were
at that period engaged. To the latter he contributed two
papers, one on the Sexual System of Linnaius, the other on
the Scale of Being, both of which have been preserved at
full length in Dr Stock’s memoirs of his life. At Edin¬
burgh not only did he receive every mark of honourable
distinction from his fellow-students which it was in their
power to confer, but was also chosen as the organ of their
remonstrances with the managers of the Infirmary, on the
occasion of a misunderstanding which had arisen between
them as to the hours at which they should be permitted to
attend; and they were eminently indebted to him for the
firmness with which he on that occasion maintained their
privileges.
He took his degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford, in
December 1786 ; and in the ensuing summer he visited the
Highlands, and also spent a short time at Paris and Dijon,
where he cultivated the acquaintance of Lavoisier and Guyton
de Morveau. Soon afterwards he was appointed to succeed
Dr Austin in the chemical lectureship at Oxford. The suc¬
cess which attended his exertions to inspire a taste for scien¬
tific researches was soon apparent, in the overflowing audience
attracted by his lectures. Enjoying the reputation of dis¬
tinguished talents, and surrounded by men of learning and
abilities who courted his society, his situation at the uni¬
versity appears to have been truly enviable; and it is diffi¬
cult to understand the motives which could have led him to
relinquish all these advantages for the uncertain prospects
afforded by his establishing himself in any other place. The
decided part which he took in the political discussions that
were agitated at the beginning of the French revolution,
seems to have had a principal share in this determination.
His opinions were on this occasion expressed with his usual
freedom; and the circulation of a political article which he
inserted in a Shropshire paper, in an advertisement solicit¬
ing relief for the French emigrant clergy, excited a clamour
against him, which accelerated his adoption of the step he
had previously determined upon.
During his connection with Oxford, he published, in 1790,
an analytical account of the writings of Mayow, under the
title of Chemical Experiments and Opinions, extractedfrom
a work published in the last century, in which he asserts
the claims of that extraordinary man to the discovery of the
principal facts on which the modern system of pneumatic
chemistry is founded; discoveries which had failed, for up¬
wards of a century, to attract any notice from the philosophic
world. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1791 and 1792
we also find three papers by Dr Beddoes; the one contain¬
ing Observations on the Affinity between Basaltes and Gra¬
nite, in which he rejects the common division of mountains
into primary and secondary, and states some strong argu¬
ments in favour of the volcanic origin of both; the other
giving An Account of some Appearances attending the Con¬
version of Cast into Malleable Iron, which he supposes to
consist in its purification from oxygen, charcoal, and hydro¬
gen, which escape, during the process, in the form of car¬
bonic acid and carburetted hydrogen gases; and, in a paper
which forms an appendix to the latter, he relates a variety of
experiments which he had made, confirming this theory.
It was about the period of his retirement from Oxford
that he published his Observations on the Nature of De¬
monstrative Evidence, with an Explanation of Certain
Difficulties occurring in the Elements of Geometry, and Beddoes.
Reflections on Language, 8vo, London, lt93. In this essay ^
he contends, in opposition to the doctrines of the ontologists,
and particularly to that of Mr Harris, the author of Hermes,
that geometry is essentially founded in experiment; and that
mathematical reasoning proceeds, at every step, upon the
evidence of the senses; in short, that this science is founded
as exclusively upon the induction of particular facts, as
mechanics, astronomy, optics, or chemistry.
About the same period he published his Observations on
the Nature and Cure of Calculus, Sea-Scurvy, Consump¬
tion, Catarrh, and Fever; together with Conjectures upon
several other Objects of Physiology and Pathology.
On leaving Oxford, he retired to the house of his friend
Mr Reynolds of Ketley, in Shropshire. It was here that he
published his admirable History of Isaac Jenkins, a story
exhibiting the reformation of a drunkard, and his return to
habits of industry. There is, probably, no production of Dr
Beddoes which unites so many peculiar excellencies as this
inimitable fiction, or which displays at once in so favourable
a light the vigour of his genius, his knowledge of the human
heart, and the power with which he could command the in¬
terest and sympathy of his reader. Its success was immense;
repeated editions, amounting to above forty thousand copies,
were rapidly sold; and a large impression has since been
issued at the request of a society for promoting knowledge
by the distribution of useful popular books.
A prospect now opened to him of realizing his favourite
scheme of establishing a pneumatic institution, where the
medical efficacy of the permanently elastic fluids, the fruits
of the modern improvements in chemistry, could be fairly
put to the test of experiment; and, after some deliberation,
the neighbourhood of Bristol was fixed upon as the most
proper place for the purpose. In making the necessary
arrangements, he derived material assistance from the co¬
operation of Mr Edgeworth, the author of Practical Edu¬
cation, with whose family he soon became more closely
connected, by marrying one of that gentleman’s daughters.
The pneumatic institution continued to occupy his attention
for many years, in the course of which a great number of
publications issued from his pen, illustrating the principles
on which he expected it to be useful, and detailing the ex¬
periments and the results to which it gave rise. The diffi¬
culty at first experienced in the construction and manage¬
ment of the apparatus of this institution, was in no long time
entirely surmounted by the friendly assistance of Mr Watt,
whose exertions at this critical period are acknowledged in
a dedication prefixed to the first part of the Considerations.
Mr William Clayfield and Mr Read also contributed their
assistance in the invention of different parts of the pneumatic
apparatus. At the opening of the institution in 1798, the
sums subscribed were found to be very inadequate to the
purposes for which it was designed; but by the liberality of
Mr Thomas Wedgewood, who offered Dr Beddoes L.1000,
he was enabled to carry the plan into immediate execution.
All that was now wanted was to procure a superintendent;
and he had the good fortune to engage in that capacity a
young man who had already given proofs of extraordinary
talents, and to whose penetrating genius chemistry has since
been so deeply indebted. There needs no other indication
to suggest the name of Davy,—a name that will descend to
distant ages as associated with so many important discoveries
in philosophical science. The history of the pneumatic in¬
stitution indeed derives considerable splendour from many
of these discoveries, which were perfected in its laboratory,
and which were first announced to the world through the
medium of the publications above mentioned; and in the
work entitled Researches Chemical and Philosophical,
chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide, or Dephlogisticated
Nitrous Air, and its Respiration; by Humphrey Davy,
Superintendent of the Medical Pneumatic Institution,
BED
Bede London, 1800. The discovery of the chemical properties
II of this gas, and of its astonishing effect on the system when
Bedell. respired, were among the first, and must ever be esteemed
the most brilliant, of the results of this institution: it raised
the most sanguine anticipations in the mind of Dr Beddoes,
and called forth all his eloquence in the description of what
it already had and might be expected to accomplish. These,
like the other splendid visions in which his ardent imagina¬
tion was but too prone to indulge, have never been realized,
and have even created, by their signal failure, an unfortunate
prejudice against future attempts to improve the art of me¬
dicine by novel methods of treatment founded on chemical
or philosophical principles. The original objects of the in¬
stitution, being found unattainable, were successively aban¬
doned; and it assumed, by insensible gradations, the form
of the more common establishments for the relief of the
sick; and the prevention rather than the cure of diseases
became the principal aim of its conductors. In 1807 it was
finally relinquished by Dr Beddoes to the care of Mr King
and Dr Stock.
The object which Dr Beddoes had ever most at heart
was, to excite a lively and general attention to the means of
preserving health, and of repelling the first inroads of dis¬
ease, by the diffusion of medical knowledge throughout all
ranks of the community, as far as they were capable of ac¬
quiring it. His attention was uniformly directed to this
favourite object, and he suffered no opportunity to escape
of enforcing those maxims which tend to prevent the neces¬
sity of the interference of his art.
Dr Beddoes has been very justly characterized as a pioneer
in the road to discovery. He was more active, however, in
exciting the labours of others, than in labouring himself in
the field of experiment. He had the imagination of a poet,
and could paint in the most vivid colours the sufferings en¬
tailed by disease, and enforce with the most powerful elo¬
quence whatever he wished to impress on the minds of his
readers. He has been accused of versatility of opinion ; but
if he was, perhaps, hasty in publishing the first conceptions
which he formed, he has atoned for this fault by the re¬
markable candour with which he retracted them the moment
his confidence in them was shaken. Besides his numerous
medical works, he was also the author of several political
publications which appeared in 1795, 1796, 1797. (Stock’s
Memoirs of Dr Beddoes, Lond. 1811. (p. M. R.)
BEDE. See Beda.
BEDELL, Dr William, a learned prelate, born in Es¬
sex in 1570. He accompanied Sir Henry Wotton, the Eng¬
lish ambassador to Venice, in 1604, and spent eight years in
that city, where he contracted an intimate acquaintance with
the celebrated Father Paul. Of him Bedell learned enough
of Italian to be able to translate the English Common Prayer
Book into that language ; and in return he drew up an Eng¬
lish grammar for Father Paul, who declared that he had learned
more from Bedell in all parts of divinity than from any other
person. In 1629, he obtained the bishopric of Kilmore and
Ardagh in Ireland, and finding these dioceses in very great
disorder, applied himself vigorously to the reform of abuses.
He procured an Irish translation of the Common Prayer
Book, which he caused to be read in his cathedral every
Sunday; and the New Testament having been translated
by Archbishop Daniel, he caused a version of the Old Tes¬
tament to be made, which was afterwards printed at the ex¬
pense of the Honourable Robert Boyle. In 1624, he pub¬
lished a controversial book against the Roman Catholics ;
and he assisted the archbishop of Spalatro in finishing his
famous work De Republica Ecclesiastica. When the re¬
bellion broke out in Ireland in October 1641, the bishop’s
was the only house in the county of Cavan that remained
inviolate. About the middle of December, however, the
rebels, pursuant to orders received from their council of state
at Kilkenny, required him to dismiss the people who had
BED 567
fled to him for protection ; but he peremptorily refused to Bedford
do so. Upon this the bishop and his family were carried li
prisoners to the castle of Cloughboughter ; but after a con- Bedfor<i
finement of about three weeks, the prisoners were exchanged v Leve*- /
for some of the principal rebels. The bishop, however, died
soon after, Feb. 7.1642, and the chiefs of the rebels honoured
his memory by accompanying his remains to the tomb.
BEDFORD, the county town of Bedfordshire, is a muni¬
cipal and parliamentary borough and market-town, situated
in a fertile vale on both sides of the river Ouse, which is
here crossed by a handsome stone bridge of five arches.
It is 50 miles N.W. of London by road, and 62f by the
North-Western Railway, a branch of which goes oft'from the
main line at Bletchley to Bedford. The town consists chiefly
of one long wide street, intersected by smaller ones at right
angles, and is well built, paved, and lighted with gas. It
has five parish churches, four of which are fine old Gothic
edifices : the fifth is a recent erection in the Norman style.
A district church was opened in 1841. There are also
Independent, Methodist, and Baptist chapels, and a small
Jewish synagogue. Bedford in proportion to its size has
more public endowments than any other place in the king¬
dom, for which it is chiefly indebted to Sir W. Harper,
Lord Mayor of London in 1561, who founded here a free
school, and conveyed for its support, and for portioning
poor maidens, a piece of ground in London, the overplus,
if any, to be given to the poor. This ground has gradually
risen in value so as now to produce nearly L. 14,000 an¬
nually. It supports a grammar and other schools, and 58
almshouses, besides large sums given annually as marriage
poriions, for apprenticing youths, and other benevolent pur¬
poses. In 1849 above L.4000 were expended on the schools,
L.1750 on the almshouses, L.858 in apprentice fees, L.400
in marriage portions, L.179 in donations to servants, and up¬
wards of L.1000 in other charities. The grammar-school
has eight exhibitions of L.80 per annum each, at Oxford,
Cambridge, or Dublin. Among its public buildings are the
county hall, the jail, built on the site of that in which Bunyan
wrote his Pilgrim’s Progress—house of correction, lunatic
asylum, infirmary, Bedford library and subscription rooms,
and the corn exchange. Its principal manufactures are
straw-plait and lace ; and a considerable trade is carried on
with Lynn Regis, by means of the Ouse, in corn, malt, coals,
timber, and iron. Market-days, for cattle, Monday, and for
corn, Saturday. Bedford is governed by a mayor, 6 aider-
men, and 18 councillors ; and it sends two members to par¬
liament. Pop. 1851, 11,693.
Bedford Level, the name given to a flat district on
the eastern coast of England, comprising the greater part
(amounting to 450,000 acres) of the marshy district called
the Fens, the whole isle of Ely in Cambridgeshire, and a
portion of the south of that county, 30,000 acres of Suffolk,
63,000 acres of Norfolk, 57,000 of Huntingdon, about 8000
of Northamptonshire, and the south-eastern portion of Lin¬
colnshire. The extent of the whole tract is 60 miles in
length, from Milton in Cambridge to Toynton in Lincoln ;
its breadth is about 40 miles, from Peterborough in North¬
ampton to Brandon in Suffolk. The boundary on three sides
is of an irregular form, giving it something of a horse-shoe
shape, with the opening terminated by the sea on the north.
This district obtained its present name from the agree¬
ment of Francis Earl of Bedford, the principal landholder,
and thirteen other adventurers, with Charles I. in 1634, to
drain the level, on condition of receiving 95,000 acres of
the reclaimed land. This district has within historic periods
undergone remarkable changes. In the time of the Romans
it was a dense forest, which, as a stronghold of the Britons,
those invaders destroyed. It then became a swamp, through
which the lazy waters of the Ouse, the Welland, the Nene,
and Wisbeach, crept to the sea. In the thirteenth century,
the sea here, as in other parts of N.W. Europe, burst its
568
BED
BED
Bedford, boundaries, and the inundated land became a pestilential
^ swamp. The first attempt to drain this morass seems to
have been made in the year 1436, and embankments and
ditches were formed at a great expense. 1 hese, however,
were swept away during the ensuing winter by the flooding
of the river Ouse. Another partial attempt at drainage was
made by Bishop Moreton in the reign of Henry V II., but
this also proved a failure. An act was passed in the 44t i
year of Queen Elizabeth for effecting its reclamation ; but
the first effectual attempt at reclaiming it was not made
until 1634, as already mentioned; and many embankments
and canals were constructed at various intervals at an ex¬
pense above one million sterling. Three years after the
agreement of the Earl of Bedford and his partners with t le
king, after an outlay of L.100,000 on the part of the com¬
pany, the contract was annulled, on the fraudulent plea that
the works were insufficient; and an offer was made by King
Charles to undertake its completion on condition of receiv¬
ing 57,000 acres in addition to the amount originally agreed
on. This unjust attempt was frustrated by the breaking
out of the civil war; and no further attempt at di ainage
was made till 1649, when the parliament reinstated the Earl
of Bedford’s successor in his father’s rights. After an addi¬
tional outlay of L.300,000, the adventurers received 95,000
acres of reclaimed land, according to the contract, which
however fell far short of repaying the expense of the under-
takino-. In 1664 a royal charter was obtained to incor¬
porate the company, which still exists, and carries on the
concern under a governor, 6 bailiffs, 20 conservators, and a
commonalty, each of whom must possess 100 acres of land
in the level, and has a voice in the election of officers. The
conservators must each possess not less than 280 acres, the
governor and bailiffs each 400 acres. The original adven¬
turers had allotments of land according to their interest of
the original 95,000 acres ; but Charles II., on granting the
charter, took care to secure to the crown a lot of 12,000
acres out of the 95,000, which, however, is held under the
directors, whereas the allotments are not held in common,
though subject to the laws of the corporation. The level
was divided in 1697 into three parts, called the North, Mid¬
dle, and South Levels, comprising respectively the tracts
between the Welland and the Nene, the Nene and Old
Bedford rivers, and the third between Old Bedford river
and the southern limit of the level.
Since then extensive works have at different times been
carried on to complete the drainage of this district; but the
.most effectual are under the Acts of 1827 and 1829, for “im¬
proving the outfall of the Nene,” “ The Navigation of the
Wisbeach,” and “ The Embanking of the Salt Marshes be¬
tween the canal called Kinderley Cut and the sea.” Vessels
of 60 tons burden can now come up to the town of Wisbeach
at all tides, and those of from 100 to 200 tons at spring tides.
The draining of the lower lands, which, like the Dutch Pol¬
ders, are below low-water mark, was carried on by windmills;
but these have now been almost superseded by steam-en¬
gines, with great advantage : in the North Level the drainage
is effected by sluices without either windmills or steam-en¬
gines. As the result of these extensive operations, the level
now abounds in rich pasture and corn lands. (Moore, Dod¬
son, and Burrell, on the Bedford Level; Parliamentary
Payers, 1827-29.)
Bedford, New, a seaport town of North America, state
of Massachusetts, near the entrance of Buzzard’s Bay, 51
miles S.S.E. of Boston, with which it is connected by railway.
The city is built on a commanding elevation above the west
bank of the Acushnet river, and presents a very handsome
appearance. The principal public buildings are the town-hall,
custom-house, court-house, and several churches. This city is
mainly indebted for its prosperity to the whale fishery, to which
it furnishes no less than two-thirds of the whole shipping so
employed by the United States. Besides oil and candles, it
has large manufactures of cordage, hoops, &c. The ship¬
building also is very considerable. Pop. (1850) 16,464.
BEDFORDSHIRE, an inland English county, situated's-
nearly in the centre of the island, but rather towards the
eastern side. It is bounded on the north by Huntingdon¬
shire and Northamptonshire, on the west by Buckingham¬
shire, on the south by that county and Herefordshire, and
on the east by the latter and Cambridgeshire. Its greatest
length is about thirty-six miles, and its greatest breadth
twenty-one miles. Its extent is 295,582 English statute
acres, or nearly 462 square miles.
The face of the country is in general level, but with gentle
undulations, scarcely deserving the name of hills, except
towards Buckinghamshire, from which county a part of the
Chiltern range enters, but only the lowest portion of that
range. The chalk of these hills is found to be a valuable
manure on some of the other soils of the county. From the
S.E. to the centre of the county is a valuable district of dairy
land. The western side is chiefly a sandy soil, but, being
well cultivated on the Norfolk system, is productive ; near
Woburn it is generally sandy, and was sterile till the modern
improvements in agriculture, fostered by the late Duke of
Bedford, had extended their influence and productiveness.
Near Biggleswade is a portion of land which yields the
highest rent and most valuable products. It is cultivated
by a class of market gardeners, and onion and other seeds
are grown there for the supply of the shops of the seedsmen
in London. Much of the former barren sandy soils has
been planted of late years, and the inclosure of many of the
largest common fields has improved both the beauty and
the fertility of the county.
The land is drained by many brooks, which contribute
to increase the rivers, and, by rendering them navigable,
minister to the benefit of the inhabitants. No county is
better accommodated with good roads than Bedfordshire,
chiefly owing to the exertions of the late Mr W hitbread,
before whose time they were in a very bad condition. The
river Ouse enters this county on its north-western side, col¬
lects the water from a considerable district during a winding
course, and becomes navigable at Bedford. In its progress
towards Huntingdonshire it receives the waters of the Ivel,
which is also navigable as high up as Sheffbrd, and the united
streams run to the German Ocean at Lynn. A small por¬
tion of the western side of the county is benefited by its
water communication with London, and with the coal dis¬
tricts of Staffordshire, which it enjoys through the Grand
Junction Canal.
As Bedfordshire is mainly an agricultural county, and as
nearly four-fifths of the land are devoted to pasture or to the
dairy, and little more than one-fifth is under tillage, the in¬
creased number of inhabitants has caused a scarcity of em¬
ployment, and a consequent great advance in the poor rates.
The present Duke of Bedford, the largest landowner in the
county, has done much for the amelioration of his tenantiy,
by draining and otherwise improving their lands, erecting
comfortable dwellings, establishing schools, and other means.
The farms are let at valuation, the duke selecting his ten¬
ant from the various applicants. The chief occupation of
the manufacturing kind consists in plaiting straw and form¬
ing it into chip hats, making baskets and other articles;
and is confined almost exclusively to females. Dunstable
has long been celebrated for this trade, and it is consider¬
ably extended over other parts of the county. Besides this,
till of late years, the trade of bone lace, made both from
silk and thread, afforded employment to the females, and
still continues to do so in an inferior degree, though it has
been much diminished by the introduction and improve¬
ments in machine lace. Some trade is carried on by t e
rivers and canal, by which corn and butter are conveyed to
distant markets, and the inhabitants supplied with fuel. As
the great north roads pass through the county in two lines,
Bedford¬
shire.
BED
BED
569
Bedford¬
shire.
the traffic on these gives some activity to its commerce.
Branches of the North-Western railway go to Bedford and
Dunstable, and the Great Northern railway passes through
the eastern part of the county.
The civil division of the county is into nine hundreds,
which contain nine market-towns and 124 parishes. In an
ecclesiastical view it forms part of the diocese of Ely and
the archdeanery of Bedford; in its judicial relation it is in
the Norfolk circuit.
The titles derived from the county are that of duke to the
house of Russell, and of baron of Bletsoe to the family of
Lord St John. Two members of the House of Commons
are returned by the county, and two by the town of Bed¬
ford, the only borough within it.
The most distinguished residences in this county are, Istf,
Woburn Abbey, near the town of that name. It was for¬
merly a Cistercian abbey, granted at the Reformation by
Henry VIII. to the family of Russell, the fourth duke of which
house erected the present edifice. It is a very grand and
capacious pile, situated in an extensive park, and is fur¬
nished with a large and valuable collection of paintings and
statues. The collection of agricultural and arboricultural
plants grown here is well deserving the notice of the student.
2dly, Luton Hoo, a mansion which was reconstructed and
improved for John Earl of Bute by Adam the architect. A
library, 146 feet in length, furnished with a valuable collec¬
tion of books, and a large selection of paintings of some of
the first masters, chiefly of the Italian school, are its distin¬
guishing ornaments. The grounds have received every im¬
provement that art can produce in a situation not naturally
picturesque. 3c%, Ampthill Park, formerly the seat of the
Earls of Upper Ossory, now of Lord Holland. This superb
edifice, whicli contains a good library, a valuable collection
of paintings, and a museum of natural history, stands in a
delightful park, adorned with most beautiful spreading
ancient oaks.
Besides these there are other mansions which are highly
deserving of notice and admiration, especially that of Mr
Whitbread at South-hill; Wrest Park, belonging to the
Countess de Grey; Hawnes House, to Lord Carteret; Mog-
genhanger House, to Mr Thornton; Potten, to Sir John
Burgoyne ; Oakley House, to the Marquis of Tavistock;
Old Warden Park to Lord Ongley; and, though not so
distinguished by its extent as many others, Cardington
House, once the residence of Howard the philanthropist,
now of Mr S. C. Whitbread.
The population of the county stood at the three last de¬
cennial numerations as follows :—
Year.
1831,
1841,
1851,
Males.
46,450
52,190
59,941
Females.
49,033
55,746
64,537
Total.
95,483
107,936
124,478
Houses.
18,473
21,964
25,461
In the year 1841 the number of persons living by trade,
commerce, &c., was 14,333; by agriculture 14,933: 19,923
were labourers, servants, &c. The towns and their popula¬
tions in 1851 were as follow:—Bedford, 11,693; Biggles¬
wade, 3976 ; Dunstable, 3589 ; Leighton-Buzzard, 4465 ;
Luton, 10,648.
When the Romans landed in this kingdom Bedfordshire
formed a portion of a district called Catieuchlana, whose
sovereign or chief, Cassibelenus or Cassibelaunus, com¬
manded the united forces which opposed Julius Caesar.
When, in the year 310, the Emperor Constantine ruled the
whole island, and divided it into five provinces, Bedford¬
shire was included in the third division called Flavia Ccesa-
riensis, and remained so till the final abandonment of Bri¬
tain by the Romans. Under the Saxon heptarchy it formed
part of the kingdom of Mercia, until with the rest of the
island it was united to the kingdom of the West Saxons,
which was divided by Alfred into counties, hundreds, and
VOL. iy.
tythings; when this county first received the name it has
since retained.
There are many remains of Roman, Saxon, and Norman
antiquities. Traces of a Roman station are to be seen at
Sandys near Potton, and at Maiden-Bower near Dun¬
stable. Leighton-Buzzard, or Beaudesart, is supposed to
have been a Roman camp ; and vestiges of a Roman amphi¬
theatre may be seen near Bradford Magna. The ancient
Icknield and Watling Street roads passed through the
county, and the remains of each may be definitely traced, as
well as of some others constructed by the Romans, (w. J.)
BEDLAM, a house for lunatics. The word is a corrup¬
tion of Bethlehem, the name of a religious house in London
which was converted into an hospital for the insane.
BEDLOE, William, better known by his assumed title
of Captain, was an infamous adventurer of low birth, who
had travelled, under various disguises, over a great part of
Europe. Encouraged by the success of Titus Oates, he
turned general evidence, gave an account of Godfrey’s mur¬
der, and added many circumstances to the narrative of Oates.
A reward of L.500 was voted to Bedloe by the commons ;
and he is said to have asserted the reality of the Papist plot
on his deathbed; but the whole story is overlaid with ab¬
surdity, contradiction, and perjury. Bedloe died in 1680.
Giles Jacob states, that he was author of a play entitled
The Excommunicated Prince, or the False Relict, 1679;
but Anthony Wood asserts, that it was written by one
Thomas Walter, M.A. of Jesus College, Oxford.
BEDNORE, a town of Hindustan, in the territories of
the rajah of Mysore. In 1645 the seat of government of
the rajahs of Ikeri was transferred to this place; and as the
inhabitants of the former capital removed with the court,
Bednore became a city of great importance, containing, it is
said, 20,000 houses, besides huts. It was taken and plun¬
dered by Hyder in 1763, who ordered it to be called Hyder-
nagur. It is still however known by its original name of
Bednore. At that time it was estimated at eight miles in
circumference. In 1783 it surrendered to a British detach¬
ment under General Matthews, but being shortly after in¬
vested by Tippoo Sultan, the garrison capitulated on con¬
dition of safe conduct to the coast. Tippoo violated the
stipulation, put General Matthews and the principal officers
to death, and imprisoned the remainder of the force. At
Tippoo’s death it contained 1500 houses, besides huts. Dis¬
tance N.W. from Seringapatam 150 miles. Lat. 13. 50.
Long. 75. 6.
The district of Bednore is situated on the summit of that
range of hills, the Western Ghauts, which overlooks the
provinces of Canara and Malabar. In consequence of its
elevation above the sea, and the steepness of the mountain
chain, which rises like a wall to the height of 4000 or 5000
feet, the clouds of the south-west monsoon are here in¬
tercepted, and their contents precipitated on the table-land
in deluges of rain, which continue for six months in the year,
and are extremely favourable to vegetation. Its products
are pepper, betel-nut, cardamums, and sandal-wood. Cattle
of small size are also bred in the district. The imports are
salt, rice, cocoa-nuts, oil, turmeric and cotton cloths. (e.t.)
BEDOUINS, or Bedouis, a modern name of the wild
Arabs, whether in Asia or Africa. See Arabia.
BEDRIACUM, a village of Cisalpine Gaul, situated be¬
tween Verona and Cremona. From the account given by
Tacitus, Cluverius conjectures that the ancient Bedriacum
stood in the place where the city of Canneto now stands.
Here the army of the Emperor Otlio was defeated A.d. 69,
by the united forces of Csecina and Valens, generals of Vi-
tellius. A few months later the Vitellian forces were de¬
feated at the same place by Antonius Primus, the lieutenant
of Vespasian.
BED WORTH, a town and parish of Warwickshire, 3|
miles south of Nuneaton. Area 2157 acres. Pop. of pa-
4 C
570
BEE.
Bedwyn
II
Bee.
rish (1851) 5059 ; of town, 3012, chiefly employed in the
manufacture of ribbons, of bricks, and malt. In the vicinity
are extensive coal-pits and stone-quarries.
BEDWYN, Great, a borough, market-town, and parish
in the county of Wilts, 70 miles from London, on the Ken-
net and Avon Canal. It is a place of great antiquity, and, Bedwyn
till the Reform bill passed, returned two members to parlia- l|
ment. It has little trade ; and the only building that merits Bee-
attention is the church, which contains several very ancient
monuments. Pop. of parish in 1851, 2193.
BEE.
Progress The bee, from its singular instincts, its active industry,
of know- an(j t]ie useful products resulting from its labours, has,
ledge re- from j-]ie remotest times, attracted the attention, not only
this infect.of naturalists, but of mankind in general. No nation upon
earth has had so many historians as this remarkable tribe
of insects. The patience and sagacity of the naturalist
have had an ample field for exercise in the study of their
structure, physiology, and domestic economy. Their pre¬
servation and increase have been objects of assiduous care
to the agriculturist; and their reputed perfection of po¬
licy and government have long been the theme of admi¬
ration, and have afforded copious materials for argument
and allusion to the poet and the moralist in every age. It
is a subject that has been celebrated and adorned by the
muse of Virgil, as well as illustrated by tbe philosophic
genius of Aristotle. Cicero and Pliny report that Aris-
tomachus devoted himself during sixty years to the study
of these insects ; and Philiscus is said to have retired into
a desert wood, that he might pursue his observations on
them without interruption. A prodigious number of au¬
thors have written express treatises on bees; periodical
works have been published relating exclusively to their
management and economy; and learned societies have
been established for the sole purpose of conducting re¬
searches on this subject. The most celebrated association
of this kind is the Societe des Abeilles, founded about fifty
years ago in Little Bautzen, a village in Upper Lausatia,
under the auspices of the elector of Saxony. Its labours,
as we shall presently find, have enriched the science with
a number of valuable discoveries.
In so complicated a branch of natural history, the ap¬
plication of the difficult art of observing correctly, and of
the cautious processes of induction, cannot be effected
without laborious and long-continued efforts. But, on the
subject of bees, the inquirer after truth had, besides, many
obstacles to encounter, from the very general diffusion of
errors, which had been transmitted without due examina¬
tion from one author to another. The history of the opi¬
nions of successive writers will sufficiently prove how gra¬
dual and how slow has been the advancement of real know¬
ledge in what concerns these insects, and will teach us to
estimate the value of that which we at length possess, as
being tbe result of the labour of ages, and as being ex¬
torted from nature by indefatigable and persevering ex¬
ertions. So great an accumulation of curious and inte¬
resting facts, indeed, has accrued to us from the re¬
searches of Swammerdam, Maraldi, Reaumur, Schirach,
and Huber, as to constitute almost a new science. Many
of these have been discovered subsequently to the time of
the compilation of the article Bee in the preceding edi¬
tion of this work. It will therefore be proper, in this
place, to give a connected and systematic account of the
natural history of this remarkable insect. For tbe details
of the external characters and distinctions of species, we
shall refer to the article Entomology. The principal
features of their internal conformation will be described
when treating of the particular functions to which they
are more immediately subservient; and our descriptions
will apply, more especially, to the common and best-known
species, the Apis mellijica, which is the one particularly
prized on account of the rich products it affords.
The economy of bees comprehends so wide a field Plan of
of inquiry, the different parts of which are so connected this article
and dependent upon one another, that it is impossible to
treat of them distinctly, without supposing the reader to
possess some general acquaintance with the history of
these insects. We shall therefore premise a brief ac¬
count of the different sorts of bees inhabiting the hive,
and of the respective offices of each. We shall then pro¬
ceed to consider their comparative physiology; under
which head we shall state the leading particulars relating
to their nutrition, secretion, respiration, progressive mo¬
tion, external senses, and instincts. We shall next follow
them in their different labours, from the period when the
swarm has settled in a new habitation; we shall detail
the complex structure of their hives,—their curious pro¬
cesses of architecture,—the pains they bestow on rearing
their progeny, and in sending forth new swarms ; and this
will lead us to the subject of the fecundation of the queens,
and the massacre of the drones. After having thus given
an account of their usual condition, we shall, in the last
place, describe the result of several experiments and ob¬
servations which have been made when they were placed
in unusual circumstances; experiments which have exhi¬
bited many interesting features of their character, and
have thrown considerable light on the whole of their his¬
tory, as well as suggested various practical and economic
applications in the management of these insects.
The leading feature in their history, and one which Functions
distinguishes them from almost all insects, is their singu-ofthe
lar distribution into three different kinds, constituting, to ^
all appearance, so many different modifications of sex> ™euteJ.s,
The drone, which is characterized by a thicker body, a
round head, a more flattened shape, and more obtusely-
terminated abdomen, within which are contained the male
organs of generation, has been admitted as the male of
the species. It is distinguished also by the absence of a
sting, and by the humming noise that accompanies its
flight. The queen-bee, which is larger than any of the
others, has the abdomen of greater length, and is provided
with a sting, and with two ovaria of considerable size, is
unequivocally recognised as tbe female. The working
bees compose the third class, and are distinguished by the
smallness of their size, their lengthened proboscis, the pe¬
culiar structure of their legs and thighs, which are adapt¬
ed to the collection of certain materials obtained from
vegetables, and by the apparent absence of every trace of
generative organs,—we say apparent absence, because, as
will be hereafter stated, rudiments of ovaria have been
very lately discovered to exist, which, however, are not
perceptible without a very minute and careful dissection.
Till within a few years the working bees were regarded
as animals deprived of sex, and were accordingly termed
neuters or mules. It is these which perform all the labo¬
rious offices for the community,—which construct the in¬
terior of their habitation,—which explore the country in
search of nourishment and other mater ials,—which collect
and bring them to the hive, and apply them to different
purposes; it is this kind that assiduously attend upon the
queen, and supply all her wants,—that defend the hive
from the attacks of depredators, and carry on hostilities
against the various enemies of the tribe. I he life of the \
BEE.
571
Bee-
Real sex
. ; of the
j working
bees.
I
females is chiefly engrossed with the duties of laying
eggs, and conducting the colonies, which, at certain pe¬
riods, emigrate from the parent state. The drones, pro¬
ducing neither wax nor honey, and depending on the rest
for their subsistence, are idle spectators of these labours.
They appear to be formed only for the momentary but
important duty of impregnation, since they perish when
this purpose is accomplished. There is commonly only one
perfect queen existing at a time within each hive; and
she appears to be treated by all the other bees with every
mark of affection and of deference. The number of la¬
bourers is very different in different hives; sometimes
there are only a few thousands; at other times from
twenty to forty, or even fifty thousand. The drones,
even in the spring, seldom compose more than one
thirtieth or one fortieth of the whole; and, at other sea¬
sons, there are none to be found in the hive. In order to
form some estimate of the number of bees which can oc¬
cupy a certain space, Mr Hunter counted what number
of drowned bees could be contained in an alehouse pint,
and found it to be 2160; so that if a swarm were to fill
two quarts, their numbers would be nearly 9000. Reau¬
mur, with the same view of ascertaining their numbers,
employed the more accurate method of weighing them;
he found that a collection of them, weighing one ounce,
consisted of 336 bees; and, therefore, that 16 ounces, or
one pound, would consist of 5376 bees.
Notwithstanding these differences in conformation, in¬
stincts, and offices, between the queen-bee and the work¬
ers, it is now established, upon the most incontrovertible
evidence, that they both originally proceed from the same
kind of larva, and that the queen-bee lays only two kinds
of eggs, the one destined to produce the drone, the others
capable of being converted, according to circumstances,
either into a worker or a queen. It has been proved that
the former, although exhibiting no appearance of sexual
organs on a superficial examination, are in reality females,
and have the rudiments of these organs, which, from their
not being developed, are incapable of exercising their
proper functions. It may be remarked, that the idea of
the working bees being radically females, had been sug¬
gested long ago by Dr Warder, in his Monarchy of Bees,
in which he terms them “ True Amazonsbut no atten¬
tion had been paid to his opinion. The real merit of this
great discovery, which affords the key to a multitude of
hitherto inexplicable facts, unquestionably belongs to Mr
Schirach, vicar of Little Bautzen, the secretary of the
Lausatian Society, to which we formerly adverted. When
first announced to the world, it was received with suspi¬
cion by the greater number of naturalists, and with com¬
plete incredulity by others. It was, indeed, at variance
with the whole tenor of the observations of Swammerdam,
Maraldi, and Reaumur. Wilhelmi, the brother-in-law of
Schirach, though an eye-witness of the experiments from
which he had deduced this theory, for a long time refused
to admit the doctrine, but became at length one of its
most strenuous supporters. It is noticed in a vein of sar¬
castic ridicule by Mr John Hunter, in his otherwise ex¬
cellent paper on bees in the Philosophical Transactions.
Needham wrote a memoir for the Imperial Academy of
Brussels in 1777, for the express purpose of refuting it;
and he then inveighs in strong language against those na¬
turalists who had deigned to give it the least countenance.
Mr Key, in the Bath Society Papers, declares that he
made experiments on this subject for eight years, without
obtaining a single result in conformity to Schirach’s views.
Bonnet, after exercising a laudable scepticism, and making
a diligent inquiry, in which he displays a genuine spirit of
philosophy, yielded a reluctant assent. But the truth of
the doctrine has since been placed beyond the reach of
controversy by multiplied series of observations and ex- Bee.
periments in different parts of Europe; and more espe-
cially by the recent investigations of Mr Huber of Ge¬
neva. We shall not at present enter into the detail of
proofs, because their force will be better appreciated
when other particulars belonging to the history of the bee
have been explained.
In considering the physiology of the bee, the first func-Nutrition,
tion that claims our notice is that of nutrition. The food
of bees is principally of two kinds, namely, the fluid secre¬
tions of vegetables contained in the nectarea of the flowers,
and the dust of the antherse, which has been termed by
botanists the pollen, but which, when collected by the bees,
has received a variety of appellations, such as farina, bee-
bread, raw wax {cire brute), &c. Occasionally, however,
we find bees feeding upon other saccharine substances
besides honey, such as honey-dew, treacle, syrup, &c.
The organs by which they collect food are extremely Organs for
complex, for they comprise instruments adapted to the collecting
reception of liquid aliment as well as those fitted for thelood*
division of solid materials. Reaumur has given the most
elaborate description of these organs, in which he has
corrected some errors that Swammerdam had fallen into.
For the purpose of taking up fluids, they are provided, in
common with all hymenopterous insects, with a long and
flexible proboscis or trunk, which may be considered as a Proboscis,
lengthened tongue, though, strictly speaking, it is formed
by a prolongation of the under lip. It is not tubular, as
Swammerdam had supposed, but solid throughout; and
the minute depression at its extremity is not the aperture
of any canal through which liquids can be absorbed. Cu¬
vier, in his Lemons d'Anatomic Comparee, has not marked
this distinguishing feature in the proboscis of the bee, but
speaks of it in common with the tubular trunks of the
other hymenoptera, and describes its aperture as being
situated in the lower part. But Reaumur has very satis¬
factorily shown that the trunk of the bee performs strict¬
ly the office of a tongue, and not that of a tube for suc¬
tion ; for when it takes up honey or other fluid aliment,
the under or the upper surfaces are more immediately
applied to it, and rolled from side to side, and the bee
thus licks up what adheres to it, while the extremity of
the trunk is frequently not applied at all to the substance
taken up. The trunk is supported on a pedicle, which ad¬
mits of being bent back or propelled forwards, and thus
can retract or stretch out the trunk to a considerable ex¬
tent. Protection is given to it by a double sheath; the
external, consisting of two scales furnished by the expan¬
sion of one of the portions of the labial palpi; and the in¬
ternal, formed by the prolongation of the two external
portions of the jaw. The whole member thus consists of
five principal parts, on which account Fabricius termed it
lingua quinquejida.
For the purpose of mechanically dividing solid mate-Mandibles,
rials, the mouth is furnished with two strong mandibles
and four palpi; they are but little employed in eating, but
are of great use in enabling the insect to seize and break
down hard substances for other purposes. In the work¬
ing bee all these parts are of larger dimensions than in
the other kinds. The teeth are two in number, and have
the form of concave scales with sharp edges ; they are fixed
to the ends of the jaws, and play horizontally as in other
insects. Reaumur describes and delineates a large aper¬
ture above the root of the proboscis, which is so surround¬
ed with fleshy parts as not to be readily seen unless the
proboscis be extended and bent downwards. This he con¬
siders as the mouth or orifice of the gullet; on the upper
side of which, and of course opposite to the root of the
proboscis, a small fleshy and pointed organ is seen, which
he regards as the tongue, assisting in the deglutition of the
II
572 B E
Bee. food. Through this orifice, it is presumed, all the aliment,
whether liquid or solid, passes ; the former being convey¬
ed to it by the trunk, which, by its contractile power,
presses forward the fluids it has collected between itself
and the inner sheath, and the latter being received direct¬
ly after its comminution by the teeth, behind which it is
situated. Latreille, however, whose authority is great on
a point of this nature, thinks that Reaumur has deceived
himself with regard to such an aperture, and disbelieves
its existence. He conceives that the food simply passes
on by the sides of the tongue, finding its way from thence
into the oesophagus, and so on to the stomach.
Stomachs. The bee has two stomachs ; the first is a large transpa¬
rent membranous bag, pointed in front, and swelling out
into two pouches behind. It pei’forms an office in some
respects analogous to that of the crop in birds ; for it re¬
ceives and retains for a time the fluid of the nectarea,
which does not appear to differ in any respect from
honey. Mr Hunter observes, that, whatever time the
contents of this reservoir may be retained, he never found
them altered, so as to give the idea of digestion having
taken place. The coats of this reservoir are muscular, by
w'hich means it is capable of throwing up the honey into
the mouth, so that it is regurgitated into the honey cells,
or imparted to other bees. None of it ever passes out
from the extremity of the trunk, as Swammerdam had be¬
lieved. For the purpose of digestion, a second stomach is
provided, which takes its origin from the middle of the
two posterior lobes of the former, and is of a lengthened
cylindrical shape. Its communication with the intestine
is not direct, but takes place by a projecting or inverted
pylorus, thickest at its most prominent part, with a very
small opening in the centre, of a peculiar construction.
This inward projecting part is easily seen through the
coats of the reservoir, especially if full of honey. A simi¬
lar kind of structure takes place at the communication of
the first with the second stomach, and, having the pro¬
perties of a valve, must effectually prevent all regurgita¬
tion from the latter into the former.
Collection rphe pollen of flowers, which is the other principal ar-
ot pollen. tjc]e 0f f00[!? was shown by Swammerdam to consist of an
infinite number of small particles, generally of a globular
shape, each of which is found to be a small capsule, in¬
closing the still finer dust or fecundating principle destin¬
ed to be shed on the pistils for the purpose of germina¬
tion. Geoffroy has given a memoir, published in the Col¬
lection Academique des Sciences, containing a minute de¬
scription of the shapes of these capsules, taken from dif¬
ferent flowers. The working bees, by means of the pencil
of hair which grows on the tarsi, first collect a certain
quantity of pollen, which they knead together into a ball,
and place it in the concave space which is situated at the
middle joint of the hinder feet, and has been termed the
basket. The surrounding rows of hairs keep the ball from
falling off. In order to gather larger quantities at once,
the bees are sometimes observed to roll their bodies on
the flower, and then, brushing off the pollen which adheres
to them with their feet, form it into two masses, which
they dispose of as before mentioned; and it is said that,
in moist weather, when the particles of pollen cannot be
readily made to cohere together, they return to their hive
dusted all over with pollen, which they then brush off
with their feet. They are often obliged to tear open the
capsules which contain the pollen, in order to procure a
supply of this substance, when it has not yet been shed
by the flowers.
Pollen is yielded by flowers during the spring in such
abundance that the bees of a single hive will often bring
back one pound, or even more, in a day. Some agricul¬
turists have accordingly imagined, that the vegetation of
E.
some plants might be endangered from this great con- Bee.
sumption of the fecundating principle by insects in gene -
ral; for other insects besides bees seek it with avidity.
But this fear has been proved to be totally without foun¬
dation, and the practice of destroying bees in order to
prevent this imaginary danger is therefore as useless as
it is barbarous. It would appear, indeed, that so far from
obstructing the fecundation of plants, the labours of the
bee have often tended materially to promote it, by the
agitation which they give to the flower, and by transport¬
ing the pollen from one flower to another. In this manner
may we account for the number of hybrid flowers that are
met with near the haunts of bees.
It has been shown very clearly by Huber, in a paper in
the Journal de Physique, that pollen is peculiarly the food
of the young bees, and is collected by the working bees
with this intention. Reaumur, however, asserts that he
has seen adult bees devour pollen. Swammerdam, who
conceived the trunk to be tubular, rejected the idea that
pollen could ever be the food of bees, as the globules of
which it consists are incapable of entering an orifice so
minute as that which appears at the extremity of the
trunk, and which, as he was unacquainted with the real
mouth, he thought was the only passage to the stomach.
Latreille, who does not admit the existence of the large
mouth described by Reaumur, states that the mandibles
lay hold of the pollen, and carry it to the base of the
trunk, from whence it finds its way into the oesophagus by
the sides of that organ.
Of honey-dew, which forms part of the food of bees,
we shall merely remark that it is an excrementitious mat¬
ter deposited on the leaves of plants by certain species of
aphides.
An abundant supply of water is essential to the healthy
condition of bees. They consume a large quantity, and
often stop to drink at the edge of stagnant pools, and seem
even to prefer putrid and urinous waters to purer streams,
as if their saline and pungent qualities were grateful to
them.
It has been long the opinion that wax was but a slight Production
modification of pollen, which required for this conversion of wax.
merely the application of a certain pressure, and a kind
of kneading by the feet of the bees. Many naturalists,
such as Bernard de Jussieu, had persuaded themselves
that the dust of the stamina of flowers contained wax
ready formed as one of its ingredients, and quoted the
following experiment in proof of this opinion : If the mi¬
nute grains of pollen be put into water, they gradually
swell, till they at length burst, at which moment a small
jet of an oily liquor will be perceived, which floats on the
water without mixing with it. But Reaumur had attempt¬
ed in vain to extract any thing like wax from dust of the
antherse; and, indeed, an attention to the chemical pro¬
perties of these two substances would have sufficiently
pointed out their essential differences. From the upper
surface of the leaves of many kinds of trees, a substance
has indeed been obtained, which possesses all the qualities
of bees’ wax; but nothing like it can be extracted from
pollen. Reaumur was persuaded that the pollen was ela¬
borated in the second stomach of the bee, and thrown up
into the mouth in the form of a white foam, which, by
exposure to the air, hardened, and became wax; and that
the bee took advantage of its soft state to apply it in the
building of the combs. So circumstantial an account,
given to us by a scrupulous observer of facts, appeared to
be perfectly satisfactory, and was acquiesced in by natu¬
ralists in general. But it has since been completely proved
by the researches of Duchet, of Hunter, and of Huber,
but principally by the latter, that wax is a secretion from \
the abdomen of the bee; and that it depends not at all
B E E.
573
Bee. on the pollen which the insect may consume, but on the
quantity of honey or other saccharine substance which it
receives into the stomach. The first step in this disco¬
very was made by one of the members of the Lausatian
Society, whose name has not been preserved. It was
mentioned in a letter of Mr Wilbelmi to Bonnet, in Au¬
gust 1768, in which he says that wrax, instead of being
rejected by the mouth, exudes from the rings which in¬
close the posterior part of the body. Of this we may satisfy
ourselves by drawing out the bee from the cell in which
it is working with wax, by means of the point of a fine
needle; and we may perceive, in proportion as the body
is elongated, that the wax will make its appearance under
the rings, in the form of small scales. Mr Duchet, in his
Culture des Abeilles, gives a full statement of the princi¬
pal circumstances attending the production of wax, which
he very justly ascribes to the conversion of honey into this
substance in the body of the bee. These facts appear to
have been entirely overlooked till the subject was again
brought forward by Mr John Hunter, in his paper in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1792. Wildman, however,
had cursorily remarked that portions of wax, in the form
of scales, and which he conceived must have been mould¬
ed on the body of the bee, are sometimes found at the
bottom of the hive. Mr Huber was engaged in prosecut¬
ing his inquiries on this subject at the same period with
Mr Hunter, and discovered, in 1793, the existence of re¬
gular receptacles or pouches, from the coats of which the
wax is secreted, and within which it accumulates till its
edges raise the scales, and become apparent externally.
These plates of wax are withdrawn by the bee itself, or
some of its fellow-labourers, and are applied in a manner
hereafter to be described.
Huber has shown, by a series of well-conducted expe¬
riments, that, in a natural state, the quantity of wax se¬
creted is in proportion to the consumption of honey ; but
that an equal or even greater quantity will be formed if
the bee be fed on a solution of sugar in water. Warmth
and rest promote this process of secretion; for the bees,
after feeding plentifully on saccharine food, hang together
in a cluster without moving, for several hours, at the end
of which time large plates of wax are found under the
abdominal rings. This happened when bees were con¬
fined and restricted from any other sort of nourishment;
whilst those that were fed on pollen and fruits alone did
not produce any wax. It appears also from his researches
that the formation of wax is the office of a particular set
of bees, which may be distinguished from the rest, and
particularly from those that nurse the young larvae, by the
greater size and more cylindrical shape of their abdomen.
Dissection also shows that their stomachs are more capa¬
cious. In the second volume of Huber s Nouvelles Obser¬
vations sur les Abeilles, he describes minutely the anatomy
of the pouches or receptacles for the wax, which are parts
peculiar to the working bees, being totally absent in the
males and queens. It is a structure that had escaped the
keen eyes of Swammerdam, and has not been noticed by
any subsequent anatomist. The cavities are lined with a
membrane, which presents a number of folds, forming an
hexagonal net-work, not unlike the appearance in the se¬
cond stomach of ruminant quadrupeds, and evidently des¬
tined to perform the office of secretion.
Among the secretions peculiar to the bee, the poison
which is poured into the wounds made by the sting de¬
serves to be noticed. It is said to owe its mischievous
efficacy to certain pungent salts. If a bee is provoked to
strike its sting against a plate of glass, a drop of poison
will be discharged; and if this is placed under a micro¬
scope, the salts may be seen to concrete, as the liquor
dries, into clear, oblong, pointed crystals. The sting con-
Bee.
sists of bearded darts, which are protruded from the end
of a sheath ; and the venomous juice is likewise injected v—
through the sheath, from a little bag at the root of the
sting.
As no organs for the circulation of blood have been as Function
yet demonstrated in insects, respiration is supposed to beof respira-
effected by means totally different from those which aretlon-
adopted in the higher classes of the animal kingdom. As
the blood, or fluid corresponding to the blood, cannot be
presented to the air in any separate organ, the air must
be conducted to the blood, wherever such a fluid is met
with. For this purpose, tracheae or air-tubes, having se¬
veral external openings or spiracles, are made to ramify
like arteries, and are distributed in an infinite number of
branches to every part of the body. The analogy of other
insects might perhaps be admitted as sufficient evidence^
that bees respire atmospheric air, the constant renewal of
which is essentially necessary to the continuance of the
vital functions. It is, however, not always safe to tiust
to analogical reasoning in subjects of natural history; and
direct evidence is, in all cases, to be preferred when it
can be obtained. We must therefore consider as valuable
the complete series of experiments on the respiration of
bees, that have been lately given to the world by Huber,
to whom we already owe so large a portion of the infor¬
mation we possess with regard to these insects. We
might indeed have anticipated, with the strongest proba¬
bility, many of the results to which these experiments
have led; but there are others which are quite unexpect¬
ed, and possess as much of interest as of novelty.
The condition of a hive of bees, in which many thou¬
sand individuals, full of animation and activity, are crowd¬
ed together in the very small space of one or two cubic
feet, having no communication with the external air but
by means of a small aperture in the lowest part, which
entrance is frequently obstructed by a throng of bees
that are passing in and out during sultry weather, is of all
possible conditions the one least favourable to the renewal
of heated air. The most crowded theatres or hospitals
are not to be compared with it in point of closeness. Di¬
rect experiment, indeed, shows that the combustion of a
taper could not be carried on in so limited a space; for
Mr Huber found that, in a glass ball of the same dimen¬
sions as the hive, and with a similar apertuie, the taper
went out in a few minutes. So great was the difficulty
of explaining the respiration of bees under these circum¬
stances, that Mr Huber was led to examine into the truth
of the opinion, that respiration was equally necessary to Its neces-
bees as to other insects. The results were unequivocal, sity.
They perish speedily in the vacuum of the air-pump.
They are easily drowned by placing them so that the spi¬
racles on the corslet are under water; but revive readily
when they are dried. The action of the spiracles is, in
this experiment, rendered manifest by the escape of
bubbles of air from each of their orifices. When a num¬
ber of bees are confined in a bottle accurately closed, they
exhibit unequivocal symptoms of distress, and fall into com¬
plete asphyxia. These changes occur more rapidly when
they are placed in any gas which contains no admixture
of oxygen, such as carbonic acid, hydrogenous and azotic
gases. When they are rendered torpid by cold, and re¬
spiration is thereby suspended, these effects do not take
place. All these effects are more considerable in adult
bees than in the larvae, though they are also distinctly
exhibited in the latter. Suffocation is retarded if the pro¬
portion of oxygen be greater than in atmospheric air,
and it may be averted altogether by a continual renewal
of oxygen. It was ascertained by the eudiometer that
the same changes were produced on the air as in the
respiration of other animals; namely, the subtraction of
574 B E
Bee. oxygen and the addition of an equal volume of carbonic
acid gas.
Yet, on examining the air of the hive itself, it was found
scarcely to differ in purity from atmospheric air. It was
at one time conjectured that some of the contents of the
hive, such as the pollen, the honey, or the wax, might
have some power of evolving oxygen, so as to afford the
requisite supply of this gas. Experiments, however,
proved that they had no such power. Amidst so great
an uncertainty, it was thought worth while to ascertain
whether bees might not exert some unknown process by
which oxygen was generated in the hive itself. If this
were true, they could support life although all communi¬
cation with the external air were intercepted. A hive
was selected having glass sides, so as to allow of the ob¬
server’s seeing what was passing in the interior, and the
entrance was completely closed. In a quarter of an hour
the bees became sensible of their situation, and showed
great uneasiness; all business was suspended; an extra¬
ordinary agitation, accompanied by a remarkable noise,
prevailed in every quarter. All the bees were seen beat¬
ing their wings with the same rapidity as in flying. They
were thus incessantly occupied during ten minutes. Their
motions became then more languid, and, after being ut¬
terly exhausted, they fell in succession to the bottom of
the hive, till every one of them was in a state of complete
asphyxia. It is remarkable that, at this period, the tem¬
perature of the hive, which had been previously at 95° of
Fahrenheit, suddenly cooled down to that of the external
air. On opening the door and the top of the hive, and
establishing a current of air through it, the bees were
soon restored to animation.
Their It was proved by this experiment that the air is renew-
mode of e(j through the small opening which serves as a door to
the hivenS ^ie ^ve* By suspending light substances near the en¬
trance, the existence of different currents of air was ren¬
dered manifest. After much reflection, it occurred that
the violent agitation of the wings might have some influ¬
ence in procuring this renewal of air. This conjecture
was confirmed by an experiment with a glass bell, to the
aperture of which an apparatus was fitted, consisting of a
small ventilator, which could be moved rapidly round by
machinery. When the ventilator was set in motion, the
air within could support the combustion of a candle for an
unlimited time. Observation further showed that some
bees are actually always employed in the office of venti¬
lating the hive ; they vibrate their wings with great vigour
and constancy, producing so rapid a movement of them,
that they cannot be seen except in the two extremities of
the arc of vibration, which is at least one of 90°. While
thus imitating the actions of flying, they fasten themselves
with their feet to the floor of the hive, so that the whole
effect of that impulse which, were they at liberty, would
carry them forwards with considerable velocity, is exert¬
ed on the air, which is therefore driven backwards in a
powerful current. Some bees occasionally perform these
ventilating motions on the outside of the hive, near the
entrance; but a still greater number are employed in this
office within doors: sometimes twenty are thus occupied
at once, and each bee continues its motions for a certain
time, occasionally for nearly half an hour, and is then re¬
lieved by another, who takes its place. This is the occa¬
sion of that humming sound which is constantly heard
from the interior of the hive when the bees are not in a
state of torpidity. But it is often heard with even more
than usual loudness in the depth of winter. The warmth of
the sun’s rays, however, always occasions an increased
activity among the ventilating bees. The immediate
cause of these actions is probably some impression made
on their organs by the presence of vitiated air; for a bee
E.
may be made to ventilate itself by placing near it sub- Bee.
stances which have to them an unpleasant odour, such as
spirit of wine or oil of turpentine.
The connection between an active respiration and a Tempera-
high temperature is remarkably exemplified in bees, among tV1-0 °* t*ie
which, in consequence of their collecting together in large *live*
numbers, the heat is not so easily dissipated, and admits
also of being easily ascertained by the thermometer. Mr
Hunter found it to vary from 73° to 84° of Fahrenheit;
and Mr Huber observed it on some occasions to rise sud¬
denly from about 92° to above 104°.
Bees are well fitted, by their structure, for rapid flight Progres-
through the air. They possess great muscular strength sive mo*
in proportion to their size, and their indefatigable activitytlon'
in the different labours of the hive is truly astonishing.
Aristotle and Pliny have pretended that, during high
winds, they endeavour to steady their flight by holding a
small stone with their feet, by way of ballast. This as¬
sertion has been shown, both by Swammerdam and Reau¬
mur, to be erroneous in as far as it applied to the com¬
mon bee ; but there are other species which build nests
with stones and other hard materials, and which, while
transporting them for this purpose, were probably mis¬
taken for the honey-bee.
The physiology of the external senses must necessarily Sensitive
be very imperfectly understood in a class of animals of a powers,
nature so remote from our own species. The infinite di¬
versity of characters presented to us by the different tribes
of insects, as well as of other animals, naturally suggests
the idea that external objects produce on their sentient
organs impressions widely different from what they com¬
municate to ourselves. The notions we form of their
senses must not only be liable to great inaccuracy, but
must often be totally inadequate representa ions of the
truth. A finer organization, and more subtile percep¬
tions, would alone suffice to extend the sphere of their
ordinary senses to an inconceivable degree, as the tele¬
scope and the microscope have with us extended the
powers of vision. But they possess, in all probability,
other organs, appropriated to unknown kinds of impres¬
sions, and which must open to them avenues to knowledge
of various kinds, to which we must ever remain total
strangers. Art has with us supplied many elaborate
modes of bringing within our cognizance some of the
properties of matter which nature has not immediately
furnished us with the means of detecting. But who will
compare our thermometers, electroscopes, or hygrome¬
ters, however elaborately constructed, with those refined
instruments with which the lower classes, and particularly
insects, appear to be so liberally provided ? The antennae, Functions
which are so universally met with in this class of animals, of the an-
are doubtless organs of the greatest importance in con-tenme.
veying impressions from without. Their continual mo¬
tion, the constant use which is made of them in examin¬
ing objects, the total derangement in the instincts of those
insects which have been deprived of them, point them out
as exquisite organs of more than one sense. To impres¬
sions of touch, arising from the immediate contact of
bodies, they are highly sensible; but their motions evi¬
dently show that they are affected by objects at some dis¬
tance. They are no doubt alive to all the tremulous mo¬
tions of the surrounding air, and probably communicate
perceptions of some of its other qualities. Composed of
a great number of articulations, they are exceedingly
flexible in every direction, and can readily embrace the
outline of any body that the bee wishes to examine, how¬
ever small its diameter, and are capable of following all its
movements. It is by means of these instruments that the
bee is enabled to execute so many works in the interior
of the hive, from which the light must be totally exclud-
BEE. 575
13ee. ed. Aided by these, it builds its combs, pours honey into
its magazines, feeds the larvae, and ministers to every
want, which it discovers and judges of solely by this spe¬
cies of touch.
The antennae appear also to be the principal means em¬
ployed for mutual communication of impressions. The
different modes of contact constitute a sort of language,
which appears to be susceptible of a great variety of mo¬
difications, and to be capable of supplying at once every
species of information for which they have occasion. It
is in this way alone that they satisfy themselves of the
presence of their queen, or communicate to others the
alarming intelligence that she has disappeared.
Vision. The sense residing in the antennae appears to be, on
many occasions, supplementary to that of vision, which in
bees, as in other insects, is less perfect than in the larger
animals. During the night, therefore, they are chiefly
guided in their movements by the former of these senses.
This will sufficiently appear from observing by moon-light
the mode in which the bees guard the entrance of the
hive against the intrusion of moths which flutter in the
neighbourhood. They act as vigilant sentinels, perform¬
ing continual rounds near this important post, extending
their antennae to the utmost, and moving them alternate¬
ly to the right and to the left. Woe to the unfortunate
moth that comes within their reach. Aware of its danger,
and of the defective sight of the bees, the moths adroitly
avoid the slightest contact, and endeavour to insinuate
themselves between the bees, so as to get unperceived into
the hive, where they riot upon the honey which they find.
If bees require full day-light for the exercise of vision,
it must at the same time be acknowledged, that, when
they are so assisted, they appear to enjoy this sense in
great perfection. A bee will recognise its habitation from
great distances, and distinguish it at once from many others
in a numerous apiary. It passes through the air in a
straight line towards its object with extreme rapidity. On
quitting the hive, it flies towards the field which is most
in flower; and as soon as it has determined on its course,
it takes as direct a line as a ball issuing from a musket.
When it has collected sufficient provision, it rises in the air
to discover its hive, and then darts forward with the veloci¬
ty of an arrow, and with unerring precision in its aim.
Percep- Their perceptions of heat and cold, which are generally
tions of referred to the sense of touch, appear to be extremely de-
ture)m" ^cate- several experiments of Huber’s, the influence
of the rays of the sun excited them to a vigorous action
of the wings. It is well known that great cold reduces
them to a state of torpor, and inferior degrees of cold are
evidently unpleasant to them. They show by their con¬
duct that they are sensible of alterations in the state of
the weather for some time before we can perceive them.
Sometimes, when working with great assiduity, they will
suddenly desist from their labours; none will stir out of
the hive, while all the working-bees that are abroad hurry
home in crowds, and press forward so as to obstruct the
entrance of the hive. Often when they are thus warned
of the approach of bad weather, we can distinguish no al¬
teration in the state of the atmosphere. Gathering clouds
sometimes produce this effect on them ; but perhaps they
possess some species of hygrometrical sense, unconnected
with any impression of vision. It is alleged that no bee
is ever caught in a sudden shower, unless from some cause
it has wandered very far from the hive, or been disabled
by some accident from returning to it. There is reason for
thinking, however, that much exaggeration has prevailed
ln the statements of authors as to the extent of this kind
of foresight. Huber supposes that it is the rapid diminu¬
tion of light that alarms them ; for if the sky be uniformly
overcast, they proceed on their excursions, and even the
first drops of a soft shower do not make them return with Bee.
any great precipitation.
Their taste is perhaps the most imperfect of their senses. Taste.
They exert hardly any discrimination in the collection of
honey from different flowers. They are not repelled by
the scent or flavour of such as are extremely offensive to
our organs, and scruple not to derive supplies from such
as are highly poisonous. In some districts in America, it
is well known that the honey acquires in this way very de¬
leterious properties. The qualities of honey are, indeed,
observed to vary much, according to the particular situa¬
tion from which it is obtained. The most stagnant and
putrid waters, as we have already noticed, are resorted to
by bees with the same avidity as the purest. In their
selection of flowers they are guided by the quantity of
honey they expect to meet with, and in no respect by its
quality. When the scythe has cut down all the flowers
which before yielded them a plentiful supply, they discon¬
tinue their excursions, although the weather be in all re¬
spects propitious. Their smell must, therefore, be suffi¬
ciently acute to enable them to discover the presence of
honey at great distances. Direct experiment has, indeed,
proved this to be the case. Mr Huber found that they
proceeded immediately towards boxes which contained
honey concealed from their view ; and such in fact is the
situation of the fluid of the nectarea in flowers. Some
odours, especially the fumes of tobacco, and indeed all
kinds of smoke, are highly obnoxious to them ; this is the
case, also, with the smell of oil of turpentine, alcohol,
ammonia, the nitric and muriatic acids, and several other
volatile chemical agents, upon receiving the impressions
of which, they immediately set about ventilating them¬
selves in the manner above described. But nothing ex¬
cites their displeasure in a greater degree than the breath
of the spectator; as soon as they feel which, they show
signs of anger, and prepare to revenge it as an insult.
The odour of the poison of their sting produces similar
effects, exciting them to immediate rage and hostility.
Although it is sufficiently clear that many insects pos-Smell,
sess the power of smell, yet the particular organ of this
sense has never been accurately ascertained; and the
opinions of naturalists have been much divided on the
subject. These opinions have been supported more by
arguments drawn from the analogy of what happens in
other classes of animals, than by any direct experiments
on insects themselves. We know that, in all animals re¬
spiring by means of lungs, the organs of smell are placed
at the entrance of the passages of the air; and it has often
been concluded, that in like manner the stigmata, or the
orifices of the air-tubes, were the seat of this sense in in¬
sects^ By others the antennas have been assigned as the
organs through which these impressions were conveyed
to the sensorium. The experiments of Huber have proved
that neither of these opinions is correct; and have satis¬
factorily shown that in the bee this sense resides in the
mouth itself, or in its immediate vicinity. Here, indeed,
would be its proper station, if this faculty be intended, as
we may reasonably suppose it to be, to apprize the indi¬
vidual of the qualities of the food prior to its being eaten.
When the mouth of the bee was plugged up with paste,
which was allowed to dry before the insect was set at
liberty, it remained quite insensible to the same odours
to which it had before manifested the strongest repug¬
nance.
It is generally supposed that bees possess the sense of Hearing,
hearing. The common practice of making a loud noise by
drums and kettles in order to attract a swarm is founded
on this supposition. But the evidence is by no means
conclusive ; for we find that they are nowise disturbed by
a loud clap of thunder, or by the report of a gun, or any
576
BEE.
Bee.
Instincts
of bees.
other noises that may happen to arise around them. It is,
however, certain that they are capable of emitting a va¬
riety of sounds, which appear expressive of anger, fear,
satisfaction, and other passions; and it would seem that
they were even capable of communicating certain emo¬
tions to one another in this manner. Huber observed
that the queens, during their captivity, sent forth a pecu¬
liar sound, which he supposes to be a note of lamentation.
A certain cry or humming noise from the queen will strike
with sudden consternation all the bees in the hive; and
they remain for a considerable time motionless and stupi-
fied. Hunter has noticed a number of modulations of
sound emitted by bees under different circumstances, and
has instituted an inquiry concerning the means employed
by them in producing these sounds ; for an account of
which we shall refer the reader to his paper in the Phi¬
losophical Transactions. .
If the function of sensation in insects be involved in
doubt and obscurity, the knowledge of those more interior
faculties which are the springs of voluntary action is hid
in still deeper mystery. BufFon refuses to allow bees any
portion of intelligence, and contends that the actions we
behold, however admirably they are directed to certain
ends, are in fact merely the results of their peculiar me¬
chanism. Other philosophers, such as Heaumur, have
gone into the opposite extreme, and have considered them
as endued with extraordinary wisdom and foresight, as
animated by a disinterested patriotism, and as uniting a
variety of moral and intellectual qualities of a higher older.
The truth, no doubt, lies between these overstrained opi-
but it is nevertheless extremely difficult to decide
Bee.
in what degree these respective principles operate in the
production of the effects we witness. We have been too
long in the habit of sheltering our ignorance of the causes
of this class of phenomena, by referring them indiscrimi¬
nately to what is called instinct., to submit to a cautious
and patient investigation of the hidden springs of action.
The term instinct should properly be regarded, not as de¬
noting a particular and definite principle of action, whose
operation we can anticipate in any new or untried combi¬
nation of circumstances, but as expressive of our inability
to refer the phenomena we contemplate to any previously
known principle. Thus the actions which an aninfml per¬
forms in obedience to the calls of appetite are not pro¬
perly said to be instinctive; nor can the term be applied
to actions which are the consequence of acquired know¬
ledge, and of which the object is with certainty foreseen
by the agent. But when an animal acts apparently under
a blind impulse, and produces effects useful to itself or to
the species, which effects it could not have previously
contemplated as resulting from those actions, it is then
customary to say that it is under the guidance of instinct,
that is, of some unknown principle of action. It will be
proper, therefore, to keep this distinction in view in judg¬
ing of the voluntary actions of the lower animals.
In no department of natural history is it more necessary
to be aware of the proper import of the term instinct, than
in studying the phenomena presented by the bee; for
nowhere is it more difficult to discriminate between the
regular operation of implanted motives, and the result of
acquired knowledge and habits. The most striking fea¬
ture of their history, and the one which apparently lays
the foundation for those extraordinary qualities which
raise them above the level of other insects, is the dispo¬
sition to social union. It may in general, indeed, be re¬
marked, that animals which associate together so as to
form large communities, display a higher degree of saga¬
city than those which lead a solitary life. This is especially
observable among insects. The spider and Formica leonis
may exhibit particular talents, or practise particular stra¬
tagems in the pursuit and capture of their prey; but their
history is limited to a single generation, and embraces
none of those interesting relations which obtain between
individuals composing the gregarious tribes, such as the
ant, the wasp, and the bee. Among these we trace a
community of wants and desires, and a mutual intelligence
and sympathy, which lead to the constant interchange of
good offices, and which, by introducing a systematic divi¬
sion of labour, amidst a unity of design, leads to the exe¬
cution of public works on a scale of astonishing magni¬
tude. The attachment of bees to their hive, which they
defend with a courage and self-devotion truly admirable;
their jealousy of intruders ; their ready co-operation in all
the labours required for the welfare of the community;
their tender care of their young; the affection and ho¬
mage which they bestow on their queen, and which they
manifest on all occasions in the most unequivocal manner;
imply qualities such as we could hardly persuade our¬
selves could animate a mere insect, on which we are in the
habit of proudly looking down as placed in one of the low¬
est orders of created beings.
We shall content ourselves at present with these gene¬
ral observations, as the instances which serve to illustrate
their moral and intellectual character belong properly to
the history of the different processes they follow in the
construction of their combs, the hatching and rearing of
their progeny, and the mode of conducting their migra¬
tions. To these subjects, therefore, we shall now pro¬
ceed : and in order to present the most connected and
complete account of their economy, we shall begin the
history from the period when a new swarm has just oc¬
cupied a hive, and when all the arrangements for their
habitation, and the construction of the cells in which their
eggs and provisions are to be deposited, are yet to be
effected.
The first care of the labouring bees, on their settlement Prepare-
in their new abode, is to clean it out thoroughly. While tion of the
one set of bees is thus employed, another is distributed
about the country in order to procure the proper mate¬
rials for blocking up the small holes and chinks of the
hive, and for laving a firm foundation for the edifice which
is to be constructed within it. The substance which is prin- Nature and
cipally employed in this preliminary stage is propolis, aongmoit
species of glutinous resin, of an agreeable aromatic odour,
and reddish-brown colour, in process oi time becoming
darker, and acquiring a firmer consistence. According to
the analysis of Vauquelin (Mem. Soc. Agricult. Departem.
Seine), it is composed chiefly of resin, with a small pro¬
portion of wax, and of acid and aromatic principles. It
is soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils, both fixed and vola¬
tile ; and tinges the solvent of a beautiful red colour.
Cadet has since ascertained in it the presence of benzoic
and gallic acids. Reaumur had not been able to discover
from what plants the bees collect this substance. Riem
asserts that it is chiefly from pines and other trees of the
fir kind. The recent observations of Huber have assisted
in the solution of this question. On placing branches of
the wild poplar tree before the hive, he found that the
bees eagerly seized upon the varnish which exudes from
the buds; and examining the chemical properties of this
varnish, he identified it with the propolis with which the
inside of the hive is lined.
The propolis adheres so strongly to the legs and feet of Mode o
the bee which has collected it, that it cannot be detached its app ic
without the assistance of its fellow-labourers. For this
purpose the bee that is loaded presents its legs to the
workers in the hive, which carry off with their jaws this
adhesive substance, and immediately apply it, while yet
ductile, all round the interior of the hive, and particularly
over all the projecting parts; hence its name, of Greek
BEE.
577
Bee. derivation, signifying before the city. In like manner all
the foreign bodies that are introduced into the common
habitation, and are too heavy to be removed, are covered
over with this resinous substance. If a snail, for instance,
should happen to introduce itself into the hive, after dis¬
patching it with their stings, they encrust it over with
propolis. Mr Knight has observed that, besides propolis,
bees will occasionally carry home, and employ as cement,
other substances, having the same glutinous properties.
He frequently covered the decorticated parts of trees, on
which he was making experiments, with a cement com¬
posed of bees’ wax and turpentine; and in the autumn has
observed a great number of bees occupied in carrying off
this substance. They detached it from the tree with their
forceps, and the little portion thus obtained was then trans¬
ferred by the first to the second leg, by which it was de¬
posited on the thigh of the third, precisely in the same
manner as the pollen of flowers is collected and transfer¬
red. Whilst the bees were employed in the collection of
this substance, Mr Knight had many opportunities of
observing their peaceful and patient disposition as in¬
dividuals, which Mr Hunter had also in some measure
noticed. When one bee had collected its load, and was
just prepared to take flight, another often came behind it
and despoiled it of all it had collected. A second, and
even a third load was collected, and lost in the same man¬
ner ; and still the patient insect pursued its labour, with¬
out betraying any symptoms of impatience or resentment.
When, however, the hive is approached, the bee appears
to be the most irritable of all animals, and is animated
with the most vindictive spirit against a public enemy,
without displaying any peculiar hostility in the revenge of
a private injury.
Construe- The next object of their labours is to prepare the combs,
! b°n the which are to be the receptacles for the eggs with which
combs. queen is pregnant, and which are now about to be laid.
The material employed for this purpose is not propolis,
but wax, the production of which, by secretion from a
particular set of bees who feed largely upon honey, was for¬
merly explained. The bees are for this purpose actively
employed in collecting honey, and in imparting it to their
companions in the hive, who, when they have filled their
crops with it, hang together in a thick cluster from the
top of the hive, and thus remain in a state of inactivity
for a considerable period. During this time the secretion
of wax is proceeding, and may be seen collected in laminae
under the abdominal scales, whence it is removed by the
hind-legs of the bee, and transferred to the fore-legs, and
from thence taken up by the jaws. In this operation
they are often assisted by their companions, who even
directly seize upon the wax from under the abdomen of
those who are before them. When a sufficient quantity
of materials has thus been collected together, the process
of building is commenced. But, in order to understand
the subsequent operations, it is necessary to have a cor¬
rect idea of the form of the cells which compose the
combs. We shall, therefore, proceed to give some account
of the structure when they have attained their perfect
state.
Form of The combs of a bee-hive are formed into parallel and
the combs, vertical strata, each of which is about an inch in thick¬
ness, the distances between the surfaces of each being
about half an inch, an interval which serves for the pas¬
sage of the bees over both surfaces. They generally ex¬
tend the whole breadth of the hive, and often descend the
whole length, from the top to the bottom. They consist
altogether of thin partitions, which inclose hexagonal ceils
about half an inch in depth and a quarter of an inch in
diameter, opening on both surfaces of the comb, and closed
by a partition common to those on both sides, and which
vol. rv.
occupies the middle distance between the two surfaces. Bee.
This partition is not, however, a plane, but is composed
of a collection of rhombs. Three, and sometimes four of
these rhombs, inclined to one another at a certain angle,
form the bottoms of each cell, which thus has the shape
of a flattened pyramid, of which the basis is towards the
mouth of the cell. The geometric form of each individual
cell is, therefore, an hexagonal prism, terminated by a tri¬
hedral pyramid, the three sides of which pyramid are
rhombs, which meet at the apex by their obtuse angles,
and, forming oblique angles with the sides of the prism,
truncate a portion of these, and convert them from rect¬
angles, which they would be in a regular prism, into tra¬
peziums. Of the two angles of these trapeziums adjoin¬
ing to the base of the pyramid, one must be acute and the
other obtuse, the acute angle of one trapezium being next
to the acute angle of the adjoining trapezium, and the ob¬
tuse angle being in like manner next to another obtuse
angle of the preceding trapezium, so that, in going round
the base, we meet with pairs of acute and of obtuse angles
alternately succeeding each other. The two adjoining
acute angles of the trapezia are adjoining to two of the
terminal rhombs, which here present their acute angles;
so that at these points a solid angle of four planes is form¬
ed, all the angles being acute. Each pair of obtuse angles
of the trapezia, on the other hand, are adjacent to the
obtuse angle of one of the rhombs only, thus composing a
solid angle of three planes, of which the angles are all
obtuse; and these two kinds of solid angles succeed one
another alternately all round the base of the pyramid,
there being three of each kind, and six in all. The axis
of each cell coincides, not with the axis of the cell on the
opposite surface, but with one of its angles, so that each
of the three obtuse angles at the base of the terminal py¬
ramid corresponds to the central parts of three of the
cells on the opposite side; and each of the sides of the
pyramid, which closes a cell on one side, contributes in
part to the closing of three of the cells on the opposite
side. We may easily satisfy ourselves that this is the
case, by piercing the centres of each of the three planes
which close the bottom of a cell, with a pin, when, on
turning the comb, the three pins will be found to have
passed into three diffe-rent cells on the opposite side.
A structure of this kind is obviously the one of all Geometric
others calculated to afford the greatest space for each cell, properties
with the same expense of materials. It is easy to per-0^*160^8*
ceive, in the first place, that, in a plane surface, when a
number of small spaces are to be divided by partitions,
the hexagonal form is the one which comprehends the
largest space compatible with the extent of the lines
which inclose them. For the equilateral triangle, the
square, and the regular hexagon, are the only regular
forms that admit of being joined together in the same
plane, without leaving interstices; and the proportion of
the area to the periphery in every polygon increases as the
figure consists of a greater number of sides, and is there¬
fore greater in the hexagon than in any of the other two.
The truth of this proposition was perceived by Pappus,
and even its application to the subject of the honeycomb
was made by that ancient geometrician. But the deter¬
mination of the form and inclination that should be given
to the partitions which close the bottoms of the cells, and
which may of course belong equally to those on both sides
of the comb, is a problem much more complicated and
difficult of solution. It has exercised the skill of several
modern mathematicians of great eminence, and has ge¬
nerally been resolved by the assistance of the infinitesi¬
mal calculus, or the methods of maxima and minima. A
mistake has sometimes been committed in supposing that
the capacity of the cells would be affected by varying
4 D
578
BEE.
Bee.
the inclination of the partitions, whereas, if abstraction
be made of the thickness of these partitions, all the space
which is gained on the one side must be obtained at the
expense of the space on the other, and the sum total will
therefore remain the same. This error has been pointed
out by Le Sage of Geneva, and also by others. The
whole question, therefore, resolves itself into that of the
form producing the greatest saving of materials. Koenig,
the pupil of the celebrated Bernoulli, calculated that the
angles of the rhombs, which should answer this condition,
must be 109° 26' and 70° 34'. Cramer, professor of ma¬
thematics in the university of Geneva, has given a.very
elegant demonstration of this problem, from which it re¬
sults that the obtuse angle of the rhomb must be such,
that its half has for its tangent the square root of 2. This
is the case with the angle 54° 44' 8"; the two angles of
the rhomb are therefore 109° 28' 16" and 70° 31' 44". It
follows also that the two diagonals of this rhomb are to
one another in the same proportion as the side and dia¬
gonal of a square, that is, as 1 to T41421356237, &c. It
is also another consequence from the same data, that the
angles of the trapezia forming the sides of the hexagonal
prism adjacent to the rhombs are precisely equal to those
of the rhombs themselves, and that the solid angle formed
at the apex of the pyramid, and which is composed of
those equal obtuse angles, is precisely equal to each of
the three angles at the base, which are also formed of
three obtuse angles. It is also true that these are the
only angles which will give this perfect equality. Ma-
raldi had already made the same remark; and, assuming
the principle of the equality of the angles as the basis of
his reasoning, had calculated them on this hypothesis,
making them 109° 28' and 70° 32', which is nearly accu¬
rate. To the same author we are indebted for the com¬
parison of the results of theory with fact, by the admea¬
surement of the actual angles of the honeycomb; these
he states to be about 110° and 70°, which is as near an
agreement with theory as could well be expected.
Boscovich, who has also given a solution of the same
problem, conceives that the equality of inclination of the
planes gives greater facility to the construction of the
comb, and might, therefore, be a motive of preference,
independently of the greater economy of wax. Maclau-
rin has exercised his abilities in resolving this problem,
and has demonstrated by simple geometry, that the most
advantageous form is that which results from the sup¬
posed equality of the three plane angles forming the solid
angles at the base. He estimates the saving of wax by
partitions so constructed, above what would be required
for a flat partition, at one fourth of the wax which would
be wanted to complete the truncated sides of the cells,
so as to form them into rectangles. L’Huillier, in the
Memoirs of the Berlin Academy, has given a demonstration
which is remarkable for its simplicity, and for its involv¬
ing none but elementary propositions; he values the eco¬
nomy of wax at jT of the whole wax employed. Le Sage,
as appears from the life of that philosopher by Professor
Prevost, has shown that this celebrated problem reduces
itself to the finding of the angle at which two planes with
a given inclination (such as 120°) can be cut by a third
plane, so as to make all the angles resulting from the sec¬
tion equal to one another.
But a more essential advantage than even the economy
of wax results from this structure, namely, that the whole
fabric has much greater strength than if it were composed
of planes at right angles to one another; and when we
consider the weight they have to support when stored
with honey, pollen, and the young brood, besides that of
the bees themselves, it is evident that strength is a ma¬
terial requisite in the work.
Bee.
It has often been a subject of wonder how such diminu¬
tive insects could have adopted and adhered to so regular v—
a plan of architecture, and what principles can actuate so
great a multitude to co-operate by the most effectual and
systematic mode in its completion. Buffon has endea-Buffon’s
voured to explain the hexagonal form by the uniform theory of
pressure of a great number of bees all working at the same1^6 fo™a
time, exerted equally in all directions in a limited sPa?e; the
and illustrates his theory by supposing a number of similar
cylinders compressed together, and taking the form of
hexagonal prisms by the uniform expansion of each. The
analogy of the forms produced by the law of crystalliza¬
tion,—of the figures assumed by various parts in the ani¬
mal and vegetable world, such as the skin of the bat, and
the inner coat of the second stomach of ruminant quadru¬
peds,—is also adduced by this captivating but superficial
writer in support of his argument. But however plausible
this theory may at first sight appear, it will not stand the
test of a more serious examination. The explanation he
has attempted applies no further than to the inclination
of the sides of the cells ; but he did not take into account,
perhaps from not having studied the subject mathemati¬
cally, the inclinations and forms of the planes which close
each cell, and so curiously conspire on both sides to serve
a similar office, while they at the same time accurately
fulfil a refined geometrical condition. But it is sufficient
confutation of the whole theory to show, that it is direct¬
ly at variance with the actual process employed by the
insects in the construction of their combs.
It might be supposed that bees had been provided by Mode of
nature with instruments for building of a form somewhat their con.
analogous to the angles of the cells ; but in no part, either struction.
of the teeth, antennae, or feet, can any such correspond¬
ence be traced. Their shape in no respect answers to that
of the rhombs, which are constructed by their means, any
more than the chisel of the sculptor resembles the statue
which it has carved. The shape.of the head is indeed
triangular, but its three angles are acute, and different
from that of the planes of the cells. The form of the
plates of wax, as they are moulded in the pouches into
which this substance is secreted, is an irregular penta¬
gon, in no respect affording a model for any of the parts
which compose the honeycomb. Hunter, observing that
the thickness of the partition was nearly equal to that
of the scale of wax, thought that the bees apply these
scales immediately to the formation of the partition, by
merely cementing them together. Reaumur, notwith¬
standing the use of glass iiives, had not been able to
discover the mystery of their process of architecture;
but inferred, from what he saw, that the wax was rejected
from the stomach in the form of a white frothy liquor.
No naturalist, indeed, prior to Huber, had been able to
follow these insects in their labours, on account of their
crowding together in a thick mass while they are build¬
ing ; but the expedients resorted to by that ingenious
philosopher have unfolded the whole process, which he
has given with great detail in the second volume of his
Observations sur les Abeilles. Huber witnessed the whole
of their actions, and saw that each bee drew out, with its
hind feet, one of the plates of wax from under the scales
where it was lodged, and, carrying it to the mouth in a
vertical position, turned it round, so that every part of its
edge was made to pass in succession under the cutting
edge of the jaws ; it was thus soon divided into very small
fragments, while at the same time a frothy liquor was
poured upon it from the tongue, so as to form it into a per¬
fectly plastic mass. This liquor gave the wax a white¬
ness and opacity which it did not possess originally, and
rendered it at the same time tenacious and ductile. A
quantity of wax thus prepared for use is accumulated,
BEE. 579
Bee. and applied to further the work in the manner we are
presently to describe.
But, in considering the process by which the comb is
formed, a circumstance should be pointed out, which
seems not to have been particularly noticed by any author
except Huber; and yet it is one of essential importance in
studying their process of architecture ;—namely, that the
first row of cells on either side are of a form very different
from that of the subsequent rows. As they take their
origin from a plane surface, two of the sides necessary to
complete the hexagon are cut off by this plane, so that the
general form of the orifice is pentagonal; and the bottom
of the cells on one side is composed of two equal rhombs
only, and on the other side of two trapezoidal planes, with
one rhomb. Such a modification of shape was necessary,
in order to prepare the way for the regularly-formed cells
which were to follow.
The foundations of the combs are laid by the bees rais¬
ing a solid block or plate of wax of a semicircular form.
In this they scoop out a small vertical channel, of the
size of an ordinary cell. The sides of this channel are
then strengthened by additions of wax. On the opposite
side two other channels are formed, one on each side of
the plane opposite to the former channel. The extremi¬
ties of these channels, which at first present a curved
outline, are then fashioned into straight walls, forming an
angle at each vertex. The bottom of each cell being
thus sketched out, the design is completed by raising
walls round the sides. Different bees generally work on
the opposite sides at the same time, and appear to have
some perception of the thickness of the partitions, and of
the situation of the opposite walls, in which they are per¬
haps guided by slight prominences, occasioned by the de¬
pressions which correspond to them on the other side;
and they scrape off the wax in those places where its
thickness is greatest; that is, where the bees on the other
side had accumulated materials. In this way, then, in
constructing the successive, rows, the axis of each cell
will be found to occupy the most retiring parts of the
partition, and will be opposite to the junction of three of
the opposite cells.
Soon after the bees have completed the foundations,
and constructed a few of the cells of the central comb,
they begin two others, one on each side, at the proper
distance, and in this manner continue to form others in
succession, in proportion as the former are advanced.
Their object at first seems to be to extend the surface of
the work, so as to admit of the greatest possible number
of workers being employed at one and the same time. In
this way, then, the work proceeds from all points at once,
new cells being begun before the former are completed,
so that the whole comb, while it is in progress of con¬
struction, has a semi-lenticular shape, broader at the top,
and tapering below and towards the sides. It extends
downwards, however, more rapidly than in any other di¬
rection, and its surfaces do not become parallel to each
other till the last stage of the building process. When
this is completed, the whole is further strengthened by an
additional coating of propolis round the margin of all the
cells; and the junctions of every plane, both of the sides
and bottoms of the cells, are also soldered together by a
lining of the same substance. The edges of the combs
are also secured in their situations by being glued to the
side of the hive, and supported by fresh abutments of pro¬
polis. Sometimes a mixture of wax and propolis, manu¬
factured by the bees themselves, is employed as the ce¬
menting material. The first coating of this compound
substance is denominated Commosis by Pliny, and de¬
scribed as having a bitter taste; the second, or the Pisso-
ceros of the same author, is stated to be of a thinner con¬
sistence, and more adhesive than the former; while the Bee.
third substance or propolis is completely solid.
The cells recently constructed are perfectly white, but in
a short time they are found of a yellow tint, which becomes
gradually deeper, and, when very ancient, gives them a dark
brown cast. It is therefore easy to distinguish in a hive
the successive periods of formation of different portions
of the combs. From the researches of Huber, it appears
that these variations of colour are not owing to any changes
in the wax itself, but to additional coatings of a peculiar
varnish, consisting of propolis and a colouring matter.
The latter differs materially from propolis, being wholly
insoluble in alcohol. It loses its colour by the action of
nitric acid or the light of the sun. Its origin has not yet
been discovered; nor has the mode in which it is applied
been clearly made out; although Huber presumes, from
his observations, that they spread it by means of their
mandibles, which he has seen them rub against the sides
of the cells, while they acquired a yellow colour from the
operation.
Such is the general outline of the architectural labours Different
of the bee. A number of modifications are however metkinds of
with, adapting them to various purposes and to new cir-cehs-
cumstances. The cells are required to be of different
sizes for the reception of different sorts of eggs and larvae
The smallest, which are also the most numerous, are ap¬
propriated to the eggs of the working bees; a larger sort
receive those of the males; and a small number of very
large cells are destined for the education of the young
queens, and are therefore called royal cells. The first
set are generally five and one third lines in depth, and
two and a half in diameter; the second are from seven
to seven and a half lines in depth, and three and three
fourths in diameter; while the royal cells are above one
inch deep, one third of an inch wide, and their walls are
about one eighth of an inch in thickness. Other cells,
again, are set apart as magazines of honey or of pollen;
they are made twice as deep as the common cells, and
their axes are inclined to the horizon, so that their mouths
are in the highest part, and their liquid contents may be
more easily retained. When these are filled, they are
closed up by the bees with a wall of wax, and opened
only when necessity requires.
The regularity of the cells is often disturbed in conse-Cells of
quence of the admixture of rows of larger cells with those transition,
of smaller dimensions; but the pyramidal partitions are
adapted by successive gradations to these changes; so
that in many rows of what may be called cells of transi¬
tion, the bottom presents four planes instead of three, two
being trapeziums, and the other two irregular hexagons.
These irregularities are met with chiefly in the combs
most distant from the central one. When an abundant
supply of honey induces them to lay up a large quantity
in store, they build up for this purpose the walls of com¬
mon cells, so as to give them a greater depth. The royal
cells are often raised from the ruins of a number of other
cells, which are destroyed to make room for them; they
are usually built on the edge of some of the shorter combs,
and often in the very centre of the hive. Sometimes there
are but three or four of them ; at other times eleven, or
even fourteen, have been counted in the same hive. They
are formed of a mixture of propolis and wax; their form is
oblong, resembling that of a pear; their position is always
vertical, so that when they arise from amidst other cells,
they are placed against the mouths of those cells, and
project beyond the common surface of the comb. They
are perfectly smooth on the inner surface; while their
outer side is covered with a kind of hexagonal fret-work, as
if they were intended for the foundation of regular cells.
As soon as a sufficient number of cells have been con-
580 BEE.
Bee. structed, the queen begins to deposit her eggs. In those
that have been impregnated the preceding year, the ovi-
De posit ion ducts begin to swell early in the spring, so that by the month
ot t16 eggs. they are ready to come forth. The queen-bee is,
therefore, the earliest breeder of any insect we are acquaint¬
ed with. But the young queens are capable of laying eggs
thirty-six hours after impregnation. It appears to be now
well ascertained by the experiments of Huber, that she is
aware of the nature of the eggs she is laying, and deposits
each in the kind of cell adapted to receive it. She may be seen
examining attentively the capacity of the cell before laying
her egg. She passes thus from one cell to another, allowing
herself hardly any interval of repose. She commonly lays
two hundred eggs in a day; but if the weather be warm,
and vegetation luxuriant, she will lay a much greater num¬
ber. The cold of autumn suspends this process. The
eggs first produced are those of labourers, and their depo¬
sition continues for ten or twelve days, during which in¬
terval the working bees are busily employed in construct¬
ing the larger cells. The queen next acquires a consider¬
able increase of size, so as to walk with difficulty. She
then lays male eggs in the large cells, during a period of
from sixteen to twenty-four days, dhey are less nume¬
rous than the former eggs, in the proportion of one to
thirty.
These industrious insects now set about constructing
royal cells; and the queen-bee, having finished her depo¬
sition of male eggs, begins again to lay those of the com¬
mon bees; and finding royal cells open for their reception,
deposits a single egg in each, but only at intervals of one
or two days ; the common cells receiving those laid in the
mean time. When the hive is not sufficiently numerous,
or the season has been unproductive, no royal cells are
formed ; and the education of a queen is not attempted.
Nourish- As soon as the eggs are deposited, the bees eagerly
mentoftheseek for that species of nourishment on which the larva is
larvae. This consists of pollen, with a proportion of
honey and of water, which is partly digested in the sto¬
machs of the nursing bees, and which is made to vary in
its qualities according to the age of the young. Pollen is
afforded by flowers in the spring in such abundance that the
bees of a single hive will often carry home above a pound
of this substance in one day. The eggs of bees are of a
lengthened oval shape, with a slight curvature, and of a
bluish white colour. They are hatched without requiring
any particular attention on the part of the bees, except
that of keeping up a proper temperature; in which case
three days are sufficient for the exclusion of the larva.
The larva has the appearance of a small white worm with¬
out feet, which remains generally coiled up at the bottom
of the cell. The nursing bees feed it with great assiduity,
with the kind of jelly above described, and in every
respect exhibit the greatest attachment for them. Mr
Hunter says that a young bee-maggot might easily be
brought up by any person who would be attentive to feed
it. It may be seen opening its two lateral pincers to
receive the food, and then swallowing it. As it grows
up it casts its cuticle, like the larvae of other insects. In
the course of five or six days it has attained its full size,
and nearly fills the cell in which it is lodged: it now
ceases to eat, and the bees close up its cell with a cover¬
ing of wax, or rather a mixture of wax and propolis, which
they possess the art of amalgamating together. During
the next thirty-six hours the larva is engaged in spinning
its cocoon, and in three days more it is converted into
the state of pupa or chrysalis. In this state it is perfectly
white, and every part of the future bee may be distin¬
guished through its transparent covering. In the course
of a week it tears asunder its investing membrane, makes
its way through the outer wall of its prison, and emerges
in its perfect form. Reckoning from the time that the Bee.
egg is laid, it is only on the twentieth day of its existence
that this last metamorphosis is completed. No sooner
has it thus emancipated itself, than its guardians assemble
round it, caress it with their tongues, and supply it plen¬
tifully with food. They clean out the cell which it had
been occupying, leaving untouched, however, the greater
part of the web, which thus serves to bind together still
more firmly the sides of the comb. The colour of the
bee when it quits the cell is a light gray; it requires two
days before it can attain sufficient strength for flying.
The metamorphoses of the male bee follow the same pro¬
gress, but require a few days longer for their completion,
occupying about twenty-four days from the time of the
egg being laid to the attainment of the perfect state.
The eggs deposited in the royal cells are precisely si- Process of
milar to those of the working bees, and might be substi- rearing the
tuted the one for the other. The larva arises from it pre- <lueen‘ ee-
cisely in the same manner, and does not differ from the
larva of the workers. But the attention of the nursing
bees is more incessantly bestowed on them ; they are sup¬
plied with a peculiar kind of food, which appears to be
more stimulating than that of ordinary bees. It has not
the same mawkish taste, and is evidently acescent. It is
furnished to the royal larva in greater quantities than it
can consume, so that a portion always remains behind in
the cell after its transformation. The growth of the lar¬
va, and the development of all its organs, are very much
accelerated by this treatment; so that in five days it is
prepared to spin its web ; and the bees inclose it by build¬
ing up a wall at the mouth of its cell. The web is com¬
pleted in twenty-four hours ; two days and a half are con¬
sumed in a state of inaction, and then the larva transforms
itself into a pupa. It remains between four and five days
in this state ; and thus, on the sixteenth day after the egg
has been laid, it has produced the perfect insect. When
this change is about to take place, the bees gnaw away
part of the wax covering of the cell, till at last it becomes
pellucid from its extreme thinness. This must not only
facilitate the exit of the fly. but may possibly be useful in
permitting the evaporation of the superabundant fluids.
But the queen-bee, although perfectly formed, is not Rivalship
always at liberty to come out of her prison; for if the of the
queen-mother be still in the hive, waiting a favourable queens,
state of the weather to conduct another swarm, the bees
do not suffer the young queens to stir out; they even
strengthen the covering ot the cell by an additional coat¬
ing of wax, perforating it with a small hole, through which
the prisoner can thrust out its trunk in order to be fed
by those who guard it. The royal prisoners continually
utter a kind of plaintive song, the modulations of which
are said to vary. One consequence of their detention is,
that they are capable of flying as soon as they are set at
liberty. But the motive of this proceeding on the part of
the bees who guard them, is to be found in the implacable
hatred which the old queen bears against all those of her
own sex, and which impels her to destroy without mercy
all the young queens that come within her reach. The
working bees are, on this account, very solicitous to pre¬
vent her even approaching the royal cells while there is
any prospect of a swarm being about to take place. They
establish themselves as a guard around these cells, and,
forgetting their allegiance on this occasion, actually beat
her off as often as she endeavours to come near them. II,
on the other hand, the swarming season is over, or cir¬
cumstances prevent any further swarms from being sent
off, the bees do not interpose any obstacle to the fury of
the old queen, who immediately begins the work of de¬
struction, transfixing with her sting, one after the other,
the whole of the royal brood while they are yet confined
BEE. 581
Bee. in their cells. It is observed by Huber, that the royal
larvae construct only imperfect cocoons, open behind, and
enveloping only the head, thorax, and first ring of the ab¬
domen ; and he conceives that the intention of nature in
this apparent imperfection is, that they may be exposed to
the mortal sting of the queen, to whom they may be given
up as a sacrifice.
When the old queen has taken her departure along with
the first swarm, the young queens are liberated in suc¬
cession, at intervals of a few days, in order to prevent
their attacking and destroying one another, which would
be the infallible consequence of their meeting. This ex¬
terminating warfare is prevented by the vigilance of the
bees who guard them, so long as new swarms are expect¬
ed to take place. When a young queen is liberated, she
is, like others of her sex, anxious to get rid of her rivals,
and even at that early age seeks to destroy her sisters,
who are still confined in the other royal cells; but as
often as she approaches them she is bit, pulled, and
chased without ceremony by the sentinels. But when
the season is too far advanced for swarming, or when the
hive is too much exhausted in its population by the swarms
that have already been sent off, they no longer interfere
in preserving peace, and the first that acquires her li¬
berty proceeds to massacre all her rivals. If two or more
queens should happen to issue out at the same moment,
they mutually seek each other, and fight till one is killed,
and the survivor is immediately received as the sovereign
of the hive. The bees, far from seeking to prevent these
battles, appear to excite the combatants against each
other, surrounding and bringing them back to the charge
when they are disposed to recede from each other ; but
when either of the queens shows a disposition to approach
her antagonist, all the bees forming the clusters instantly
give way to allow her full liberty for the attack. The first
use which the conquering queen makes of her victory is
to secure herself against fresh dangers by destroying all
her future rivals in the royal cells; while the other bees,
who are spectators of the carnage, share in the spoil,
greedily devouring any food which may be found at the
bottom of the cells, and even sucking the fluid from the
abdomen of the pupae before they toss out the carcasses.
Impregna- The impregnation of the queen-bee was formerly in-
tion. volved in the deepest obscurity, and has given rise to a
multitude of very fanciful opinions. Some have denied
that any intercourse with the male was necessary for the
fecundation of the eggs. Swammerdam supposed that the
mere effluvia proceeding from the males, where they were
collected in clusters, was sufficiently active to produce this
effect, by penetrating the body of the female. Huber
proved, by a decisive experiment, that no such conse¬
quence resulted from these effluvia. Maraldi imagined
that the eggs were fecundated by the drones, after being
deposited in the cells, in the same way that the spawn of
fishes is rendered prolific by the milters. Mr Debraw of
Cambridge, in a paper published in the Philosophical
Transactions, fancied that he had seen the milt-like fluid
in the cells. But this appearance has been shown by
Huber to be a mere optical illusion, arising from the re¬
flection of light at the bottom of the cell. When the
males are excluded from the hive, the queen is as fertile,
and the eggs as prolific, as when they are present. Hat-
torff supposed that the queen is capable of impregnating
herself; an opinion which was supported by Schirach and
Wilhelmi, and was even favourably received by Bonnet,
as it in some measure accorded with his discoveries re¬
specting the aphis, of which our readers will find an ac¬
count in the article Aphis. (See Entomology, Index.)
Linnaeus was of opinion that an actual union between the
sexes took place, and Reaumur fancied that he had seen
this happen within the hive. There is, however, great Bee.
reason to think that he was mistaken. Huber has clearly
proved that the queen is never impregnated as long as
she remains in the interior of the hive; and, if confined
within it, continues barren, though surrounded by males.
It is only during her flight, at a considerable height in the
air, that the male has complete access to her so as to
effect the impregnation. In half an hour the queen-bee
returns to the hive with unequivocal proofs of the inter¬
course that has taken place, for she has in fact robbed the
drone of the organs concerned in this operation; and the
drone, thus mutilated, is left to perish on the ground.
From its being necessary that the queen should fly to a
distance in order to be impregnated, Huber infers the
necessity of a great number of drones being attached to
the hive, that there may be a sufficient chance of her
meeting one of them during her aerial excursion.
We are now to direct our attention to the migrations of Prepara-
bees, by which new colonies, similar to that which had Bon for
originally peopled the parent hive, are founded. The final swarming-
causes of this phenomenon are sufficiently obvious ; but it
does not so clearly appear to what circumstances it is
immediately owing. The increasing population of a hive
probably occasions inconvenience from the want of room,
the increase of heat, and the greater vitiation of the air ;
inconveniences which become still more serious as the
summer advances. The spring is accordingly the com¬
mencement of the swarming season ; no swarm, indeed,
will ever take place while the weather is cold, nor until the
hive is well stocked with eggs of every kind. The queen-
bee, in consequence of the great number of eggs she has
been laying, is now reduced to a more slender shape, and
is well fitted for flight. Her aversion for the royal brood,
which she seems to foresee will in no long time become
able to dispute the throne with her, and the vain attempts
she makes to destroy them in the cradle, in which she is
invariably repelled by the bees who guard them, produce
in her a constant restlessness and agitation, which, as Hu¬
ber represents it, rises to a degree of delirium. This frenzy,
from whatever cause it may originate, is communicated
to the workers; they may be seen hurrying to and fro
in the combs, with evident marks of impatience ; the heat
of the hive is increased by their tumultuous movements ;
it sometimes rises suddenly, on these occasions, from 92°
to above 104°. A general buzz is heard throughout the
hive. This state recurs from time to time, for some days
before the swarm is actually on the wing; and the interval
is occupied in making preparations for the approaching ex¬
pedition. Provisions are collected in greater quantity by
the working bees. Mr Hunter killed several of those that
came away, and found their crops full, while those that
remained in the hive had their crops not near so full.
Scouts are sent out to look for a proper habitation. Mr
Knight, in the Philosophical Transactions, gives us a curi¬
ous account of his observations on their manoeuvres in
this respect. In the cavity of a hollow tree, which, by
the application of a board, had been fitted up for the
reception of the swarms, he constantly observed, “ that,
about fourteen days previous to their arrival, a small
number of bees, varying from twenty to fifty, were every
day employed in examining, and apparently in keeping
possession of, the cavity; for if molested, they showed
evident signs of displeasure, though they never em¬
ployed their stings in defending their proposed habita¬
tion. Their examination was not confined to the cavity,
but extended to the external parts of the tree above;
every dead knot particularly arrested their attention, as if
they had been apprehensive of being injured by moisture,
which this might admit into the cavity below; and they
apparently did not leave any part of the bark near the ca-
582
BEE.
Bee.
Departure
of the
vity unexamined. A part of the colony which purposed
to emigrate appeared in this case to have been delegated
to search for a proper habitation; and the individual who
succeeded must have apparently had some means of con¬
veying information of his success to others; for it cannot
be supposed that fifty bees should each accidentally meet
at and fix upon the same cavity, at a mile distant from
their hive, which Mr Knight has frequently observed them
to do, in a wood where several trees were adapted tor
their reception ; and indeed he observed that they almost
uniformly selected that cavity which he himself thought
was the best adapted to their use. It not unfrequently
happened that swarms of his own bees took possession of
these cavities, and such swarms were in several instances
followed from his garden to the trees ; and they were ob¬
served to deviate very little from the direct line between
the one point and the other, which seems to indicate that
those bees who had formerly acted as purveyors now be¬
came guides.” .... „ „
On the day on which the swarm quits the hive, few of
the workers roam to any distance, but seveial are seen
performing circles in the air round the hive. The noise is
on a sudden hushed, and all the bees enter the hive ; this
silence announces their immediate departure. A few
workers appear at the door, turn towards the hive, and
striking with their wings, give, as it were, the signal for
flight. All those who are to accompany the expedition
rush towards the door, and issue forth with wonderful ra¬
pidity, rising in the air and hovering for some time, as if
in order to wait for the assemblage of the whole troop;
then, following the motions of the queen, they settle
wherever she alights, forming a dense cluster around her.
Sometimes, from weakness, or some other cause, she returns
back to the hive, and is immediately attended thither by
the rest. But if the weather be fine, the expedition is only
deferred for one or two days, and they again take their
departure. If their return be owing to the loss of their
queen, they remain a fortnight or longer before the at¬
tempt to migrate is renewed, and then the swarm is much
larger than before, which renders it probable that they
have waited for the queen that was to go oft with the next
swarm. Sometimes, when every thing indicates an ap¬
proaching emigration, the passage of a cloud across the
sun will suspend all their operations, and the previous
bustle gives place to a state of perfect calm. But, if the
day be not far advanced, the breaking out of sunshine will
renew the commotion, and determine the moment of ac¬
tual flight.
Succession The swarm having rested for some time on the first
of swarms, landing-place, and collected the whole of its numbers,
soars again in the air, keeping in a close phalanx, and di¬
recting its course with great velocity to the spot which
their guides had selected; giving out, at the same time, a
loud and acute-toned hum by the action of their wings.
The parent hive, thus deserted by its queen and a large
proportion of its inhabitants, is busily occupied in repair¬
ing its loss. The bees which remain quietly pursue their la¬
bours ; the young brood, soon arriving at maturity, quickly
fill up every deficiency; and young queens, being allowed
their liberty, one after the other, conduct in their turns
new swarms, in the same manner as the first. The second
swarm is not sent off till after the space of from five to ten
days after the first. The following swarms succeed quicker
to each other, but consist of smaller numbers than the
earlier ones. If it happen that two queens are found in a
swarm, either the swarm divides itself into two, and have
separate destinations, or a single combatbetween the queens
decides on which of them the empire is to devolve. Some¬
times, indeed, they appear not to perceive each other, and
the parties belonging to each construct separate combs
within the same hive; but no sooner do these combs come Bee.
in contact, and thus give occasion to the queens meeting
each other, than the contest begins, and it does not termi¬
nate but by the death of one of the rival queens. Succes¬
sive swarms are sent off as long as the increase of popula¬
tion admits of it, and the number thus produced in a sea¬
son depends on a variety of circumstances, such as the
abundance of flowers, and the warmth of the climate, and
the capacity of the hive. Bose, while he was French con¬
sul in Carolina, found a hive in the woods which had been
robbed of its wax and honey by the negroes: he contrived
to convey the bees in his hat to a hive in his garden; he
obtained from this hive eleven swarms before the end of
autumn; and these again afforded him the same number
of secondary swarms, so that, by the end of the year, he
had twenty-two hives stocked from the one he had thus
saved from destruction. In this country a hive commonly
sends off only two, and sometimes three swarms in the
course of the summer.
Very few drones accompany the new colonies, so that Massacre
almost all those produced in the spring remain in the hive.
But when the queens are impregnated, and no new swarms ronea-
are about to take place, the workers, who had till then
suffered them to live unmolested in the hive, are on a sud¬
den seized with a deadly fury towards them, and a scene
of carnage ensues. This.usually happens in July or Au¬
gust. They chase their unhappy victims in every quarter,
till they seek a refuge at the bottom of the hive, where
they collect in crowds, and are indiscriminately, and with¬
out a single exception, massacred by the working bees,
who, with implacable fury, transfix them with their stings,
and throw the dead bodies out of the hive. So great is
their antipathy to all the race of drones, that they destroy,
at the same time, the male eggs and larvae, and tear open
the cocoons of their pupae, in order to devote them to one
common destruction. This sacrifice ol the males is not,
however, the effect of a blind and indiscriminating instinct;
for if a hive be deprived of its queen, the massacre does
not take place, while the hottest persecution rages in all
the surrounding hives. In this case the males are allow¬
ed to survive one winter.
Having thus got rid of the useless mouths, which con- Provision
sum.ed, without any advantage to the public, a large por-^F^
tion of their provisions, the bees spend the remainder of"1
the summer in collecting stores of honey and of pollen for
the ensuing winter. Their gleanings are now less abundant
than in the spring, and require more labour in the search
and collection. But at this season the leaves of many
kinds of trees, which are covered in the morning with a
saccharine fluid that transudes through them, furnish
them with a species of nourishment, which, though of
very inferior quality to the fluid of the nectarea, still con¬
tributes to their support. Fruit is also attacked by bees,
after the cuticular covering has been broken through by
birds or snails. They also find nutriment in the honey-
dew, which, as already stated, is an excrementitious fluid
from the aphis. Often, however, these resources fail,
and the hive is threatened with famine. On these occa¬
sions the distressed bees frequently betake themselves to
plunder. Spies are sent out to examine the neighbouring Mutual
hives ; allured by the smell of honey, they examine thedepre a-
appearance and strength of its possessors ; and, selecting
the weakest hive as the object of attack, they begin a fu¬
rious onset, which costs great numbers their lives. If the
invaders should fail in their attempt to force the entiance,
they retreat, and are not pursued by those whom t ley
have assailed ; but if they succeed in making g0°d the
assault, the war continues to rage in the interior of the
hive, till one party is utterly exterminated; reinforce¬
ments are sent for by the invading army, and the bees
BEE.
583
Duration
of life.
Bee. from the neighbouring hives often join the assailants and
share in the plunder. In a short time the whole of the
enemy’s magazines are completely emptied. If, on the
other hand, the invaders should be defeated, the success¬
ful party is by no means safe from the attacks of the bees
from other hives, if any of them should chance to have
mingled in the fray, and especially if they have once pe¬
netrated as far as the magazines, for in that case they are
sure to return, accompanied with a large reinforcement,
and the unfortunate hive that has once been attacked ul¬
timately falls a sacrifice to these repeated invasions.
The close of autumn puts a period to their labours
abroad. They then live on the provisions they have amass¬
ed, till the cold of winter reduces them to a torpid state;
from which they awake on the return of vernal warmth,
and renew the same circle of labours. Sometimes the
strong light reflected from the snow during a clear sun¬
shine deceives them with the appearance of warmth, and
some bees are tempted to issue forth in order to collect
provisions. All who thus venture out perish by the cold
in a few minutes.
Bees seldom die a natural death. They are at all times
exposed to a variety of accidents, which thin their num¬
bers ; so that the average duration of their lives does not
exceed one year. We may conclude that the whole ge¬
neration is renewed in that space of time, from the results
of experiments which have been tried of marking all the
individuals of a hive in the spring, when it was found that
none were in existence the next season. They are the
natural prey of a number of quadrupeds, birds, and in¬
sects ; many are overtaken by stormy weather, or fly to
too great a distance, and never find their way back again
to the hive ; others are benumbed by cold ; and numbers
perish in battle with others of their own species, or lose
their lives by being unable to withdraw the stings which
Fecundity they have employed against their enemies. The fecundi-
of the ty of the queen-bee is, however, adequate not only to re¬
queen-bee. pajr these losses, but to multiply the population in a very
high progression. It is computed that in France a single
queen will lay from 30,000 to 60,000 eggs. This however
varies according to the climate ; for in Carolina and the
West Indies they are known to produce at least three
times this number. A single intercourse with the male is
sufficient for the fecundation of all the eggs which the
queen lays for at least two years, as has been proved by
Huber ; but its influence probably extends to all the eggs
which the queen may lay during the rest of her life. The
same queen has been observed to conduct swarms for two
successive years; but the natural period of their lives is
not known with any certainty. The ancients supposed it
to be seven years; but Feburier suspects that, like the
males, they are destroyed by the labourers when they
have fulfilled their destination; for he was witness to an
attack made by six labourers on a queen, whom he rescued
with difficulty. Mr Hunter observes, that, judging from
analogy, a bee’s natural life is limited to a certain number
of seasons; for he conceives that no individual insect of
any species lives one month longer than the others of
the same species. In the bee, one might suppose the
period of life to be equal to the time that a hive can last;
but this is not a necessary consequence, since they keep
oflthabilityUp a success*on oP generations. The comb of the hive
16 may be said to be the furniture and storehouse of the
bees, which by use must wear out; but, independently of
this, it will in time become unfit for use, by the accumu¬
lation of cocoons, together with the excrements of the
maggots, which are never removed. The former, indeed,
lines the whole cell, top, sides, and bottom; and may be
distinguished from the cocoons of former maggots that
have been hatched in the same cell, by a portion of dried
Bee.
combs.
excrement, which is interposed between them at the
bottom of the cell. Mr Hunter counted above twenty
different linings in one cell, and found the cell about one
quarter or one third filled up. A piece of comb so cir¬
cumstanced, when boiled for the wax, will keep its form,
and the small quantity of wax is squeezed out at different
parts, as if squeezed out of a sponge, and runs together in
the crevices; while a piece of comb that never has been
bred in, even of the same hive, melts almost wholly down.
Hence the combs can only last a certain number of years.
However, to make them last longer, the bees often add a
little to the mouth of the cell, which is seldom done with
wax alone, but with some sort of mixture; and they
sometimes cover the silk lining of the last chrysalis; but
all this, observes Mr Hunter, makes such cells clumsy, in
comparison of the original ones.
We have thus given an account of the principal facts in
the history of bees, as far as they relate to the usual or
natural condition of these insects. We shall conclude
with the relation of several curious phenomena which
they exhibit under particular and unusual circumstances,
in which accident, or the designs of the experimenter,
may have placed them.
The loss of the queen is an event which has the most What hap.
marked influence on their conduct. Although the queen Pens when
is constantly an object of attention and of strong affection j;j^y^<)Se
to the whole community, they are not immediately sen- cen
sible of her absence when she is removed from the hive.
The ordinary labours are continued without interruption,
and it is not till a whole hour has elapsed that symptoms
of uneasiness are manifested, and it is even then only par¬
tially displayed. The inquietude begins in one part of
the hive, the workers become restless, abandon the young
which they were feeding, run to and fro, and, by striking
each other with their antennae, communicate the alarming
intelligence very quickly to their companions. The fer¬
ment soon extends to the whole community; the bees
rush precipitately out of the hive, and seek for their lost
queen in every direction. This state of confusion conti¬
nues for two or three, and sometimes for five hours, but
never longer. Tranquillity is again re-established ; they
return to their labours; and selecting one of the larvae
that is not more than three days old, they break down two
of the contiguous cells, sacrificing the larvae contained in
them, and proceed to build up one royal cell from their
ruins. They then supply the worm with the food neces¬
sary to promote its quick growth, and, leaving untouched
the rhomboidal bottom, they raise around it a cylindrical
inclosure. In three days the larva has grown to such a
size as to require an extension of its lodging, and must
inhabit a cell nearly of a pyramidal figure, and hanging
perpendicularly. A new pyramidal tube is therefore con¬
structed with the wax of the surrounding cells, which is
soldered at right angles to the first, and the bees, work¬
ing downwards, gradually contract its diameter from the
base, which is very wide, to the point. In proportion as
the worm grows the bees labour in extending the cell,
and bring food, which they place before its mouth and
round its body, forming a kind of coiled zone around it.
The worm, which can move only in a spiral direction,
turns incessantly to take its food before its head ; it insen¬
sibly descends, and at length arrives at the orifice of the
cell. It then transforms itself into a pupa, is inclosed
with a covering of wax, as before described, and, in the
space of ten days, the original loss is thus repaired by the
birth of a new queen. Schirach found, that if a number
of bees be confined with even a single larva, which, in the
natural course would have become a working bee, they
immediately set about giving it the royal education above
related, and thus raise it to the dignity of queen.
584
bee.
Bee.
This discovery, which has since been amply confirmed
by recent experiment and observation, was at first chiefly
admired for its singularity in a physiological point of view.
But it is evidently capable of being very advantageous y
applied towards the formation of artificial swarms, or new
colonies of bees, by which the produce in honey and wax
may be proportionally augmented. In the early months
of spring, and even during the succeeding months, so late
as November, M. Schirach cut off from an old hive a piece
of that part of the comb which contained the eggs of t ie
working bees, taking care, however, that it likewise in¬
cluded some worms hatched within the three preceding
days. He fixed this in an empty hive, or box, together
with a portion of honey-comb, &c.; or, in other words,
with a sufficiency of food and building materials, or wax,
for the use of the intended colony. He then put into,
and confined within the box, a sufficient number of com¬
mon working bees, taken from the same or any other
hive. As soon as the members of this small community
found themselves deprived of their liberty, and without a
queen, a dreadful uproar ensued, which continued gene¬
rally, with some short intervals of silence, for the space
of about 24 hours; during which time it is to be supposed
they were alternately meditating and holding counsel on
the future support of the new republic. On the final ces-
sation of this tumult, the general and almost constant re¬
sult was, that they betook themselves to work, first pro¬
ceeding to the construction of royal cells, and then tak-
ino- the proper measures for hatching and feeding such of
the brood as were placed within them. Sometimes even
on the second day the foundations of one or more roya
cells were perceptible. This operation has been hitheito
conducted within doors. The new colony may now be
safely trusted in the garden, if the weather be warm, and
have the liberty allowed them of passing out of the box;
of which they instantly avail themselves, and are seen in
a short time almost totally to desert their new habitation.
In about two hours, however, they begin to re-enter it.
We should not neglect to observe, that if they should be
placed near the old hive from which they were taken,
they will very often attempt to enter it, but aie as con¬
stantly repulsed by their former companions and brethren.
purposed and^Mch^unde'r^otber Eunices, that is. in small cells, those kid toga Foducm* 'arge
if they had remained in the old hive, would, in the course drones, those in small cells ^all drones , and si ^
of their metamorphosis, have attained only to the condi- been known to ay t le egg , , .1^ aueen
tion of working bees. In the present instance, the common some of which aie a ways^cons   4-T>
Bee.
other with its sting, they suddenly separate, and fly from
each other with every appearance of being panic-struck. v—
The final cause of the instinct that prompts this conduct
is sufficiently obvious, as, without it, the hive would be al¬
together deprived of a queen.
The bees recognise the individual person of their own
queen. If another be palmed upon them, they seize and
surround her, so that she is either suffocated or perishes
with hunger; for it is very remarkable that the workers
are never seen to attack a queen-bee with their stings. If,
however, more than eighteen hours have elapsed before
the stranger queen be introduced, she has some chance of
escape. The bees do, indeed, at first seize and confine
her, but less rigidly; and they soon begin to disperse, and
at length leave her to reign over a hive, in which she was
at first treated as a prisoner. If twenty-four hours have
elapsed, the stranger will be well received from the first,
and at once admitted to the sovereignty of the hive. If a
supernumerary queen be introduced into the hive, she is
laid hold of by the bees, and presented to the reigning
queen, while a ring is formed by the bees, who continue
to be spectators, and even promoters of the combat, in
which one or other of the queens is destined to perish.
Schirach and Reims had imagined that, in these circum¬
stances, the stranger met her death from the hands of the
working bees; but this mistake has been rectified by Hu¬
ber, who gives the account above stated. j PcfawW
If the impregnation of the queen be delayed beyond^nda.
the twenty-first day of her life, she begins soon after to
lay the eggs of drones, and produces no other kind 01
eggs during the remainder of her life. This very curious
and unexpected fact was discovered by Huber, and has
been satisfactorily established by his very numerous and
varied experiments, although its explanation is perhaps
attended with insuperable difficulties. The body of a
queen whose impregnation has thus been retaided is
shorter than common, and the extremities remain slender,
while the first two rings of the abdomen, or those next
the thorax, are uncommonly swollen. On dissecting the
double ovary, both branches were found to be equally
expanded and equally sound, but the eggs were apparent¬
ly not placed so closely together as in common queens.
It was not correctly ascertained whether the queens
worm appears to be converted by them into a queen-bee
merely because the hive was in want of one. Hence we
may justly infer that the kingdom of the bees is not, if
the expression may be used, jure divino, or hereditary
monarchy, but an elective kingdom; in which the choice
of their future ruler is made by the body of the people.
While the hive remains without a queen, swarming can
never take place, however crowded the hive may be. The
young queens are suffered to come out of their cells with¬
out impediment, and, after a number of deadly combats,
the empire remains with the survivor. Huber has made
the singular observation, that two queens, however inve¬
terate may be their mutual hostility, never actually both
destroy each other ; and that when, in the course of their
contest, they are placed in such a relative position as that
each has it in her power to strike a mortal blow on the
begins to lay male eggs. It is curious that the workers
were, on these last occasions, deceived, and treated the
embryo drones as if they had been truly of the roya
brOne of the most remarkable facts concerning the gene- Prolific
ration of bees, is the existence occasionally of Prollfic j^es.
workers, the discovery of which we owe to Reims. -^-1"
though it was doubted by Bonnet, its reality has been
fully confirmed by the researches of Huber; and it ex¬
plains what was before unaccountable, the production ox
eggs in hives absolutely destitute of a queen. It is also
remarkable, that the eggs thus produced are always those
of drones. The origin of these supplementary queens is
accounted for from their having passed the vermicular
state in cells contiguous to the royal ones, and from txeir
having, at an early period, devoured some portion ot t xe
BEE.
585
Bee.
Effects of
mutila¬
tions.
Variations
in their
mode of
building.
stimulating jelly which was destined for the nourishment
of the royal brood ; and from their ovaria thus receiving
a partial development, which renders them susceptible
of being impregnated. It is curious that these imperfect
queens are still objects of jealousy and animosity to the
queen-bee. How they become impregnated has not been
ascertained; but the fact of their being productive was
a strong confirmation of the truth of Schirach’s theory
concerning the sexes of bees. Needham, to whom the
fact was known, had eluded the force of the argument by
pretending that these bees did not belong to the working
class, but were real queens of an unusually small size.
The supposed absence of ovaria in the working bee was
still, indeed, a difficulty which tended to throw some de¬
gree of doubt on the correctness of Schirach’s doctrine.
No person, as Bonnet repeatedly alleges, could suppose
that these organs, however minute they might be, had es¬
caped the penetration of Swammerdam, who was unrival¬
led in his anatomical skill in all that related to insects,
and who had bestowed great labour in the examination of
the structure of the bee. What had eluded his scalpel
and microscope was reserved for the still finer hand and
more dexterous dissection of a lady. Miss Jurine, the
daughter of the celebrated naturalist of Geneva, has dis¬
covered, by adopting a particular method of preparing
the object to be viewed, the rudiments of ovaria in the
common working bee ; she examined a great number, and
never failed to find them. Cuvier, in his Lemons d’Ana¬
tomic Comparee, mentions a suspicion that he had seen
some very small oviducts in the working bees, a suspicion
which we now find to be completely verified.
We have next to relate the results of experiments of a
more cruel kind, but which illustrate several points in the
physiology of these insects. The amputation of the four
wings of the queen did not interfere with her laying of
the eggs, and the workers did not show her the less at¬
tention on account of her being thus mutilated. Of
course, if the operation be performed before she is im¬
pregnated, she remains barren, since it is necessary for
the sexual congress that she should fly out of the hive.
The amputation of a single antenna appeared to be pro¬
ductive of no bad consequence of any kind; but the re¬
moval of both the antennae was followed by singular ef¬
fects. The queen who had suffered this operation ran
about in apparent disorder, dropping her eggs at random,
and was incapable of directing her trunk with precision to
the food that was offered her. At times she appeared de¬
sirous of escaping from the hive, and when this was pre¬
vented, she returned in a state of delirium, was indiffer¬
ent to the caresses of the workers, and received another
similarly mutilated queen, that was presented to her,
without the least symptom of dislike. The workers, on
the other hand, received the stranger queen with great
respect, although the first still remained in the hive. A
third queen, not mutilated, was next introduced; she was
very ill received, and immediately detained and kept close
prisoner. When the queen, deprived of her antennae, was
allowed to quit the hive, she was followed by none of the
workers, and was abandoned to her fate.
Bees naturally build from above downwards, but may,
by a particular artifice, devised by Huber, be induced to
reverse this process. For this purpose a glass hive, with
slender laths fixed at the bottom of it, must be provided,
and the bees confined in it. They are unable to fasten
themselves to the smooth surfaces, and, therefore, esta¬
blish the foundations of the combs on the wood, and are Bee.
forced to proceed in a direction opposite to the usual one; U
in this way Huber was enabled to observe their proceed¬
ings. But the readiest mode of inducing them to build
in any particular direction is to supply them with portions
of ready-made combs, which should be fixed with wires
in the proper position; and they will always continue to
complete them upon the model presented to them. The
hive which Huber recommends is constructed on this
principle, consisting of upright frames of a square form,
fitted to each other, and of such a size as just to contain
each of them a single comb; by separating these, every
part of the hive can be laid open and examined with the
utmost ease. Feburier has improved upon this construc¬
tion by changing the shape of the frames from a square
to a trapezium, having an acute angle at the summit; a
form which allows the moisture that collects at the top to
run down the sides more easily than it would do from a
flat roof. In this way, any portion of the honey or wax
may be removed at pleasure, without hurting or incom¬
moding any one of the bees; and artificial swarms may,
at the proper season, be readily procured, by dividing the
hive into two portions, and adapting empty frames to each
portion.
The wasp and the hornet have long been known as the Enemiefl
determined enemies of the bee, committing great ravages of bees,
among these weaker insects : they attack them individual¬
ly, but oftener commit their aggressions in large armies,
on which occasions numbers perish on both sides. In
some parts of America, wasps have multiplied to so great
a degree, as to render it impossible to rear bees. Among
quadrupeds, the ant-eater occasionally devours them.
The bear and the badger overturn the hives, and plunder
their contents. Rats and mice are very formidable ene¬
mies, as they invade them at all seasons, and especially
during their torpid state, when they are incapable of re¬
venging the aggression. The woodpecker may succeed in
breaking through the hive, and then speedily destroys all
its inhabitants ; the swallow, the sparrow, the titmouse, the
cuckoo, and the Merops apiaster, or bee-eater, and poultry
of every kind, prey upon them separately. According to
Bose, they are also food for the shrikes, and for the Falco
apivorus. Lizards watch for them, and seize them as they
alight near the hive. Toads occasionally devour them.
They are in some danger from the larger kinds of spiders,
and of Libellulce, as also from the Philanthus apivorus of
Fabricius. But the most insidious and destructive enemy
of these insects is the moth ; various species of which, par¬
ticularly the Phalena mellolena, insinuate themselves into
the hive, and deposit their eggs unperceived between the
cells in such numbers, that the hive is soon overrun with
the larvae, where they are hatched, and the bees are forced
to abandon the hive. A new enemy of the same tribe has
been lately discovered by Huber, in the Sphinx atropos,
well known by the name of death’s head. Towards the end
of autumn, when the bees havefilled their magazines, aloud
hum is sometimes heard near their habitation, and a multi¬
tude of bees come out during the night, and fly about in the
utmost confusion. The tumult continues for several hours,
and the next morning a number of dead bees are strewed
before the hive. On examining the hive, it is found to have
been robbed of all its honey, and the bees do not return
to it.1 These effects result from the incursions of the
sphinx, which watches its opportunity to introduce itself
into the hive during the night, when the bees are depriv-
1 There appears to be some exaggeration or misconception in this statement of the Genevese observer. The death’s head moth is
one ot the largest of the lepidopterous insects of Europe, and could not possibly effect an entrance into any hive constructed with or¬
dinary care. Nor is it probable that it could consume more than a very small portion of honey, even if it were to obtain admission.
VOL. iv. 4 E
586
bee.
Bee.
ed of the advantages of vision, which the sphinx enjoys
in greater perfection at this period. By rendering the
door-way extremely narrow, so as only to admit a single
bee at a time, this accident may be prevented; and it is
curious that the bees themselves frequently anticipate this
danger, and provide against it by employing, ot their own
accord, the very same mode of defence. I hey construct
a thick wall, which barricades the entrance, and resembles
a regular fortification, with bastions, casemates, and mas¬
sive gateways. They often, indeed, have recourse to a simi¬
lar contrivance for protection against the pillaging bees,
enabling them to repel the assault with greater effect. At
other times, when the danger is less pressing, the inco -
veniences of so narrow a gateway being strongly felt, they
enlarge it by removing the fortification they had built,
and do not again construct it unless the appearance o
the enemy in the ensuing season should inspire them w
fresh alarms. If, on the other hand the precaution of
narrowing the gateway should already have been taken by
the cultivator, the bees, feeling themselves secure, spare
themselves the unnecessary labour of erecting these walls
. • i ^ idcinrv is a sumeient retutatior
“ Each hive should stand single on a piece of deal or
other wood, somewhat larger than the bottom of the hive.
That part of the stand which is at the mouth of the hive
should project some inches for the bees to rest on when
they return from the field. This stand should be support¬
ed upon a single post, two and a half feet high, to which
it should be screwed very securely, that high winds or
other accidents may not blow down both stand and hive.
A quantity of soot mixed with barley chaff should be
strewed on the ground round the post, which will effec¬
tually prevent ants, slugs, and other vermin, from rising
up to the hive. The soot and chaff should from time to
time be renew'ed as it is blown or washed away, though,
as it is sheltered by the stand, it remains a considerable
time, especially if care be taken that no w^eeds rise through
it. Weeds, indeed, should not be permitted to rise near
the hive, for they may give shelter to vermin which may
be hurtful to the bees.
“ The stands for bees should be four yards asunder, or,
if the apiary will not admit of so much, as far asunder as
may be, that the bees of one hive may not interfere with
_i* oa ic cnmf>timpR flip CftSP wllGIl tllG
Bee.
themselves the unnecessary labour of erecting tnese wa^. « sometimes the case when the
s v ^ afS !5 - £
srevt; ^ctrof,s,gt'Lvxc.ir(p.M.K.) ™wh,ch °ne or more may
„ , . . . . ii u CiiriVipr directs, that whoever intends to construct
In the article Apiary of this work we have a rea j ^ shouid purchase a proper number of hives at the
scribed the leaf and book hives of M. H , litter mrt of the year, when they are cheapest. Ihese
proposed improvements of several ot ler apianan . should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. The
chief objection to some of these is the expense and diffi- examine the combs, with a view to
culty of their construction, and the greater degree of Pur^ The combs of the season
attention which they exact on the part of the cultivator, ascertain t 0 former year are 0f a darkish yel-
Those made of straw are generally preferred, as being less are white t f 11 J hive should be
liable to be overheated by the rays of the sun : theyare like- ^ ’ .^^^enold they are more subject to the
wise of easy purchase from their cheapness ; and in winter verm" and other accidents. If the requisite
they exclude the cold better than hives made nUmber of hives have not been purchased in the autumn,
materials. The following is Mr Wildmans account^of 1 ^ ^ ^ to remedy t^is neglect as soon as the
structure and general management of h^ hjves • T gever; of the hag passed in spring. At this season,
hives are seven inches in height and ten in * accordmg to Mr Wildman, bees which are in good condi-
sides are upright, so that the top and bottom are 0 _ ^ tion win |0 int0 the fields early in the morning, return well
diameter. A hive holds nearly a peck. I . pP , h laden enter boldly, and will seldom leave their home in
bad leather. They.are alert „„ theka^ disu^anee;
inch in thickness and an inch and quarter wide, and
half an inch asunder from one another; a narrow short
bar is nailed at each side, half an inch distant from the
bars next them, in order to fill up the remaining parts ot
the circle; so that there are in all seven bars of deal, to
which the bees fix their combs. The space of halt an
inch between the bars allows a sufficient and easy passage
for the bees from one comb to another. In order to give
great steadiness to the combs, so that, upon moving the
hive, the combs may not fall off, or incline out of their
direction, a stick should be run through the middle of the
hive, in a direction directly across the bars, or at right
angles with them. When the hives are made, a piece ot
wood should be worked into the lower row of straw, long
enough to allow a door for the bees, of four inches in
length, and half an inch in height.
“ The proprietor of the bees should provide himselt
with several flat covers of straw, worked of the same thick¬
ness as the hives, and a foot in diameter, that so it may
be of the same width as the outside of the hives. Before
the cover is applied to the hive, a piece of clean paper,
and we may judge of their strength by the loudness of
their humming. The summer is not an advisable season
for purchasing bees, because the heat of the weather
softens the wax, and renders the combs liable to break
and give way, if they are not well secured in the interior.
The&honey, too, being thinner than at other times, is
more apt to run from the cells, which not only occasions
a loss of the material, but daubs, and possibly destroys,
tlic bees. • •
Mr Wildman’s feats in the handling of these irritable
and pugnacious creatures have been the frequent subject
of surprise. As it is often of consequence to be able to
regulate the settling of a swarm, we shall here subjoin his
method in his own words. “ Long experience has taught
me, that as soon as I turn up a hive, and give it some taps
on the sides and bottom, the queen immediately appears to
know the cause of this alarm, but soon retires again among
her people. Being accustomed to see her so often, I rea¬
dily perceive her at first glance; and long practice has
enabled me to seize her instantly with a tenderness that
does not in the least endanger her person. I his is ot the
of the size of the top of “mTedSertS^ "ot a. ^
“^crnt0laT;trbgJbuiLltiMheaeid0ahCouod
the circumference of the hive. Let the cover be laid upon in my first atteripts. I ^ degree 0f resentment
this, and made fast to the hive with a packing-needle and 1® • sti„gt’me, slip her into my other
pack-thread, so that neither cold nor vermin may enter. that may tempt ner to g t
BEE. 587
Bee. hand, and, returning the hive to its place, hold her there,
till the bees, missing her, are all on wing, and in the ut¬
most confusion. When the bees are thus distressed, I
place the queen wherever I would have the bees to settle.
The moment a few of them discover her, they give notice
to those near them, and those to the rest, the knowledge
of which soon becomes so general, that in a few minutes
they all collect themselves round her, and are so happy in
having recovered this sole support of their state, that they
will long remain quiet in their situation. Nay, the scent
of her body is so attractive of them, that the slightest
touch of her along any place or substance will attach the
bees to it, and induce them to pursue any path she takes.”
This was the only witchcraft used by Mr Wildman, and
is that alone which is practised by others who have since
made similar exhibitions.
In the management of bees a great deal must of course
depend on supplying them with an abundant pasture. A
rich corn country is well known to be to them as a barren
desert during a great portion of the year. Hence the ju¬
dicious practice of shifting them from place to place ac¬
cording to the circumstances of the season. It was the
advice of Celsus, that after the vernal pastures were con¬
sumed, bees should be transported to places abounding
with autumnal flowers; and it was in accordance with such
advice that they were annually carried in ancient times
from Achaia to Attica, and from Euboea and the islands
of the Cyclades to Scyrus. In Sicily, also, they were
brought to Hybla from other parts of the island. So also
in our own country the people of the lowlands, as soon as
the “ bright consummate flowers” of summer are on the
wane, dispatch their hives in cart loads to the blooming
heather of the mountain pastures, where a never-ending
wilderness of sweets is spread before them. It is indeed
to be regretted that our moorlands, in this respect, are so
much more neglected than they ought to be. The very-
air of the highland hills is often redolent with the rich
perfume, while here and there a solitary bee is seen or
heard labouring with wearied wing among the inexhaus¬
tible stores of nature, and scarcely able to regain its lonely
shieling in the distant vale. When we consider the po¬
verty of our mountaineers, and their frequent want of oc¬
cupation, it is the more to be lamented that so easy a
source of emolument should lie open to them in vain. It
has been calculated that the pastures of Scotland could
maintain as many bees as would produce 4,000,000 pints
of honey and 1,000,000 pounds of wax; and were these
quantities tripled for England and Ireland, the produce of
the British empire would be 12,000,000 pints of honey,
and 3,000,000 pounds of wax per annum. If we allow five
shillings per pint for the honey and one shilling and six¬
pence per pound for the wax, we have an annual produce
in money of L.3,225,000. But, in consequence of the pre¬
sent neglect of this branch of rural economy, we pay every
year a large sum to foreign nations for articles which we
could raise ourselves, with scarcely any outlay either of
capital or time.
We learn from Pliny that the practice of removing bees
from place to place was frequent in the Roman territories.
“ As soon,” says he, “ as the spring food for bees has
failed in the valleys near our towns, the hives of bees are
put into boats, and carried up against the stream of the
river in the night, in search of better pasture. The bees
go out in the morning in quest of provisions, and return
regularly to their hives in the boats, with the stores they
have collected. This method is continued till the sink¬
ing of the boats to a certain depth in the water shows that
the hives are sufficiently full; and they are then carried
back to their former homes, where their honey is taken out
(T them.” And this is still the practice of the Italians who
live near the banks of the Po, the river which Pliny in- Bee.
stanced particularly in the passage above quoted.
M. Maillet relates, in his description of Egypt, that, in
“ spite of the ignorance and rusticity which have got pos¬
session of that country, there yet remain in it several foot¬
steps of the industry and skill of the ancient Egyptians.
One of their most admirable contrivances is, their send¬
ing their bees annually into distant countries, in order to
procure them sustenance there, at a time when they could
not find any at home ; and their afterwards bringing them
back, like shepherds who should travel with their flock,
and make them feed as they go. It was observed by the
ancient inhabitants of Lower Egypt, that all plants blos¬
somed, and the fruits of the earth ripened, above six
weeks earlier in Upper Egypt than with them. They ap¬
plied this remark to their bees ; and the means then made
use of by them to enable these usefully industrious in¬
sects to reap advantage from the more forward state of
nature there, were exactly the same as are now practised
for the like purpose in that country. About the end of
October, all such inhabitants of Lower Egypt as have
hives of bees, embark them on the Nile, and convey them
up that river quite into Upper Egypt; observing to time
it so that they arrive there just when the inundation is
withdrawn, the lands have been sown, and the flowers be¬
gin to bud. The hives thus sent are marked and num¬
bered by their respective owners, and placed pyramidi-
cally in boats prepared for the purpose. After they have
remained some days at their farthest station, and are sup¬
posed to have gathered all the wax and honey they could
find in the fields within two or three leagues around,
their conductors convey them in the same boats two or
three leagues lower down, and there leave the laborious
insects as long time as is necessary for them to collect all
the riches of this spot. Thus the nearer they come to
the place of their more permanent abode, they find the
productions of the earth, and the plants which afford them
food, forward in proportion. In fine, about the beginning
of February, after having travelled through the whole
length of Egypt, gathering all the rich produce of the de¬
lightful banks of the Nile, they arrive at the mouth of
that river, towards the ocean, from whence they set out,
and from whence they are now returned to their several
homes ; for care is taken to keep an exact register of every
district from whence the hives were sent in the beginning
of the season, of their numbers, of the names of the per¬
sons who sent them, and likewise of the mark or number
of the boat in which they were placed.”
In many parts of France floating bee-houses are very
common. They have on board one barge three score or
a hundred bee-hives, well defended from the inclemency
of an accidental storm. With these the owners suffer
themselves to float gently down the river, the bees conti¬
nually choosing their flowery pasture along the banks of
the stream; and thus a single floating bee-house yields
the proprietor a considerable income.
They have also a method of transporting their bees by
land, well worth our imitation in many parts of this king¬
dom. Their first care is to examine these hives, some of
whose honeycombs might be broken or separated by the
jolting of the vehicle; they are then made fast one to
the other, and against the sides of the hive, by means
of small sticks, which may be disposed differently as oc¬
casion points out. This being done, every hive is set
upon a packing-cloth, or something like it, the threads of
which are very wide; the sides of this cloth are then
turned up and laid on the outside of each hive, in which
state they are tied together with a piece of small pack¬
thread wound several times round the hive. As many
hives as a cart built for the purpose will hold are after-
588
BEE
Bee
II
Beech
Oil.
wards placed in tlie vehicle. The hives are set two and two,
the whole length of the cart. Over these are placed otheis,
which make as it were a second story or bed of hives. Care
is taken in this stowage not to let one hive stop up another,
it being essentially necessary for the bees to have air; and
it is for tliis reason they are wrapped up in a coarse clot i,
the threads of which have been wove very wide, in order
that the air may have a free passage, and lessen the heat
which these insects raise in their hives, especially when they
move about very tumultuously, as often happens in these
carts. Those used for this purpose in Yevre hold from thirty
to forty-eight hives. As soon as all are thus stowed, the
caravan sets out. If the season is sultry, they bave| on y
in the night; but a proper advantage is taken of cool days.
These caravans do not travel fast. The horses must not be
permitted even to trot: they are led slowly, and along the
smoothest roads. When there are not combs in the hives
sufficient to support the bees during their journey, the owner
takes the earliest opportunity of resting them wherever they
can collect the materials for wax. The hives are taken out
of the cart, then set upon the ground, and after removing
the cloth from over them, the bees go forth in search of
food. The first field they come to serves them as an inn.
In the evening, as soon as they are all returned, the hives
are shut up; and being placed again in the cart, they pro¬
ceed on their journey. When the caravan has arrived at
the journey’s end, the hives are distributed in the gardens,
or in the fields adjacant to the houses of different peasants,
who, for a very small reward, undertake to look after them.
Thus it is that, in such spots as do not abound in flowers at
all seasons, means are found to supply the bees with food
during the whole year.
These instances of the great advantages which attend the
shifting of bees in search of pasture afford an excellent les¬
son to many places in this kingdom : they direct particularly
the inhabitants of the rich vales, where the harvest for bees
ends early, to remove their stocks to places which abound
in heath ; this plant continuing in bloom during a consider¬
able part of autumn, and yielding great abundance of food
to bees. Persons in the neighbourhood of hills and moun¬
tains will save the bees a great deal of labour, by also taking
the advantage of shifting their places of abode.
The degree of cold which bees can endure has not been
ascertained, though it is no doubt considerable. They sur¬
vive the winter in many cold parts of Russia, in hollow trees,
without any attention being paid to them; and their hives
are frequently made of the bark of trees, which does not af¬
ford a very complete protection from the effects of frost.
Many hives which are thought to die of cold in winter die
in reality of famine, when a rainy summer and cold autumn
have prevented their laying in a sufficient store of provisions.
The hives should therefore be carefully examined in the
after-part of the season, and the amount of food ascertained.
Mr White judiciously observes, that bees which stand on
the north side of a building whose height intercepts the sun’s
beams all the winter will waste less of their provisions than
others which stand in the sun; for, coming forth seldom,
they eat little, and yet are as forward in the spring to work
and swarm as those which had twice as much honey left with
them the preceding autumn. The owner ought, however,
to examine their condition in the course of the winter, and
BEE
if he finds that, instead of being clustered between the combs,
numbers have fallen to the bottom of the hive, it should im¬
mediately be shifted to a warmer place.
In regard to the destruction of bees, it has been observed
that no true lover of these industrious insects ever lighted
the fatal match without concern. A simple method of ob¬
taining possession of a portion of their store is the following:
Uncover the hole in the upper centre of aflat-topped straw
hive or box, and place a glass vessel over it in such a way
that no bee can get either in or out except by the ordinary
opening of the lower hive. The glass hive must be covered
with an empty hive or with a cloth, that too much light may
not prevent the bees from working. As soon as they have
filled the straw hive or box, they will begin to work up into
the glass hive. Mr Thorley junior informs us, that he himself
has had one of these glass hives filled by the bees in thirty
days in a fine season; and that it contained 38 pounds of
fine honey. When the glass is completely filled, slide a tin
plate between it and the hive or box, so as to cover the pas¬
sage, and in half an hour the glass may be taken off with
safety. What few bees remain in it will readily go to their
companions. He has added a glass window to his straw
hives, in order to see what progress bees make; which is
of some importance, especially if one hive is to be taken
away whilst the season still continues favourable for their
collecting honey ; for when the combs are filled with honey,
the cells are sealed up, and the bees forsake them and re¬
side mostly in the hive in which their works are chiefly car¬
ried on. Observing also that the bees were apt to extend
their combs through the passage of communication in the
upper hive, whether glass or other, which rendered it neces¬
sary to divide the comb when the upper hive was taken away,
he now puts in that passage a wire screen or netting, the
meshes of which are large enough for a loaded bee to go
easily through them. This prevents the joining of the combs
from one box to the other, and consequently obviates the
necessity of cutting them, and of spilling some of the honey,
which, running down among a crowd of bees, used before to
incommode them much, it being difficult for them to disen¬
cumber their wings.
Chloroform has been employed writh success in uniting^
swarms and artificial swarming, as well as for the purpose of
extracting the honey from the hive. A quarter of an ounce
of chloroform, in a saucer covered with a perforated card or
with wire-gauze, is to be placed on the board of the hive,
and all apertures to be carefully closed. In about half a mi¬
nute the bees will be completely under its influence ; and on
the admission of air, after a lapse of fifteen or twenty minutes
they will revive and soon recover the use of their wings.
We shall conclude by observing, that the honey-bee {apis
mellificd) is supposed to be of Asiatic origin. They were
imported from Europe to America, where they are now fovind
wild in great numbers, and at a vast distance from human
habitations. An excellent treatise on the “ Honey
its natural history, physiology, and management, was pub¬
lished in 1827 by Dr Edward Bevan. It contains some of
the best practical remarks on this subject with which we are
acquainted; and gives a fair account of the labours of his
predecessors, Reaumur, Hunter, Huber, Keys, Vicat, an
Dunbar, with a few remarks of the more noted authors who
have treated of bees. (J*w")
Bee
Beechey
BEE-EATER (Merops). See Ornithology, Index.
BEECH, see Planting; Timber ; Strength of Ma¬
terials ; and Index.
BEECH-MAST, the fruit or nuts of the beech-tree, used
for fattening hogs, deer, and other animals. It has some¬
times proved a useful substitute for bread, as experienced at
Chios during a memorable siege.
Beech Oil, an oil expressed from the mast of the beech-
tree. It is in common use in Picardy, and in other paits of
France, instead of butter; but it is said to be unwholesome.
BEECHEY, Sir William, R.A., an eminent portrait-
painter, born at Burford in December 1753, was ongina y
bred as a conveyancer ; but a strong love for painting in¬
duced him to become a pupil at the Royal Academy in 7 i •
He soon became noted for the spirit of his attitudes and t e
clearness of his colouring. His finest production is a review
BEE
Beeder of cavalry, a large composition in the foreground of which he
II introduced portraits of George III., the Prince of Wales, and
eersheba. j. jie J)uke of York, surrounded with a brilliant staff on horse¬
back. It was painted in 1793, and obtained for the artist
the honour of knighthood, and the rank of R.A. The eailici
portraits of Beechey were carefully drawn and well finished,
but in his later days the extent of his employment rendered
him less careful in his design. But a series of his cartoon
sketches in the Royal Institution of Liverpool shows that his
skill in drawing was very considerable. He died in January
1839, at the advanced age of eighty-six. (t. s.t.)
BEEDER, in Southern India, a town of Hyderabad, or
the dominions of the Nizam, is situate on an elevated table¬
land 2359 feet above the level of the sea. This place is forti¬
fied with a stone wall about six miles in circumference, a dry
ditch, and many round towers. The town is much decayed,
but the remains of many old buildings are still visible. Be¬
fore the Mahometan invasion it was the seat of a Hindu
sovereignty 5 but upon the revolt of the Deccan in 134:7
against the supremacy of Delhi, Beeder was selected as the
seat of government of the newly-founded Mahometan king¬
dom of Bahmani. Towards the close of the following cen¬
tury, upon the dismemberment of the territories of which it
had formed the capital, Beeder, with an adjacent district, rose
to the dignity of a separate state, and though of inconsider¬
able dimensions contrived to maintain its independence until
the commencement of the seventeenth century, when it
merged into the neighbouringkingdom of Ahmednuggur. In
1636 Shah Jehan, Emperor of Delhi, invaded the Deccan,
and subjected Ahmednuggur to tribute ; but in the anaichy
and confusion which prevailed during the decay of the Mogul
empire, the town and territory composing the former prin¬
cipality of Beeder fell to the Nizam, and were by him in¬
corporated with the present dominions of Hyderabad. Dis¬
tant N.W. from Hyderabad 75 miles. Eat. 17.53. Long.
77.36. (E\T-)
BEEF, the flesh of an ox, bull, or cow. According to
Dr Cullen, beef, though ofa more firm textureand less soluble
than mutton, is equally alkalescent, perspirable, and nutritious.
BEEF-EATER (from the French beauffetier), a yeoman
of the royal guard. See Appellation.
Beef-Eater, Buphaga. See Ornithology.
BEELE, a kind of pick-axe used by miners.
BEELZEBUL, (Bee\&[3ov\, dominusstercoris, i.c. meta¬
phorically Lord of idolatry), the name given by the Jews to
the prince of the demons. It is incorrectly written Beelze¬
bub in the New Testament. See Baalzebub, and Philis¬
tines.
BEEMAH, a river of Hindustan which rises in the moun¬
tains to the north of Poonah, and flowdng S.E., passes within
thirty miles of that city. It is one of the principal tribu¬
taries of the Krishna, which it joins near the town of Kadloor
in the dominions of the Nizam. The Hindus regard it as a
sacred river. The length of its course is about olO miles.
BEER, a town of Asiatic Turkey. See Bir.
Beer. See Brewing.
BEERALSTON, a borough-town in the county of
Devon, hundred of Roborough, and parish of Beerferris,
near the confluence of the Tavy with the lamar, 21o miles
from London. It formerly returned two members to par¬
liament, who were chosen by the holders of ancient bui-
gages ; and as there were few houses, the elections of mem¬
bers were held under a large tree. Near it are four lead
mines, which occasionally yield a small quantity of silver.
Pop. of parish in 1851, 3401.
BEER REGIS, a market-town of Dorset, 112 miles from
London. Near it is a hill which was formerly a Roman
encampment, where a great fair is annually held on 18th
September and five following days. The church is a hand¬
some edifice. Pop. in 1851, 1242.
BEERSHEB A, or Bersabe, a place in the southernmost
BEE 589
part of Canaan, celebrated for the sojourn of the patriarchs. Bees
This name, signifying the well of the oath, was bestowed in II
allusion to the covenant there made between Abraham and v Beet- f
Abimelech. It is mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome, in
the fourth century, as a large village. The well of Abraham,
or rather two wells, lie 27 miles S.E. from Gaza, and still
afford an abundant supply of pure water.
BEES, St, a parish of England, county of Cumberland,
on the sea-coast, comprising the town of Whitehaven and
the village of St Bees. Pop. (1851) 23,486. St Bees is a
place of great antiquity. The parish church, a cruciform
builduw with a massive tower, was once a part of the monas¬
tery of St Bega, founded about a.d. 650. The chancel is
occupied by the theological college, established in 1817 by
Bishop Law. The grammar-school, founded in the sixteenth
century by Archbishop Grindall, has several exhibitions and
fellowships both at Oxford and Cambridge. Pop. of town¬
ship (1851) 971. •/ 7\ 1
BEESTINGS, or Biestings (German, biestmilch), the
first milk taken from a cow after calving. It seems to be
intended by nature to cleanse the young animal from the re¬
crements gathered in its intestines during uterogestation. The
first milk of women possesses a similar quality ; and hence
the natural inference that a mother should suckle her own
child, rather than commit it to a nurse whose first milk is gone.
BEET or Beta, a well-known genus of plants. The com¬
mon beet, Beta vulgaris, a variety of the red beet, has long
been cultivated as a food for cattle, and is also used for the
table as a pickle. It was introduced for this purpose in the
latter part of the last century from Germany, where it is
known by the name of mangel-xvurzel. See Agriculture.
The variety termed white beet is smaller than the former, and
has chiefly been cultivated on a large scale for the forma¬
tion of sugar from its root. The chemical elements of beet¬
root sugar are expressed atomically thus :—C12, H9, O9 -f-
2 HO, or twelve atoms of carbon, nine of hydrogen, nine of
oxygen, and two of water. Fhe largest extract of puie sugar
from beet-root in Belgium was formerly three per cent., but
is now six per cent., and is capable of further increase by
improvement in the process of manufacture. The cultiva¬
tion of beet-root was especially fostered in France by Napo¬
leon, whose policy it was to encourage everything that
tended to render the Continent independent of Britain, then
in possession of the chief sugar colonies. It is only within
a comparatively recent period, however, that the manufac¬
ture of beet-root sugar in Europe has assumed any degree
of importance, the total quantity produced in 1828 not ex¬
ceeding 7000 tons, while in 1851 it was estimated at not
less than 180,000 tons. We subjoin a few statistics relative
to the increasing importance of this manufacture from The
Economist (Nos. 431 and 432, Nov. 29th, and Dec. 26th
1851). The quantity of beet-root sugar annually produced
in France is 60,000 tons, or fully one-half of the entire con¬
sumption. Though now subject to a higher duty than colo¬
nial cane sugar, it is considered probable that very shortly
it will exclude foreign sugar from the French market alto¬
gether. The production of beet-root sugar in Belgium also
is rapidly on the increase, the quantity produced in 1850
being 7000 tons, or half the entire consumption of that king¬
dom. This had increased in 1851 to 10,000 tons, while of
foreign cane sugar only 4000 tons were imported. In Ger¬
many it has made similar progress. In 1848 the quantity
produced was 26,000 tons, which had risen in 1851 to 43,000,
with a corresponding decrease in the imports of foreign sugar.
Of 85,000 tons of sugar estimated to have been consumed
in Russia, 35,000 tons w^ere beet-root sugar. In Austria
also the production of this article increased from 8000 tons
in 1848, to 15,000 tons in 1851, while the consumption of
cane sugar had sunk from 32,000 to 25,000 tons. rIhis
subject, in all its bearings, will be found fully discussed un¬
der the head Sugar.
590
BEE
Beethoven. BEETHOVEN, Ludwig van, one of the greatest pianists
and musical composers of modern times, was born on the
17th December 1770, at Bonn, on the Rhine. Beetho¬
ven’s father, Theodore van Beethoven, a native of Maest-
richt, was a tenor in the Elector of Cologne’s chapel, and
had four sons and one daughter. The subject ot this article
was the second son. His musical genius showed itself very
earl). When five years old he began the study of music
under Vander Eden, the court organist. In 1782 he was
placed under C. G. Neefe, the successor of Eden, who set
his pupil to study the works of J. S. Bach and Handel.
Beethoven’s early powers of execution and ofimprovisation
on the piano astonished every hearer. In 1 <93 he began
his serious studies of composition under Albrechtsberger at
Vienna. His exercises in harmony and counterpoint writ¬
ten under that master were published at Paris in 1833, in 2
vols. small folio, with protrait, &c.; and are very curious as
exhibiting the perpetual conflict between Beethoven s ima¬
gination and his perseverance in the hard and. dry studies
prescribed to him. He began these too la,te in life to be
able to render their forms quite subject to his will when lie
employed them in his compositions. Some of his instruction
in vocal composition was derived from the celebrated Italian
composer Salieri. _ _ ir j
It appears that during a great part of his life he suffered
from deafness, which had become almost total in his twenty-
eighth year. In his will, dated 1802, his expressions of
wretchedness under this infliction are very strong. He says
that his deafness occasioned him such anguish ot mind that
he was often tempted to commit suicide, but that his art re¬
strained him. There is something very affecting in all this,
which reminds one of Milton’s frequent and touching allu¬
sions to the miseries of blindness.
Beethoven tells us that his unhappy deafness, occasioned
by the ignorance and mismanagement of a surgeon, was the
cause of his withdrawing himself from society, and leading
a solitary and miserable life. He speaks in terms of the
deepest grief of the many privations to which the loss of his
hearing subjected him;—his incapacity of enjoying audible
music, and his inability to maintain social intercourse by
means of speech. The feeling of his irreparable loss seems
to have haunted him perpetually like some hideous phantom.
Doubtless he often felt most deeply what Dante has so well
expressed in the bitterness of his recollections :—
 “ Nessun maggior dolore
Che ricordarsi del tempo felice
Nella miseria.”
The spirited sketch given by Mr Russell,1 from his own
observation, of Beethoven’s appearance, and manners, and
musical performance, is quite consistent with what the writer
of this article has heard from other persons. Mr Russell
tells us {Tour in Germany, vol. i. p. 277), “ though not an
old man, he (Beethoven) is lost to society, in consequence
of his extreme deafness, which has rendered him almost un¬
social. The neglect of his person which he exhibits gives
him a somewhat wild appearance. His features are strong
and prominent; his eye is full of rude energy; his hair,
which neither comb nor scissors seem to have visited for
years, overshadows his broad brow in a quantity and con¬
fusion to which only the snakes round a Gorgon’s head offer
a parallel. His general behaviour does not ill accord with
this unpromising exterior. Except when he is among his
chosen friends, kindliness or affability are not his charac¬
teristics. The total loss of hearing has deprived him of all
the pleasure which society can give, and perhaps soured his
temper.”
“ He has always a small paper book with him, and what
conversation takes place is carried on in writing. In this
too although it is not lined, he instantly jots down any mu-
Befort.
BEE
sical idea which strikes him.” Mr Russell heard him play, Beetle
and says that, from his deafness, “ when playing very piano,
he often does not bring out a single note, yet he hears it
himself in the ‘ mind’s ear.’ While his eye and the almost
imperceptible motion of his fingers show that he is following
out the strain in his own soul through all its dying grada¬
tions, the instrument itself is actually as dumb as the musi¬
cian is deaf.”2
Beethoven died at Vienna on the 26th March 1827, in
the fifty-seventh year of his age. His funeral took place
on the 29th, and was attended by a great number of poets,
literary men, and musicians, who attended as mourners, be¬
sides a vast concourse of the people of Vienna. His body
was interred in the churchyard of Friedhofe, a village about
two English miles from Vienna, a favourite resortof his, where
he is said to have passed many solitary hours in meditation
and composition. The churchyard rises gradually from the
road, and Beethoven’s grave is situated about half-way up,
close to the wall, on the left-hand side. Against the wall
was placed a marble slab, of which a print has been pub¬
lished, having merely the word “Beethoven” in carved
gilt letters, but surmounted by the image of a lyre and a
head crowned with rays, and at the top a butterfly with ex¬
panded wings, the symbol of resurrection and immortality.
Twenty years afterwards a statue of this illustrious composer
was erected in Bonn, his native place.
With regard to Beethoven’s abilities as a pianoforte
player, the opinion of Mr J. B. Cramer, one of the gieatest
masters of that instrument, may be sufficient. Mr Cramer
described him as “by no means a finished or very delicate
player, but a giant in respect of command of ideas and energy
of style.” “ His extemporaneous playing,” Mr Cramer adds,
“ is the most magnificent I ever heard.” Signor Dragonetti
concurred in this opinion.
As a composer Beethoven stands in the foremost rank.
He possessed a powerful, inventive, and original mind. . In
respect of regularity of design, purity of harmonic combina¬
tion, and skilful management of all his materials, he is, genet -
ally speaking, inferior to Haydn and Mozart. . But still, all
his best compositions are pervaded by an enthusiastic spirit of
inspiration, a wild and masculine energy, relieved by frequent
touches of tender beauty and melancholy, which stamp the
superior genius of the man, and may, perhaps, be said to ten¬
der his music analogous in character to the poetry of Dante.
His earlier works and those of the second period of his ar¬
tistic development are his best. His deafness may in a great
measure account for the dry, crude, and unmelodious style
of many of his later works. In vocal composition he was
not in general greatly successful. Still, in his Fidelio
there are fine things; and his scena ed aria, Ah perfido .
spergiuoro!” and his canzonet, “Adelaide,” are truly exqut-
site.^ The latter is modelled upon Haydn’s fine canzonet,
“ O tuneful voice!”
In 1840 A. Schindler published in Germany a life ot
Beethoven, containing much silly gossip and some misstate¬
ments. A true life of the great musician has yet to be
written. *'*G’)
BEETLE, a term applied to most insects belonging to
the order Coleoptera. See Entomology.
Beetle also denotes a wooden instrument for driving pi es,
&c.: likewise called a stamper, and by pavers a rammer.
BEEVES (old plural of heef), a general name for oxen.
BEFORT, or Belfort, a second-class fortified town ot
France, in the department of Upper Rhine, and capita o
an arrondissement of the same name, is situated on tie
Savoureuse, 38 miles S.S.W. of Colmar. It contains a hand¬
some church, a college, and a public library of 20,000 vo¬
lumes ; and has several iron foundries and iron-wire factories.
Pop. (1851) 5274. The arrondissement of the same name
1 Russell’s Tour in Germany, &c. in 1820-21-22. 2 vols. 8vo. Edinb. 1824.
2 Ibid. vol. i. pp- 277, 278, 299.
Bega
Behaban.
B E H
contains 9 cantons, and 192 communes. Pop. (1831)
132 591.
BEGA, Cornelius, a painter of landscapes, cattle, and
conversazioni, was born at Haerlem in 1620, and studied
painting under Adrian Ostade. Falling into a dissipated way
of life, he was disinherited by his father, for which reason
he changed his paternal name, which was Begeyn, and took
that of Bega; hence his early pictures are marked with the
former name, his subsequent works with the latter. Bega, at
the age of forty-four, died of the plague, having taken the
infection from his mistress, whom he attended with unceasing
devotion till the last hour of her life.
BEGARELLI, Antonio, an eminent modeller in clay,
was a native of Modena. He was born a.d. 1498, and died
in 1565. Begarelli is praised by Vasari for the fine air of
his heads, his beautiful drapery, exquisite proportions, and
his imitations of marble. It is said that Michael Angelo
on seeing the works of this artist exclaimed, “ If this clay
were to become marble, alas for the ancient statues! His
works at Modena and elsewhere are very numerous. (Lanzi,
Star. Pitt. iv. 29.)
BEGGAR. See Poor-Laws. 7 ^ 7 , x •
BEGLERBEG, or Beglierbey, {i.e. Lord of lords,) in
the Turkish dominions is the title of a high officer, the gover¬
nor of a province, and next in dignity to the grand vizier.
He has under him several beys, agas, &c., and his province
is called a beglerbeglik. .
BEGUARDS, or Beghards, religionists ot the third
order of St Francis in Flanders. They were established at
Antwerp in the year 1228, and took St Begghe for their
patroness, from whom they derived their name. On their
first institution they employed themselves in making linen
cloth, each supporting himself by his own labour, and were
united only by the bonds of charity, without having any
particular rule. But when Pope Nicholas IV. had con¬
firmed that of the third order of St Francis in 1289, they
embraced it the year following, and were greatly favoured by
the dukes of Brabant, particularly John II. and John HI.,
who exempted them from all contributions and taxes. In
the year 1425 they began to live in common, and in 146/
made solemn vows, after having taken the habit of the Ter-
ciaries of Liege, religionists of the third order of St Francis;
and in 1472 they became subject to the general of the con-
greo-ation of Zepperen in the diocese of Liege, to which
they were united by Pope Sixtus IV. But Innocent X.
having, in 1650, suppressed the general of the congrega¬
tion of Zepperen, all the convents of the third order ot St
Francis, in the dioceses of Liege, Malines, and Antwerp,
were submitted to the visitation, jurisdiction, and correction
of the general of Italy, and erected into a province under
the title of “ the province of Flanders.” (See Mosheim, De
Beghardis et Beguinabus Commentatio, Leipz. 1790.)
BEGUINES, a congregation of female religionists or
nuns, founded either by St Begghe or by Lambert le
Begue, who died about the end of the twelfth century.
They were originally established at Liege, and afterwaids
at Neville. From this last settlement sprang the great
number of Beguines, which spread over all Flanders, and
thence passed into Germany, where some of these religion¬
ists fell into extravagant errors; persuading themselves that
it was possible, in the present life, to arrive at impeccability
and a clear view of God. The council of Vienna condemned
these errors, and abolished the order of Beguines, permit¬
ting such of them, however, as continued in the true faith
to live in chastity, either with or without vows; under covei
of which permission the decree of the council was evaded, and
communities of Beguines spread throughout all Flanders.
BEHABAN, a town of Persia, and capital of a moun¬
tainous district. It is pleasantly situated in the middle of
a valley which is of considerable extent, highly cultivated,
and watered by the rivers Zab and Jerahi. The walls are
B E H 591
about three miles in circumference. It is said to contain Beheading
about 10,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of a governor, Behe^oth-
whose palace is at the north-west corner of the town. It v 7
is 153 miles from Shiraz, from which it is separated by a "
mountainous country, entirely uninhabited, and infested by
aBEHEADING, a capital punishment in which the head
is severed from the body by the stroke of an axe, a sword,
or some other instrument.
Beheading, called decollatio, was a military punishment
among the Romans. The head of the culprit was laid on a
cippus or block placed in a pit dug for the purpose beyond
the vallum, and near the porta decumana and preparatory
to the stroke, he was tied to a stake and whipped with cords.
In the early ages the blow was given with an axe, but m
after times with a sword, which was thought the more re¬
putable manner of execution. In England decapitation is
a punishment reserved for the nobility, as was formerly the
case in France, being reputed less derogatory to then rank
than hanging, which is the punishment inflicted on ordinal y
criminals. ,
In Scotland, beheading was anciently performed by an
edged instrument called the maiden, consisting of a vertical
frame with a sharp and heavily loaded axe or knife-edged
iron, which in descending chopped oft the head. It was
introduced into this country by the Regent Morton, who,
as in several similar instances, was himself the first that
suffered by it. This instrument has been preserved, and may
still be seen in the museum of the Society of Scottish Anti¬
quaries. The guillotine, so called from the name of its in¬
ventor M. Guillotin, a physician, who is also said to have
lost his head by his own contrivance, is an instrument
somewhat analogous to the maiden, with this exception, that
the edge of the knife descends obliquely, and thus the head
is severed more instantaneously. In France, beheading is
an ordinary capital punishment for great crimes, and the
guillotine, notwithstanding all the revolutionary horrors as¬
sociated with it, is still the instrument by which decollation
is performed.
BEHEM, Martin, a celebrated geographer and navi¬
gator, born at Nurnberg about 1436. He entered into
the service of Portugal in 1479, and in 1484 sailed in the
fleet of the great captain Diego Cam, which was sent to
explore the western coast of Africa. In 1485 he returned
to Lisbon, where, on account of his scientific services and
charts, the honour of knighthood was bestowed on him by
the king, with splendid ceremony. He married the daughter
of Job Huester, at Fayal, in 1486. For several years after
he was employed in the construction of maps and charts at
Lisbon, where he is said to have met Columbus. In the
year in which that celebrated navigator sailed to discover
the New World, Behem visited his native city, where he
resided a year, and constructed a terrestrial globe, some fortu¬
nate conjectures in which have been made the foundation of
an erroneous theory as to his share in transatlantic discovery,
He afterwards resided chiefly at Fayal; but died at Lisbon
in 1506, leaving no monuments of his science except this
globe, and various maps and charts. The utter silence of
the Portuguese government as to his supposed share in the
discoveries of Columbus, is sufficient evidence that Behem
had no claim to that honour. (T*s*T-)
BEHEMOTH (ITlDrO, Job xl. 15 ; in Coptic, accord¬
ing to Jablonski, Pehemont) is regarded as the plural of be-
hemah, but commentators are by no means agreed
as to its true meaning. A number of learned men, with
Bochart and Calmet at their head, understand the word in
the singular number as a specific name denoting the hippo¬
potamus, seeking to prove, by somewhat forced interpreta¬
tions of the beautiful poetical allusions in Job xl. 15-24, the
exactness of the description when compared with the species,
which, however, in some respects is more applicable to the
592 B E H
Behmen elephant, while in others it is equally so to both animals.
II Hence the term behemoth, taken intensely (for in some
Behring's jaces it is admitted to designate cattle in general), may be
v Strait- ; assumed to be a poetical personification of the great Pachy-
dermata, or even Herbivora, wherein the idea of hippopota¬
mus is predominant. This view accounts tor the ascription
to it of characters not truly applicable to one species.
BEHMEN, Jacob. See Boehm.
BEHN, Aphara, an authoress of some celebrity, born
of a good family in the city of Canterbury in the reign o
Charles I. Her father, whose name was Johnson, having
received the appointment of lieutenant-general of Surinam,
proceeded to the West Indies, taking with him his whole
family. Mr Johnson died on the voyage; but his family
reached Surinam, and resided there for some years. Here
Aphara learned the history, and acquired a personal know¬
ledge, of the American prince Oroonoco and his beloved
Imoinda, whose adventures she has related in her novel
of that name, and which Southerne afterwards made use of
in one of his tragedies. r ht
On her return to London she became the wife of Mr
Behn, a merchant of Dutch extraction residing in that
city. The wit and abilities of Mrs Behn having brought
her into high estimation at court, Charles II. employed her
to transact some affairs of importance abroad during the
Dutch war. For this purpose she went to Antwerp, where
bv her intrigues and gallantries she so far penetrated into
the secrets of state as to accomplish the objects of her mis¬
sion; and in the latter end of 1666, by means of the influ¬
ence she had gained over one Vander Albert, she wormed
out of him the design formed by De liuyter, in conjunction
with the family of the De Wits, of sailing up the Thames
and burning the English ships in their harbours. This she
communicated to the English court; but although the event
proved her intelligence to have been well founded, it was at
the time disregarded;—which circumstance, together with
the disinclination shown to reward her for her services, de¬
termined the lady to drop all further thoughts of political
affairs; and during the remainder of her stay at Antwerp
she gave herself up entirely to the gaiety and gallantries of
the place. In her voyage home to England she narrowly
escaped death, the vessel in which she sailed having foun¬
dered, but fortunately within reach of aid.
From this period she devoted her life entirely to pleasure
and the muses. Her works are numerous, and all of them
are of a lively and amatory character. In her dramatic
pieces the plots are full of action and ingenuity, and the
dialogue sparkles with wit; but, in common with the licen¬
tious taste of the time, they are interlarded with the most
indecent scenes and expressions. This singular woman died
on the 16th of April 1689, and was interred in the cloisters
of Westminster Abbey.
BEHRING’S ISLAND, the most westerly of the Aleu¬
tian group, in the North Pacific. Lat. oo. 22. N. Long.
166. E. It is rocky, desolate, and uninhabited, and is only
remarkable as being the place where the navigator Behring
was wrecked, and died in 1741.
Behring’s Strait, the narrow sea between the N.E.
part of Asia and the N.W. part of North America, con¬
necting the North Pacific with the Arctic Ocean. At the
narrowest part, East Cape in Asia approaches within about
36 miles of Cape Prince of Wales on the American shore.
The former is in N. Lat. 66. 6. W. Long. 169. 38.; and the
latter in N. Lat. 65. 46. W. Long. 168.15. North and south
of these points, the coasts on either side rapidly diverge.
They are steep and rocky, and considerably indented. The
Asiatic coast, extending from Cape Serdtzy to Cape Tchou-
kotzky, a distance of about 400 miles, presents several large
and commodious bays. The strait is in general from 23
to 30 fathoms in depth, and contains a few small islands.
Haze and fogs greatly prevail, and the temperature is low.
B E J
This strait derives its name from Vitus Behring, a German Beilan
in the Russian service, who sailed from Kamtschatka and . II
discovered it in the year 1728. It was subsequently ex- Bejapcmr
plored and described with great accuracy by Captain Cook,
in 1788. An account of this strait, in’connection with the
discovery of the North-west. Passage by Captain M'Clure,
will be found under the head Polar Seas.
BEILAN, a town and pass of Syria, on the east of Iskan-
deroon, nine miles from the coast of the Mediterranean. The
pass, between mounts Rhosus and Amanus, is supposed to
be the Amanides Pyles of Strabo. The town is picturesquely
situated near the top of the pass. Pop. about 5000.
BEINASCHI, Giovanni Battista, an eminent histo¬
rical painter, born in Piedmont in 1634. He studied at
Rome under Pietro del Po; and some authors affirm that
he was afterwards a disciple of Lanfranc. He was a good
designer; and in acknowledgment of his merit, the honour
of knighthood was conferred upon him. Lie died in 1688.
BEIT EL FAKIH (i.e. house of the saint), an unwalled
town situated in Arabia Yemen, on a barren sandy plain,
protected against the predatory incursions of the Arabs by a
castle, in which the governor resides. It carries on an ex¬
tensive trade in coffee, which grows on the hills 16 miles dis¬
tant, and is carried to Mocha, the shipping port, and thence
exported to Egypt, the East Indies, and to Europe. The
trade of Beit el Fakih is carried on solely by the caravans;
and the coffee is either sold for specie or for such goods as
are required for the use of the inhabitants, who number about
8000. It is 24 miles E.S.E. of Loheia, and 60 leagues N.
by E. from Mocha. Long. 43. 23. E. I/at. 14. 32. N.
BEITH, a town and parish of Scotland, in the county
of Ayr, and partly also in Renfrewshire. The town is in
Ayrshire, on the Renfrew and Ayr Railway, and nine miles
S.W. of Paisley. It carries on to a considerable extent the
manufacture of bleached and coloured thread, and has several
cotton manufactories. Pop. of the town in 1851, 2016.
BEJA, a city of the province of Alentejo, in Portugal,
36 miles south of Evora. It is surrounded with walls, is
the see of a bishop, and contains about 5500 inhabitants,
who are for the most part occupied in cultivation, and espe¬
cially in breeding cattle.
BEJAPOUR, in Southern India, the ancient capital of
an independent sovereignty of the same name, and once an
extensive, splendid, and opulent city, but now retaining only
the vestiges of its former grandeur. It is situate in a fertile
plain, and is a place of great extent, consisting of three dis¬
tinct localities—the citadel, the fort, and the remains of the
city. The citadel, a mile in circuit, is a place of great
strength, well built, of the most mass}7 materials, and en¬
compassed by a ditch 100 yards wide, formerly well sup¬
plied w7ith water, but now nearly filled up with rubbish, so
that its original depth cannot be discovered. It wras built
in 1489, by Eusof Adil Shah, the founder of the dynasty of
Bejapour. The fort consists of a rampart flanked by nu¬
merous towers, a ditch, and covered way. Its defences,
which are not less than six miles in circumference, were
completed by Ali Adil Shah in 1566. The interior formerly
contained the king’s palace, the houses of the nobility, large
magazines, and extensive gardens. At present, though
considerable portions of the area are covered with buildings
or ruins, there is room for corn-fields and extensive inclo¬
sures. Outside the fort are the remains of a vast city, now
for the most part in ruins, but the innumerable tombs,
mosques, caravanseras, and other edifices which have re¬
sisted the havoc of time, afford abundant evidence of the
ancient splendour of the place. It is asserted by the na¬
tives that Bejapour contained, according to authentic re¬
cords, 1600 mosques and nearly 1,000,000 houses. The
number of houses is certainly overrated ; that of the mosques,
in the opinion of recent travellers, is no exaggeration. The
outer wall of the city on the western side runs nearly south
B E J
Bejapour. and north, and is of great extent. It is built of stone, is
of prodigious thickness, and about twenty feet in height,
with a ditch and rampart; and at intervals of 100 yards are
capacious towers, built of large hewn stones. The whole
is now in a ruinous condition ; the wall and the towers hav¬
ing in many places fallen into the ditch, and in other parts
being covered with rubbish. Several mosques and mauso¬
leums, adorned with all the embellishments of Eastern archi¬
tecture, are still to be seen in Bejapour. The fort in the
interior is adorned with many of these edifices, in rather
better preservation than the works. Amongst these is the
great mosque, which is 97 yards long by 55 broad. The
wings, which are 15 yards broad, project 73 yards from the
north and south ends, inclosing on three sides, with the body
of the mosque, a large reservoir of water and a fountain.
The mausoleum of Sultan Mahmood Shah is a plain build¬
ing, 153 feet square, over which is reared a dome 117 feet
in diameter at its greatest concavity, and called by the na¬
tives the grand cupola. The mosque and mausoleum of
Ibrahim Add Shah, king of Bejapour—which was probably
completed about the year 1620—is said to have cost
L.700,000, and to have occupied thirty-six years in its com¬
pletion. It is built on a basement 130 yards in length by
52 in breadth, and raised 15 feet. On it is a plain build¬
ing, 115 feet by 76, covered by an immense dome raised on
arches. The mausoleum is a room 57 feet square, inclosed
by two verandahs 13 feet in breadth and 22 feet in height.
There are, besides, many other public buildings more or
less injured by time and the violence of the Mahrattas. Al¬
most all the buildings, the palaces in the fort excepted, are
of massive stone, and in the most durable style; and at the
same time the workmanship is minutely elegant. Among the
curiosities of the capital is the celebrated monster gun, stated
to be the largest piece of cast brass ordnance in the world.
It was captured from the king of Ahmednuggur by the king
of Bejapour about the middle of the seventeenth century.
An inscription on the gun recording the fact was erased by
Aurungzebe, who substituted the present inscription, stating
that he conquered Bejapour in 1685. The city is well
watered, having, besides numerous wells, several rivulets
running through it.
After the dissolution of the great Bahmani dynasty of
the Deccan in 1489, a race of independent sovereigns arose,
who ruled over the new kingdom of Bejapour, extending from
the confluence of the Beema and the Krishna on the east
to the sea-coast, on the west from Goa to Bombay. Their
rule endured through several generations, until at length,
in 1650, Shah Jehan compelled them to become tributary
to the empire ; and shortly after, their monarchy was totally
subverted by his successor Aurungzebe. The city and
territory of Bejapour remained annexed to Delhi till 1724,
when the Nizam established his independence in the Dec-
can, and included Bejapour within his dominions. His sway
over this portion of his acquisitions was, however, of brief
duration, for, being defeated by the Peishwa in 1760, he was
constrained to purchase peace by its cession to the Mahrattas.
Upon the fall of the Peishwa in 1818, Bejapour passed into
the hands of the British, and was by them included in the
territory assigned to the rajah of Sattara.
The place, as already intimated, is rich in monuments of
the bygone period when Bejapour was the capital of a power¬
ful and flourishing Mahometan kingdom. Such traces of
the past it is always desirable to preserve to the greatest pos¬
sible extent, as they furnish the best commentary upon the
history of the times in which they were raised, and indeed
constitute their history, so far as manners are concerned.
It is fortunate that their value was duly appreciated by
the late rajah of Sattara, who took great pains to preserve
them ; and that the British government, participating in the
same feeling, has, since the country passed into its posses¬
sion, manifested great zeal in rescuing from the ravages
V OL. IV.
BEL 593
of time the magnificent relics which have come into their Bekes
possession. ||
Bejapour is distant from Sattara S.E. 130 miles; from Bom- Belenyes-
bay S.E. 245. Eat 16. 50. Long 75. 48. (d. b-n.) (e. t.)
BEKES, a town of Hungary, capital of a county of the
same name, situated at the confluence of the White and
Black Koros, 14 miles N.N.W. of Gyula. The inhabitants,
principally Calvinists, amount to about 17,000, and are chiefly
engaged in agriculture and the rearing of cattle. Long. 20.
41. 37. E. Lat. 46. 46. 16. N.
BEKKER, Balthazar, a distinguished Dutch divine,
born in Friesland in 1634, was the author of a work en¬
titled Die Detoovcrde Wereld, or The World Beivitched, in
which he exposed with irresistible force of reason the errors,
absurdities, and impostures which had been propagated re¬
specting spiritual agency; and which occasioned his depo¬
sition from the office of the ministry. He died in 1698.
For an account of this remarkable man, who so far out¬
stripped the age, see Apparitions. (Vol. III. p. 313.)
BEL, or Belius, Matthias, an Hungarian divine and
historiographer to the Emperor Charles VI. His History
of Hungary was so greatly admired that the emperor gave
him letters of nobility; and notwithstanding his being a
Lutheran, the pope, in 1736, sent him his picture and several
gold medals. He was a member of the Royal Society of
London, and of the academies of Berlin and Petersburg.
He died in 1749, aged sixty-five.
Bel, or Belus, the supreme god of the ancient Chaldaeans
or Babylonians. He was the reputed founder of the Baby¬
lonian empire, and is supposed to be the Nimrod of Scrip¬
ture, as well as identical with the Phoenician Baal. The
term signifies Lord, and was applied by those nations to
the sun. A temple was erected to Belus in the city of Baby¬
lon, on the uppermost range of the famous tower of Babel, in
which there were many statues of the god, including one of
massive gold forty feet in height. This temple, with its
riches, was in existence till the time of Xerxes; but the
Persian monarch, on his return from his unfortunate expe¬
dition into Greece, demolished it, and carried off the im¬
mense wealth which it contained. It was the statue of this
god which Nebuchadnezzar set up and dedicated in the plain
of Dura, on his return from the Jewish war.
Bel and the Dragon, an apocryphal book of Scripture.
This book has always been rejected by the Jewish church:
it is not extant either in the Hebrew or in the Chaldaic
language, nor is there any proof that it ever was ; hence St
Jerome calls it the Fable of Bel and the Dragon.
BELAY, in Seamanship, to fasten by winding a rope
round a kevel, cleat, or belaying-pin.
BELBEIS, or Belbets, a town of Egypt, on the eastern
arm of the Nile. It was formerly considered the bulwark
of the kingdom on that side, and was defended by strong
fortifications; but these were suffered to fall into decay till
1798, when Buonaparte ordered them to be put in repair.
The present population is not supposed to exceed 5000.
Belbeis is 28 miles N.N.E. of Cairo.
BELEMNITE (from fSlXegvov, a dart), vulgarly called
thunder-stone, a marine fossil, common in the chalk and
lime formations. The fossil shells of this genus are of a
long conical shape, the interior cone being divided into par¬
titions connected by a siphon (as in the Nautilus), and sur¬
rounded by numerous concentric layers composed of fibres
radiating from the axis. This genus, of which there are
many species, belongs to the order Cephalopoda. See
Mollusoa.
BELENYES, a town of Hungary, in the province of
Farther Theiss, on the Koros, thirty miles S.S.E. of Gross-
wardein. It is the chief place of a small circle of the same
name, and contains two Greek churches, one Roman Catho¬
lic, and one Calvinistic. Pop. 3250. Long. 22. 13. 25. E.
Lat. 46. 40. 11. N
4 F
594 BEL
Belerium IJELEIIIUM, in
BEL
7 + w nf Partly from good fortune, and more, perhaps, on account of
    - Ancient Geography, * promontory o “udenCe Gf its inhabitants, Belfast suffered less during
the Dumnonii or Damnonii, the West Britons; now ca e cjvd commotions which so long afflicted the country
Belford.
Belfast, the Land’s End. (Diodorus Siculus, v. 21.)
BELESIS, a Chaldean priest at Babylon, who, accord¬
ing to Ctesias, conspired against Sardanapalus, and, m con
junction with Arbaces the Mede, overthrew the Assfynan
empire, b.c. 876. He afterwards obtained from Arbaces
the satrapy of Babylon. (Diodorus, ii.) _ ..
BELFAST, a maritime town, a municipal and parlia¬
mentary borough, the capital of Ulster, the chie ™anu ac
turing and commercial town in Ireland, and since o
county town of Antrim. It is mainly comprised in t le conn
of Antrim; but the large suburb of Ballymacarret, separated
from the town by the river Lagan, is in the county ot
Down. Belfast is situated in Lat. 54. 36. 8*5. N., and Long.
5. 55. 53-7. W., at the mouth of the river Lagan, \vhic
flows immediately into Belfast Lough (Carrie ergus ay),
an estuary about 12 miles in length, and 5 mi es broad. I he
town is built upon an alluvial deposit and land leclaime
from the sea, the greater portion being not more than six
feet above high-water mark. In common with all places so
situate, it is exposed to occasional inundations, and some¬
what to the visitations of epidemics; but independent y o
the lowness of its site, Belfast is in other respects advan¬
tageously placed, and generally by no means unhealthtul.
The environs of the town are highly agreeable and pic¬
The etymology of the name is uncertain, and its origin
so obscure, that Belfast contains not one single memorial ot
past times deserving the notice of an antiquary, roi a
lengthened period the town consisted of a few houses, a
church, and the castle, which latter edifice, used as a resi¬
dence by the Chichester family, remained as a solitary relic
of semi-barbarous times until the year 1108, when it was
than most towns in Ireland; its history is therefore for¬
tunately barren of those exciting scenes so plentiful in the
records of other important towns*
With regard to population, Belfast has been steadily pro¬
gressive from an early period. In 1758 the number of inha¬
bitants was 8549; in 1782, !3,!05; in 1798 18,320; in
1821, 45,177; in 1831, 48,224; in 1841, 75,308; and in
1851 100 300. The custom duties collected at the port
in 1784 amounted to L.104,376, and, after various fluctua¬
tions, reached L.288,756 in 1834, L.339,989 in 1843, and
L 377,329 in 1852. The great increase of shipping h-e-
quenting the port appears in the following account of the
number and tonnage of vessels entered inwards at various
periods:—
Years. No. of Vessels. Tonnage.
1825 2,060 183,441
1835 2,730 290,769
1845 3,655 445,537
1851 5,016 650,938
Years.
1786
1795
1805
1815
No. of Vessels. Tonnage.
772 34,287
801 52,576
840 69,585
1,134 91,371
The chief export trade is carried on by the cross-channel
navigation ; but a considerable direct trade also exists with
the United States and Canada, the West Indies, the Medi¬
terranean, and the Baltic.
Belfast is the centre of the Irish linen manufacture, to
the cultivation of which it is mainly indebted for its pros¬
perity. In 1841 about 240,000 spindles were employed,
and the increase during the last ten years has been so rapid,
that about 510,000 spindles are now in operation, ihe
total value of all products of the linen manufacture ex¬
ported abroad in the ten months ended 5th November 18o2
was L.4,357,874, against L.4,150,157 in 1851; and the ex-
of semi-barbarous times until the year i ,u», wnen i™ ^ nf linens and varns especially of the latter, continues
carelessly destroyed by fire, three daughters of the E ar p increage In\851, 5,060,160 lb. of linen yarns were
^h^K^ c—ng Belfast a corporation, exported "a^ufacturing
consisting of a sovereign, twelve burgesses, and common- agrLable environs*;
alty, with the privilege of sending two members to the ^gularly built, chiefly of
Irish parliament, was granted in the tenth year of Jame ., _ althouo-h inferior to Dublin in its public bmld-
although it was at that time a very inconsiderable pa . ’ JUnv of no mean architectural pretensions,
This charter was renewed by James II. Ihe municipal mgs, i poss y   ^ ^ ...ti:..™ aPti7ri*-\7 nnf tn be
government of the borough was altered after the passing o
the Act of Union, by the addition of police and life commis¬
sioners to the former corporation ; and under this arrange¬
ment the borough was governed until the passing of the
Municipal Reform Act in 1841, when the present corpora¬
tion, consisting of a mayor, ten aldermen, and thirty town
councillors, was instituted. At the Union, and until the
passing of the Reform Act, Belfast returned one member to
the imperial parliament; but that act granted two members
to the borough, the constituency under the 13th and 14th
Viet. cap. 69, numbering in 1853, 3282.
In the early part of the seventeenth century, and in con¬
nection with the project of James I. for the plantation of
Ulster, many Scotch and English settled in the town and
neighbourhood, and at that era commence the first signs
of the future progress of Belfast. The great influence
exerted by this infusion of new blood into the district is at¬
tested at the present time by the persistency of the lowland
Scotch dialect and accent, the prevalence of the Presbyte¬
rian religion, and the physical characteristics of the people,
no less than by their commercial activity, industry, and en¬
terprise. For some time, however, the growth of the town
was comparatively slow, and Milton, in his reply to the Re¬
presentation of the Presbytery of Pelf ast, in 1649, describes
it as a “ small town in Ulster,” and “ a barbarous nook in
Ireland.” At the commencement of the eighteenth century,
it had become known as a place of considerable trade, and
what was then considered a handsome, thriving, and well-
peopled town, with many new houses and good shops.
and presents an appearance of bustling activity not to be
found elsewhere in Ireland.
The river Lagan is crossed by three bridges of modern
construction, the chief of which is the Queen s Bridge
erected on the site of the “ Long Bridge of Belfast, and
opened for traffic in 1844. There are 11 places of worship
belonging to the Established Church 21 Presbyterian 8
Methodist, 3 Unitarian, and 4 Roman Catholic chapels, be¬
sides those belonging to other denominations. Ihe chiet
educational establishments are the Belfast academy, the
Roval Academical Institution, the new Queen s College,
built of brick, in the Tudor style of architecture, and opened
in 1849, the government school of design, &c.; and, pro¬
portionately to its extent, no town in the kingdom is better
supplied with educational appliances than Belfast. Ihe
public buildings most worthy of notice are the white and
brown linen halls, the corn exchange, the commercial bml -
ings, the Museum, the Northern Joint-Stock and Belfast
Banks, the theatre, the town-hall, the range of buildings con¬
taining the offices for the customs, inland revenue, and post-
office departments, and the county lunatic asylum, about a
mile distant from the town. The botanic garden adjoining
the Queen’s College, is extensive, well kept, and beautiful.
The harbour of Belfast, originally a creek of the river
Lagan, has been much improved of late years, and now
allows vessels drawing eighteen feet of water to reach the
quavs at spring-tides. , , . vH; s A
1 BELFORD, a market-town of England, in the county
of Northumberland, and northern division of Bamborough
BEL
BEL
595
Belfort
II
Belgium.
ward, 14 miles S.S.E. of Berwick. It is pleasantly situated
on a gradual slope, about two miles from the sea, and on the
Berwick and Newcastle railway. Pop. (1850 1226.
BELFORT. See Befort.
BELFRY, Belfredus, is used by military writers of
the middle ages to denote a tower erected by besiegers to
overlook the place besieged. Sentinels were placed on the
belfry to watch the avenues and prevent surprise, or to give
notice of fires by ringing a bell. The word belfry is com¬
pounded of the Teutonic bell, and freid, “peace.” Belfry
also denotes that part of a steeple in which the bells are
hung; sometimes called by old writers campanile, clocaria, Belgica
and tristegum. Gallia
BELGICA GALLIA, one of the three divisions of Gaul Belgjum
mentioned by Caesar, and bounded by the ocean on the i j
north, and east by the Rhine, on the west by the ocean,
and on the south by the Seine and the Marne. The Belgce
are described by Caesar as the bravest of the Gauls, because
untainted by the importation of foreign luxuries. The col¬
lective forces of the whole nation exceeded a million.
BELGINUM, a town of the Treviri, in Gallia Belgica;
now called Baldenau.
BELGIUM,
As a united state, did not exist in the middle ages. The
country of which that kingdom has been formed was divided
into a number of fiefs, independent of and frequently at war
with each other. Amongst these fiefs may be mentioned
the duchies of Brabant, Limbourg, and Luxembourg; the
counties of Flanders, Hainault, and Namur; the bishopric
of Liege ; the lordship of Malines ; and the principality of
Stavelot. The Belgians took part in all the expeditions of
those chivalrous times, and were seen fighting in the plains
of the East. But in spite of the frequent wars in which
they engaged, they enriched themselves by commerce and
industry. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, united them
under his vast power, the bishopric of Liege and the prin¬
cipality of Stavelot alone maintaining a separate existence
for more than four centuries. Under the Burgundian do¬
minion, the Belgians became more and more prosperous ; the
brilliancy of their fetes attracted numbers of cavaliers from
all parts ; whilst industry and commerce grew and prospered.
But the proper history of this country does not commence
till the period when it came into possession of the house of
Austria, by the marriage of the Archduke Maximilian, son
of the Emperor Frederick III., in 1477, with Mary of Bur¬
gundy, only daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold.
Maximilian, when his son Philip had attained his twentieth
year, resigned to him the government of the states; and at
his death the inheritance of the Low Countries devolved upon
the Archduke Charles of Austria, afterwards Charles Y.
The religious movement which then agitated Europe con¬
vulsed this country, which suffered fearfully under the cruel
persecutions and oppression of Charles and his more bigoted
son Philip II. The attempt to establish the inquisition at
length roused the people to resistance, under the leadership
of Count Brederode, a descendant of the ancient counts of
Holland. The insurgents presented to Margaret, Duchess
of Parma, to whom Philip had intrusted the administration
of Belgium, a demand for a redress of their grievances and
the restoration of their rights. To this document they gave
the name of the compromise, which was signed by above
five hundred of the nobles and principal men in the state.
On the rejection of this, they drove back the inquisitors to
Spain, and religious liberty was proclaimed. This drew
down upon them the wrath of Philip, who sent the Duke
of Alva, at the head of the Spanish troops, to reduce them
to subjection. He devastated the country, erected scaffolds
in every city, and perpetrated the most cruel atrocities upon
the inhabitants. At length the confederates formed an al¬
liance with the Prince of Orange. For many years the
conflict was carried on between the states of the Nether¬
lands, under the house of Nassau, and the house of Austria,
with varying success.
The death of Charles II. of Spain in 1700 gave rise to a
general war, which extended to almost every part of the
world. The dying king bequeathed his dominions to the
Duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., whose ambition
had roused the jealousy of the other European states. This
gave rise to the Grand Alliance. The Netherlands formed
a part of the territory contended for, and again became the
theatre of bloody battles and protracted sieges. The peace of
Utrecht, concluded in April 1713, terminated the hostilities.
By this treaty the ten provinces of Belgium, which now as¬
sumed the name of the Austrian Netherlands, were assigned
to the emperor of Germany.
For a considerable time after this, in consequence of the
weakness of the successors of Philip II., Belgium was in
such a state of exhaustion, that Holland, to guard itself, oc¬
cupied the greater part of her fortresses. The emperor had
to treat with the states-general, and to accord to the Dutch
advantages over the Belgians which excited the murmurs
and threats of the inhabitants both against the emperor and
the states-general; and it was only by extreme severity and
the greatest precautions that a general revolt was prevented.
But the prosperity which accompanied the subsequent peace
reconciled the Belgian people to the Austrian rule.
The tranquillity of the Netherlands was interrupted by the
war which broke out in 1743; but the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1748 re-established Maria Theresa in her Bel¬
gian possessions. Her good sense and good feelings pre¬
served her from overstepping the bounds of the ancient
laws; and her government, which was mild and prudent,
remained popular with the people. She died in 1780, and
was succeeded by her son Joseph II.
Joseph was inaugurated with the ancient formalities, and
commenced his reign under favourable auspices. Anxious
to promote the prosperity of the country, he resolved to de¬
liver it from the yoke of Holland, to open up the naviga¬
tion of the Scheldt, and, by the introduction of liberal com¬
mercial regulations, to restore it to its ancient importance.
By various edicts he announced his determination to curb
the power of the priests and to resist the papal encroach¬
ments ; and even ordered the suppression of some of the mo¬
nasteries. These reforms, too abruptly proposed, roused the
opposition of the priesthood and the superstitious inhabitants,
but they were not excited to revolt till Joseph began to over¬
turn the civil departments by a complete change of system.
The assembly of the states of Brabant then offered a deter¬
mined opposition to his measures. They refused to vote
the supplies, and in 1789 published a manifesto declaring
Joseph II. deposed from the sovereignty. During the con¬
tests that followed, which were strongly marked by religious
bigotry and fanaticism, Joseph died on the 20th January
1791, and was succeeded by his brother Leopold.
Leopold manifested much sagacity and moderation in his
measures for the recovery of the revolted provinces. The
states-general, on the other hand, occupied themselves almost
exclusively in attempts to re-establish the monkish institu¬
tions ; and having dismissed their able general Van der Mersch
on account of his alleged heresy, their army became disor¬
ganized, and they had the temerity to reject with scorn the
moderate overtures of the new emperor. The army of the
imperialists advanced into the provinces; town after town
596
BELGIUM.
Belgium, opened its gates, and a short campaign gave the emperor pense of maintaining and strengthening the fortresses Belgium.
v—quiet possession of the whole of the provinces. He revoked should be defrayed from the common treasury : and, 8.
the ordonnances of his predecessor which had given such That the cost of supporting the dikes should be furnished
offence to the clergy and bigoted inhabitants, and re-esta- by the districts more immediately interested in them ; but
blished the form of government on the footing on which it in case of any great disaster, succours were to be supplied
had existed under Maria Theresa. These arrangements by the general government, in the same manner as had
were scarcely completed when he died, on the 1st of March formerly .been practised in Holland. The king of England,
1792. His son Francis II. succeeded to the throne, and by a separate treaty, on the 13th of August, agreed to give
under his rei^n the final separation of the Belgian provinces up to the newly-created king of the Netherlands all the
from the imperial family took place. conquests made from the Dutch during the war, with the
The new emperor, soon after his accession, found himself exception of the Cape of Good Hope, and the settlements
involved in the war with revolutionary France, which ended of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, on the continent of
in the conquest of the Netherlands by the French. See South America.
France. The Netherlands were formed by the French first By the treaty of the 21st of July, the government of the
into the Batavian republic, afterwards into the kingdom of Netherlands accepted, on the conditions therein stated, that
Holland for Louis Buonaparte; and in 1811, on his abdica- sovereignty over the Belgian provinces which the allied
tion they were annexed to the French empire. powers had offered, not from any peculiar feeling of regard
In 1813, after the battle of Leipzig and Napoleon’s evacu- to the interests of King William or of Holland, but as a
ation of Germany, the Dutch threw off the French yoke, European benefit, “ de pourvoir a I’etablissement d’un etat
and recalled the Prince of Orange, who assumed the reins d’equilibre en Europe, et en vertu de leur droit de con-
of government under the title of king. The Belgian pro- quete sur la Belgique.” The duchy of Luxembourg was
vinces were soon after abandoned by the French and fell not a portion of Belgium, but a part of Germany ; and that
bv the ri°Lt of conquest into the power of the allied sove- division was given up to the king of the Low Countries,
reigns & by the German confederation, of which he was a member,
From its position Belgium had been the battlefield of not in his regal capacity, but in consequence of his trans-
Europe in former periods; and the possession of that ferring to Prussia the sovereignties, hereditary in his fa-
country by France would be of vast importance as an mily, of Nassau-Dittenburg, Siegen, Hademar, and Dietz,
advanced post, from which she might easily proceed to After the union of the two countries had been settled
other conquests. The house of Austria, having always by treaty, and the whole delivered up to the government
found the Belgian provinces a source of trouble and an- of William, it was thought necessary to submit, not the
noyance, was ready to abandon its claims; trusting thereby union itself, but the fundamental law or constitution, to
to secure some advantages nearer the centre of its power, the acceptance of the people. That constitution had al-
The Netherlands, if united under one power, might be suf- ready been accepted by an almost unanimous vote in the
ficiently strengthened to become a strong barrier against northern division, but it was deemed necessary to sub-
France, and the means of securing the continuance of that mit it also to the southern division. An assembly of
general peace which was then so much desired, and in- Notables was accordingly convened in Belgium, on the
deed wanted. Belgium, and the other territories near same plan as had before been pursued in Holland. ^ 110
it, the bishopric of Liege, and the duchy of Luxembourg,
were considered merely as European objects, which were
so to be disposed of as would best suit the purposes of the
combined powers, particularly that of securing the tran¬
quillity of the great community of nations. It was not,
then, from any peculiar favour to Holland, or from any per¬
sonal regard to King William, though his minister formed
one of the assembly, that, in less than two months after
to
iccordingly convened in Belgium, on
The
number of the members of this assembly was 1600, but not
more than 1323 attended. Upon the vote being taken,
there appeared to be 529 in favour of accepting the consti¬
tution, and 796 against it; and thus, as far as that assem¬
bly was concerned, the acceptance of the proposed consti¬
tution was negatived. The government, however, took a
different view of the subject, founded upon the assumption,
that the union being adopted must be considered as a fact
the seizure of Paris, it was adopted as a principle by the not to be questioned; and that this was a question for the
united kingdom, which must be determined by a majority
of the whole. For this purpose, the statistical view given
of the kingdom was thus represented.
The inhabitants of the northern division, or what was be¬
fore Holland, were 2,071,181
Those of the south part, or Belgium 3,411,082
representatives of all Europe, and promulgated to the
world, “ that Holland, placed under the sovereignty of the
house of Orange, should receive an increase of territory.”
This declaration was made on the 30th of May, and at the
time received with general approbation, although at a sub¬
sequent period it was one of the principal grievances set
forth by the Belgians in their declaration of independence.
The principle thus announced received its final sanction
by a treaty dated the 21st of July, in virtue of which Ba¬
ron Vincent was to deliver over to King William the pro¬
visional power he exercised in Belgium, upon the follow¬
ing conditions, viz. 1. That the two countries should form
one state, governed by the constitution already established
in Holland, to be modified by common consent: 2. That
there should be no alteration in that part which assured to
ail religious sects an equal admissibility to public offices :
3. That the states should assemble in alternate years in a
city of Holland and in one of Belgium: 4. That all the in-  
habitants of both parts should be alike in all commercial . . . r „ . . . ^
matters, without any restriction being imposed on one for 1? ^vour of .the CQnsUtution, or
the benefit of the other : 5. That the provinces and cities
of Belgium should be admitted to the full enjoyment of
In all 5,482,263
The votes in favour of the acceptance were stated to be
the whole of the northern part 2,071,181
Two fifths of the southern part, who voted by
their 529 delegates   1,364,432
3,435,613
The majority of the Belgian representatives,
who voted for three fifths of that part, amount¬
ed to 2,046,650
commerce with the colonies : 6. That all expenses should
be in common, and the debts of the two parts should be as¬
sumed by the treasury of the kingdom : 7. That the ex¬
fundamental law, a majority of. /
We have given an account of this proceeding, because
it was subsequently made one of the grievances complain¬
ed of. The assembly had been chosen fairly, and conse¬
quently under clerical influence, which was decidedly op-
BELGIUM.
597
Belgium, posed to the toleration of any other party than the Ca-
tliolic religion. This was proved by a kind of protest,
issued under the title of “Jugement Doctrinal des Eveques
du Rcyaume des Pays-Bas, sur le serment prescrit par la
Nouvelle Constitution.” In an authoritative style it con¬
demns the liberty given to appoint persons of any religious
creed to offices of power and trust; and it reprobates the
enactment that the Catholic church was to be submissive
to the law of the state, that the other religious sects were
to be protected in their worship, that the government
was to have the power to regulate all the seminaries of
the kingdom, and that the liberty of the press was i-ecog-
nised. It concluded with these words : “ Mais des qu’une
loi humaine est intrinsequement mauvaise, et opposee a la
loi divine et aux lois de I’eglise, on ne pent, sous aucun
pretexte, s’engager d’y obeir.” This declaration was signed
by all the prelates, viz. the Archbishop of Malines, and
the Bishops of Ghent and of Tournay, and the vicar-ge¬
neral of the chapter of Liege. It is natural to suppose
that such a declaration must have had great influence
with people so ignorant and superstitious as the lower
classes of the Belgian population are universally allowed
to be, and averse as they had ever been to a connec¬
tion with the Dutch, who were represented to them as a
combination of heretics. The nobles are also said to have
been more attached to the ancient Austrian government;
but the middle classes were supposed to have more sym¬
pathy with the French than with the German nation, and
to be peculiarly jealous of the Dutch.
Whatever may have been the common sentiment, of
which it is always difficult to judge, not the least appear¬
ance of discontent was displayed at the promulgation of
the constitution, or the public entry made by the king and
his family into Brussels. His first efforts there, as they
had been in Holland, were directed to the means of de¬
fence ; and all due exertions were employed for the pur¬
pose of raising an effective and numerous army. In this
much progress had been made when the intelligence ar¬
rived that Bonaparte had escaped from Elba, advanced in
a sort of triumphal procession through France, and again
assumed the imperial title, and all the power connected
with it.
The alarm and terror created by this event had the
effect of, in a great measure, disarming the power of the
ecclesiastical fulminations, and uniting all classes with the
new government in preparing for the contest which was
evidently about to take place on the frontiers of the king¬
dom. The time spent by Bonaparte in Paris in organiz¬
ing his recovered army, and in conciliating the several
parties in his capital, was most actively employed by the
king in strengthening his means of defence ; and a great
advance had been made in his military affairs, when it be¬
came evident that the first inroad of the French would be
on the side of Belgium.
An army composed of Dutchmen and Belgians, but
chiefly officered by the former, was collected and led to¬
wards the frontiers by the Prince of Orange. When the
French entered Belgium, these troops formed the advance
of the allied army. It encountered the French at Quatre-
Bras, and, aided by the British, resisted during the whole
day (the 16th of June) the attacks of the left division of
the French army, commanded by Marshal Ney. The loss
of lives on both sides was great; but that action had a
powerful influence on the issue of the battle of the 18th,
as it gave time to bring up the whole of the allied forces,
and place them on the field of Waterloo, where the deci¬
sive conflict took place which decided the fate of the French
empire, and gave a long peace to Europe. During the
whole of that day the troops of the Netherlands sustained
the character for courage which past centuries had estab¬
lished. There were probably a few instances of overpower¬
ing terror, and some solitary examples of disaffection, aris- Belgium,
ing from past associations with the French ; but the great ■v"-'
principle of public duty pervaded the Netherlands army,
as was proved by the loss which they sustained in the bat¬
tle. The victory was cemented by the blood of the Prince
of Orange, who stood at the head of his troops through¬
out the whole of that arduous day, encouraging them by
his cool and determined conduct. On one occasion he
made a desperate charge on the enemy, and advanced so
far that he was actually in the midst of the French, and
in the greatest danger, when a Belgian battalion rushed
forward, repulsed the enemy, and, after a desperate strug¬
gle, disengaged the prince. From the impulse of his gra¬
titude, and his admiration of the bravery displayed, he
tore from his breast one of the decorations gained by his
conduct in some preceding action, and flung it amongst the
battalion, calling out, “ Take it, my lads ; you have all
earned it.” This decoration was eagerly grappled for, and
tied to the regimental standard amidst loud shouts of “ Long
live the Prince,” and vows to defend the trophy, in the
utterance of which many a brave man received the stroke
of death. A short time afterwards, towards the close of
the battle, the prince was hit by a musket-ball on the left
shoulder. He was carried from the field, and conveyed
to Brussels the same evening in a cart, accompanied by
two of his aides-de-camp, one of whom, like himself, was
badly wounded; displaying to those near him as much in¬
difference to pain as he had previously shown contempt of
danger.
The battle of Waterloo appeared at the moment to have
consolidated the establishment of the kingdom of the Ne¬
therlands. It seemed to have attached the military part
of the Belgians to the prince who had been wounded at
their head, and who had led them to that victory which
they so mainly ascribed to their own exertions, as almost
to forget that the troops of any other nation had contri¬
buted to it. Advantage was taken of this feeling to com¬
mence the working of the new constitution, which had
been accepted, as before noticed, by a majority of the
whole kingdom, though rejected by a majority of the Bel¬
gian portion. The solemn inauguration was held a few
weeks after the battle, and much interest was excited by
the appearance of the Prince of Orange, on the occasion,
still wearing his wounded arm in a scarf, and with the
pallid countenance of an invalid.
The constitution was then declared to have been ac¬
cepted by the people, and no allusion was made to the ir¬
regularity of the decision, as the objections once urged
had arisen from repugnance to religious toleration ; those
who had urged them being sensible that any allusions to
the subject would have been unavailing amidst the pre¬
vailing military enthusiasm. None was made, but such
were certainly nourished, to be brought forward at some
moment more favourable for making the desired impres¬
sion. No murmurs were heard, and Belgium became, or
appeared to have become, reconciled to the arrangement
which had been made by the allied powers.
The speedy concentration of the two divisions was a
spectacle viewed with astonishment, whilst a thousand
channels were opened for the egress of national industry,
capital, and enterprise. Every obstacle seemed to have
vanished, asperities were softened down or concealed, fac¬
tion seemed dead or paralysed, and a quiet enjoyment of
the present formed the only public manifestation. The
people of Belgium appropriated to themselves the glorious
victory of which their country had been the theatre. The
king, by his love of peace, and by his activity in whatever
could improve the institutions and the condition of the
country, at first gained a high opinion amongst those Bel¬
gians who were able to endure the religious toleration he
established, and amongst others his personal virtues, his
BELGIUM.
domestic habits, arid his unwearied industry, as favourable
a view was taken of his character as could be formed o
one who had the misfortune to be a heretic. This last
party was soothed, if not reconciled, by the exertions whic
he made to recover and restore to their churches those
pictures and other objects of value which had been pillage
by the French and carried to Paris.
The naval transaction of the following year, when a
squadron of Netherlands ships joined the fleet under Lord
Exmouth in the attack on Algiers, was another circum¬
stance favourable to the consolidation of the new king om ,
for although the battle was gallantly fought by Dutchmen,
yet the Belgians took care, in the exercise of their vanity,
not to allude to the Hollanders ; and as they had forgotten
the English at Waterloo, so they now gladly assumed to
themselves the glory of the united victory. e pros
perity of Belgium made it the chosen residence ot many
respectable foreigners, as well as the place of re uge o
others of the most opposite descriptions. The king busied
himself less in projects to secure popularity, than in ettorts
to benefit the country ; and it may here be proper to no¬
tice the institutions which were either established or ame¬
liorated, and the beneficial consequences they produced.
Under the rule of France, Belgium, like the other parts
of the Continent, had suffered severely from the operation
of the conscription laws, which had deprived the country ot
those active labourers who were necessary to cultivate the
fields. Although peace could not restore the great num¬
bers who had perished, yet it stopped the farther progress
of the evil in the Netherlands, by the establishment ot a
voluntary enrolment for a small regular army, and of a
militia, whose service was required only for one month in
the year. The mines felt the benefit of this regulation. The
minerals of Belgium consist of coal, iron, and calamine. As
soon as the union had been formed, and labourers became
less scarce, a great impetus was communicated to this
branch of industry ; and companies were formed, who were
most liberally repaid by the profit of their investments in
this branch of industry, which was augmented from year to
year as long as Belgium and Holland constituted one king¬
dom. By the excitement communicated to mining, the pro¬
vinces of Liege and Hainault, and a part of Namur, were
greatly enriched; and a company formed to explore the
mines of Luxembourg were amply rewarded in their la¬
bours and their profits, till interrupted by internal commo¬
tions. The various branches of manufacturing industry re¬
ceived a similar impulse, though at first they were checked
by the peace. The continental system of Bonaparte had
given a factitious encouragement to some articles of ma¬
nufacture, which ceased with the return of peace; and, till
the formation of the kingdom of the Netherlands, many
branches were depressed by the rivalry of foreign goods
in the markets to which they had access. But as soon as
the junction was completed, a stimulus was given to the
manufacturers, by opening to their goods the markets of
the East and West Indies, and those of all countries with
which the Hollanders had traded. The iron manufactures
of Liege advanced rapidly in prosperity; the woollen ma¬
nufactures of Verviers felt most powerfully a similar im¬
pulsion ; and many large establishments w'ere formed at
■Ghent and other places, where cotton goods were fabricated
which rivalled those of England, and so far surpassed those
of France, that much of the goods were sold by the contra¬
band trade in that kingdom. The opening of the Scheldt
was the necessary effect of the formation of the united king¬
dom. Merchants from various countries formed establish¬
ments with large capitals at Antwerp; its docks became
crowded with ships from all countries ; its warehouses were
loaded with colonial and other produce ; and it advanced
rapidly to a rivalry with Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Ham¬
burg, in the transit trade to the interior of Germany. The
kino- directed his best efforts to the state of the roads, the Belgium,
oreater part of which had suffered dilapidation, whilst the ^ -■
cross roads, so important in a country chiefly agricultural,
were in many places scarcely passable. The management
of the former was under the general government, whilst
that of the latter was superintended by the local authori¬
ties ; but in the first few years of the union the whole were
repaired and placed in the most excellent state. The in¬
terests of internal navigation were sedulously watched over
by the king. The old canals were repaired, the shallow
parts of the rivers were deepened, and new and important
water communications were formed. The chief of these,
the Canal Guillaume, which extends from Maestricht to
Bois-le-Duc, was an expensive but highly beneficial work ;
whilst that of Antoing in Hainault, that of Charleroy in
the province of Namur, and that of Ternuse in Flanders,
have been found in a very high degree beneficial. Though
no longer of any importance to Belgium, it may not be quite
out of place to remark, that the spirit of improvement which
spread throughout the whole kingdom was to be seen in
Holland in the Grand Canal of North Holland, which opens
to Amsterdam a way for ships of the largest size to the
ocean by way of the Helder, without incurring the risks
arising from the shoals of the Zuyder Zee. .
Some other plans of this kind had been decided on, when
the disturbances broke out which ended in this disjunction
of Belgium from Holland. One of these was to make the
river Sambre navigable; the other was to form a canal from
the Meuse to the Moselle, by means of which the prospe¬
rity of the duchy of Luxembourg would have been greatly
advanced. , , .
The state of education, from the schools for primary
instruction up to the universities, was in a wretched state
when the king ascended the throne. In Holland it had
ever been an object of the greatest consideration; and it
had received from Louis Bonaparte, during his short reign,
a degree of perfection which fitted it for reception in Bel¬
gium. Normal schools for the instruction of teachers
were early founded; and as soon as any were found qualified,
they were fixed with moderate stipends in the rural districts
where they could be most beneficially placed. To such
an extent'was this plan of organizing primary schools car¬
ried during the first ten years of the reign of William,
that their number in 1826 was 3329, in which the pupils
were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and the system
of weights and measures. The numbers of PuPlls ^ the
several schools of Belgium were 156,075 boys and 116,761
girls; in Luxembourg the numbers were 19,9~o boys and
14,819 girls. . . j a
The schools for higher instruction were improved, and
the number of students in them yearly increased. In ten
years they had risen from 3400 to 7048. These were in
general the institutions in which the youth were prepared
for the universities. The king founded a new university
at Lieo-e, in addition to the two previously existing at Lou¬
vain and at Ghent. Great care was taken to procure the
most able men in every branch of science ; and as the coun¬
try was rather deficient in such as possessed eminent qua¬
lifications, it was found necessary to repair to foreign lands
for help. Several were invited from Germany, and others
from France and Italy. No one establishment for educa¬
tion in Europe could boast of more distinguished names
than those of the individuals who filled some of the pio es-
sors’ chairs, both in Liege and Ghent.
Whilst in the united kingdom the surface appeared
smooth, and the vessel of the state seemed to be making a
rapid progress, an under-current was perceived to be ma. -
ing its way in a direction not favourable to permanent tran¬
quillity. At first William gained the highest applause from
his Belgian subjects. The whole kingdom exhibited a show
of bustling activity, if not of prosperity. Amongst the re-
BELGIUM.
599
Belgium, fugees from other countries, the king and people were
spoken of as models of public and domestic happiness ; the
diplomatists joined in the flattery, and prided themselves
on the skill with which they had accomplished the tran¬
quillity of Europe, by founding the kingdom of the Ne¬
therlands ; and all united in the assertion that the king was
much too good for his Belgian subjects.
For several years this favourable or flattering state of af¬
fairs continued, though thoughtful people soon discerned,
from events unnoticed by superficial observers, the prog¬
nostics of future disunion. At the earliest meeting of the
representative house, the different languages spoken by the
members caused some difficulties; a Belgian in the discus¬
sions speaking in French, and a Hollander replying in
Dutch. Too many of the questions brought forward might
be of a local nature; and in these, as the whole of the Hol¬
landers voted on one side, and the whole of the Belgians
on the other, the decision was often dependent on the ac¬
cidental absence of an individual on the one side or the
other. The equality of numbers between the Dutch and
Belgians made it difficult to come to a settlement on such
subjects as affected the interests of the two countries in
a different or opposite way. This was first exhibited on the
subject of a free trade in corn. The Dutch provinces had
never produced sufficient corn for their consumption, but
a free trade in it had always furnished them with a suf¬
ficient supply. The Belgian provinces grew more corn than
they consumed. As in the other parts of Europe during
the last years of the war, the prices of corn had risen to an
enormous rate, and the Belgian proprietors of land had in¬
creased their rents in due proportion. With the return of
tranquillity the prices of grain and the rents of land were
much reduced; and the Belgian members of the assembly
desired to impose restrictions on the importation of grain.
This was naturally opposed by the Dutch members, whose
interest was engaged in favour of low prices, both as re¬
garded the subsistence of the inhabitants, and the trade
of the distilleries. The question was finally decided in fa¬
vour of the freedom of the trade; but the contest gave
rise to the formation of twm parties, so equally balanced as
to make the decision of many legislative questions depen¬
dent on accident.
As the royal authority had been established in Holland
the greater part of a year before the union with Belgium,
it had been organized without reference to that event.
Holland had been a shorter period under French power; and
during the prevalence of that influence when King Louis
filled the throne, its government had been carried on upon
the principle of nationality ; the fittest men filled the offices
in the different departments, and many of them remained
unchanged when Holland became a French department.
It was natural that King William should continue such men
in their offices, and that in selecting officers for the new
branches which were to be created, a preference should be
given to natives, of whom there were numbers whose edu¬
cation, habits, and patriotism had well fitted them for the
public service. At the union of Belgium and Holland the
whole administration was in the hands of French func¬
tionaries, who speedily disappeared. Few men in Belgium
had been brought up in such a way as to form them for
official duties, and those who had sufficient information and
capacity had been nominated to employments in the dis¬
tant provinces of France. Under these circumstances, the
greater number of officers was necessarily appointed from
the northern division of the kingdom. Another cause of
many offices in Belgium being filled by Dutchmen was, that
some of those Belgians to whom offers were made declin¬
ed to serve, on account of the influence of the priests, which
prevented them from taking the oath to a constitution, one
of the first stipulations of which was an equal freedom to
all religions.
A complaint was brought forward, that in the appoint- Belgium,
ment of officers in the army an undue preference had been -J
shown in favour of the natives of Holland ; and as Mr Nor-
thomb, an opponent of the house of Orange, in his work
entitled Essai Historique et Politique sur la Revolution
Beige, has placed the numbers in a statistical point of view,
this matter is entitled to examination. According to his
statement, in 1830 the officers of the army of the king¬
dom of the Netherlands is thus shown :
Hank.
Whole Num¬
ber of
Officers.
Generals 
Lieutenant-generals.
Major-generals 
Colonels 
Lieutenant-colonels.
Majors 
Captains 
Lieutenants 
Sub-lieutenants 
5
21
50
48
48
137
211
808
639
1967
Belgians.
0
2
5
8
9
19
38
115
82
278
Belgians set¬
tled in
Holland.
10
This great disproportion is in some measure lessened,
from the circumstance that many of the officers were Ger¬
mans, some were Swiss, and some were natives of other
countries. With this allowance, the exact number of which
is unascertained, the contrast between the whole and the
Belgians is very striking. Baron de Keverburg, a parti¬
san of King William, gives a different account, making the
whole number of Belgians in the army to be 536 instead
of 278. In his work entitled Du Royaume des Pays Bas,
he asserts of his catalogue that it is “ d’apres des ren-
seignemens puises a des sources authentiquesbut, even
on this showing, the more numerous population supplied
but one fourth of the officers. This is accounted for, if
not justified, by the baron, on various grounds.
When Louis Bonaparte became king of Holland, he se¬
dulously attended to the formation of his army ; and when
he abandoned the throne the armed force was so well
trained, equipped, and officered, that, on the annexation
of Holland to France in 1810, it formed a military body
equal to any other of the empire in its adaptation to the
purposes of war. When that army was transferred to
France, the different grades of officers retained their Dutch
rank, and their former course of promotion. But when
the people of Holland rose against France, and raised Wil¬
liam to the throne, the Dutch resigned their posts in the
French service, and repaired to their own country, where
they were gladly received, and reinstated in the rank
which they had attained during their service in France.
It will be seen by the list of Mr Northomb that all the ge¬
nerals were Dutchmen ; but that rank had been acquired
in the French service, where, by their military talents,
they had gained high reputation, and had been honoured
and trusted by the French emperor. The names of the
Dutch officers thus appointed generals by William are well
known. Tindal had been raised by Bonaparte to the rank
of general, and commanded a regiment of his body guard.
Jansens had been distinguished as governor of Batavia,
and in the army of the French emperor on the Ardennes
frontier. Daendels was one of those Dutchmen who had
been always placed in posts of the greatest danger, and
had displayed the highest skill and valour. Dumonceau,
though a Belgian by birth, had by his long service in the
northern provinces become a Dutchman, and was highly
esteemed in the French army. Chasse, an old officer of
600
BELGIUM.
Belgium. Holland when he was transferred to the French service,
became known by the familiar title of General Baxonnette,
and afterwards distinguished himself by his gallant defence
of the citadel of Antwerp.
When men like these returned to their liberated coun¬
try, and at a moment when their services were wanted,
there were no rivals to compete with them in Holland,
and they were necessarity placed at the head of their pro¬
fession. Those of the successive ranks who also returned,
as almost the whole did, were retained in those ranks in
the army, formed first in Holland, and afterwards strength¬
ened by the addition of Belgians. rIhe Belgian officers
serving in the French army had not been kept apart, but
mixed up with the Frenchmen. They had formed a part
of the general conscription ; few had raised themselves to
the rank of officers ; and of these only three had attained
the grade of colonel, no one having risen higher. Being
thus insulated, they had nourished little or no national feel¬
ing ; some few tardily returned to their native country after
the occupation of Paris; but many of them remained in the
service, and fought against their country at Waterloo.
The king, in the hasty organization of an army, natu¬
rally availed himself of the materials within his reach, and
adapted them to the emergency. When after the battle
of Waterloo peace was established, it would have been
highly unjust to the brave men who had assisted there not
to have confirmed them in their ranks, or to have placed
others over them merely because they were born in Bel¬
gium. But for these, and even for such as had fought
against their country, and repaired to it after the victory,
the provision made was the best that could be effected at
the time ; and they were subsequently placed in new corps,
retaining their former rank and seniority.
The utmost economy was practised respecting the army ;
and from the number of good officers in the highest classes,
and their seniority, there was no prospect of rapid promo¬
tion. Thus the gentry of Belgium had but little induce¬
ment to enter the military service, so that, without at¬
tributing to the king any great partiality, the facts here
stated sufficiently account for the greater number of offi¬
cers belonging to one division of the kingdom.
The other charge of partiality on the part of the king,
which ultimately became one of the grievances, was, that,
in the legislative body, the number of deputies was as great
from the northern as from the southern division of the
kingdom, although the number of inhabitants in the latter
was so much greater. The foundation of this settlement
of the relative numbers was based upon the principle of
giving legislative power according to the rate of revenue
to be extracted from each division, rather than according
to the number of the population. The proportion of re¬
venue raised in Holland was nearly equal to that raised
in Belgium ; indeed it was shown, at a subsequent pe¬
riod, to be as fifteen to sixteen. The rate of revenue
per head in Holland was sixteen florins, and in Belgium
ten florins. Whether the rate of revenue or the number
of inhabitants be the proper scale for regulating the pro¬
portion of legislators, is not a subject to be discussed in
this place.
In the distribution of the higher civil offices of the go¬
vernment, complaints were urged and magnified into
weighty grievances by the Belgians. On this subject the
statements of Baron de Keverburg, when confirmed by the
official part of L'Almanack Royal, are as follow:
The cabinet consisted of six members. It was formed
before the union of the two countries, and was composed
wholly of Hollanders ; but after the junction of Belgium,
two of the members withdrew, and two Belgians were ad¬
mitted in their stead. The first chamber of the states-
general, similar to our House of Peers, but nominated by
the king for life, contained fifty-six members, of whom
thirty were Belgians, and twenty-six Hollanders. The Belgium.
Conseil d'Etat, or privy council, was composed of twelve
Dutch and eleven Belgian members. The Prince of Orange
and his brother Prince Frederick presided over the two
divisions into which it was formed ; one for the direction
of the army, the other for that of the naval force. The
Chambre des Comptes, or treasury, consisted of sixteen
persons, taken equally from the two divisions of the king¬
dom. The judicial authority of the provinces and com¬
munes was in general intrusted to persons chosen in the
division in which they were to execute their duties. There
were a few exceptions to this rule, for two Dutchmen ex¬
ercised these functions in Belgium; but two also, natives
of Belgium, filled the same offices in Holland. Thus far
there was an equality; but in North Brabant the judicial
office was filled by a Belgian, which gave a trifling superio¬
rity to the southern division.
It may fairly be presumed, that in the appointment of
officers in the several civil departments, the king had been
mainly influenced by his view of the capacity of the per¬
sons selected to discharge the necessary duties; for at a
subsequent period, when the most scrutinizing activity
was exercised to discover grounds of complaint, no accu¬
sations were made of any other fault in the appointments
than that which related to the portion of the kingdom to
which the functionaries belonged. The king himself was
active and regular; and being in a great degree his own
prime minister, he must have been peculiarly anxious that
the persons under him should be adapted to their several
stations, and certainly under no government was more in¬
dustry exercised or more regularity preserved.
Many of the important institutions of the country had,
by the constitution, been left to the will of the king as to
their local establishment. The seat of the states-general
had been fixed by that law to be alternately in Belgium
and in Holland, but not the place for the king’s residence
or the council of state; yet these also, though with some
personal and political inconvenience, were made change¬
able, business being transacted six months of each year at
Brussels and six months at the Hague. But the supreme
court of justice, the court of appeal from all the inferior
tribunals of the kingdom, was permanently fixed at the
Hague, to the great disadvantage of the more numerous
suitors in the southern part of the kingdom. This form¬
ed a material, and apparently a just cause of complaint;
and nothing has been stated by the Dutch which has
disproved the inconvenience, though attempts have been
made to represent the practical injury arising from it as
very trifling and insignificant. Several other establish¬
ments were also made permanent in Holland, such as the
state archives, the diplomatic offices, the council of the
nobles, the coinage of money, the military and naval boards,
the academies for the instruction of naval, artillery, and
engineering officers, and the principal naval and military
arsenals. This arrangement was justified upon public
grounds by the partisans of the king. The kingdom, they
affirmed, had been established as an European object, and
to form a barrier for the defence of all the powers against
the ambition of France. In any display of that ambition,^
Belgium would, as heretofore, become the first theatre of
war, and, in spite of the range of fortresses about to be
erected, might be occupied by an invading army. If the
means of carrying on the war fell into the enemy s power,
the effect might be fatal ; but by having the establishments
farther from the frontiers, and where they could be guard¬
ed by natural defences, the war might be kept up effective¬
ly behind the rivers and canals of Holland, so as to render
the advance of the enemy a dangerous or a ruinous step.
There are in Belgium a variety of languages spoken,
and the attempt of King William to introduce one uniform
tongue created much discontent, and was by a great and
BELGIUM.
601
Belgium, influential part of the inhabitants considered as a serious
grievance. The far greater portion of both the northern
and southern inhabitants are of German origin, and their
vernacular language is chiefly composed of Teutonic words.
It is divided into several idioms, namely, the Dutch, the
Flemish, and the Brabant. These three are so nearly si¬
milar, that those who use them understand each other bet¬
ter than the English and Scotch peasantry do. The Dutch
language has been more polished than either of the others,
having been the tongue of some of the most learned men
that Europe has produced. It contains books of art, science,
literature, law, theology, and history of the greatest merit,
and which have been the means of spreading knowledge of
all kinds to a great extent. The care bestowed on educa¬
tion has produced a greater number of readers and writers
than are to be found in any other country of the same li¬
mited population. The Flemish and Brabant dialects have
been little cultivated ; few books have been written in it,
except those of devotion, the lives of saints of the Catho¬
lic church, almanacs, and spelling-books. The numbers
who read them are very small in comparison of the whole
population, but with the rural inhabitants this dialect is the
general medium of intercourse.
During the French dominion great pains were taken to
extend the use of their language, and with much success
as far as regarded those who had enjoyed the advantage
of even the commonest education. This has extended the
use of that language amongst those above the lowest classes;
and it is said that even in Holland there are more persons
acquainted with the French tongue than in those parts of
Belgium where the other dialects of Teutonic origin are
used. The Walloon language, a corrupted dialect of the
French, is commonly used in the provinces of Hainault,
Liege, and Namur; and the German language is most pre¬
valent in Luxembourg.
Baron de Keverburg, assuming the population of 1829,
gives the statistics of languages as follows.
The divisions in which the German is used, and their
population ;—
In Holland 2,329,974
In Belgium, the provinces of Antwerp, Lim-
bourg, and the two Flanders 1,971,056
The largest part of Brabant  380,177
One half of Luxembourg  151,317
4,832,524
The divisions in which the French and Walloon are used,
with their population :—
The provinces of Hainault, Liege, and Namur...1,124,595
The arrondissement of Nivelles, in the province
of South Brabant  126,733
One half of Luxembourg  151,317
1,402,645
In this view the Dutch language is used by two fifths
of the population, the other languages of German origin by
two fifths, and the French and Walloon by one fifth. From
the most remote periods all public affairs in Belgium were
transacted in one or other of the Teutonic idioms. The
Joyeuse Entree^ he Magna Charta of the country, was ori¬
ginally drawn up in the Teutonic dialect, and was only
translated into French at a recent period, when the princes,
no longer residing in the provinces, began to give a de¬
cided preference to that language; but all the proceed¬
ings of the states of Brabant were conducted in it till the
conquest of the country by France. From that moment all
public deeds were written in French, and the subdued people
supported with pain the loss of their native tongue; but they
dared not utter a complaint. This attachment of the Bel¬
gians to their native language was shown to have been little
weakened by their subjugation to France ; for when the al-
VOL. IY.
lies had freed them from that yoke, and Baron Vincent was Belgium,
appointed governor ad interim by the house of Austria, a pe-
tition was presented to him by the ancient representatives
of the city of Brussels, who resumed their former titles un¬
der the name of Syndics des nevf nations, et des cent qua-
rante-trois doyens, complaining of the compulsory use of the
French tongue. The petitions were favourably received,
and an arret issued on the 18th of July, authorizing the
use of the Flemish language, not, indeed, in all public wri¬
tings, but in all notarial writings.
When this provisional government ceased by the acces¬
sion of King William to the throne of the Netherlands, he
proposed to redress what was then deemed one of the
grievances of the country, by a decree of the 1st Octo¬
ber 1814, which stated as a fact, “ that, in consequence
of the union with France, the national languages of the
provinces had been almost suppressed, to give place to the
French tongueand then added, “ that if it was neces¬
sary on one side still to tolerate the use of the latter lan¬
guage in some parts where the Flemish is not used, it is
but just, on the other side, that the Flemish, which is
the natural language of the country, should be re-estab¬
lished in all the parts in which it is used and understood.”
The king was certainly desirous of restoring the national
language, and of restraining the use of the French; and for
a time, whilst it was gratifying to the great body of the
people, it occasioned very little complaint upon the part
of those who alone spoke or understood French. Gradual
enactments were made to induce practitioners to study
the national languages; and three years were allowed to ac¬
quire them, at the end of which time those who did not
understand them were to be removed to other stations,
where they could practise their official duties in the tongue
they were most familiar with. At the expiration of the pre¬
scribed time, 1st of January 1823, a decree fixed the fol¬
lowing arrangement on the subject of languages :—1. The
use of the French language shall be preserved in the Wal¬
loon provinces of Liege, Hainault, and Namur. 2. The
use of the Dutch language shall continue to be maintained
in Holland. 3. The use of the Flemish language, in its se¬
veral idioms, shall be re-established in the Flemish pro¬
vinces. 4. The German language shall be used in the
German part of the grand duchy of Luxembourg. In
short, it was provided that the official language in each
of the provinces should be that which was used and un¬
derstood by the mass of the people who inhabited them.
The profession of the law in Belgium forms a body which,
next to the clergy, is the most formidable body of any.
They had been trained by the study of French eloquence,
and the young advocates, when called upon to plead in the
language of the country, were often mortified by the ridi¬
cule of the audience. They did not wish to incur the dis¬
pleasure of the Belgians by degrading their language, and
therefore directed their attacks on the Dutch language,
which, for that purpose, they confounded with the Flemish.
In these attacks they were joined by the writers of many
pamphlets, and also those of the public journals. The at¬
tacks were very violent. From those on the Dutch lan¬
guage they passed on to attacks on their literature, on their
manners, and their morals. The Dutch writers, irritated
by these attacks, replied and defended themselves; and
thus arose, from mere literary disputes, a powerful and en¬
during animosity between the two countries.
The subject of religion was one which, above all others,
served to produce discontent. A set of writers who nei¬
ther had, nor pretended to have, any religious principles,
encouraged the government at first in measures of tolera¬
tion, according to the fundamental law, and were, or af¬
fected to be, vehement against the Jesuits, who opposed
it. William was no bigot in religion, but it was his desire
to raise the character of the Catholic clergy, by imparting
4 G
602
BELGIUM.
Belgium, to them a more extensive and better education than nad
previously been necessary before entering on their office.
With this view he framed regulations which offended the
clergy and the ignorant party who submitted to them, and
who were at length joined by those who distinguished
themselves as liberals, as soon as they saw that some ad¬
vantages could be drawn from that union to forward their
own republican views.
The Catholic clergy in Belgium had submitted to the
regulation of their affairs which French subjugation had
imposed. The vicar of the diocese of Ghent has indeed
been unwilling to allow this ; but Baron de Keverburg, him¬
self a Catholic, and under the French regime governor of
West Flanders, asserts most positively that the imperial
institutions were observed in Belgium as elsewhere ; that
the catechism of the empire was taught to almost every
one ; and that the four articles of the clergy of France
formed a part of the religious instruction in all the Belgian
departments. As soon as the kingdom was established,
they brought forward claims to power which they dared not
even to whisper under Napoleon, and even carried those
claims to an extent beyond what they had been urged for
the last three or four centuries, and beyond what are ac¬
knowledged in the Catholic kingdoms of Europe.
The vicar-general of Ghent had required, as essential to
the establishment of the kingdom of the Netherlands, “ le
retablissement de tous les articles des anciens pactes in-
auguraux, constitutions, chartes, et cetera, en ce que con-
cerne, non seulement le libre exercise de religion Catho-
lique, mais aussi les droits, privileges, exemptions, et pre¬
rogatives des eveques, prelats, des maisons-dieu, et des
autres institutions religieuses quelconques.” A single ex¬
ception was indeed admitted to this exercise of power.
The church would indulge the monarch so far as “ accor-
der au prince et a sa cour des chapelles,bien entendu seule¬
ment dans I’enceinte des palais royaux.” Thus these old
powers, which the French had destroyed twenty years be¬
fore, were to be restored; and then the prelates would al¬
low, but only to the king and his family, the toleration of
his own worship in secret. According to the principle of
the prelates, the chief and sole duty of the temporal power
was, in its relation to the Catholic church and its clergy,
limited to “ proteger la religion et ses ministres, a faire
executer les lois de 1’eglise, a faire punir les actes exterieurs
nuisibles a la societe religieuse.”
This extraordinary claim of the church to a power in¬
dependent of, and in fact governing the state, would not,
on its own account, have deserved the notice here taken
of it. It was at least quieted by the prudent conduct of
the king, who suffered the Count Mean, one of the pre¬
lates, upon his nomination to a seat in the council of state,
to swear to the tolerating constitution under a protest, that
if the pope should declare the oath to be contrary to the
rights of the church, it should thereby cease to be bind¬
ing. The king, whilst he adhered to the constitutional
principle of tolerating other sects, extended his liberality
to the Catholic clergy, by increasing the stipends of the in¬
ferior orders ; by making provision for those who, from age
or infirmity, were incapable of performing their duty; and by
contributing liberally to the erection or repairs of churches
where the communal funds were inadequate to the purpose.
The opposition of the clergy was for a time dormant; but
it was again roused, when, at a subsequent period, the lead¬
ers of the church formed a junction with the leaders of the
French party, and thus placed the lower classes, who could
not read their effusions, but were under the influence of
the priests who spoke to them in Flemish, in a state of
hostile excitement towards the government. The hostility
of the clergy was much aggravated by the attempts made
to improve the education of the priests. The king had
determined that no priest should be inducted who had not
passed two years m the study of the litercc humaniores be- Belgium,
fore his ordination, and appropriated a college at Louvain
for that purpose, to which was given the unfortunate name
of the philosophical college, a name with good Catholics al¬
most equivalent to infidel or heretic. The prelates, to coun¬
teract this, established seminaries connected with the ca¬
thedrals, in which the pupils were instructed in their hu¬
manities. These contravened the design of the king, and
were forcibly shut up. It was an objection to the philo¬
sophical college that the professors of history were not
priests, but laymen, and some Protestants. This may not
seem a solid ground of declining to attend lectures on his¬
tory ; but it was so with the Catholics; for, as their doc¬
trines rest quite as much on tradition as on the Holy Scrip¬
tures, it was of vast importance that history should be
taught by those alone who were orthodox in their opinions.
In truth, the critical spirit of some of the German profes¬
sors would make sad work with many parts of the tradi¬
tions held sacred by the Catholic church. The prelates,
in the discussions on this subject, indulged in language of
a violent kind, and were prosecuted. A law enacted by
Napoleon was made the instrument of condemning one or
two of them to banishment, and excited no small degree
of hatred amongst their adherents, who, if not the most
enlightened, were the most numerous, portion of the inha¬
bitants. These mortifications were increased by circum¬
stances of inferior importance. Some of the religious festi¬
vals were curtailed, certainly with no views inimical to re¬
ligion, but to benefit the morals of the people, by lessening
the number of days that were devoted to idleness and drun¬
kenness. The architecture of the national schools was simi¬
lar to that of the reformed places of worship, and the youth
of the country were forbidden to be educated out of the
kingdom. These trifles were magnified into matters of
plain evidence of a regular system to proselytise the whole
of the Netherlands. Whilst these controversies respecting
religion and education were carried on, the conduct of the
king was applauded and encouraged by the active party of
the liberals, who represented them as proper steps to secure
the people from the insidious attempts made by the Jesuits
to blind and cajole them. There was no evidence of any
plan of the kind on the part of the Jesuits, and it was only
affectation in the liberals to insinuate it. It served their
turn for the time, but was soon forgotten, when it appear¬
ed advantageous for their party purposes to join with the
most bigoted of the Catholics against the government of
the house of Orange.
Another subject was at times brought forward, and must
be added to the causes of the internal disunion between
the two parts of the kingdom. The number of members
of the representative body had been fixed at the time of the
union, and made equal for Holland and for Belgium. The
subject was then investigated with the greatest delibera¬
tion, and all parties were content. It had been suggested
that Belgium brought, to form the kingdom, a more nume¬
rous population than Holland, and therefore ought to have
a greater proportion of members in the assembly. But,
upon the other hand, it was shown that the colonies which
Holland brought to the common stock contained, in Asia,
Africa, and America, as many persons as rendered them
equal in number, and, in regard to common advantage, much
superior to Belgium ; and, besides this, it was urged, that
the Dutch contributed to the common cause a powerful
fleet and an army, with the stores belonging to both ser¬
vices. This point was, however, settled with perfect cor¬
diality, and remained at rest during several years. But
at length it was thought necessary to extend to Belgium
the Dutch system of taxation on the grinding of corn.
This was severely felt, and gave rise to renewed agita¬
tion as to the inequality of representation in reference to
the numbers of inhabitants. It became a more prominent
BELGIUM.
603
Belgium, object, because the tax was imposed only by a majority of ed to oppose the calumniating writers by employing others Belgium.^
v'—two votes, all the Hollanders voting for the measure, and to counteract their influence; but the attempt was far
all the Belgians but two against it. from successful, as in that kind of warfare the assailants
During the whole of the period from 1815 to 1829 the have almost always the advantage on their side. The
popularity of the monarch was very variable. After the avowed object of the liberal writers was to urge the cle-
uttering of some loud complaints, as alleged grievances rical party to make such extravagant demands of exten-
arose, they seemed to die away and be forgotten; and, sive power as they knew, if granted, would be the ruin of
till some new cause supervened, the king was as much re- the royal authority, and if refused, would increase the agi-
spected as his best friends could wish. At no time, in- tation they had already created. Although the whole of
deed, was his personal character assailed ; and the general the Dutch members of the representative assembly, and
feeling in Belgium was, that he always meant well, but several of the most respectable of the Belgian members,
gave too ready an acquiescence to what they tauntingly gave a majority in favour of the royal party, yet many of
called the schemes of their Dutch cousins. the latter adopted most inflammatory language, and, as
The king, attacked by two parties, by the priests and far as the rules of debate allowed, seconded the views of
their bigoted followers on one side, and by the republicans the united party of the liberals and bigots,
on the other, avowed his intention to act with indifference As the union openly flung defiance at the government,
to all parties in the pursuit of what he deemed for the ge- it appeared necessary to bring before the courts of law
neral advantage. In conformity with this disposition a con- the most notorious of the inflammatory writers ; and two
cordat was in 1827 entered into with the pope, by which were selected as subjects for prosecution before the court
the right of nomination to the bishoprics was settled. It of assizes of South Brabant. These individuals are thus
was provided that each should be selected by the pope described by the Baron de Keverburg. Of the first,
out of three individuals to be nominated by the king, and Louis de Potter, he says, “ II s’etait fait remarquer long-
that the education of the priests should be under the con- temps avant les troubles de la Belgique par des ecrits qui,
trol of the prelates; but that in the seminaries professors aux yeux de 1’eglise, etaient reputes fort impies, et, aux
should be appointed to teach the sciences, as well as what yeux des hommes doues, d’un peu de delicatesse, de tres-
related to ecclesiastical matters. This arrangement was mauvais gout. Ce que j’ai de dire sur le second est moins
highly satisfactory to the cool and thinking part of the honorable encore. M. Francis Tielemans, avant I’epoque
community, but was far from pleasing to the extravagant pre-indique, n’etait connu que par les bienfaits qu’il avait
partisans. The clergy thought that too little had been re9us et qu’il continuait de recevoir du roi, et plus tard il
granted to them, and the liberals that too much power le fut par son ingratitude envers son bienfaiteur.”
was conferred on their order. Conciliatory as this mea- These men, with two others, likewise editors of journals,
sure was intended to be, it thus proved nugatory ; and se- were sent to the tribunal in which Van Maanen filled the
veral nominations of Belgians to offices before filled by office of presiding judge. The prosecution terminated in
Dutchmen had no better effect. a sentence of banishment from the kingdom for the period
Brussels at this time contained a most heterogeneous fo- of eight years ; a sentence which brought on the judge the
reign population, consisting of the intriguing and discon- execrations of the libellous journals, and elevated the pri-
tented subjects of almost every country of Europe. There soners to the rank of martyrs. The sentence was put in
were of Frenchmen, regicide conventionalists, exiled Na- force by sending the culprits to the frontiers, where they
poleonists, and proscribed constitutionalists, besides Italian were detained, as neither of the neighbouring states would
carbonari, expatriated Poles, Spanish liberals, disgraced admit them. The revolution of July occurred in Paris
Russians, English and Irish radicals, and visionary stu- whilst they were in this state; and the party which pre¬
dents from the various parts of Germany. As the greater vailed in that city allowed them to enter hranee, and they
part of these had but insecure means of subsistence, and were received in the capital with great applause by the
for the most part understood the French language, the propagandists.
press groaned with libels, not more against the Belgian The popular mind in Brussels was highly agitated by
than against all other governments, and thus contributed these trials, which did not operate to restrain the indig-
towards the production of a high state of political excite- nant language of the journals, nor the distribution of the
ment. The press of the capital also furnished cheap edi- most vehement placards, many of them in the Flemish
tions of such works as, either from their irreligious, im- tongue, in which the minister Van Maanen, and the edi-
moral, or democratic tendency, were prohibited in France; tor of a royalist journal entitled the National, were held
and thus became a nuisance to the regular governments up to the public indignation, and threatened with ven-
of Europe. The great mass of the population could not be geance. In this state of the public feeling, the news of the
inflamed by these fire-brands ; few of them could read, and success of the Parisian mob in overturning the throne was
fewer still could read French. They were, however, acted received with enthusiasm. Numbers of the young pro-
upon by other means. The Flemish preachers, school- pagandists from Paris reached Brussels. Assuming to
masters, and confessors, in their several spheres, were themselves the character of heroes of the revolution, and
ready to join in any movement, and were sure to be sup- with feelings of disappointment at the tranquil issue at
ported by the idle, the dissolute, and the indigent, with which it had so soon arrived, these young men displayed
which the cities and large towns abounded. To bring the the three-coloured cockade in the streets and public places;
whole body of discontent to bear upon the same point, it talked loudly in the theatres and coffee-houses ; sang the
was found advisable to form the two parties into one; and Marseillaise and Parisienne hymns in chorus with impas-
this was achieved by the liberals affecting a zeal for the sioned groups ; and dwelt with enthusiasm on the glories of
Catholic faith, which they had before treated with con- the republic and the empire, and the future destinies of their
tempt and ribaldry. The union was thus formed, meetings “ young 1 ranee.” Some of the more active of the Bel-
of the parties were held, the junction was openly announced, gians repaired to Paris, and are said to have sounded the
and threatenings were promulgated tending to give con- new government on the subject of the re-union of their
fidence to the confederacy, as well as to excite appre- country to France, in the event of the dissolution of the
hension in the king and his ministers. monarchy of the Netherlands. These last were, however,
This system of agitation was carried to an extent which mere adventurers, who had little or no power over, or in-
no government could behold with indifference, however tercourse with, those who were destined to influence the
confident in the rectitude of its measures. It was attempt- fate of Belgium.
604
Belgium.
BELGIUM.
The disturbances which followed at first may be easily
concluded to have been the result of mere popular exci¬
tation, such as is often seen in large cities. The first symp¬
tom of outrage was presented by the audience of the
theatre, on the 25th of August 1830, after the representa¬
tion of a piece, the Muette de Portici, which abounded with
passages well calculated to kindle a flame amongst mate¬
rials well charged with inflammable particles. When the
curtain fell, the excited audience rushed into the street,
exclaiming, “ To the office of the National. They lan
thither, soon forced in the doors and windows, and began
the work of destruction. They then rushed into the dwel¬
ling of the editor, which was speedily demolished, though
the obnoxious individual, whose life was threatened, made
his escape unhurt. The house of Van Maanen was that
next assailed. It was plundered, and then set on fire,
and the populace stopped the fire-engine from playing till
every thing in it was consumed. The police-office was
then attacked ; the books, furniture, pictures, and plate of
the chief magistrate were brought out and burnt in the
street; and the hotel of the provincial governor shared the
same fate ; whilst some private houses and several manufac¬
tories were pillaged, and otherwise much damaged, tury,
confusion, or terror were visible in every countenance, be¬
fore the civil and military powers made any attempts to stop
these disorders; and those which were made showed a want
either of the courage or the coolness necessary to act with de¬
cision. “ From this conduct,” says an eye-witness, “ before
ten o’clock on the morning of the 26 th, the guards and posts
in the centre of the city had been overcome, or had tran¬
quilly surrendered ; and the troops who had been drawn out
either retreated to their barracks, or were withdrawn to the
upper part of the city, where they piled their arms in front
of the king’s palace, and renounced all attempts at sup¬
pressing the tumult.”
By the operations of these two days, the multitude had
in fact gained the mastery of the city, and every one in it
felt himself exposed to whatever private malice, political
fury, or the love of plunder, might induce the populace to
inflict. This moved a few of the more influential inhabi¬
tants to take up arms, and to enrol themselves into a burgher
guard, for the protection of their lives and px-operty. With¬
in three days, not less than as many thousand persons,
chiefly heads of families, had enrolled themselves in this
corps, and, under chiefs of their own selection, paraded the
streets; so that, if they did not put a stop to plunder and
destruction, they at least contributed in some degree to
contract the extent of the mischief. In such circum¬
stances, the actual power within the city devolved on those
who obtained the direction of these hastily organized and
scarcely armed citizens. They determined on resisting
the troops, which were advancing; and the general who
commanded them having no precise orders from the king
to act, readily agreed to suspend the march, and enter¬
ed into a kind of treaty of neutrality with the burghers,
till they could receive directions from the Hague, where
the king and his family had that year their residence. The
intelligence of these events in the capital soon spread
throughout the provinces, and in all the large towns, ex¬
cepting Antwerp and Ghent, similar scenes were exhibited,
commencing with plunder and outrages by mobs, and set¬
tling down into an uneasy but rather more secure state by
the institution of burgher guards.
The intelligence from Brussels was quickly communi¬
cated to the Hague, but the royal councils were divided
in opinion. The only positive demand in Brussels wras the
dismission of the minister Van Maanen ; and he offered to
resign his post. The king is said to have refused accept¬
ing his resignation, whilst the Prince of Orange urged the
acceptance of it, and the adoption of some other measures
of a conciliatory kind. The result of the decision can only
be known by the events which followed; and they show Belgium,
that neither the adoption of concessions, nor the positive
use of force, was resolved upon, but a course was pursued
which, being some undefined medium between the two dif¬
ferent paths, ended, as w'as natural, in converting a mere
popular riot into a confirmed revolution. It was determined
by the council that the Prince of Orange should proceed
to Brussels on a peaceful commission ; whilst the command
of the army was conferred on his brother, and the troops
advanced with alacrity from the various parts of Holland,
where they were quartered, and where the most astonishing
zeal was displayed in support of the royal authority.
The prince, however, departed for Brussels, but only
furnished with such limited powers as, in the actual cir¬
cumstances, wrere utterly ineffective. On his arrival at
Vilvorde, near the city, he was waited on by a deputation
from the city, composed of some of the most respectable
inhabitants, who had been nominated at a public meeting
of the householders. After some preliminary discussions,
the prince courageously resolved on entering the city with
no other suite than a few officers of his staff. His passage
through the streets, crowded with the irregular burgher
guard, and a ferocious mob, was attended with imminent
risk; but at length he reached his own palace, and com¬
menced a conference. Discussions were continued for se¬
veral days between the prince on one side, and respectable
citizens on the other, which were conducted with firmness
and in a conciliatory spirit by both parties. The substance
was not a rejection of the royal authority, or of the reign¬
ing dynasty, on the part of the citizens, but a separation
of the administration of Belgium from that of Holland.
They all declared that no wish prevailed for any union with
France, but only for such a kind of independence for both
countries as had been fixed between Sweden and Norway,
with which both countries were satisfied and benefited.
It was more than intimated to the prince that the wishes
of all Belgium would be fulfilled if he were elevated to
the throne ; but in answer to such suggestions he firmly
asked of one of the most influential men both at that and
the present time, “ What opinion would you entertain of
me were I to sacrifice the interests of my father to my
own ? What confidence could you repose in a man who
could cast off his allegiance to his king, and that king his
father, merely to gratify his own ambition ? I also am a
father,” added the prince with deep emotion, “ and am
bound to show a proper example to my children. Poste¬
rity shall not revert to my name, and revile me as that
disloyal Nassau who tore the diadem from his father’s brow
to place it on his own.”
At a final meeting held on the 3d of September, when
many members of the states-general attended, it was so
fully obvious to the prince that nothing but a separate ad¬
ministration of the two countries would restore tianquilhty,
that he resolved to use his influence with his father to ac¬
complish that object; and he received the fullest assurance
from the persons present, that they would unite in the most
efficacious measures to assure the dynasty of the house of
Orange, and to protect the territory of Belgium against any
attempts to subject it to France, or any other foreign
power. The prince expressed his determination to use his
most powerful arguments with his father to obtain his as¬
sent to this proposal; but expressed his apprehension that
he should be unable to succeed in his endeavours. I he
prince then quitted the city, carrying with him the respect
of all those with whom he had communicated, for the cou¬
rage he had displayed, for the knowledge of public affairs
which he discovered, for the cool judgment which he exer¬
cised, and, above all, for the sense of parental duty which
he had manifested. Whilst these transactions were passing
in Brussels, the whole country was in a flame; in every
town the populace were triumphant, and indulged unre-
BELGIUM. 605
Belgium, strained in plunder, to which, especially in the important
city of Liege, was added the conflagration of several valu¬
able manufacturing establishments. The officers of the
army, with no definite orders how to act, were paralyzed in
some places, in others gave up their arms, and in others
engaged to be neutral.
The king, amidst the general disorder in Belgium, and
the most fanatical attachment to the royal cause in Hol¬
land, had summoned the states-general from both divi¬
sions to assemble at the Hague. The members from Bel¬
gium, with some slight hesitation, resolved to repair thi¬
ther, and the assembly was opened on the 13th of Sep¬
tember, by a speech from the king, which was firm and
temperate, but by no means definite. The proceedings
of this body were dilatory; the Belgium members were
treated with indignity and insult by the populace ; and
the language of some of the Dutch members expressed
vengeance rather than conciliation. The accounts re¬
ceived at Brussels from the Hague, and the warlike de¬
monstrations made by the troops, rekindled and accelerated
the preparations for defence, and induced some approaches
to organization. The burgher guards had become tired
of military duty, and being mostly tradesmen living on their
business, which had now been ruined, they were anxious
for the return of the tranquillity upon which their existence
depended. The leaders of the opposition, however, drew
fresh recruits of a more determined and more reckless de¬
scription from the rude population of the Walloon pro¬
vinces, from the men employed in the coal and iron mines,
and from the iron forges and other works which had been
destroyed or shut up in and around Liege. These were,
in a great measure, old and hardy soldiers, who had served
in the ranks of Bonaparte’s army, and fought in Germany,
in Russia, or in Spain. Their arrival in the capital spread
terror amongst the peaceable inhabitants, and kindled
alarms lest they should be again exposed to the outrages
which had marked the first days of the explosion. The de¬
fenders were thus divided into two parties ; but, as usual,
the most violent soon prevailed; and the council of the rab¬
ble soon dispersed that of the burghers (for both had their
separate assemblies), seized the arms of the latter, and add¬
ed to them others which had been collected in different
parts of the country.
Although the states were still sitting at the Hague, the
king’s army was gradually drawn around Brussels. It con¬
sisted of 14,000 well appointed troops, under the command
of Prince Frederick. But the motions of this powerful
body were so dilatory, and its whole operations so unmili¬
tary, that they are difficult to be accounted for, unless on
the supposition that the conduct of the king was too conci¬
liatory when force should have been applied, and too hos¬
tile when conciliation would have been of most advantage
to his cause. On the 20th of September the council resolv¬
ed to take possession of Brussels, and orders were sent to
Prince Frederick to that effect. This resolution was taken
at the Hague in consequence of the information of nume¬
rous emissaries from Brussels, who represented the inha¬
bitants as eager to receive the troops, and to assist in put¬
ting an end to the anarchy and oppression which the mob
were exercising. The most respectable names in the city
were appended to these representations, which were doubt¬
less sincere, but came from such as were more prepared to
enjoy the return of peace and good government than to
contribute any share of their personal services to secure
these blessings.
On the 25th, the troops advanced towards the city, and
with little opposition occupied the upper portion or court
part of it, which is situated on a hill, by which the whole
of the rest of the town is commanded. The opponents in
the lower part of the city were dispirited and disunited,
and most of the more violent leaders had fled. But the
commanders of the army seem to have been seized with a Belgium,
panic, or to have dreaded doing too much mischief to the
houses and property^ of the more wealthy inhabitants. In
the square, where the troops had been drawn up, they
were exposed to a galling fire from an invisible enemy,
who, from the roofs of the houses, and from the cellars,
picked off the officers and men without being much ex¬
posed to any return from the troops. Instead of destroy¬
ing the houses and buildings which concealed the assail¬
ants, the prince had recourse to unavailing negotiations,
and, after three days of most harassing service, deter¬
mined to withdraw his troops. He had the means of stop¬
ping all supplies from entering the city, and thus of ef¬
fecting a surrender by starvation; or, by a bombardment,
he might have easily enforced submission. Why neither
of these means were adopted cannot be certainly known ;
but the friends of the royal party attribute it to huma¬
nity alone. The loss of lives was not very great on the
side of the king’s troops, considering their exposed situa¬
tion, and the number engaged. It is stated in the re¬
turns as 138 killed, and 650 wounded ; whilst of the defen-
dei’s of the city, though far inferior in numbers, the casu¬
alties were acknowledged by themselves to be 450 killed,
and 1250 wounded. This disparity must be considered as
one of the many extraordinary circumstances of the trans¬
actions, and renders the x-esult utterly incomprehensible.
The incredible intelligence of this repulse was rapidly
conveyed to the provinces, with great exaggerations ; and
disaffection, anarchy, and deinoralisation were spread every ¬
where. The army reti’eated towards Antwerp, which, in
spite of the force near it, soon became involved in con¬
fusion. Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, and the other towns in
that dix-ection, immediately became a prey to the revolu¬
tionary party, and experienced the horrors of anarchy in
the destruction of some of their most extensive manufac¬
turing establishments. The universal x'ejoicing of the
Belgians did not prevent some measures from being adopt¬
ed to x'estrain outrages. In a few days, some individuals,
with the general acquiescence, formed themselves into a
provisional government. They were for the most part
men of character and property; but amongst them was
De Potter, who had returned as soon as the danger was
over, and had been placed by the popular feeling at the
head of the body. His power was but of short duration,
and he soon fell into utter insignificance, if not contempt,
as did othei's of the original leaders of the insurrection.
When those of the x’epresentatives who had assembled at
the Hague returned home, and their conduct was reviewed
in a dispassionate manner, the weight of their character
gave them an influence which proved favourable to the re¬
turn of order. Some of them were added to the body
forming the provisional government, and they exercised
their influence with prudence, firmness, and integrity.
In the provisional government the state of parties was
singular, from the variety of opinions. De Potter, who
looked forward to the dignity of president, advocated a re¬
publican form of goveimment; Gendebeer, a decided ad¬
vocate of democracy, preferred a union with France; whilst
Van de Weyer wished for an independent government,
on a monarchical basis, with the Prince of Orange at
the head, if he would consent to withdraw altogether from
his Dutch obligations, and become exclusively the sove¬
reign of Belgium. The plan of Van de Weyer was known
to be favoured by all the kings of Europe; and even France,
at that moment under the pilotage of Lafayette, was averse
to the entire exclusion of the Nassau dynasty, and sent
an agent to Brussels to forward his views. Gendebeer had
visited Paris, and there found little or no disposition amongst
the leading people to agree to a union with the Belgians,
which, they were aware, would involve them in a war with
all those powers that had founded the kingdom of the
606
BELGIUM.
Belgium. Netherlands in 1815, solely as a European object and a
barrier against France.
It soon became evident in Belgium itself that republi¬
canism had made little or no progress. The prevailing opi¬
nion was strong in favour of the Catholic religion, with all
its ancient powers and observances, but stronger still in fa.-
vour of a nationality independent of all foreign control.
This latter spirit contributed to increase the number of
those who had taken up arms ; and by such persons the re¬
pulse of the Dutch at Brussels was vainly considered as an
evidence of the military power of the people. Many of the
privates, and a few Belgians of distinction, had been in the
army of Prince Frederick; but they soon left his colours,
and entered the ranks of their countrymen. The Belgian
colours waved on every tower in the country, except those
of Antwerp and Maestricht; when the Dutch army, greatly
reduced in numbers as regarded subalterns and privates,
but with the artillery in complete order, withdrew into their
own territory.
The council of the king at the Hague resolved on the
separation of the two governments into different adminis¬
trations ; but it was then too late to produce reconciliation;
and an attempt made by the Prince of Orange to procure
for himself the supremacy of Belgium had no other effect
than to beget contempt in that country, and to draw upon
himself the temporary suspicion of double dealing towards
his father and his countrymen in Holland.
The transactions which took place at Antwerp in Octo¬
ber had the further effect of rendering the Belgians still
more adverse to the Orange dynasty than they had before
been. That city was invested by a Belgian force, whilst
within, notwithstanding the resistance of the armed burgh¬
ers, the populace became masters of the place; and the citadel
was occupied by a garrison of 8000 good troops, command¬
ed by the bravest of the Dutch officers, General Chasse. A
truce had been concluded between the adverse parties, and
a white flag hoisted from the fort; but the Belgian officers
were unable to maintain it, the populace having begun an
attack on the citadel, though with no other arms than mus¬
kets. This was not returned, but a cannon was brought for¬
ward by the populace, and a fire opened on the gates of the
citadel, which, as the Belgian officers assert, was without
their approbation or knowledge. On this infraction of the
truce, Chasse ordered two or three guns to be fired from the
bastion facing the arsenal. This being found ineffectual,
the white flag was taken down; a signal was made to the
fleet, consisting of eight vessels of war, in the Scheldt, close
to the towm; and a cannonade and bombardment commenced.
It was more terrific than injurious, the fire being chiefly
directed against the arsenal and the entrepot, where all
the military and naval stores in the former were destroyed;
whilst in the latter large quantities of sugar, coffee, hides,
cloths, silks, and spices, were burned and buried in the
ruins of the storehouses. The firing had continued some
hours when a deputation from the city made their way to
the citadel, and proposed a suspension of hostilities, which
was instantly agreed to, and the firing ceased. Never, per¬
haps, w’as exaggeration or misrepresentation carried farther
than on this occasion, in the reports printed and circulated
through Belgium ; and the effect which they produced de¬
stroyed the last hope of those who wished well to the
Orange dynasty. Since that event, official accounts made
out by the Belgian custom-house show, that the whole loss
of goods in the stores amounted to 1,888,000 florins, or
L.157,200; whilst the damage done to private buildings,
and the furniture in them, amounted to 679,466 florins, or
L.59,450. In this the loss of the public buildings was not
included. The number of the killed was only sixty-eight, of
whom seventeen were military men, and the others those
of the populace who had caused the calamity. The Dutch
asserted that the fire was confined almost wholly to the spot
where the munitions of war were stored, and that the rest Belgium,
of the city was designedly spared. '-—■n/—''
As all hope of conciliation was thus destroyed, the court
of the Hague made pressing solicitations to the four powers
who by treaty had formed the kingdom of the Netherlands,
to fulfil the obligations imposed upon them by the treaty of
Vienna of 1815. But it was soon seen by the answer of Lord
Aberdeen, the British secretary of state, and by those of
the ministers of the other powers in succession, that none
of them was disposed to make use of any other than pacific
measures. This proceeding gave rise to negotiations be¬
tween the allied powers, which were chiefly carried on in
London, out of which proceeded numerous protocols, which
had no decisive influence on the course of events. The pub¬
lic affairs of Europe favoured the independence of Belgium.
All the powers were in alarm at the recent events in France,
and all feared, not that the scarcely seated king would wil¬
lingly commence a war of aggression, but that the democra¬
tic party might become sufficiently powerful to compel him
to associate himself with the Belgians, and to bring that
country under the power of France. The obvious interest
of the four great powers was tranquillity, and the securing of
the Continent against Flanders becoming the base of mili¬
tary operations towards the centre of Europe. If these
could be obtained, it mattered little whether they arose
from the junction or the separation of the two portions
which had formed the kingdom of the Netherlands. The
first meeting of the ministers of the great powers showed
that they merely considered themselves as arbitrators be¬
tween the northern and southern divisions of the newly-
dissolved kingdom; and their first measures were addressed
to the object of a suspension of hostilities, which was to a
limited extent acquiesced in by both parties.
To settle the internal government now became the first
object of the Belgians, who considered their independence
as firmly assured. A national congress was accordingly as¬
sembled at Brussels, consisting of two hundred deputies,
chosen in the several provinces, from all tax-paying persons
above twenty-five years of age, without exception as to re¬
ligion. The qualification for the electors and the elected was
the paying of taxes, which varied in the several provinces ac¬
cording to their estimated wealth. Thus, in Luxembourg,^
the poorest province, the qualification was the payment of
taxes annually to the amount of twenty-one shillings and six¬
pence ; but from this the required rate was gradually raised,
till, in Flanders, the richest of the provinces, the tax paid
required to be six pounds five shillings. The assembly was
a fair representation of the people of Belgium ; for scarcely
any proprietor was excluded from voting, whilst in the largei
towns and cities the mere populace, from the qualification
being higher, had not the means of introducing their fa¬
vourites. As soon as the assembly met, the demagogues,
who had contributed to the revolution, became insignifi¬
cant. De Potter, Thielman, and the others who had been
martyrs and heroes with the mob, sunk into insignificance.
The assembly proceeded to business in a regular manner.
Three important propositions were presented to the con¬
gress. The first was the declaration of independence, wdiich
was voted unanimously; the second, proposed on the 22d of
November, decided against a republic, and in favour of a
constitutional hereditary monarchy, by a majority of 174
against thirteen votes, but it did not fix on the title of the
future chief of the state ; the third proposition, brought foi-
ward on the 23d, was for the perpetual exclusion of the
Orange Nassau family. This was debated during two days,
and at the close was agreed to by a majority of 161 against
twenty-eight. The object of the minority was to delay the
proposition till a more cool and distant period, and till it
could be known whether the revolution which had taken
place would lead to a war against Belgium. Mr Van de
Weyer had, howrever, returned from a mission to London,
BELGIUM.
607
Belgium, and it was commonly believed he had ascertained that the
'**~*^~S sentiments of Lord Grey and the new ministers were as
averse to any warlike interference as those which had been
previously expressed by the Duke of Wellington and Lord
Aberdeen.
It seems probable, that at the period in question the go¬
vernments of England and France were co-operating in en¬
deavours to place the Prince of Orange on the throne of
Belgium; even if it could be accomplished in defiance of
the positive declaration of the king his father, who did not
scruple to assert, “ that he would rather see De Potter
placed on the throne than the Prince of Orange.” But if
such was the desire of the two kingdoms, it was soon disco¬
vered to be utterly impracticable, though much time was
spent under the impression of its feasibility, and much sus¬
picion excited amongst the Belgians against the sincerity
of France.
Whilst the plenipotentiaries were settling the most equi¬
table plan for separating the two countries, and had given
their view with respect to the boundaries of each, they also
adjusted what portion of the debt of the Netherlands should
be assigned to Belgium, and what to Holland, fixing the
former at parts, and the latter at parts. These dis¬
cussions led to others; and it soon became known, that
however independent Belgium might become as regarded
Holland, it was too dependent on the superior power of
the European kingdoms to be permitted the spontaneous
nomination of the individual who was to become its sove¬
reign. At that time a large, perhaps a predominant, party
in the assembly would have preferred one of the Bona¬
parte family; but this, it soon appeared, would not be
permitted by France. Another party were inclined to se¬
lect a son of Louis Philip, the king of the French; but in¬
timations had been communicated to that prince, that Eng¬
land would consider an acquiescence in the project as a
sufficient cause of war; and he agreed to the exclusion of
his son, but so privately that it was only known to a few
individuals beyond the diplomatic circles. The partisans
of the house of Orange took no open and avowed part in
these discussions.
The inefficiency of this representative assembly to the
real purposes of a government was speedily shown in the
long and bombastical speeches of the members; in the ab¬
solute confusion in every department, whether civil, mili¬
tary, or judicial; and in the mobbing and plundering which
prevailed in all' the provinces. The necessity for an exe¬
cutive power was so strongly felt by the more reflecting
members of the assembly, that after several days’ prepara¬
tory debate, it was resolved, on the 19th of January 1831,
to proceed to the election of a chief on the 28th of that
month. The election of a sovereign, or rather of a dy¬
nasty, was enough to kindle agitation and intrigue; but
perhaps less of these than might have been expected was
discoverable, from the great number of the candidates
whose pretensions were urged. On the day before the
election, petitions were presented to the assembly in fa¬
vour of Lafayette, Fabvier, Chateaubriand, the Prince of
Carignan, the Archduke Charles; Surlet de Chokier, Charles
Rogier, and Felix de Merode, private Belgians ; Prince
Otho of Bavaria, John duke of Saxony, a Prince of Salm,
the Pope, the Duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Phi¬
lip, and the Duke of Leuchtenburg. Besides these, the
Duke of Lucca, the Duke of Reichstadt, the son of Na¬
poleon, and the Prince of Capua, brother of the king of
the Two Sicilies, were suggested. The choice of the last
was seriously contemplated by the French, through Talley¬
rand ; but the Belgians showed no predilection for him, al¬
though he was not objectionable to any of the four powers.
Had the Belgians showed any decided eagerness for Prince
Otho of Bavaria, it was known that he would have been
recognised by England, France, and Prussia ; and that he
would then have obtained the hand of the Princess Mary, Belgium,
third daughter of the king of the French. But his age,-v-**''
for he was only fifteen, formed an objection with the Bel¬
gians. The popular press, decidedly democratic, was most
united in favour of the Duke of Leuchtenburg; but its
power had been used till it was exhausted; and, besides,
the choice was in better hands than those who are influenced
by its inflammatory declamations. It is remarkable, that
amongst the long list of candidates the name of Prince
Leopold was never once mentioned. It has been suggest¬
ed that England had not even then abandoned the hope of
fixing the Prince of Orange on the throne. This would
have been approved of by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and
by the nobles and wealthier part of the Belgians, but not
by France, as Louis Philip was disposed to fear that the
example of enthroning the son of the deposed monarch
might hereafter have been taken as a precedent in favour
of the Duke of Bordeaux against his son in France.
At the eve of the election, however, by some strange
caprice of circumstances, all the names were withdrawn
excepting the two, wdio, all intelligent persons knew, could
not be allowed to rule. It was remarked of them by Nor-
thomb, one of the most respectable of the democratic mem¬
bers, that “ the Duke of Leuchtenburg was essentially anti-
French, without being European, whilst the Duke of Ne¬
mours was so exclusively French as to be directly anti-
European.” It is singular that both these personages had
been declared inadmissible by the conference of the re¬
presentatives of the great powers. The name of the Arch¬
duke Charles of Austria was then brought forward ; but he
could only be considered as a cloak for the partisans of the
Prince of Orange, and for other members, who knew he
would not accept the dignity, for the purpose of reducing
that absolute majority of the whole voters which was ne¬
cessary to the choice. The votes were taken by ballot,
and the following result appeared when the names were
drawn from the urn :—The total number of voters was 191,
and consequently the required absolute majority was nine¬
ty-six. Nine members being absent, there appeared for
the Duke of Nemours eighty-nine, for the Duke of Leuch¬
tenburg sixty-seven, and for the Archduke Charles thirty-
five, so that, in fact, there was no election. A new voting
then became necessary, and the second scrutiny gave a de¬
finite result. Another member had entered, making 192,
and consequently the absolute majority required was nine¬
ty seven. The state of the voting then appeared to be, for
Nemours ninety-seven, for Leuchtenburg seventy-four, and
for the archduke twenty-one. This annunciation was re¬
ceived with acclamation by the populace, and with expres¬
sions of joy by the partisans of the successful candidate,
who well knew his father would not permit him to accept
the offered crown. A deputation was despatched to Paris
to announce the choice. But the throne was refused, and
the deputies returned after paying and receiving some un¬
meaning compliments.
The moment was seized by the partisans of the Prince
of Orange in order to raise a commotion in his favour. It
was a wild project, confined to Ghent, Bruges, and Ant¬
werp, where his adherents were numerous, especially
amongst the lower class, who had been thrown out of em¬
ployment by the cessation of commerce and manufactures.
The attack on Ghent was speedily quelled, and the leader
fled; but he was seized on his way to France, and on his
person w ere found letters from the Prince of Orange, then
in London, encouraging the project. This unsuccessful
effort, and the evidence of the prince’s participation in it,
proved very injurious to his cause ; and even sober men
who had favoured him, were disgusted with what appeared
to them to be an attempt to involve the country in a civil
war.
On the refusal of France, the assembly, still feeling the
608
I) E L G I ^ M.
Belgium.
want of an executive power, passed an act that the tin one
was vacant, thereby establishing the monarchical principle,
and then proceeded to the election of a regent as a tem¬
porary measure. The choice fell upon Baron LV.,. .
Chokier, a worthy, well-meaning man, of no great abiht es,
who showed little solicitude for the dignity; and o
25th of February he was installed with some parade. Flo
and conspiracies were forming around him in ev<r J ,
tion, and the demon of civil war was urging on the people
to mutual destruction. The feeble government of the re¬
gent could produce neither obedience nor ^ w ,
in the country; and it was threatened by the Dutch, who
adhered to thlir king and his purposes with equd union an
ardour. It was reported, during the regency, that sche
for the dismemberment of Belgium were contempiated by
some of the continental powers. According to this project,
two thirds of Flanders, the province ot Antwerp, and the
northern half of Limburg and Brabant, including Brussels,
would have fallen to Holland ; the eastern I^rt of Luxem¬
bourg, with Liege and other territories upon the left bank
of the Meuse and the Moselle, would have been transfer¬
red to Prussia; and Namur, Hainault, and t^ westpar
Flanders, would have been ceded to France. If this project
was seriously entertained, it received such discouragement
from the British government, that it was speedily abandon¬
ed. About the same period, that is, about a month after
the instalment of the regent, extensive plans were formed
for a general rising amongst the Orange party, in corjne^‘
tion with some of the chief officers of the army and the
most influential leaders of the burgher guards of Brussels.
But this came to nothing, having, it is said, been discoun¬
tenanced by the British minister at Brussels, who saw no
other effect that could arise from it but a general European
war. It is said that after some discussion respecting Lux¬
embourg, and checking the petty hostilities on the frontier,
the British government in April gave up all hope of estab¬
lishing the Prince of Orange on the Belgic throne. On the
12th of that month a kind of proposition w'as made by some
of the influential members of the assembly, and privately
communicated to Sir Edward Gust, one of the equerries of
Prince Leopold, with the design of ascertaining whether
the prince, if chosen, would accept the crown. Leopold
answered in the affirmative, but strictly abstained from
giving any authority to make exertions in his favour. He
was however convinced, before the election, that a vast
majority of the electors would vote in his favour ; and that
he should have all the aid of the clergy and the high Ca¬
tholic nobility, with no opposition but from the French and
movement party, and the few Orangeists that had seats
in the assembly. A deputation of four members repaired
to Claremont, and had an interview with the prince. They
explained their object, and the conditions upon which they
were authorized to offer the crown, and awaited his reply.
It manifested a noble, simple, and frank disposition, and
concluded thus : “ All my ambition is to contribute to the
happiness of my fellow-creatures. When yet young, I
found myself in so many difficult and singular situations,
that I have learned to consider power only with a philo¬
sophic eye. I never coveted it but for the sake of doing
good, durable good. Had not certain political differences
arisen, which appeared to me essentially opposed to the
independence of Greece, I should now be in that country ;
and yet I never attempted to conceal from myself the dif¬
ficulties of my position. I am aware how desirable it is
that Belgium should have a sovereign as soon as possible.
The peace of Europe is deeply interested in it.”
The deputation returned, and many stormy discussions
ensued. Attempts were made to defer the election till all
differences with Holland were settled; but these were over¬
come by the votes of 137 to 48. The election took place
on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196, four only
beino- absent, determined that Prince Leopold should be Belgium.
proclaimed king of the Belgians, under the express condi-   
tion that he “ would accept the constitution, and swear to
maintain the national independence and territorial inte¬
grity.
This choice, though not expressly unanimous, was such
in reality ; for of the minority of forty-three, nineteen vot¬
ed on the ground that the election was premature, four¬
teen voted for Baron Surlet de Chokier, solely on account
of private friendship, and thus the real opposition to Leo¬
pold consisted only of ten. Though the voting was by bal¬
lot, yet the vote of every man was known ; and all who
dared, gave reasons for it, except the ten, who were well
known as terrorists. , . ,
Leopold lost no time in repairing to the post to which
he was appointed, and, with only one aide-de-camp and a
few domestics, landed at Ostend on the 17th of June, and
proceeded directly through Ghent to the palace of Lacken,
near Brussels. He made his public entry into that city
on the 21st, and was received with cordiality by the higher
classes, and by the populace with loud acclamations. I he
king took the oath to the constitution ; the regent deliver¬
ed up his power; and the congress was dissolved, to make
wav for the election of the members who were to form the
two legislative chambers, as prescribed by the fundamental
The first chamber, or the senate, was to consist of fifty
members, chosen for eight years, but one half of them was
to be renewed at the end of four years. The qualifica¬
tions were to be, having attained the age of forty years,
and paying direct taxes to the amount of 1000 florins, or
L 84 vearlv. The second chamber was to consist of iOI
members, being at the rate of one for 40,000 inhabitants.
They were to be of the age of twenty-five years, to pay
annual direct taxes to the amount of L.8, and to be paid
at the rate of 200 florins, or L.16, each month during the
session. They were to be renewed by one half retning at
the end of two years, but they might be again elected.
After a few formalities, and appointing the ministers to
compose the cabinet, on the choice of which much judg¬
ment was exercised, the king left the capital to visit Ant¬
werp, Liege, and the other parts of the new kingdom, and
was everywhere received with demonstrations of i espect an
of loyalty. But whilst the proceedings just narrated were
passing in Belgium, a storm was gathering on the side o
Holland, which had not been anticipated, and to meet which
no adequate preparations had been made. The Belgians
relied on the armistice which the conference of the ambas¬
sadors had established, and the few measures which were
taken by them discovered only the confusion and diso
inseparable from all popular movements. In Holland, every
thing betokened tranquillity, order, and loyalty. I he dif¬
ferent orders of the government and the peop e were more
eager for punishing what they denominated the rebellion,
than even the king^nd his family. A powerful army was
quickly assembled. It was well disciplined, officered, and
appointed, and furnished with an ample train of artillery,
and yet all was done with so much secrecy, that till tha
army was ready to advance beyond the frontiers, no pre¬
paration was made to resist it. . , f TT^ii^na
Much dispute has arisen relative to the right of Holla,
to commence hostilities without due notice of the cessation
of the armistice; but, on the other hand Holland main¬
tained that due notice had been given. The whole turned
on the precise sense of the words “ ses moyens mihtaires,
in a note delivered by the Dutch ministers to the confer¬
ence of ambassadors. The king was certainly encouraged
in the enterprise by the stormy scenes exhibited in the
Belgian assembly between the period of Leopold s election
and°the time of his arrival. By the noxious influence of
the press, such angry passions had been kindled in every
B E L G I U M. 609
Belgium, division of society, as seemed to threaten internal war ; but
happily a most powerful speech of Mr Lebau in favour of
union, and urging the importance of rallying round their
new monarch, had the effect of producing feelings of tran"
quillity ; though no language had power to produce order
or infuse energy, when the time approached for the exhi¬
bition of the one and the exercise of the other.
The Prince of Orange having assumed the command of
the Dutch army at Breda, on the 1st of August, the order
to advance was instantly given; and the march of the se¬
veral divisions commenced the next day. This was a com¬
plete surprise to the Belgians, who were unprepared at
every point to resist a disposable army of more than 40,000
men. It is not necessary here to describe the position and
the movements of the various corps on both sides. It was,
however, remarked by military men, that the Prince of
Orange advanced more deliberately than the occasion re¬
quired. Leopold collected his forces, such as they were,
near Louvain, in order to cover his capital. In this posi¬
tion the Dutch army, having seized the road which led to
Brussels on the 9th of August, advanced to attack him.
The Belgian troops could not stand for a moment against
their opponents, but instantly fled, throwing away their
arms, and escaping in disorder; and a neglect of the Dutch,
who thoughtlessly left open a road behind Louvain, alone
prevented Leopold and his whole staff from becoming pri¬
soners of war. He, however, made good his retreat to the
capital, upon which all hostilities ceased. As soon as the
movements of the Dutch were known, Leopold appealed to
France for assistance. A French army was cantoned on
the frontiers, which, by telegraphic communications, was
instantly set in motion ; and intelligence of their advance
was formally announced to the Prince of Orange by Lord
William Russell, coupled with an intimation, from the
French marshal Gerard, of the determination of the two
powers to enforce the abandonment of all military opera¬
tions. As the French army rapidly entered the country,
the Prince of Orange soon saw the necessity of retreating ;
and a convention was concluded between him and the
French general, in consequence of which he returned to
Holland, and the French repassed the frontier ; so that by
the 1st of September both armies had left the Belgian ter¬
ritory.
The cowardly disgraceful conduct of the Belgic troops
was of great benefit to the new government. It showed the
reflecting part of the community the folly of trusting the
defence of their country to a host of popular partisans, too
ready to destroy or to plunder, but too much inflated by
the flattery they bestowed on themselves to become effi¬
cient defenders when steadily opposed. All saw the ne¬
cessity of confiding in their chief, and became convinced
that a regular army must be formed, in which the men
should be compelled to obey their officers. The formation
of an army was therefore determined on; but Belgium could
not furnish officers. Most of those appointed had been
placed in stations of which they were unworthy, because
they had been what was called distinguished patriots, that
is, leaders of the revolutionary movements; but those active
disorganizers were found worse than useless when energy
against an enemy required order, discipline, and obedience.
By the interference to protect Belgium against Holland,
this farther advantage was gained, that the protecting
powers were placed in a position to obtain more weight in
the negotiations carried on in the conferences of the am¬
bassadors, and both parties were more disposed to leave
the contested points respecting boundaries to their arbitra¬
tion.
In forming an army, Leopold was assisted by the French,
who, as far as could be done, furnished it with able officers ;
a want which Belgium could by no means supply from the
natives of that country. The partisans of the Orange fa-
VOL. IV.
mily, on this occasion, justified the conduct of King Wil- Belgium,
liam previous to the revolution, in having selected few of
his officers from the Belgians. The selection of French¬
men, they contended, proved that William was right in not
trusting to officers taken from that division of his kingdom.
After the Dutch irruption, Leopold proceeded with cool¬
ness and vigour to restore order and gain confidence. He
kept on the best of terms with the most important party,
the Catholic clergy and the Catholic nobility, and avoided
any nearer contact with the French party than politeness
and civility required. He knew who were the real friends
of monarchical government, and his best supporters. His
marriage with a daughter of the king of the French, who
was a Catholic, and the contract that the children of the
marriage should be educated in the Catholic faith, were
powerful means of attaching to his throne all those of his
subjects who were under the influence of the clergy. The
Belgian army, under the French officers, soon attained con¬
siderable advancement in organization and discipline. The
undisciplined free troops were disbanded, and the best of
the men incorporated in the regiment of chasseurs. Some
superior officers were superseded, and many of the sub¬
alterns dismissed. A military school was established, and
a corps of sappers and miners with a pontoon brigade raised.
The civil list was arranged with economy and order, and
the other branches of the public service reformed, and
others newly arranged. The talents and the integrity of
Leopold, and his benevolent disposition, made a very fa¬
vourable impression on all that approached him.
Whilst affairs were thus proceeding within, the great
work of general pacification was attended to by the mem¬
bers of the conference in London. A final decision was
come to on the 15th of November, expressed in twenty-
four articles. These settled the great point of boundaries,
and placed the question of Luxembourg in a way the most
favourable, as was thought, for future pacific arrangement;
but, above all, it expressed a determination “ to oppose, by
every means in their power, the renewal of hostilities be¬
tween the two countries.” This arrangement was ratified
by the Belgian and French sovereigns on the 20th and 24th
of November, by the British on the 6th of December, by
Austria and Prussia on the 18th of April 1832, and by
Russia on the 4th of May.
By these articles, the division of the joint debt was fixed
on the scale before arranged, viz. for Belgium, and
for Holland ; but as the latter had discharged the whole
interest as it became due from the first disturbances, she
was to be paid the share of the advances, with interest
on them at the rate of five per cent. Another point arose
out of the settlement of the limits of the two countries
Holland was to have Maestricht, and was in actual pos¬
session of that place and its citadel; but Antwerp, which
was allotted to Belgium, and was in possession of the Bel¬
gians, was commanded by the citadel, which was garrisoned
by a Dutch army under the command of General Chasse,
a distinguished officer, who, after the annexation of Hol¬
land to France, had served in the army of the Emperor Na¬
poleon. The Belgians had given only a conditional rati¬
fication of the articles of the 15th of November, upon the
express stipulation that the whole of them, in which the
possession of the citadel of Antwerp was certainly included,
should be fulfilled. They were precluded by that instru¬
ment from exercising hostilities, and therefore claimed from
the parties to it the performance of its conditions.
It was important to the allied powers that the throne
which they had established in the person of Leopold should
be strengthened in the views of his subjects, who had some¬
times manifested dispositions to democracy, and at others
strong inclinations for a union with France, neither of which
were deemed compatible with the interests of the European
commonwealth. But it could not retain respect if the con-
4 H
L G
Belgium.
erp, wniist tney weic
still in possession of Maestricht. These considerations 1 ^he g0vernment, however, came to its aid, and
had their due effect on the conference, who, on the 1st ot I ' d blic confidence.
October, unanimously resolved that forcible means were soon restorea puo_ , _
  , . 1    f K r-i t-i r f I'-
necessary. They differed in regard to the means, the north¬
ern courts wishing to adopt pecuniary coercion, by deduct¬
ing from the debt due from Belgium to Holland a sum
weekly till the fortress was delivered up ; but to this tiance
and England objected, as leading only to future and te¬
dious negotiations, during which Rotterdam and Amster¬
dam might enjoy those exclusive commercial advantages
which Antwerp was entitled to share with
Belgium, being wearied with these entangled
tions,and having now created an army of more than 10U,UUU,
gave notice that, unless their territory was evacuated be-
On the 14th of March of the same year, Holland signified
readiness to accept the treaty of the twenty-four articles.
This announcement produced an extraordinary movement
in the kingdom, for since the year 1830 Luxembourg and
Limbourg were identified with Belgium, and sent represen¬
tatives to both chambers; addresses were sent to the go¬
vernment from all parts of the country, the Brabant colours
were hoisted, and the people were roused by protestations
of the most energetic kind. Leopold was in the meanu hue
obliged to yield to the representations of Prussia and Austria,
andrin 1839 the Belgians had to abandon more than one-
gave notice that, unless their territory was evacuate ie- province's of Luxembourg and Limbourg. A
fore the 3d of November, they would use force to compel “md oMhe prm.nce ^ ^ ^ of 0ctober ]842)
it. But this would have created a war, which ad the po e ‘l H f i ; w , the settlement of the debts charge-
were anxious to prevent. On the 22d of October, a con-
were auAiuus lw     , , j
vention was therefore entered into between England and
Lrance, which was forthwith communicated to the three
other powers, of whose passive adhesion they were assured.
By this convention it was determined, that if the places
assigned by the former resolutions to the respective par-
ties°were not given up before the 12th of November,
Lrance and England would enforce the delivery ot these
places. This determination was communicated to both
nations. Belgium was ready to give up Venloo, which she
held; but Holland positively declined surrendering the
citadel of Antwerp. The result was, that a comoined
fleet of English and Prench proceeded to blockade the
ports of Holland, and detain the merchant-ships, whilst
Prance prepared an army to besiege the citadel, without
allowing the Belgians in any way to interfere in the mili¬
tary operation. The siege of Antwerp by the trench, a»
a fine practical exemplification of science, became an ob¬
ject of great interest to the military amateurs of all Europe,
who repaired thither as spectators. But this is not the
place for recording the history of that warlike spectacle.
It v/as vigorously and skilfully attacked; and the defence,
which was altogether passive, exhibited a conspicuous ex¬
ample of fortitude and endurance. The first works of the
besiegers were opened on the 30th of November, and on
the 24th of December the citadel capitulated, when the
garrison marched out, and the French took possession of
the battered fortress, which, on the 1st of January, they
delivered up to the Belgians. The city of Antwerp
was not in the least injured, as the approaches were car¬
ried on upon the opposite side. The French army shortly
afterwards withdrew from Belgium to its own territory.
The Dutch garrison was marched into France as prisoners,
on the ground that two forts on the river Scheldt, those
of Lillo and Liefenschoeck, were still retained by the
Dutch. This led to long and complicated diplomatic ne¬
gotiations, which were at length adjusted, when the cap¬
tured gai'rison returned to their own country. On the
16th of May 1833 an indefinite armistice was agreed upon,
and on the 21st a provisional convention was signed, which
preserved the liberty of the Scheldt, regulated the tolls of
the Meuse by the tariffs of Mayence, maintained the exist¬
ing territorial arrangement, including therein Luxembourg,
raised the embargo on the Dutch ships, and set at liberty
all the Dutch prisoners kept in France since the siege of
Antwerp. Nevertheless, the house of Orange still num¬
bered many partizans among the people, and when the go¬
vernment sequestrated its possessions in Belgium murmurs
were heard in many towns, chiefly at Ghent, Liege, Ant¬
werp, and Brussels. The people thus irritated became vio¬
lent ; at Brussels they pillaged the houses of the principal
Orangists, and were appeased with difficulty. All the at¬
tention of the government of King Leopold was given to
which had for its object the settlement ot the debts charge¬
able against Holland and Belgium. By this it was agreed
that Belgium should only be liable for an annual payment
of five millions of florins, instead of eight millions four
hundred thousand florins, which had been imposed upon it
bv the treaty of November 15. 1831.
' In the same year was discovered a conspiracy to place
the Prince of Orange upon the throne. The generals \ an-
denneer and Vandersmissen were at the head of this move¬
ment They were tried before the tribunals, and condemned
to death, but the king commuted their punishment to twenty
years’ imprisonment. Vandersmissen effected his escape, and
Vandermeer was afterwards pardoned on condition of retir¬
ing to America. _ . r i o i o tj i
During the revolutions and insurrections of 184?, nei-
mum was one of the few European kingdoms in which tran¬
quillity was maintained, for which it was mainly indebted to
its constitutional government and the wisdom and liberality
of its sovereign. On the 11th October 1850 the queen
Louise died, leaving two sons and a daughter.
Bel mum extends from Lat. 49.27. to 51.30. N. and from situation
Loner 2 34. to 6. 4. E. On the N. it is bounded by Hoi- and extent,
land; E.*bv Dutch Limbourg and Luxembourg,and Rhenish
Prussia ; S. by France ; and on the W. by the North Sea.
It is somewhat of a triangular form, of which the longest
side is that adjoining France, being 366 miles in lengt .
The eastern boundary is 233 miles, and the northern and
western are together 279 miles in length. Its greatest
length from N.W. to S.E. (from Ostend to Arlon) is 56
lea mes of 5000 metres, or 174 English miles, and its
Greatest breadth from N. to S. is 105 miles. It has an area
of 2,945,593 hectares, equal to 7,278,968 English acres, or
11 373 square miles; being about one-eighth of the area
of Great Britain. This country is divided into nine pro-
vinces-Antwerp in the N.; West and East Flanders and
Hainault in the W.; Namur in the S.; Luxemoourg in the
S.E.; Liege and Limbourg in the E.; and Brabant in tire
Belmum is in general a very flat country with tew ele-p^j^i
vations, and these rarely exceeding 2000 feet in height. descrip.
They are principally to be found in the E. and S.E., while tion.
the N. and N.W. parts of the country bear a considerable
resemblance to Holland. The elevations of Belgmm take
their rise in France, and extend generally in a N.E. dnec-
tion. A chain proceeding from the neighbourhood of t le
sources of the Saone separates the waters of the Meuse h om
those of the Moselle, passes Arlon and Neufchateau, then
extends in a north-eastern direction towards Bastogne, and
finally enters Prussia. A branch of this chain goes off at
Neufchateau, proceeds northward towards Kiege> passes
Hubert, and separates the Ourthe from the Meuse. A par
of the Ardennes also extends into Belgium, and separates
the basin of the Meuse from that of the Scheldt. It pro-
B E L G I U M.
611
Belgium, ceeds in a north-eastern direction, passing Fontaine 1’Eve-
Wv--' que, Gembloux, Ramillies, and Tongres, then, gradually
decreasing in height, it turns northward to Asch, and after¬
wards N.W. to Hechtal, Lommel, and Turnhout. A series
of heights on the frontier of France, near Chimay, extend
in a N.W. direction towards Namur, and separate the
Meuse from the Sambre.
The provinces of Liege. Luxembourg, and Namur pre¬
sent the neatest irregularities of surface. This part of the
country is intersected by numerous ravines and streams
with steep and rocky banks, by deep valleys, and by ridges
of hills, w ith frequently precipitous and rocky escarpments.
The vegetation here is of a very poor and languid character.
The greater part of this region is covered with dense forests,
marshy and uncultivated plateaux, or wretched pasture land,
and corn is very rarely cultivated. The inhabitants are a
primitive and pastoral race, principally engaged in the tend¬
ing of flocks, w hich constitute their chief riches. Descend¬
ing towards the coast the forests become less frequent and
extensive, and rye, oats, and potatoes take the place of the
pasture land. In the western and north-western provinces
are extensive and well-watered plains which, from their
great fertility and the high state of their cultivation, are
the boast of the Belgians and the admiration of strangers.
Even here, however, are to be seen occasional patches of
waste land and uncultivated heaths, particularly in the pro¬
vinces of Antwerp and Limbourg. Frohi the improvements
which have been going on lately, it is expected that at no
distant period these shall have all disappeared.
Polders. In the provinces bordering on the sea, the land is in some
places so low as to require to be protected from inundation
by dikes. Those places are called polders. Numerous
places along the banks of the rivers are also protected by
embankments ; these are called interior polders. About a
sixtieth part of the kingdom is thus artificially gained from
the sea and rivers, being 50,000 hectares, or 193 square
miles.
The coast of Belgium is said to be undergoing a change
similar to that of Scandinavia,—in some parts a gradual
elevation, and in others a gradual depression. Nieuport is
said to be the axis of this change, from which, northward
to the mouth of the Scheldt, the sea is continually gain¬
ing upon the land, while southward to Pas de Calais it is
losing.
Rivers. This country is watered by the rivers Scheldt, Meuse,
and Yzer, with their tributaries. The Scheldt is navigable
during its entire course through Belgium, and has a general
direction from S.W. to N.E., passing through the province
of Hainault, along the eastern boundary of West Flanders,
traversing East Flanders, and finally forming the boundary
between the provinces of East Flanders and Antwerp. Its
entire length through Belgium is 108 miles. The Meuse
has a course nearly parallel to that of the Scheldt, travers¬
ing the provinces of Namur, Liege, and Limbourg. It is
115 miles in length, during the whole of which it is navi¬
gable. The small river of Yzer, which enters the sea at
Nieuport, is navigable for about 26 miles. The navigable
rivers connected with the Scheldt are,—the Dyle, which after
receiving the Nethe at the village of Rumpst, takes the
name of Ruppel, and joins the Scheldt nearly opposite to
Ruppelsmonde ; the Great and Little Nethe, which after
their junction take the name of Nethe and fall into the
Dyle ; the Demer, also an affluent of the Dyle ; the Den-
der, which enters the Scheldt at Dendermonde; the Dunne,
which joins it near Thielrode; and the Lys at Ghent. The
entire navigable length of these streams is 230 English
miles. The navigable rivers of the Meuse are: the Amblere
and the Vesdre, affluents of the Ourthe ; the Ourthe, w hich
joins the Meuse at Liege; and the Sambre, which joins it at
Namur. The navigable length of these is 142 miles. The
small river of Yperlee, w hich joins the Yzer, is navigable for
about nine miles. The principal other rivers are the Senne, Belgium,
the Haine, the Semoy, and the Lesse.
Besides these navigable rivers, Belgium has a number of Canals,
canals for inland navigation, some of which are used also for
irrigation. They are 29 in number, and their entire length
is 605,440 metres, or 376 English miles. The principal of
these are,—the canal from Bruges to Ostend, that from Brus¬
sels to Charleroy, from Bocholt to Herenthal, from Brussels
to Willebroeck, from Ghent to Bruges, from Liege to Mae-
stricht, from Maestricht to Bois-le-Duc, from Pommeroeul
to Antoing, from Plasschendaele to Nieuport, the Louvain
canal, the Lieve, and the Moevaert. Each of these canals
is upwards of 12 miles in length, and the longest, that
from Brussels to Charleroy, upwards of 46 miles. The en¬
tire length of the river and canal navigation of Belgium is
therefore 1006 English miles.
Belgium possesses a number of mineral springs, the prin- Mineral
cipal of which are the hot springs of Chaudfontaine, situ- springs,
ated about five miles from Liege, and the mineral spring
of Tongres. See Liege and Tongues. But the most cele¬
brated waters are those of Spa, of which an account is given
under that head. See Spa. The ferruginous springs of Huy
wrere formerly in considerable repute, but are now little used.
The climate of Belgium is considered as very siniilar to Climate,
that of England, and is more temperate and salubrious than
that of Holland. In the south-eastern parts the atmosphere
is more pure and bracing than in the lower parts towards
the N.W., where it is frequently damp and hazy. Frost
rarely appears before the middle of October or after the
middle of April. From observations made at Brussels for
the eighteen years preceding 1851, the mean annual tem¬
perature wras found to be 50°*3 Fahr.; the maximum mean
being 550,8, and the minimum 43°'5 Fahr. During that pe¬
riod there were no frosts in the five months from April to
October, and only twice snow in May and three times in Octo¬
ber. The average number of foggy days annually was 58’1,
and with thunder 13‘2. The annual average of rainy days
was 19T4 ; the quantity being 27’9 inches. The average an¬
nual fall at Greenwich during thelast37years was 27‘1 inches.
Since the formation of Belgium into an independent state, ^ivi1 state.
the government has taken a laudable interest in all that
concerns the happiness and improvement of the people; and
not being trammelled by a respect for old laws or useless
customs, they have adopted as far as possible the most im¬
proved systems of other countries. The whole system of
government is based upon the broadest principles of rational
freedom and liberality ; all power emanates from the people,
and can only be exercised according to law. The people
are upon a strict equality in the eye of the law, personal
liberty is guaranteed to all, as well as entire freedom in
opinion and in religious worship. All the religious sects
are endowed by the state, and large grants are also given
annually for educational and charitable purposes. Home
is inviolable, nor can any one be deprived of his property
unless for the good of the state and for a suitable indemnity.
Justice is open to all, as well as the means of education,
and the benefits of the public charities. The press is free,
and civil death is abolished. Any one may address peti¬
tions to the public authorities, signed by one or more per¬
sons. Trial by jury is established for all criminal and poli¬
tical charges, and for offences of the press. The contents
of letters are inviolable, and the post-office is responsible
for all letters committed to it.
The government is a constitutional representative and Govern-
hereditary monarchy. The legislative power is vested in the meut-
king, the chamber of representatives, and the senate. The
judicial power is exercised by fixed tribunals, freed from
all authoritative influences, judging publicly and assigning
reasons for their decisions. The provincial and communal
affairs are managed by local councils chosen by the people.
The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order King.
612
BELGIUM.
Belgium, of primogeniture, to the exclusion of females and their de-
scendants. The king’s person is declared sacred ; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the govei nment.
No act of the king can have effect unless countersigned by
one of his ministers, who thus becomes the responsible party.
The king convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the chambers,
and makes rules and orders necessary for the execution of
the laws ; but has no power to suspend or dispense with the
execution of the laws themselves. He nominates to civil
and military offices, and commands the sea and land forces.
He declares war, and concludes treaties of peace, of alliance,
and of commerce, communicating the same to the chambers
as far as may be consistent with the interest and safety of
the state. Those treaties which may be injurious to the
state or to the individual interests of the people can only
have effect after obtaining the sanction of the chambers.
No surrender, exchange, or addition of territory can be
made except when authorized by a law passed by the cham¬
bers. In no case can the secret articles of a treaty be de¬
structive or contrary to the patent ones. The king sanctions
and promulgates the laws. He has the power of i emitting
or reducing the punishments pronounced by the judges, ex¬
cept in the case of his ministers, to whom he can extend
pardon only at the request of one of the chambers. He has
the power of coining money according to law, and also of
conferring titles of nobility, but without the power of at¬
taching to them any privileges. In default of male heirs
the king may nominate his successor with the consent of the
chambers. On the death of the king the chambers assemble
without convocation at latest on the tenth day after the
decease. From the date of the king’s death to the admi¬
nistering of the oath to his successor or to the regent, the con¬
stitutional powers of the king are exercised in the name
of the people, by the ministers assembled in council, and
on their own responsibility. The regency can only be con¬
ferred upon one person, and no change in the constitution can
be made during the regency. The successor to the throne,
or the regent, can only enter upon his duties after having taken
an oath, in presence of the assembled chambers, to observe
the constitution and the laws, to maintain the independence
of the nation and the integrity of its territory. If the suc¬
cessor be under eighteen years of age (which is declared to
be the age of majority), the two chambers meet together for
the purpose of nominating a regent during the minority.
In the case of a vacancy of the throne, the two chambers,
deliberating together, nominate provisionally to the regency.
They are then dissolved, and within two months the new
chambers must assemble, which then provide definitively to
the vacancy.
Chambers. The people are represented in the legislature by the
Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, the members
of which are chosen by the people. The sittings are public ;
but by the decision of the majority either chamber may
form itself into a private committee. No one can at the
same time be a member of both chambers, and no member
can retain his seat after obtaining a salaried office under the
government except on being re-elected. No member can
be called in question for any votes or opinions he may have
given in the performance of his duties. No member can
be prosecuted or arrested during the session, without the
consent of the chamber of which he is a member, except in
the case of flagrant offence. Each chamber determines the
manner of exercising its own powers, and every session no¬
minates its president and vice-presidents, and forms its
bureau. No petition can be presented personally ; and
every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority, except
in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the
members are required to be favourable ; in the case of an
equality of votes the proposition is thrown out. The cham¬
bers meet annually in the month of November, and ought
to sit for at least forty days ; but the king has the power of
convoking them on extraordinary occasions, and of dissolv- Belgium,
ing them either simultaneously or separately. In the latter
case a new election must take place within forty days, and
a meeting of the chambers within two months. An adjourn¬
ment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month
without the consent of the chambers.
The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies Chamber
chosen directly by the people paying a certain amount of of Repre-
direct taxes. The number of deputies is fixed according to sentatives.
the population, and cannot exceed one member for every
40,000 inhabitants; at present they amount to 108. The mem¬
bers represent the nation generally, and not merely the pro¬
vince or division by which they are nominated. To be eli¬
gible for a member it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth, or
to have received the grand naturalization ; to be in the pos¬
session of the civil and political rights of the kingdom; to
have attained the age of twenty-five years; and to be resident
in Belgium. The members not residing in the town where
the chamber sits receive during the session an indemnity
of 200 florins (L.16, 13s. 4d.) each per month. The mem¬
bers are elected for four years, one-half going out every two
years, except in the case of a dissolution, when a general
election takes place. This chamber has the parliamentary
initiative and the preliminary vote in all cases relating to
the receipts and expenses of the state, and to the contingent
of the army.
The electors of the Chamber of Representatives have Senate,
also the nomination of the members of the Senate. To be
eligible as a senator it is necessary to be a Belgian by
birth, or to have received the grand naturalization; to be in
the enjoyment of civil and political rights ; to be domiciled
in Belgium ; to be forty years of age ; and to pay at least
1000 florins (L.84) of direct taxes. In those provinces
where the number of those paying 1000 florins of taxes does
not amount to one in every 6000 inhabitants, this propor¬
tion is made up by those paying the highest amount be¬
low that sum. The permanent deputation of the provincial
councils annually prepare a list of those who are eligible to
the senate. In 1850 the number of these was 726, of
w hom 405 were paying the prescribed amount of taxes, and
321 were supplementary. At the age of eighteen the heir-
presumptive to the throne has a seat in the senate, but has
no voice in its deliberations till he attain the age of twenty-
five. The senators receive no indemnity. 1 hey are elected
for eight years, one-half going out every four years, except
in the case of a dissolution. The senate is composed of half
as many members as the chamber of representatives, the
number at present being 54.
The amount of direct taxes paid in order to qualify one to Electors,
be an elector is fixed by the electoral law. I he standard
varies in different localities, but can never be below 20 florins
(33s. 4d.), nor above 100 florins. At the last general elec¬
tion which took place in 1848, the number of electors, \ otei s,
&c., in each of the provinces was as follows:—
Provinces.
Electors.
Antwerp  8,229
Brabant,   15,333
West Flanders, 10,359
East Flanders, 15,088
Hainault,   12,412
Liege,   8,090
Limbourg, ... 2,918
Luxembourg, 2,722
Namur,  3,925
Voters.
5,298
10,067
7,554
9,669
8,074
5,200
2,275
2,011
2,797
Repre¬
senta¬
tives.
10
17
16
20
18
11
5
5
6
Senate.
5
9
8
10
9
6
2
2
3
Electors p.
1000 In¬
habitants.
20*25
22-21
16-12
19-06
17-34
1790
15- 70
16- 62
14-90
79,076 52,955 108 54 18-24
A partial election of representatives took place in 1850, viz.,
for the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, ^ est Flanders,
Luxembourg, and Namur. The number of electors, &c.,
was :—
BELGIUM.
613
Belgium.
Provinces. Electors. Voters.
Antwerp,   8,525 7,060
Brabant,  15,030 10,264:
"West Flanders, 10,162 7,746
Luxembourg,... 2,711 1,921
Namur,     4,007 3,159
Representati ves.
10
17
16
5
6
40,435 30,150 54
Ministers. The king appoints and dismisses his ministers at pleasure.
No member of the royal family can be a minister, nor any
but a Belgian, or one who has received the grand naturaliza¬
tion. Ministers have a right of admission to the chambers
and to demand a hearing ; but have no voice in the delibera¬
tions unless they are members. The chambers can at any
time demand the presence of the ministers. No act or writing
by the king can free a minister from responsibility. The
chamber of representatives has the power of accusing the
r ministers, and of bringing them before the court of cassa¬
tion, which alone has the right of judging them, in all cases
of offences committed in the exercise of their functions.^
There are six ministers, viz., a minister of foreign affairs, of
the interior, of justice, of finance, of war, and of public works.
Divisions. For civil purposes the provinces are divided into 26 ar-
rondissements, 203 justice-of-peace cantons, and 2528 com¬
munes ; and for military purposes, into 4 arrondissements,
268 military cantons, and 2198 communes. The following
table gives the civil divisions of each province :—
Provinces.
Arrondisse-
ments.
f Antwerp,
Antwerp  < Malines,
l Turnbout,
r Brussels,
Brabant { Louvain,
l Nivelles,
/Bruges,
West Flanders < ^urnes? ’
\ Ypres,
/ Oudenarde,
East Flanders  I Ghent,
l Termonde,
r Charleroy,
Hainault  < Mons,
' Toumay,
( H.u7’
Li&ge < Liege,
l Verviers,
T , f Hasselt,
Limbourg { Tongres,
/ Arlon,
Luxembourg < Marche,
l Neufchateau, 7
_ T f Dinaut, 9
Namur  \ Namur, 6
Cantons.
7
6
6
10
7
5
10
11
4
7
8
14
10
9
9
11
7
8
6
6
7
6
7
Total
303
Com¬
munes.
57
39
50
120
111
107
77
67
58
47
113
105
75
147
140
140
131
144
56
76
127
60
67
68
222
124
2528
In each province is a governor named directly by the king
for the purpose of superintending and securing the due exe¬
cution of the laws, and a provincial council, the members of
which are chosen directly by electors having the same quali¬
fications as the electors to the legislative chambers.
Provincial The councils are composed of Belgic citizens at least
councils, twenty-five years of age, residing in the province, and in the
enjoyment of civil and political rights. Members of the
chambers, governors, and persons in the employment of the
state or province, are excepted. They have an annual session
of not more than four w eeks ; but the king can convoke
them on extraordinary occasions. Those not residing in the
provincial capital receive an indemnity during the session.
In 1836 the number of councillors for each province was
fixed according to the population, as follows: for the provinces
of Brabant, West Flanders, East Flanders, and Hainault, one
to each 10,000 inhabitants ; for Antwerp, Liege, Limbourg,
and Luxembourg, one to each 7500; and for the province of Belgium.
Namur one to each 5000 inhabitants. It was, however,
agreed that every canton should have at least one councillor,
whatever might be its population, and that the same scale
should be applicable to it as to the province in which it was
situated. The treaty of 1839 having reduced Luxembourg
and Limbourg, the proportion for these was fixed at one to
each 5000. The number of councillors in 1850 was 461, as
follows : Antwerp 46, Brabant 57, West Flanders 64, East
Flanders 73, Hainault 61, Liege 50, Limbourg 33, Luxem¬
bourg 34, and Namur 43. The number of electors in each
electoral section cannot exceed 600 nor be below 200. 1 he
number of ordinary electors was 78,228, and of supplemen¬
tary 5003.
These councils are of the highest importance to the
country. They watch over the interests of their various pro¬
vinces,* prepare the budgets, direct the taxation, and super¬
intend public works. They give a healthy impulse to agri¬
culture, trade, and commerce; direct the construction of roads,
canals, and bridges; and extend the benefits of education and
religion throughout the country. The communes have the
power of appeal to the king if they consider themselves
aggrieved by any of the acts of the provincial council, or of
the permanent deputation. In the ten years preceding 1851
only twro appeals had been made against the provincial coun¬
cil, and thirty against the permanent deputation ; and in only
two of these had the decisions been altered.
Each provincial council appoints a permanent deputation Permanent
for conducting business in the interval between the sessions, deputation,
particularly in matters requiring immediate attention. It L
composed of six members chosen for four years, one-half
going out every two years.
Matters exclusively communal are managed by communal Communal
councils. The councillors are Belgic citizens in the full counclls-
enjoyment of civil and political rights, and, except in some
special cases, resident in the commune. They are elected
for six years, one-half going out every three years. The
number of the councillors varies from 7 to 31, in proportion
to the population of the commune, varying from under 1000
to upwards of 70,000 inhabitants. All citizens paying taxes
varying from 15 francs (nearly 12s.) to 42 francs 32 cents
(L.l, 13s. 6d.), according to the population, have a vote in
the election of communal councillors. Of the 4,338,447
inhabitants in 1848, 194,413 were electors, and 20,849
councillors were elected, of whom ^ ths had been previously
elected. Communes with less than 20,000 inhabitants have
two aldermen, and those having more than that number have
four. There is also in each commune a burgomaster, who,
as well as the aldermen, is chosen by the king from among
the members of the communal council.
The judicial system of Belgium consists of courts and tri- Judicial
bunals of various kinds, as the court of cassation, the courts system,
of appeal, of assize, tribunals of primary instance, of com¬
merce, &C. rv c
For all criminal and political cases, as well as offences of
the press, trial by jury is established. The jury is composed
of twelve persons chosen by lot from a leet of thirty, partly
by the public minister and partly by the accused.
Justices of the peace and judges of the tribunals are
chosen directly by the king. The councillors of each court
of appeal, and the presidents and vice-presidents of the tri¬
bunals of primary instance in its district, are chosen by the
king from two double lists of candidates, the one presented
by the court of appeal, and the other by the provincial coun¬
cil. The councillors of the court of cassation are named by
the king from two double lists, the one presented by the
senate, and the other by the court of cassation. The judges
are appointed for life, and cannot be suspended or deposed
but by a judgment. They cannot hold any salaried office
under the government, or at least must perform the duties
of it gratuitously. The duties of public minister at the court
614
B E L G 1 U M.
Belgium.
Court of
Cassation.
Appeal
courts.
Courts of
assize.
Primary
tribunals.
Tribunals
of com¬
merce.
Councils
of prud’
hommes.
Justice of
peace.
Councils of
•war.
Military-
court.
of cassation are exercised by a procurator-general and two
advocates-general; and by a royal procurator with substitutes
before each of the tribunals ot primary instance and couits
of assize and appeal.
The Court of Cassation or annulment sits at Brussels, and
is divided into two chambers, the one for civil and the other
for criminal matters. It is composed of a president-geneial,
a president of each chamber, and fifteen councillors. It de¬
cides upon appeals against judgments pronounced in the
other courts and tribunals in contravention of legal forms.
There are three courts of appeal: one at Brussels, for
the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, and Hainault; another
at Ghent, for the two Flanders; and a third at Liege, for
Liege, Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Namur. I hese decide
upon appeals from the decisions of the tribunals of primary
instance in civil matters, and affairs of commerce and coi-
rectional police.
In the capital of each province is a court of assize, com¬
posed of a councillor deputed from one of the courts of ap¬
peal, who presides, and of two judges chosen from among the
presidents and judges of the primary tribunal where the court
is held. Crimes, graver misdemeanours, political offences,
and abuses of the press, are judged by the courts of assize.
In each judiciary arrondissement is a tribunal of primary
instance, judging in misdemeanours belonging to the cor¬
rectional police, in civil matters, and in commercial affairs
where there is no commercial tribunal, but in cases above
2000 francs (L.79) its decision may be brought before the
courts of appeal. The number of judges varies from three to
ten in each tribunal, amounting in all to 148.
Tribunals of commerce are established by law in several
principal towns. They judge definitively in civil matters of
not more than 2000 francs, but above that sum their deci¬
sions are subject to appeal, as in the tribunals of primary in¬
stance. Each is composed of a president, from two to
eight judges, and substitutes. The members of the tribunal
are cliosen by the leading commercial men, amounting in
1850 to 1759. There are thirteen tribunals of commerce,
established in the towns of Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain,
Mons, Tournay, Bruges, Ostend, Courtray, Ghent, St
Nicolas, Liege, Verniers, and Namur.
In several of the manufacturing towns are councils of
prud'hommes, composed of master tradesmen and work¬
men chosen for three years, a part going out annually. The
number of members varies from five to nine in each coun¬
cil, except in that of Brussels, which has fifteen members.
They decide in all questions and disputes arising between
masters and workmen. A special board of two members first
attempts to effect a reconciliation between the parties, and
if unsuccessful the matter is then brought before the council
for decision. Previous to 1843 there were only two of these
councils, one at Ghent and the other at Bruges. Since then
government has been authorized to establish twenty addi¬
tional ones, and of these thirteen are now in operation.
In each canton is a justice of the peace, with a registrar
and two substitutes. These constitute tribunals of simple
police for the trial of offences involving a fine of not more
than 200 francs (nearly L.8), or imprisonment for not more
than eight days. The commissary of police performs the
duties of public minister.
Councils of war are held in the chief place of each pro¬
vince, with the exception of Limbourg, which is joined to
Liege, and of Luxembourg, which is united with Namur.
They decide in crimes and misdemeanours committed in
their provinces by the military of a rank not higher than
captain. They are composed of seven members, including
the president, who ought all to be of the grade of officers.
The military court for the whole of Belgium has its seat
at Brussels. It is composed of five members, one of whom
is a councillor of the appeal court of Brussels, delegated
annually to preside ; the rest are general or superior officers
chosen by lot every month. It decides on appeals from the Belgium,
courts of war. All officers of a grade superior to that of
captain are amenable to this court.
Besides the several bodies of ordinary police, there are Police,
commissaries of police, royal procurators, juges dhnstruc-
tion, &c. The commissaries of police, and, in the com¬
munes where these are wanting, the burgomasters or dele¬
gated aldermen, are specially charged with searching out and
proving all contraventions of the police laws. rIhe royal
procurators are charged with discovering and prosecuting for
all offences coming within the jurisdiction of the courts of
assize or the correctional tribunals of police. There is at
least one juge d!instruction or examining judge in each ar¬
rondissement (in Brussels there are three). They are chosen
by the king from among the judges of the tribunal, and con¬
tinue in office for three years. They are specially charged
with the collection of evidence, and with bringing the cul¬
prit before the tribunal. There is a council-chamber com¬
posed of at least three judges, including the juge d’instruc¬
tion, for the preliminary examination ot culprits.
The prisons are of three classes :—1. Houses of municipal Prisons,
police; 2. Houses of arrest and justice; and, 3. Central
houses of punishment. Of the first class there are^ 1(58,
containing, in 1850, 10,373 prisoners. In the capital ot each
province the seat of a court of assize is a house of justice ;
and in the capital of each arrondissement the seat of a court
of primary instance is a house of arrest. In connection with
many of these, schools, workshops, and circulating libraries^
have been established. There are eight central houses of
punishment:—1. At Ghent, for compulsory labour ; 2. At
Vilvorde, for seclusion; 3. At St Bernard (near Antwerp),
for correctional imprisonment: 4. Military house of deten¬
tion at Alost; 5. Female penitentiary at Namur, for those
condemned to imprisonment, seclusion, or compulsory la¬
bour ; 6. Penitentiary of St Hubert (Luxembourg), for
young male delinquents condemned to at least six months
imprisonment, and for children acquitted as having acted
without discernment; 7. A penitentiary at Liege for young
females, similar to the preceding ; 8. The citadel of Huy, for
persons convicted of political offences. Each prison is undei
the direction of a committee of management, whose services
are gratuitous. The superior board of control has the gene¬
ral superintendence of the prisons, and an inspector-general
and two comptrollers are charged with their inspection and
direction. In each central prison are schools, at which at¬
tendance is obligatory on all prisoners under forty, and op¬
tional for those above that age. The number attending
these schools in 1850 was 3578, or about 68 per cent, of the
prisoners. - .
The prisoners are employed in various kinds of work,.
Those condemned to compulsory labour receive no remune¬
ration, but those condemned to seclusion or correctional im-
prisonment receive apart of the produce of theii laboui, and
which, in the case of the latter is frequently applied in mitiga¬
tion of their punishment. Premiums are also given for good
conduct, zeal, and progressin their labours. 1 he total expense
of the prison establishments for 1849 was 4,133,703 francs.
The population of Belgium in 1831 was 3, <85,814 , in °PU
1840,4,073,162; and in 1850, 4,426,202; distributed a*
follows:—
v 1831.
Antwerp   349,942
Brabant   561,828
West Flanders  608,226
East Flanders  742,973
Hainault  613,179
Liege  375,030
Limbourg  160,090
Luxembourg  160,762
Namur  213,784
1840.
371,157
621,072
646,054
779,466
661,701
410,171
169,960
174,719
238,862
1850.
420,556
734,617
631,137
783,450
733,740
467,843
188,198
192,588
274,073
3,785,814 4,073,162 4,426,202
BELGIUM.
615
Belgium.
and vincial registers are annually sent 1o the central committee Belgium.
The increase for the first period was r60 per cent.j . ^ -lori i ui • + i u
for the second 8'67 per cent. At the date of the general ol stat.st.dn Since 851 valuable improvements have been
census in 1846 Belgium contained 86 towns, 2436 rural com- introduced, so that the register of deaths now indicates not
munes, and 4,337,186 inhabitants. The first-class towns only the age, sex, profession, &c., ot the deceased, but also
^ere—Brussels, 123,874 inhabitants; Ghent, 102,977; Ant- the disease or accident that occasioned death, whether modi-
werp, 88,487; Liege, 75,961. The second-class were— cal treatment had been received, &c.
Bruges, 49,308 ; Louvain, 30,278 ; Tournay, 30,125 ; Ma-
Since 1840 the bureau of general statistics has annually Births,
lines 29 693 Those having from 20,000 to 25,000 in- published a report of the movement of the population made
habitants were Mons, Venders, Namur, Courtray, and St up from the yearly communal reports. The total number of
Nicolas ; from 15,000 to 20,000, Most, Ypres, and Lokeren ; births during the ten years Fecedmg iool was L|99 68^
and from 10 000 to 15,000, Turnhout, Ostend, Lierre, Ren- the annual average being 129,968, of which 66,648 males
ana irom iw,uw , , _ ,   and 63,320 females. The annual average of legitimate births
In 1850 the number is
and Tirlemont.
aix, Thielt, St Troud, Roulers, Poperinge,
According to that census the density of the population
averaged 147'24 inhabitants per 100 hectares, or 247 acres.
The density, however, varied considerably in the different
provinces, as will be seen from the following table
Population.
Proportion of
the Average to
the Kingdom.
East Flanders  793,264
Brabant 691,357
West Flanders  643,004
Hainault 714,708
Liege  452,828
Antwerp  406,354
Limbourg 185,913
Namur  263,503
Luxembourg  186,265
299,787
328,323
323,448
372,205
289,319
283,311
241,315
366,181
441,704
1-797
1-457
1-350
1-304
1-063
0-974
0-523
0-489
0-287
Languajres
Uegisters.
The proportion falls below the general average in the pro¬
vinces of Antwerp,Limbourg, Namur, and Luxembourg, and
exceeds it in the other five.
The number of dwelling-houses was 799,848; of which
625,498 were of one story, 146,464 of two stories, and
127,886 of three or more stories; 160,471 were insured, the
amount of capital insured being 1,093,030,336 francs. The
number of families was 890,566; of which 154,454 inhabited
only one apartment, 282,785 two apartments, and 453,327
three or more apartments. The number of married persons in
1846 was 1,322,588; of unmarried, 2,771,975; and of wi¬
dows, widowers, and divorced, 242,633;—4,242,380 were
born in Belgium, 34,600 in France, 12,859 in Germany,
3828 in England, 38,910 in Holland (including Dutch
Luxembourg and Limbourg), and 4624 in other countries.
The principal languages spoken in Belgium are French,
or Walloon (a dialect of the ancient French), and Flemish or
Dutch. French is the language of the upper and educated
classes, and is generally understood even in the Flemish
parts of the kingdom. In 1846 those speaking French
or Walloon amounted to 1,827,141 ; Flemish or Dutch,
2,471,248; German, 34,060; English, 3824; other lan¬
guages, 923. The French or Walloon is the prevailing lan¬
guage in the provinces of Hainault, Liege, Luxembourg,
and Namur ; the Flemish or Dutch in Antwerp, Brabant,
the two Flanders, and Limbourg.
Registers of the movement of the population in each com¬
mune are kept by the burgomaster or an alderman. The
commissioners of the arrondissement inspect annually the
various communal registers within their districts, and give
notice of any irregularities or inaccuracies, to the permanent
deputation of the provincial council; and the royal procu¬
rators are specially intrusted with the verification of the
acts and registers. These contain the name, age, profes¬
sion, and place of birth, of each inhabitant of the commune.
The births, deaths, and other changes among families, as
well as the names of those who enter or leave the commune,
are daily registered. A new entry can be made only on the
production of a certificate from the administration of the last
domicile, or, in the case of a foreigner, on the production of
during that period was 120,303.
somewhat, and in 1846-7-8 considerably, below the aver¬
age ; and in the other years exceeds it. The illegitimate
‘births during that period were 96,652, averaging one for
every 12-45 legitimate births. In the province of Luxem¬
bourg they are only one in 38'52 ; and in that of Brabant
one in 6-83. In comparing the results of these years, the pro¬
portion of illegitimate births to legitimate has been annually
increasing from 7-16 per cent, in 1841, to 9-11 in 1849, and
9‘42 in 1850. The proportion of male to female births is
102-5 males to 100 females. The greatest number of births
is in the months of February and March, and in the six
months from November to April; the least in July and
August. The still-born are as one to every 23-87 births ;
of males one in 21, and of females one in 27.
The deaths in that decennial period were 1,040,497; of Deaths,
these 314,313 were unmarried males, and 304,465 unmar¬
ried females; 136,492 married males, and 119,555 married
females; 66,205 widowers, and 99,467 widows. The year
1849 presents the greatest number of deaths in this period,
arising from the cholera, which alone carried off 23,027 vic¬
tims. ' In the years 1846-7-8, the deaths are also consider¬
able, from epidemic diseases which were then prevalent in
the country; in 1847, indeed, the deaths were to the
births as 101-75 to 100, while in the years 1841-44-50, the
births exceeded the deaths by 30 per cent. The average
number of deaths to 100 births during the ten years was 80.
In the provinces of West and East Flanders the deaths are
above the average, being in the former 97'6, and in the latter
91-5; the others are below the average, except Limbourg,
which is equal to it, Namur, the lowest, being 60-7. The
great mortality in the Flanders is ascribed to the greater
prevalence there of the above -mentioned epidemics; the
excess of deaths was 26-626 over the 100 births. The
greatest number of deaths are in the half-year from Novem¬
ber to April, mostly in January, February, March, and April;
the least in August, September, October, and November. Of
the deaths during this period, 6-46 per cent, were not more
than one month old, 18-77 not exceeding one year, 26-16
not more than two years, and 48-98 not exceeding 25. Be¬
tween 25 and 50 the deaths w-ere only 16"83 per cent.; from
50 to 60 only 7"53; from 60 to 70, 10"10; from 70 to 80,
10"68; from 80 to 90, 5"23; and from 90 upwards, 0'65.
To the end of the second year, the deaths in males exceed
those in females as 18"52 to 15; from that age to 45, the
females exceed the males as 17"27 to 15; from 45 to 55,
the males exceed the females as 2-14 to 2; and from 55
upwards, the females exceed the males as 12-08 to 10. The
number of suicides in the ten years was 2428.
The proportion of marriages to legitimate births is one to Marriages.
4" 15. The number of marriages during the above decen¬
nial period was 289,676.
Naturalization is of two kinds, the one conferring on the jfatura|.
foreigner all the civil and political rights belonging to a Bel- izati0n.
gian, with certain exceptions specified by law, such as eligi-
bilitv for a seat in the legislative chambers : to obtain these
his passport. Each commune is bound to remit monthly to
the governor of the province a list of all persons who have
settled in or left the commune during the month. The nro-
the grand naturalization is requisite. The registration fee
for the former is 500 francs; for the latter, 1000.
In order to arrive at a somewhat correct notion of the Crime.
026 B E L G
Belgium. state of crime in the country, we shall take the annual ave-
v"—rage 0f the number of persons brought before the various
courts of assize for several periods. 1 or the five years pre¬
ceding 1831, the annual average of persons accused was
766; being 200 crimes against person, and 566 against pro¬
perty. From 1831 to 1839 the average was 577; being 184
against person, and 393 against property; showing, not¬
withstanding the increase of the population, a considerable
decrease in the amount of crime. From 1839 to 184o the
average was 438; being 117 against person, and 321 against
propertv. The decrease in this case is more apparent than
real, arising principally from the lighter offences being ie-
mitted to the tribunals of correction; as also from the an¬
nexation of part of the provinces of Limbourg and Luxem¬
bourg to Holland, in terms of the treaty of 1839. In the
next three years there was a deficiency of the crops and o
employment, occasioning a state of distress such as had not
been known for a long time previously in the kingdom.
Under these circumstances the offences against property
considerably increased. The average during that period was
575, being 101 against person, and 474 against property.
Happily this increase of crime ceased with the producing
cause, so that the number of accused in 1849 little exceeds
the average of the period preceding that crisis, being 4ol,
—113 against person, and 338 against property. Of these,
104 were acquitted, 41 condemned to death, and 34 to com¬
pulsory labour for life.
For the ten years preceding 1850 the number accused
of crimes was 4570 ; of these 1332 were acquitted, 311 con¬
demned to death, 377 to compulsory labour for life, 904 to
compulsory labour for a period, 1068 to seclusion, and the rest
to correctional punishments. The propriety of capital punish¬
ments is here a much contested point, and the royal cle¬
mency is exerted in all except the most aggravated cases.
Of the 311 persons capitally condemned, only 23 were exe¬
cuted. Of the 4570 accused, 3802 were males and /68
females; 1343 were under 25 years of age, 1970 between
25 and 40, and 1249 of 40 and upwards: 64 per cent, had
received no education, and only 3 per cent, any education
beyond mere reading and writing. Comparing the number
of the accused with the population, after deducting children
under 10 years of age, we find the proportion among males
to be one in 4272, and among females one in 21,430.
In 1849 the accused before the correctional tribunals
amounted to 32,509 ; of these 17,383 were misdemeanours,
1107 minor crimes, and 14,019 contraventions of police or
special laws ;—5018 were acquitted, 15,336 sentenced to im¬
prisonment, and 12,148 fined: 2096 had been previously
convicted. The number brought before the tribunals of
police was 38,081; of these 4489 were acquitted, 257 re¬
mitted to a higher tribunal, 25,818 fined, and 7517 im¬
prisoned.
A criminal appearing a second time before a court is con¬
demned to the punishment immediately above that fixed by
law for his crime ; and if guilty of a misdemeanour punish¬
able correctionally, he is condemned to the maximum pun¬
ishment allowed by law for that offence. The number of
those brought before the courts of assize for the ten years
preceding 1850, and who had been previously condemned,
was 1434, or about 31 per cent, of the accused for that period.
Religion. Full liberty is guaranteed to all in the exercise of the
public or private rites of their worship ; nor does the state
interfere in any way in matters of religion, except where
the public safety may be concerned or the laws infringed.
The population of Belgium in 1846 was 4,337,196; of
these 4,326,873 were Roman Catholics, 6578 Protestants,
1336 Jews, and 790 belonged to the Anglican Church.
The incomes of the ministers of each of these sects are de¬
rived from the public treasury. The amount thus paid by
the state in 1850 was, to the Catholics, 3,628,130 francs
(L.143,636), to the Protestants, 45,099 francs (L.1785), to
I U M.
the Jews, 9500 francs (L.376), and to the Anglicans, Belgium
10,300 francs (L.407).
The Roman Catholic religion embraces upwards of 99 Catholic,
per cent, of the entire population. The kingdom is divided
into six dioceses, the archbishopric of Malines, and the
bishoprics of Bi’uges, Ghent, Liege, Namur, and lournay.
The archbishopric has three vicars-general, and a chapter
of twelve canons ; and each of the bishoprics, two vicars-
general, and a chapter of eight canons. In each diocese is
an ecclesiastical seminary. There was formerly one rectory
in each justice of peace canton, but the number of the latter
having been reduced, the rectories now outnumber the can¬
tons by 25, and amount in all to 229, being 86 of the first
class and 143 of the second. Chapels of ease are established
throughout the country where necessary: these amounted
in 1851 to 2640. The number of public chapels established
as secondary chapels or ease, &c., at first unendowed, but
of which the chaplains are now placed on the same footing
as vicars, was 148, and of vicariates 1555. The salaries of
each of the several kinds of ecclesiastics are as follows :—
Of the archbishop, 21,000 francs (L.831); of the bishops,
14,700 francs (L.582); vicars-general of the archbishop,
3600 francs (L.142), of the bishops, 3200 francs (L.126);
canons of the archbishop, 2400 francs (L.9o), of the
bishops, 2000 francs (L.79), rectors of the first class, 2047
francs (L.81), of the second class, 1365 francs (L.54);
officiates in the chapels of ease, 787 francs (L.31); chap¬
lains and vicars, 500 francs (L.20). These incomes, how¬
ever, may be augmented by the church or communes. 1 he
amount contributed for that purpose by the communes in
1849 was 520,845 francs (L.20,617). This, however, in¬
cludes the sum given by the urban communes to the sup¬
port of the ecclesiastical edifices; the sum given by the
rural communes for that purpose is mentioned afterwaids.
These do not include the chaplains of prisons nor of the army.
Those of the army are divided into three classes, the first
receiving a salary of from 2000 to 3000 francs, the second
from 800 to 1000 francs, and the third from 400 to 600 francs.
The temporal affairs of the churches are managed by a
vestry-board composed of a council, and a board of v\ ar-
dens. In parishes having 5000 inhabitants and upwards,
the council is composed of nine members, and in other
cases of five. It is renewed every six years, a part going
out every three years. The new members are chosen by
the remaining councillors. The ecclesiastical officiate in
the church and the burgomaster of the commune are en¬
titled to a seat. The council holds four ordinary assemblies
annually. The board of wardens is composed of three mem¬
bers of the council and the officiating clergyman. One of
the members goes out annually. 1 his board acts under the
council, and meets once a month.
The total number of students attending the diocesan
seminaries in 1846 was 740. Scholarships of 423 francs
(L.16, 14s.), and half scholarships of 211 francs (L.8, 7s.),
are annually given by the state to certain of the students
upon the presentation of the chief of the diocese. I here are
66 of these scholarships, and 217 half scholarships. 1 lie
state also contributes to the salaries of the professors by an
annual grant of 8000 francs (L.317) to each of the semi¬
naries, except that of Liege, the grant to which has been
withdrawn since 1849, as it has sufficient funds otherwise.
The provinces are bound to provide and maintain suitab e
buildings for these seminaries.
The amount contributed to the support of ^A^'ous edi¬
fices by the provinces in 1849 was 253,193 francs (L.10,0 ),
and by the rural communes, 155,252 francs (L.6145).
Numerous donations and legacies have been given by
private individuals for ecclesiastical purposes, amounting, for
the twenty years preceding 1851, to 6066, and compiehen 1-
ing houses, lands, money, &c. 1 he acceptance of these, i
above 3000 francs in value, requires to be sanctioned by the
Belgium.
Protestant.
Anglican.
Jewish.
Education.
BELGIUM.
61’
government, and by the permanent council if not exceeding
that sum. The total value of these, including two of the
value of 100,000 francs (L.3958) to the Protestant church,
was 16,306,481 francs (L.645,465).
There are a number of religious houses in Belgium for
males and females whose lives are spent in pious contem¬
plation, teaching, and visiting the sick. The number of these
houses in 1846 was, for males, 137, and for females, 642 ;
the number of persons in the former was 2051, and 9917
in the latter.
The Protestant-evangelical church is under a synod com¬
posed of the clergymen of the body, and a representative
from each of the churches. It sits in Brussels once a-year,
when each member is required to be present, or to delegate
his powers to another member. Included in the sum of
L.1785 already mentioned as given by the state to Protes¬
tant pastors, are certain sums granted to the families of such
clergymen. Each child is allowed the sum of 25 florins
<X.2) till attaining the age of twenty-one years. A bursary
of 25 florins is given to each child attending a Latin school,
or receiving private lessons in that language ; one of 50
florins to each attending a university or athenaeum ; and
one of 200 florins to each studying theology. In 1850
twenty-three children were receiving the first-mentioned
allowance, one a school, and one an academy bursary.
The Anglican church has six pastors and as many
chapels, in Belgium,—two in Brussels and one in each of
the towns of Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, and Spa.
The Jews have a central synagogue at Brussels, three
branch synagogues of the first class at Antwerp, Ghent, and
Liege, and one of the second class at Arlon. The civil and
religious affairs are conducted by a consistory of nine mem¬
bers, six of whom are appointed by the central, and one by
each of the three first-class synagogues. The grand Rabbi,
who is at the head of this body in Belgium, is ex officio a
member of the consistory. They meet once a month, and
two of the members go out annually.
The Belgian government has shown itself thoroughly alive
to the great importance of a general diffusion of education
among the people. Numerous public schools and literary
and scientific institutions are established throughout the
country, supported out of the communal, provincial, or go¬
vernment funds. Different classes of inspectors are ap¬
pointed to visit and report upon the state of education in
their various districts. Prizes, scholarships, and other re¬
wards are bestowed upon those that distinguish themselves
most in the prosecution of their studies. Religious and
moral instruction is under the direction of the sect to which
the majority of the pupils belong; but those connected with
other sects may be exempted from attendance on this course.
Normal schools have also been established for the purpose
of securing trained and efficient teachers. Meetings of the
teachers and inspectors are frequently held for conversing
upon the various methods of teaching, and other matters
connected with education. Caisses de prevoyance are also
established to afford aid to aged or infirm teachers, and their
widows and families. The schools are open to all, and
gratuitous instruction is provided for those who may not
otherwise have the means of acquiring it. Yet, with all
these advantages, it cannot be denied that there are still
many among the lower classes growing up in ignorance and
crime. Indeed, it seems undeniable that the providing of
the means of instruction is not alone sufficient to secure an
educated population. In the industrial localities the parents
are generally anxious to get their children admitted as soon
as possible into workshops and manufactories, and in rural
districts they are engaged in the tending of cattle or in field
labour. In some localities efforts have been made to coun¬
teract this evil,—the people have been addressed from the
pulpit on the advantages of education ; the parents have
been conversed with upon the same subject, and, in some
vou. IV.
cases, the participation in public charities has been made Belgium,
subservient to sending their children to school. Some idea
of the state of education in the country may be gathered
from the annual draughts for the militia. In 1850 the
number drawn was 38,328 : of 21 of these the state of edu¬
cation was unknown; 13,965 had received no education;
2945 could read only; 9295 could only read and write, and
12,102 had received a more advanced education. Contrast¬
ing the period from 1843 to 1847, with the years 1849 and
1850, we find that in the former 41 per cent, were without
instruction, 8 could read only, 27 could read and write only,
and 24 were more advanced. In the latter period there is
a considerable improvement; 38 per cent, were without in¬
struction, 7 could read only, 25 could read and write only,
and 30 were more advanced. In entering rather fully into
the state of education in this country, we do so both from
the great importance of the subject in itself, and from a con¬
viction of the beneficial results that must eventually follow
from it.
The educational institutions may be divided into four Schools,
classes, viz., primary, middle, superior, and special. In 1846,
the number of children receiving primary instruction at the
schools was 441,172, and at home 5632; the number of those
receiving middle or superior instruction at the athenaeums,
colleges, universities, &c., was 24,636, and at home 1050,
showing a total of 472,490 receiving instruction at that
pex-iod, or one in every 9T8 of the population. Since that
time the number has been much increased.
The primary schools are under the surveillance of the com- Primary
munal authorities and government inspectors; the imparting schools;
of moral and religious instruction is superintended by dele- inspectors,
gates from the religious bodies. Each province has a general
inspector of the primary schools, who is appointed by the king,
and inspects at least once a-year all the communal schools in his
district, on which he makes an annual report. Under him are
the cantonal inspectors, who are bound to visit the schools in
their districts at least twice a-year. They are appointed by
the state on the advice of the provincial government, and con¬
tinue in office for three years. The provincial inspectors as¬
semble annually in a central commission under the presidency of
the minister of the interior. The bishops and consistories of
the religions supported by the state may be represented by
delegates at this commission, but these have only a deliber¬
ative voice in the proceedings. Ministers of religion and dele¬
gates of church dignitaries have the right of, at any time, in¬
specting the primary schools. The diocesans and consistories
annually communicate to the minister of the interior a detailed
account of the state of moral and religious instruction in the
schools under their care. For the schools connected with the
Roman Catholic communion there are two classes of inspectors;
the diocesan inspectors, of whom there is one for each pro¬
vince, and the ecclesiastical cantonal inspectors. The Pro¬
testant schools are inspected by a delegate of the consistories,
having the title of inspector-general. The Jewish schools have
also an inspector-general delegated by the consistory.
The cantonal inspector calls a meeting of the teachers in his
district at least once every three months, to discuss the merits
of the different modes of teaching employed, the state of pri¬
mary education, and the best means of advancing it. Educa¬
tional libraries have recently been formed in connection with
each of these districts.
A law passed in 1842 enacted that there should be at least one
primary school in every commune, except in certain cases where
primary education is already sufficiently provided for by private
schools, or where one school may serve for several neighbouring
communes. The communes may also adopt one or more private
schools possessing the legal qualifications, to occupy the place of
the communal school. The total number of primary schools,
public and private, in the end of 1848, was 5747, of which 1008
were exclusively for boys, 1202 exclusively for girls, and 3537
for both sexes. Of these 2626 were communal schools, 913 pri¬
vate adopted schools, 58 private schools under inspection, and
294 boarding schools. The scholars receiving primary instruc¬
tion at that time were 462,606, and in the end of 1849 were
493,773; being an increase of more than 200,000 since the end of
1830; and in the proportion of 11-2 per cent, of the population.
4 i
L
618
BELGIUM.
Belgium.
School¬
masters.
Income.
Caisses de
prevoy-
ance.
Infant
schools.
The branches taught in the primary schools are reading,
writing, and the elements of arithmetic ; the rudimen s 0
lano-uage spohen in the locality,-French, Flemish or Ger¬
man; moral and religious instruction ; and the iegal system o
weights and measures, in most schools taught practma y^ I
many of the schools gymnastics, music, and the elements
of drawing, the outlines of history and geography and ^
rudiments of the natural sciences, are also taught. P ,
Lons take place annually, under the direction of the permanent
deputation between the scholar* in the superior division of *
certain^ niiinber of the primary schools. The uunibCTof^cholars
front each school is fixed etaminer's
flip t63.cli6r and tii6 otli6r liali oy io . J j "kci+i+n+a
i nresTded over by the inspector of the district or his substitute
The communes are obliged to afford g^itnffms mstruct
+n ,,11 children within their bounds whose parents are m
^r^—tes, and may not otherwise have the means
of educating them. For that purpose there is a register
each province, open annually during the month o + „
ceivefte names of all the children claiming gatmto^ in^tru -
,. c iT. xi,„ T.PV+ ccPolastic year, which extends irom ine uc
ginning of Ocfi)berCtoth^ end of August, This register is sub-
luted to the communal council, which decides what children
are entitled to gratuitous instruction, and this decision is ien
communicated to the permanent deputation of the provmcia
council. Claimants, for gratuitous mstruction are requi d t
be between seven and fourteen years of age, and to have Deen
vaccinated, or had the -allpox . The number of children re_
PPivino- o-ratuitous instruction at the end of 1848 was oi.
The® schoolmaster is appointed by the communal council
which has also the power of suspending him for a period not
exceeding three months,—the government decrees os to his re-
instatement or dismissal. He ought to have uttended for
least two years, the classes of a normal school. I his conditio
may however, be dispensed with, if assented to by the gove -
ment In the case of a vacancy, the communal council
bound to fill it up within forty days except c eases where h
government may sanction a longer delay On the expiratm ^
of that period, the nomination is proceeded with by the govern
ment The male and female teachers in the communal schools
in 1848 were 2786, besides 296 assistants.
The minimum salary of a teacher, as fixed by law,
francs, or nearly L.8. Besides this, they have generally “n
allowance for the gratuitous instruction of poor children a f
house with particularly m the rural districts, a garden, and
in many cases the school fees. The fees vary considerably, ac¬
cording to the locality and other circumstances , they are m all
cases fixed by the communal council. The average income of
the teachers exceeds 600 francs. Some teachers considerab y
augment their incomes by the performance of other duties un¬
connected with their office, as those of communal secretary, &c.
Rewards are bestowed on those who distinguish themselves
most in the performance of their duties. These are of three
kinds —a gratuity of 50 francs, a gift, and honourable mention.
In each province is a caisse de prevoyance for the purpose
of affording pecuniary aid to aged and infirm teachers, their
widows, and children. All teachers and assistants in the com¬
munal primary schools are obliged to become members ot this
institution. The widow of a teacher who has been engaged
for twelve years is entitled to a pension, and also the children
of such teacher till the completion of their sixteenth year.
These caisses are under the direction of the governor ot the
province, the members of the permanent deputation ot tlie
provincial council, provincial treasurer, and the provincial in¬
spector of primary schools, whose services are gratuitous.
They are supported by an annual payment of three per cent,
upon the income of each member, by grants from the province
and the state, and by particular donations and legacies, be¬
sides these primary schools properly so called, there are m
many localities other establishments where primary ins rue
tion is communicated, as the infant, adult, manufac urmg
schools, &c. , •
The infant schools are for children between two and six
years of age. There were 516 of these in 1848, 204 being
communal or adopted, and 312 private. The scholars amounted
to 28,593, of whom 13,183 were males, 15,410 females ; ot these
16 926 were admitted gratuitously. Some of these institutions
are reported as being in a high state of efficiency, but m most
of them there is much room for improvement, arising from tne
want of funds, and from the teachers in many cases possessing Belgium.
neither the knowledge nor the talents necessary for their duties.  
The expense of those schools for 1846, 1847, and 184&, was
243 927 francs (L.9655), of which 65,636 francs were derived
from charities, 96,109 from the communes 10,530 from the
provinces, 38,787 from the state, and 32,865 from the fees.
1 The adult schools in 1848 amounted to 1110, of whicl schools
were day schools, 336 evening schools, and 733 Sunday schools ,
IS were under inspection. The number of scholars was
184 348, of whom 111,213 were receiving gratuitous instruc¬
tion. The branches taught in these are generally the same
with those in the communal primary schools. rhe ^ns?®?.^
adult schools are supported in the same way as the inf ant
schools, the expenses for 1848 being 44,58., francs (L-176t).
There are primary schools annexed to prisons hospitals, a
depots of mendicants ; and reform schools. The scholars at¬
tending these at 31st December 1848 amounted to 6086 The
manufacturing schools in their preseuitstatecanscarcely be
viewed as educational institutions. _ Aithough the means of
education are provided, little time is devoted to that object,
being almost entirely taken up m manual labo^r- _ „
Considerable sums are given by government f^ Pr0 J S
food, clothing, and other necessaries to the poor ctldrenatten-
ing the primary and infant schools , for P
ceding 1849 these amounted to 72,400 francs (L.^5 ).
Th? expenses of public primary education fall m the first Expense of
instance on^ihlcommune ; aL in else of insutoy of funds, education.
the province, and finally the state, come ois eaual to
commune however, must contribute a sum at least equal to
two per cent, upon its direct taxation before being e^tle
claim any assistance from the province or state The total
expenditure for public primary education was m lAfb
3 837 197 francs ; in 1847, 4,137,220 ; and m 1848, 4,376,675
fill nv T 173 243 Of this last 304,500 francs were public
francs, or L.173,24 .. , x f f 586,918 contn-
or private donations, '83,830 sch ^ provinCes ; and
buted by the communes ,51-,370 y J vear was
1 189 057 by the state. The expenditure for that year
as follows :— m * .?a
The central commission and provincial inspection... 1
Cantonal inspection      15J37
Conferences of the teachers    ^ ygg’gg2
Ordinary expenses of instruction.   ’ /ggy
Construction and repairing of school-houses    ysg’/gO
Grants to caisse* de prevoyance scholarships, &,c  q.o’gpy
Infant, adult, and manufacturing schools, &c 
Normal and superior primary schools  1
4,376,675
The last item of this list does not properly belong to what
education with the population we Q 953 andffi
0-884 francs for each inhabitant, in 184/ it was 0 905, ana
including the former superior primary as well as the go
wry recently been
claSZongThe nidle -bools, -d J'^n as
general statistics of primary education, ulrea y g num_
that time belonging to that branch. These sc i
ber, were established in the pnncipa . ’ jaIKj_measur-
had 2978 pupils. The branches
ing and other branches of practical geomet y> w
the natural sciences, the the Lt
drawing, music, and gymnastics, w . The educa_
man and English languages und book-keeping^ ^
tional staff consisted ot a rector, t}ie last two
assistants ; the first nominated by the king,
by the minister of the interior. j. fUp state
The government has the general manag , , 0£ ad_
middle schools, in which it is assisted by a t nd
ministration for each school, composed ot the burgomaster ana
BELGIUM.
619
Belgium.
Inspection.
Conseil de
prefec-
tionne-
ment.
f’ompeti-
Kduea-
tional staff.
aldermen, and of from four to six members nominated by the
government from a list of candidates presented for that pur¬
pose by the communal council, with a secretary. The services
of the board are gratuitous ;—an election takes places every
three years, but the same members may be re-elected. They
have the general direction of the institution, the preparation
of the budgets, making up the annual reports, and presiding
at the distribution of the prizes, &c. Members of the board
may at any time visit and examine the classes.
These, like the primary schools, are also subjected to a
regular system of inspection. The literary and scientific
branches are under the superintendence of two inspectors and
an inspector-general, nominated by the king. To one of the
inspectors is especially confided the mathematical and natural
sciences, and to the other the humanities ; the other branches,
as history, geography, and the commercial sciences, may be
committed to either of the inspectors or to the inspector-gene¬
ral. Once a-year, at least, each of the athenamms are visited
by the inspector-general and both the other inspectors, and the
other establishments by one of them. The time and duration
of each tour of inspection is fixed by the minister of the inte¬
rior, who also gives special instructions concerning it, on the ad¬
vice of the conseil de prefectionnement. The inspector has to
examine and report upon the state and discipline of each esta¬
blishment, the methods employed in teaching, the progress
made by the pupils, and the merit and zeal of the teachers.
These reports are annually sent by the inspector-general to the
minister.
The conseil de prefectionnem,ent of middle instruction is
composed of from eight to ten members, presided over by the
minister of the interior or his deputy, and meets at least four
times a-year. It advises upon the programmes of the studies,
examines the books used in teaching or given as prizes, pro¬
poses directions to be given to the inspectors and examines
their reports, and deliberates on subjects connected with the
advancement of middle instruction.
A general competition takes place annually between the
scholars of the athenaeums and colleges receiving grants from
government; in which, however, scholars from other establish¬
ments may be admitted to take a part on a request being pre¬
sented to the minister of the interior to that effect. They are
examined by a jury, nominated by the minister of the interior,
and divided into two sections, the one for the humanities and
the other for the mathematical sciences. The examinations
are both written and oral; and the rewards are of three kinds,
prizes, accessits, and honourable mention.
The educational staff consistsof a prefect of studies in the athe-
nasums and a rector in the middle schools, professors, regents, and
masters. Since 1st June 1853, no one can be appointed a pro¬
fessor or prefect in the athenaeums or communal colleges with¬
out having the diploma of a professor agrege of superior mid¬
dle instruction. The rectors and regents of the middle schools
ought to have a diploma of a professor agrege of middle instruc¬
tion. A master or superintendent must have a certificate of
having attended a university, or the diploma of a primary
teacher. These conditions are not required of professors of
living languages, of writing, music, or gymnastics. Doctors in
philosophy, science, and some others are excepted; govern¬
ment may also grant exceptions in particular cases. The pre¬
fects, professors, rectors, and regents are nominated by the
king, and the masters and teachers by the minister of the in¬
terior. The diploma of a professor agrege of either degree is
bestowed by a special jury after a searching examination. It
is given without regard to the place where the candidate has
studied. The prefects and rectors reside on the premises, and
have the general direction and management of the institutions
over which they are placed, the maintenance of order and dis¬
cipline, and the superintendence of the professors and teachers.
Each has to report annually to the minister as to the state and
condition of the institution under his care ; to register the con¬
duct and progress of the scholars, both from his own observa¬
tions and from the monthly reports of the professors or teachers,
as well as the talents and proficiency of the professors, and the
method of teaching followed. They alone can correspond with
or report to the board of administration. Every three years a
report upon the state of middle education is presented by the
government to the legislature.
Ihe salaries of the prefects, rectors, professors, and regents
are partly fixed and partly fluctuating ; the former being fixed
by the government, and the latter arising from the division of
the fees, after defraying some necessary expenses, among them
in certain proportions. All are obliged to become members
of the central caisse de prevoyance who are not already mem¬
bers of a similar institution. The annual payment for those
whose income does not exceed 1500 francs is 3 per cent.,
from 1500 to 3000 it is 3J per cent., and 4 per cent, for all
above 3000 francs. Ministers of religion are invited to give
or superintend the religious instruction, and to communicate
their observations to the conseil de prefectionnement.
There are ten royal athenaeums in Belgium, two in Hain- Athe-
ault, and one in each of the other provinces, viz., in the towns najums.
of Antwerp, Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, Mons, Tournay, Liege,
Hasselt, Arlon, and Namur. In each of these there are two
courses,'the one for the humanities and the other for a profes¬
sional education. The humanity course includes religion, prin¬
ciples of rhetoric and poetry, the Greek, Latin, French, Fle¬
mish, German, and English languages, elementary mathematics
and physics, geography, and history, with the constitution of
the country, drawing, vocal music, and gymnastics. The pro¬
fessional course includes religion, rhetoric, the French, Flemish,
German, and English languages ; mathematics, including ana¬
lytical and descriptive geometry, and spherical trigonometry,
and as applicable to arts, manufactures, and commerce : the
elements of physics, mechanics, chemistry, natural history, and
astronomy ; book-keeping, the rudiments of commercial law
and political economy ; geography and history, particularly of
Belgium ; drawing, vocal music, aud gymnastics. This course
is divided into two sections, the lower and upper. The lower
division, independently of a preparatory class, comprehends
three classes, each extending over one year. The upper divi¬
sion has three sections, the commercial, industrial, and scienti¬
fic, each divided into two classes, and extending over two years.
To be admitted into the preparatory classes, the pupil must be
at least ten years of age, and at least eleven for the regular
classes. The entrance examination for the former compre¬
hends reading, writing correctly to dictation, the legal system
of weights and measures, the first four rules of arithmetic, and
the elements of the French language ; and for the latter are
added grammatical and logical analysis and fractions. They
also undergo examinations in passing from one class to another.
The government annually allocates the sum of 300,000 francs
to the athenaeums, in sums varying from 25,000 to 35,000 to
each ; and 200,000 to the middle schools according to their ne¬
cessities, the minimum being 2000 francs. The town or com¬
mune in which the athenaeums or middle schools are situated,
has to provide and maintain suitable buildings and furniture,
and in the case of athenaeums to contribute annually to the ex¬
tent of one-third of its expenditure. The commune may also
in case of necessity be called upon to contribute to the middle
school, but not to an extent exceeding one-third of the expense.
The fees are fixed by the government on the advice of the
board of administration, as well as the conditions of gratuitous
or reduced admission.
In the middle schools the branches taught are the French Middle
language, with the Flemish or German in the localities where schools,
these are used, arithmetic, the elements of algebra and geometry,
with land-measuring, and other branches of practical geometry,
writing, book-keeping, and the elements of commercial law,
the rudiments of the natural sciences, geography, history,
drawing, vocal music, and gymnastics. These courses are ar¬
ranged so as not to occupy more than two years, or three at the
most. To some is annexed a preparatory section.
The provincial or communal establishments take the name Provincial
of colleges, or provincial or communal middle schools. Some caneo.es &c>
of these receive government grants, and others are supported
entirely by the province or commune. They ought to be based
upon the same principles, and teach the same branches as the
royal athenaeums and middle schools. The administration is
in the hands of the province or commune by which the institu¬
tion has been founded, as well as the nomination of the profes¬
sors and the other employees. Subsidies by government to
these institutions are given, subject to the following conditions,
that the programme of studies, the books used, the rules, budgets,
and accounts be submitted to the approval of government.
In the end of 1848 there were 8 athenaeums, 16 communal col¬
leges, and 12 commercial and industrial schools endowed by the
state. Most of these have libraries, museums of natural his¬
tory, and chemical laboratories. The athenaeums and colleges
Belgium.
BELGIUM.
Superior
instruc¬
tion.
Agreges.
Manage¬
ment.
had then 4438 scholars, of whom 2595 were attending the hu¬
manity courses, 163 had bursaries, and o96 were receiving
gratuitous instruction. There were 51 unendowed colleges ; of
these 28 were Episcopal colleges and seminaries, and two ex¬
clusively communal. Since then two additional athenaeums
have been established, and a number of government middle
schools, so that there are at present (1853) 10 of the former
and 47 of the latter.
The superior instruction establishments are the tour univer¬
sities, two belonging to the state, at Ghent and Liege, the Ca¬
tholic university at Louvain, and the free university at Brussels.
Each of the state universities has faculties of philosophy and
literature, science, law, and medicine, including archaeology,
modern and oriental literature, anthropology, aesthetics, sta¬
tistics, physical and ethnographical geography, political eco¬
nomy the higher mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, physics,
mineralogy, geology, zoology, botany, &c. The professors are
ordinary or extraordinary, the former having a fixed salary ol
6000 francs, and the latter of 4000 francs. The government,
however, has the power of augmenting the salaries of the or¬
dinary professors to the extent of from 1000 to 3000 francs.
In each university there are 8 professors in philosophy, J m
the sciences, 7 in law, and 8 in medicine. One or two addi-
tional professors may be added to each of the faculties in case
of necessity. The professors are nominated by the king, and
cannot exercise any other profession without the consent ot the
government. No one can be a professor without having a de¬
gree of doctor, or being a licentiate of that branch of education
he is appointed to teach. Government may however dispense
with these conditions in the case of men of superior merit.
Attached to each university are a number of agreges named
by the king. Their title is honorary, and they are chosen from
among those students who have most distinguished themselves
at the public competitions or final examinations, from profes¬
sors of middle instruction who have been at least fifteen years
engaged in teaching, or from members of the civil or military
body of engineers. They are nominally attached to one of the
faculties, but are not prohibited from exercising any of the
liberal professions, and may give private lessons or repetitions
of the courses taught in the university. In the case of any of
the professors being unable to perform his duties, a substitute
is chosen from among the agreges attached to that faculty.
They may be appointed to give lessons or repetitions, in the
university, of any of the courses already taught there, under the
direction of the professor of that branch, or to give new courses.
They receive no salary except when engaged in teaching in the
university.
The universities are under the management of a rector, a
secretary, deans of faculty, the senatus academicus, and the
board of assessors. The rector is nominated by the king for
three years, and has the direction of all academic matters. He
enrols the students, superintends their conduct, and receives
the oath of the professors and agreges. The secretary is ap¬
pointed annually by the king from a list of two candidates no¬
minated by the senatus academicus. He minutes the meetings
of the senatus and assessors, prepares the programmes, con¬
ducts the correspondence, and is keeper of the seal and archives.
The deans of the faculties are chosen annually by the profes¬
sors of each faculty, and have the right of convoking the pro¬
fessors of their faculty. The senatus and the board of asses¬
sors are convoked by the rector; the former composed of the
professors under the presidency of the rector, and the latter of
the rector, secretary, and the deans of faculty.
Attached to each of the universities is an administrator-in¬
spector nominated by the king to see that the funds allocated to
the university are properly expended, that the library, museums,
&c., are properly taken care of, and that the various function¬
aries are performing their duties. He ha s a salary of6000 francs.
Each student pays annually for enrolment 15 francs, the
amount of which is equally divided among the rector, secretary,
and the porters, one-third to each. The student then takes out
a ticket for the branches of the course in which he intends to
take his examinations. For philosophy and literature, and
law, the annual ticket costs 250 francs, and 200 francs for the
other faculties. The government may, upon the advice of the
faculty, grant tickets for special courses, the cost of which is
fixed according to circumstances. The sums received for the
tickets are divided among the professors and agreges who have
given the courses.
There are two vacations in the academic year the one from Belgium,
the beginning of August to the beginning of October, and the >
other from the Thursday preceding Easter to the second Tues¬
day thereafter. „ _ .
The instructions are given in the French language. Ine
minister of the interior, at least once a-year, calls a meeting
of eight of the professors (one for each faculty) to deliberate
upon the means of improving the superior education. _ _
Subsidies are accorded by government to the universities for
the libraries, botanical gardens, cabinets, &c.; but the towns
of Liege and Ghent are bound to maintain the buildings. A re¬
port upon the state of the universities is presented to the cham¬
bers every three years.   TTniversitv
The free university of Brussels has faculties of philosophy and ^ Bruggelg
literature, of science, of law, and of medicine, courses in which
are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and agreges.
Each student pays annually 15 francs for enrolment, and a fee
of 200 francs for the courses in any of the faculties. The fee
for single classes is generally 50 francs. An annual subsidy of
10,000 francs is allocated to the university by the provincial
council of Brabant, and the permanent deputation has the right
of annually presenting ten youths of the province for gra¬
tuitous instruction. An annual subsidy of 3000 francs is also
allocated annually by the communal council of Brussels. It is
governed by an administrative council, composed partly of per¬
manent members and partly of members chosen annually by
the professors of the four faculties and the former students of
the university. This council is presided over by the burgo¬
master of Brussels, who has a casting vote in its proceedings.
It chooses from among its members an administrator-inspec¬
tor, whose services are gratuitous. The rector is also chosen by
the council from among the professors. _
The Catholic university of Louvain is governed by a grand Catholic
rector nominated and revocable by the episcopal body ; a vice-University
rector is also nominated by the episcopal body on the advice of
the grand rector. The rector nominates the secretary and other
functionaries of the university, and lays annually before the
episcopal body a detailed report ot the state of the university.
The senatus academicus is composed of the professors of the
faculties under the presidency of the grand rector. The rec-
toral council is composed of the vice-rector, the secretary, and
the deans of the faculties. The faculties are philosophy and
literature, the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences,
law, medicine, and theology. The courses of the five faculties
are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and lecturers
nominated by the episcopal body on the presentation of the rec¬
tor. The enrolment fee for the first year is 10 francs, and 5
francs annually thereafter. The annual fee for courses in the
faculties varies from 150 to 250 francs, except the theological
courses, which are gratuitous. It has an extensive libi ary,
cabinets of mineralogy, zoology, &c., and a botanical garden.
The number of students attending the university of Ghent at
the end of 1850 was 351; Liege, 504; Brussels, 346; and
Louvain, 774. „
A competition takes place annually between the scholars ot
superior instruction. Competitors are required to be not above
twenty-five years of age, except in the case of medical and law
students, who may compete if not above twenty-seven years.
The examining jury for each faculty is composed of five mem¬
bers, with an equal number of assistants. Four of the mem¬
bers are nominated by the universities, and the fifth by the
government. At these competitions two gold medals are given
in each of the faculties. To enable students in poor circum¬
stances but of superior parts to receive a university education,
bursaries of 400 francs each are annually given by the state on
the advice of the jury of examination. The number ot these
may amount to sixty. Six bursaries of 1000 trancs each may
be annually given by the government to those who have taken
their degree of doctor with the greatest distinction, to enable
them to study in other countries. Two are for doctors in law
and in philosophy and literature, and four for doctors m science
and medicine. They are given for two years. Besides these
there are connected with the universities a number ot private
bursaries of ancient creation, the management and bestowal ot
which are in the hands of part icular persons or corporations in
terms of the acts of foundation. ,
In each of the faculties there are two degrees—-ot candidate
and doctor, besides the degree of doctor in political and ad¬
ministrative science, of candidate in pharmacy, of apothecary,
BELGIUM.
621
Belgium, and of candidate-notary. No pne can be examined for being
a candidate in philosophy and literature, or in science, without
having attended one of the universities for one year ; nor can
any one be examined for the title of candidate in law w ithout
being' one in philosophy and literature ; and no one as candidate
in medicine without being one in the natural sciences. h>o one
can be a doctor in any branch without being first a candidate
in that branch ; and doctors in medicine have besides to attend,
for at least two years, courses of clinical medicine, surgery, and
midwifery. No one can practise as advocate, physician, sur¬
geon, accoucheur, or oculist, without having the degree of
doctor. Each of these has to undergo strict examinations on
all the branches connected with their professions by juries of
examiners. Candidates in pharmacy must undergo an exa¬
mination upon botany and vegetable physiology, organic and
inorganic chemistry, and the elements of physics; previous to
which they are examined in Latin, French, the elements of
algebra and geometry, and the history of the country. They
must, previous to receiving the title of apothecary, show that
they have been practically engaged for two years, and been ex¬
amined in theoretical and practical pharmacy, and in the pre¬
paration of drugs.
The juries of examination are formed by the government,
and the members are chosen equally from the professors of the
government, and of private institutions. The degrees are con¬
ferred on the student without reference to the place where he
has studied. The examinations are both written and oral. The
certificates and diplomas take notice of the appearance made by
the student—whether in a satisfactory manner, with distinc¬
tion. with great distinction, or with the greatest distinction.^
There are two sessions of the juries annually, the one begin-
nin0- on the Monday before Easter, and the other on the first
Monday of August. The fees of the different examinations
vary from 20 to 150 francs (from 15s. lOd. to L.5, 18s. 9d.),
as follows:—the entrance examination of a university student,
and the preparatory examination of a candidate in pharmacy,
20 francs; the examination of a candidate, or doctor in philo¬
sophy and literature, or the sciences, a candidate in pharmacy,
an apothecary, or a doctor in political science, 50 francs , of
a candidate in medicine, or each of the three examinations of
a doctor of medicine, 80 francs ; of a candidate in law, the first
examination of a doctor of law, or the examination of a notary
candidate,100 francs ; the second examination of a doctor of law,
or the examination of a doctor in political science, loO francs.
There are two government normal schools for primary
teachers, one at Lierre, and the other at Nivelles ; the former
having thirteen and the latter fourteen professors, with each a
rector and a demonstrating gardener. The rectors and professors
are appointed by the king. The course extends over three years,
and includes, besides the ordinary branches, history. geography,
commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, rudiments of the natural
sciences, theory and practice of agriculture, horticulture, and ar¬
boriculture, hygiene as applicable to children and schools, edu¬
cation theoretical and practical, drawing, music, and gymnastics.
During the last year of their attendance they are exercised in
teaching in the primary schools of the town. They are also
instructed in the keeping of registers, making up of reports ,&c.
The number of scholars in 1849 at Lierre was 87, and Nevilles
124. Of these 48 received diplomas that year. The expense
of these schools to the state for the three years preceding 1849
was 230,663 francs (L.9130). There are also seven episcopal
normal schools in which the branches taught are similar to
the above, except that the ceremonies of the Catholic church
are more particularly inculcated. The chief diocesan nominates
the rectors and professors. The course lasts for four years. The
number of scholars in 1850 was 306.
Bursaries of 200 francs each are annually given by govern¬
ment to assist poor students attending the normal schools who
give proofs of their aptitude. These may be continued to
them after leaving school, during their noviciate as assistants
or teachers.
Each province has one or more institutions for the train¬
ing of female teachers, and bursaries are provided for young
females desirous of entering such institutions. The number
of scholars at the end of 1850 was 114.
Middle. Students of promise who have taken diplomas at either of the
government primary normal schools may be admitted to the
normal school of middle instruction at Nivelles, The number
of students to be admitted is annually fixed by the minister.
Normal
schools;
primary.
The course is for one year, and includes the French language, Belgium,
mathematics, land-measuring, the elements of physics, me-
chanics, and chemistry, and pedagogy. The diploma of pro¬
fessor agrege of middle instruction is given after two searching
examinations by a jury of seven members. It mentions the
manner in which he passed his examinations. 1 he fees for the
two examinations amount to 70 francs.
For training teachers for the superior middle institutions,
there are the normal school of the humanities at Liege, and
the normal school of the sciences at Ghent. The number to be
admitted is determined annually by the minister. They must
be young men, between 18 and 23 years of age, of superior
talents, qualifying them to perform creditably the duties of
professor. Previous to admission they have to produce certi¬
ficates of character, and to be examined both orally and by
writing by a jury of five members; and the number to be ad¬
mitted is taken from among those that stand highest by the
examinations. The branches taught in the school at Liege ex¬
tend over three years, and include the Latin, Greek, i rench, and
English languages ; antiquities, ancient and modern history
and literature ; geography, ancient, modern, and physical, phi¬
losophy, the principles of general grammar, and pedagogy.
They undergo an examination annually ; and on passing their
final examination, they receive a diploma of professor agregd
of superior middle instruction for the humanities. W here the
branches of the normal school are the same with those taught
in the university, the scholars generally attend there, ihe
rector has a salary of 6000 francs, and the professors uncon¬
nected with the university from 3000 to 5000 francs. Each
student has to pay a fee of 500 francs, but fifteen bursaries of
500 francs each are given for one year to the poorer students,
and which may be continued for a longer period on the ad¬
vice of the rector. The recipients become bound to act as
professors in one of the middle schools for five years..
The branches taught in the normal school of sciences at
Ghent also extend over three years, and include the higher de¬
partments of mathematics, physics, mechanics, chemistry., na¬
tural history, &c. The degree of professor agrege of middle
superior instruction for the sciences is conferred on those pass¬
ing the final examination. There are five bursai’ies of 500
francs in connection with this school. . ...
Attached to the university of Ghent is a school for civil engi- Engineer-
neers. The preparatory course extends over two years, and ing school,
comprehends the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences
necessary to the subsequent courses. The special course is
divided into two sections, the one for engineers of roads and
bridges, and the other for architectural engineers. This course
continues for two or three years, and the pupils undergo strict
examinations both on entering and leaving. During the sum¬
mer they are generally sent to visit, or to assist in the various
public works that may be going on. The third course, which
lasts for three years, is for industrial engineers or persons
engaged in arts or manufactures. They are instructed in the
application of the various sciences to the arts and manufactures,
or trade, particularly to the mechanical arts.
Similar to the above is the mining school attached to the Mining
university of Liege. The first course is preparatory to the school,
other two. The special course includes all the branches neces¬
sary to a mining engineer. The third course is for those de¬
sirous of obtaining a knowledge of mining, minerals, &c., more
particularly as connected with the arts and manufactures.
This last course extends over four years.
There is a military school at Brussels for training officers Military
for the army. Candidates for admission must be between six- schools,
teen and twenty years of age, except in the case of persons in
the army, having entered it before the age of twenty, and been
at least two years in active service, who are admitted^ till
twenty-five. They are admitted by public competition. The
courses are divided into two sections; the one, which extends
over two years, is preparatory to the second, which also ex¬
tends over two years, and is divided into special branches
qualifying for the infantry, cavalry, or marines. For the first
two years students pay for their education and maintenance
800 francs annually. Those from the army receive their pay
during their attendance. The king gives annually twelve
bursaries, which may be divided into half bursaries. On enter¬
ing the second section, they become bound to serve for six
years, cease to pay for their maintenance, and receive commis¬
sions as sub-lieutenants. They are examined annually, and
BELGIUM.
622
Belgium, the last year by a jury of military officers appointed by the
' A school has been established in Lierre for the purpose of
educating the sons of the military for subalterns. They are
admitted from ten to fourteen years of age, and are bound to
serve in the army till their twenty-fourth year. Those, how¬
ever, who on attaining their fifteenth year are considered un¬
fit for the service are dismissed, but if meritorious they naay
remain till their sixteenth year, and be provided with situa¬
tions. Besides the ordinary branches of education, they are
taught drawing, geometry, music, dancing, fencing, swimming,
gymnastics, and military exercises. The course extends over
five years, and the pupils generally enter the army about the
age of sixteen. They are placed in the army according to then
proficiency, some as sub-officers and corporals, others as com¬
mon soldiers. The pupils in 1850 were 4o0. _ .
Each regiment has a regimentary school for training young
men in the army for subalterns; and a number of evening
schools for atfording the means of education to the soldiery.
The regimentary schools are under the superintendence ot the
brigade majors of the territorial divisions, who examine the
schools in their districts at least once a-year, and report to the
minister. Attendance at one of these schools is obligatory on
all subalterns and corporals whose education is not complete,
according to their position. The scholars in 1848 ■were o-o7-
Special courses are also given to those who intend to compete tor
admission to the military school. The success of these courses
is evident from one-third, and sometimes one-half, of those
admitted to that school being from the army. A riding school
was established in 1847 for instructing officers of the cavalry
artillery, and staff, in the art of riding, as well as those destined
for instructing the troops of horse. The former attend tor one
and the latter for two years. Attached to the riding school is
a school of farriery.
There is also a school of pyrotechny, under the direction of
a superior officer of artillery, with a certain number of officers
and subalterns. Eight well-educated young men are sent from
each regiment of artillery to attend this school. The course
continues for two years, and comprehends arithmetic, practical
geometry, drawing, theoretical and practical pyrotechny and
chemistry.
Navigation Schools of navigation have been established at Antwerp and
schools. Ostend for furnishing properly educated masters for merchant
vessels. Instruction is given gratuitously in navigation and
the branches connected with it, as arithmetic, geometry, trigo¬
nometry, nautical astronomy, &c. ; with the elements of com¬
mercial law, as applicable to merchant vessels, the English
language, and the manoeuvring, rigging, and trimming a ves¬
sel, both theoretically and practically. Certificates of qualifi¬
cations as masters or mates are given by a jury of examiners.
The Royal Institution of Messines is for the education of
daughters of military men who have died or been disabled in the
service of their country. They are admitted from seven to four¬
teen years of age, and remain till their eighteenth year. They
are instructed in branches necessary to qualify them as gover¬
nesses, domestic servants, &c. Situations are provided for
them on leaving. Some of them are trained as teachers for
infant-schools, and for this purpose an infant-school has lately
been formed in connection with the institution. The number
in 1851 was 230.
Agricultu- A school of agriculture is established at Tirlemont, to which
ral school, scholars are admitted from fifteen to twenty-two years of age,
after passing an entrance examination. The course extends
over three years, and includes the elements of mathematics,
physics, mechanics, mineralogy, geology, botany, chemistry,
zoology, agriculture, land-measuring, rural architecture, and
veterinary science. There is a farm of 115 hectares in con¬
nection with the school. The annual fee is 400 francs. There
are seven other similar establishments throughout the country,
to some of which bursaries are attached ; a practical school of
horticulture and arboriculture at Yilvorde ; and a theoretical
and practical school of horticulture at Gentbrugge (East Flan¬
ders). There is also a government school of agriculture and
veterinary science, in connection with which there are several
bursaries.
It has lately been proposed to establish at Antwerp a kind
of commercial university for special instruction in the commer¬
cial sciences. It is expected that this will be in operation
next year (1854).
The academies and schools of design, painting, sculpture, &c., Belgium,
are divided into three branches. 1. The royal academies of the
fine arts, in which painting, sculpture, architecture, and en-Academ;eg
graving, are taught in the most efficient manner ; 2. Academies and schools
of design established in the principal towns, and giving instruc- of designi
tions in designing, architecture, and the principles of geometry
and perspective drawing; 3. Schools of design established in
all the larger towns for instructing young persons and artisans
in the elements of designing and architecture. In 1850 there
were 41 such academies and schools in the kingdom, having
164 professors, and 7450 pupils.
The Royal Academy of the Fine Arts at Antwerp is princi- Academy
pally intended to afford gratuitous instruction in painting, of fine arts,
sculpture, architecture, and engraving, and to propagate and
encourage a taste for the fine arts. The programme of studies
includes portrait, historical, and landscape painting, sculpture,
civil and naval architecture, geometry, designing, engraving,
&c., with lectures on anatomy, perspective, history of architec¬
ture, Ac. In 1850 there were 1060 scholars. A competition
in one of the branches of the fine arts is annually held in Ant¬
werp, the laureate at which receives a pension of 2500 francs
annually for four years, to enable him to perfect himself in his
art in Germany, France, and Italy. The second prize is a
gold medal of 300 francs. The Royal Academy of the Fine
Arts at Brussels, is an institution similar to that at Antwerp.
Instruction is gratuitous, and the vacancies are filled up by
competition. The students in 1850 amounted to 761.
The Royal Musical Conservatory at Brussels is under the Musical
direction of the minister of the interior, aided by a commission conserva-
of seven members nominated by the king, with the burgo- tory.
master of Brussels as honorary president. The instruction is
gratuitous, and includes vocal and instrumental music, compo¬
sition, and the Italian language. There are thirty professors,
and the number of scholars in 1850 was 299. There are six
bursaries of 250 francs, and ten of 125 francs, in connection
with this institution. There is a similar establishment at
Liege, with (in 1850) 300 scholars. There is also one at Ghent
unconnected with the government; scholars (1850) 308. Music,
both vocal and instrumental, is much cultivated in Belgium,
and musical schools and societies are established in almost all
the principal towns, and throughout the country. In the end
of 1851, there were 461 instrumental music societies, with 12,397
members, and 258 vocal, with 7062 members. A competition
in musical composition takes place every two years at Brussels,
the laureate receiving a pension of 2500 francs for four years,
to enable him to study in France, Germany, and Italy. The
second prize is a gold medal of the value ot 300 francs.
Belgium possesses a great number of learned societies, as Royal
the Royal Medical Academy, the Royal Academy of Science, academies.
Literature, and Art, Ac. . .
There is a government inspector-general of science, litera¬
ture, and art, who has the general superintendence of that de¬
partment, under the minister of the interior. He visits the
exhibitions of the fine arts, and informs the government ot
such works as merit a place in the National Museum, and ot
young artists whose talents and proficiency render them worthy
of notice. Under him are two administrative boards, the one
for literature and science, and the other for the fine arts. _
The Royal Medical Academy has its seat at Brussels. It is
divided into six sections, each composed of six titular and three
assistant members ; and has twenty-four corresponding an
an indefinite number of honorary members. Each of the sec¬
tions has certain branches of medical science assigned to it.
A meeting is held every month except August, and a general
meeting once a-year. The academy answers any questions
that may be proposed to it by the government, upon matters
connected with public hygiene, and makes researches in a
subjects connected with or tending to advance medical science.
Its proceedings are published annually. A certain num er o
gold medals are given annually by the academy for the best
essays on prescribed subjects. It receives an annual gran o
20,000 francs from the state. n , ,
The Royal Academy of Science, Literature, and Art, also
has its seat at Brussels. It is divided into three classes, tor
the sciences, literature, and the fine arts; the first two are
each subdivided into two sections, and the last into branches
for painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and music.
Each class is composed of thirty members, fifty foreign asso¬
ciates, and not more than ten native correspondents. I he aca-
BELGIUM.
623
Royal ob¬
servatory.
Belgium, demy has a general meeting once a-year. Each of the classes
v ■ meets monthly, and has also an annual public meeting tor con¬
ducting the general business and proclaiming the authors ol
the prize essays. Each class proposes annually certain sub¬
jects for essays, to which gold medals of the value of 600
francs are adjudged. The academy receives aii annual grant
of 40,000 francs from the state. Connected with this academy
is a royal commission of history for the purpose of searching
for, and editing old chronicles and documents tending to throw
light upon the early history of the country. In this patriotic
object it is zealously seconded by government.
The Royal Observatory for astronomical and meteorolgical
observations is under the management of a director and four
assistants. It has published an annual since 1834. With the
view of precisely determining the measure of time, a small
lunette meridian has been constructed in each ot the cities of
Antwerp, Ostend, Bruges, Ghent, and Liege ; and grand meri¬
dians are placed on the walls of edifices in numerous other
towns. In the observatory are instruments specially provided
hy government for the use of young men desirous of making
meteorological or astronomical observations. Premiums. and
medals are given to Belgians for useful discoveries, inventions,
or improvements in instruments, &c.
Museums. The Royal Museum of Brussels, for the reception of objects
in natural history belonging to the state, is open to the public
on Sundays, Mondays, and Thursdays. There is also a museum
of industry containing models and plans of machines used in
arts, manufactures, and agriculture. Annexed to this museum
is a school where instruction is given gratuitously in the con¬
struction of such machines. It possesses also a chemical labora¬
tory, library, &c. There is also a royal museum of war instru¬
ments at Brussels, open to the public on Sundays and holiday s.
The royal museum of painting and sculpture is under the di¬
rection of a commission, composed of a president and six mem¬
bers nominated by the king, and charged with the collection
of works of ancient and modern masters for the museum. It
is open to the public on Sundays, Mondays,. and Thursdays.
A triennial exhibition of works of living artists, Belgian and
foreign, in painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and litho¬
graphy, is held at Brussels. The exhibition of 1851 contained
1479 works by 792 artists, of whom 314 were foreign. There
are similar exhibitions held in Antwerp, Ghent, Liege, Bruges,
&c. The geographical establishment at Brussels has a con¬
siderable collection of books and maps, a garden, herbarium,
. collection of rocks, lava, fossils, &c.
Libraries Besides the libraries belonging to ditferent societies, associa¬
tions, &c., there were in 1849 nineteen public libraries in Bel¬
gium. The principal of these is the royal library of Brussels.
It then contained about 180,000 volumes, 19,668 manuscripts,
30,000 engravings, and 14,000 medals and coins. The average
annual increase is upwards of 3000 volumes. This is the only
library that receives copies of copyright works. The public
library of Ghent is connected with the un iversity. It has 60,000
volumes and 600 manuscripts, besides pamphlets, &c. ihe
average annual increase for the last ten years has.been 650
volumes and 5 manuscripts. The Liege public library has
58,000 volumes, about 26,000 pamphlets, and 430 manuscripts ;
annual increase about 700. The public library of the Louvain
university is the most ancient in Belgium, and is particularly
rich in works of ancient history, theology, and literature, in¬
cluding Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Oriental. In 1846 it had
upwards of 60,000 volumes and 319 manuscripts. The library
of Tournay has 26,230 volumes and 200 manuscripts ; Antw erp
20,000 volumes; Namur 17,000; Mons 15,000; Brugesl0,500;
Ypres 9500 ; and the rest a smaller number. These libraries
are open daily for consultation, and in almost all of them
volumes may be lent out at the discretion of the conservators.
Nor has this occasioned any serious loss. Since 1838 about
10,000 volumes have been lent out of the library at Brussels,
and of these only two insignificant volumes have been lost.
From 1845 to 1850, 19,805 volumes had been lent out of the
library of Ghent, of which only 20 were lost or destroyed,
which were replaced at the expense of the borrowers. The
number of works consulted in the rooms of this library, from
1st October 1849 to 1st July 1850, was 12,772 ; and 3494 were
lent out.
Archives. The archives of Belgium contain a great number of interest¬
ing and valuable documents connected with the history of the
country. These are carefully preserved, classified, and in¬
ventoried. The general archives of the kingdom at Brussels Belgium,
contain upwards of 100,000 documents, and the archives of ^
Antwerp upwards of 70,000. Those of the provinces of West
and East Flanders, Hainault, Liege, and Namur, are ancient
and important. The archives of the city of Bruges, at one
time the grand commercial entrepot of Europe, contain a num¬
ber of valuable papers bearing upon the events of which this
city was the theatre in the middle ages. Unfortunately they
do not go further back than 1280, the previous documents
having been all destroyed by an extensive fire in that year.
In 1848, 202 journals were published in Belgium. Of these Period!-
18 appeared seven times, 20 six times, 20 three times, 12 cals,
twice, and 132 less than twice a-week ; 137 were in the French
language, 52 in Flemish, 1 in English, 1 in German, and 1 m
Polish ; 122 were political, 37 literary or scientific, and 33
exclusively devoted to advertisements. The stamp duty having
been abolished in 1848, it is impossible to give the number
since that period, but it has been much increased. The total
number of newspapers stamped during the first quarter of
1848 was 2,781,458, producing a duty of 105,605 fr. The num¬
ber of literary and scientific reviews and magazines in 1850
was 93.
The benevolent and charitable institutions of Belgium are nume- Hospitals,
rous and open to all. The duty of supporting these falls in the &c.
first instance upon the commune, afterwards upon the province, and
finally, in case of necessity, upon the state. They are divided into
three classes. 1. Those affording assistance or an asylum to the
poor in the case of age, infirmity, disease, want of work, &c., inclu¬
ding dispensaries, foundling and maternity hospitals, deaf-mute, and
blind institutions, &c. 2. Those more particularly destined to the
prevention and suppression of vagabondage and beggary, as the depots
of mendicity and the reform schools. 3. Those specially intended
to foster a spirit of independence and foresight among the working
classes, as savings-banks, assurance and mutual assistance societies.
Every town of importance, and many of the rural communes
have hospitals for the aged, infirm, and indigent. Asylums for in¬
curables are also numerous, but much less so than the former.
Farm hospitals have been established in the rural communes of the
two Flanders, where the inmates contribute by work to their own
maintenance. They form small agricultural colonies of old people
and children, mutually aiding and assisting each other. The pro¬
ducts of the farms are generally equal to their maintenance. There
are fourteen such establishments in West Flanders, with (1851)
1052 inmates ; and fourteen in East Flanders.
Foundling hospitals are established in Antwerp, Brussels, Lou¬
vain, Bruges, Ostend, &c. The children generally remain only for
a short time in the hospitals. They are pensioned out to inhabi¬
tants of the rural communes till their twelfth year, at which period
the wardship of the hospital terminates. Inspectors are appointed
to visit the children quarterly, to report upon their physical con¬
dition, see that they are attending schools, &c. The number (1850)
was 7574. There are maternity hospitals at Brussels, Louvain,
Ghent, Liege, Bruges, Nieuport, and Tournay, in several of which
courses of midwifery are given. Maternity societies for aiding
females with money, medicine, &c. are formed in many of the
towns. In 1846 there were 58 lunatic asylums, 18 public and 40
private, having in all 3143 patients. A colony of lunatics has
been formed in the commune of Gheels, province of Antwerp,
where, under the direction of a permanent committee, they are pen¬
sioned out among the inhabitants, and generally employed in agri¬
cultural labours. In 1851 they amounted to 931.
In 1835 the number of the deaf and dumb was 1746, of whom
1376 were from birth, and 370 by disease or accident; of the
blind w'as 3892, 256 from birth, and the rest by disease or accident.
In 1850 the deaf and dumb in seven of the provinces (East I lan¬
ders and Hainault not given) amounted to 1265, and the blind to
1793. There are in all ten institutions for these, in Brussels, Bruges,
Ghent, &c. There are ophthalmic institutions in Brussels, Mons,
and Liege. , . . „ ,,
To prevent the misery, and frequently the crime, arising from the
want of employment among the working classes, charity workshops
have been established in Ghent, Liege, and other towns. Ihese are
accessible to all workmen without employment, and in poor circum¬
stances. The able bodied are paid according to their work, and the
aged and infirm according to their necessities. The workshops of
apprenticeship and improvement are intended not only to supply
work to the unemployed, but principally to initiate the people in
the exercise of new or improved branches of industry, and to in¬
struct the young men in some trade or profession by which they
may be able to gain an honest maintenance. They have been found
of great benefit to many of the poorer classes who would otherwise
have been brought up as vagrants and beggars. The apprentice-
624
BELGIUM.
Belgium, ship generally lasts from four to six months. Although the means
i ° y of obtaining a primary education is provided in connection with
these establishments, yet their time is too much devoted to manual
labour to derive much profit from the latter. Many thousands are
employed in these workshops. Similar to these are the manufac¬
turing schools, intended principally for girls, where they are em¬
ployed in the manufacture of lace, &c. These are supported partly
by the state and partly by the province and communes.
There are five depdts of mendicity or workhouses in the kingdom,
at Bruges, Hoogstraeten, Mons, Reckheim, and the Cambre (com¬
mune of Ixelles). In December 1850 they contained 3478 persons.
The average daily expense of each is 50 centimes (4f d.) A reform
school was founded in Ruysselede, in 1848, for male vagrants and
mendicants under eighteen years of age. It contained (1851) 500
members, employed in cultivating a large farm of 128 hectares. At
a short distance is a similar institution for girls.
In each commune is a bureau de bienfaisance, for assisting the
poor with money, food, clothing, &c., and, where there are no hos-
-U . , . • . i 1 • 1 _ i.X J r»v\sl m /-wl I i T"! O C J ^
pitals, providing them with medical attendance and medicines,
also contributes to the maintenance and education of poor children,
foundlings, deaf-mutes, and lunatics. In 1850, 205,516 families,
consisting of 901,456 persons, were aided by these charities, and
the amount expended was 6,331,240 fr. This, however, cannot be
taken as a criterion of the true condition of the people, as many
who do not require it take advantage of the society for receiving
gratuitous education or medical attendance.
Twenty-two towns in Belgium are provided with Monts de piktb,
charitable institutions for lending money to the poor, upon the se¬
curity of pledges. Each Mont de pUU is directed by a board of five
members nominated by the communal council. In 1850,1,307,711
articles were deposited or renewed, 1,253,698 retired, and 51,857
sold ; the money lent amounted to 7,775,668 fr.
A savings-bank is established in the principal town of each pro¬
vince, by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry.
The number of depositors in these in 1851 was 23,302, and the
amount deposited was 17,024,396 fr. They have also been esta¬
blished in all the manufacturing towns, and in many of the rural
communes. Caisses de pr&voyance, both general and for special
classes of workmen, are also numerous. Mutual assistance societies
to succour the members in sickness, pay their funeral expenses, and
aid their families, are numerous. A report presented to the Cham¬
bers in 1851, shows that the number of these was 211, having 24,367
members.
Agrioul- Since 1830 the agricultural state of the country has been much
ture. improved. A superior council of agriculture, composed of two de¬
legates nominated annually from each of the provincial commissions
of agriculture, and a president, vice-president, and secretary, ap¬
pointed by the minister of the interior, is specially charged with the
promotion and superintendence of the agricultural interests of the
country. In each of the provinces is an agricultural commission of
practical men, nominated by the king, one from each of the agri¬
cultural districts in the province, and a veterinary surgeon. They
encourage the introduction of improvements in the different branches
of agriculture, and report annually to the government upon the state
of agriculture in their provinces. Each district has an agricultural
committee which meets twice a-year. Every five years a grand agri¬
cultural exhibition of horses, cattle, agricultural implements, and
produce, is held in Brussels, at which numerous gold and silver
medals, &c., are given as prizes. Local exhibitions are also held fre-
qently in the various districts. In each of the agricultural districts
there is at least one veterinary surgeon for superintending and
reporting to the governor of the province upon epidemics and
other diseases among cattle. No one can practise as a veterinary
surgeon without having obtained a diploma after an examination
by jury in the various branches of the art. Indemnities are given
by government to agriculturists for losses sustained in crops, cattle,
&c., to an extent varying from one-third to one-tenth of the loss.
The agriculturists above twelve years of age, including female
servants, form one-fourth of the entire population. Females'are exten¬
sively engaged in agricultural work, being in 1846 to the males as 61
to 100. In 1846 the number of horses was 194,537, of cattle 1,203,891,
sheep 662,508, swine 496,565, goats 110,060. To improve the breeds
of horses a government stud of about 40 stallions has been formed
at Tervueren. These are annually sent out to stations in the dif¬
ferent provinces.
The cultivated land of Belgium amounts to 2,603,036 hectares,
or 6,432,477, acres, of which 1,423,453 hectares are in the hands of
the proprietors, and 1,179,583 are let to tenants. In WestFlanders
85 per cent. are. tenants: in Luxembourg three-fourths are in the
hands of the proprietors ; and in the provinces of Antwerp, Bra¬
bant, and East Flanders, three-fourths are let to tenants. It is
divided into numerous and mostly small patches (nearly 600,000).
Of these 43 per cent, do not exceed 50 ares, or about 1 acre and
a quarter, 12 above 50 ares and not exceeding one hectare, or 2
acres and a half, 29 not exceeding 5 hectares, 7-47 not exceeding Belgium
10 hectares, and less than 8 of greater extent. The Belgians, par-
ticularly in Flanders, are averse to the introduction of improvement,
in their agricultural operations, and their implements are generally
rude and clumsy. Their lands are however cultivated with great
care and are very productive. The proportion to 1000 hectares of
the various kinds of land in 1846 was:—
Producing Cereal and Farinaceous crops,  337‘34
... Industrial plants,   25'22
... Leguminous fruits,   26'38
... Alimentary roots,  50'66
... Fodder,   59-83
Prairie land,  13919
Fallow    3108
Garden,   19-17
Wood,   186-58
Uncultivated or only periodically,  124-55
Of the cereal and farinaceous crops rye is the most extensively
cultivated, and forms an important article of food for the working
classes. Wheat and*oats are also extensively cultivated, the former
particularly in the provinces of Hainault, Brabant, and West Flan¬
ders. Comparatively little barley is raised.
The industrial plants are hops, chicory, tobacco, rape and other
oleaginous plants, hemp, flax, madder, teasel, beet, &c. Of these
the most extensively cultivated is flax, principally in the two Flan¬
ders. Tobacco was much more extensively grown a few years ago ;
at present it is now almost entirely confined to the two Flanders
and Hainault. The chicory plant is principally raised in Hainault.
The cultivation of beet for the extraction of sugar is continully in¬
creasing, and numerous establishments have been formed for its pre¬
paration.
The leguminous plants,pease, beans, and tares, are used principally
as fodder for cattle : the most common are beans.
The beet-root is even more extensively cultivated as fodder than
as an industrial plant, particularly in the provinces of W est I lan¬
ders, Liege, Hainault, and Brabant. Turnips are, next to the po¬
tatoes, the most extensively cultivated of the alimentary roots. In
1846 the extent of ground occupied in potatoes was 115,062 hectares.
The disease that has affected this article of food, though it has di¬
minished the amount produced, has much enlarged the extent of its
cultivation, being now probably from 30,000 to 40,000 hectares
more than in 1845. It has risen much in price, so that from being
one of the principal articles of food for all classes it has become one
of the most expensive. The fallow ground, formerly considerable,
is now only of small extent, being principally sown in fodder crops.
Clover is the principal fodder crop. The prairies are partly used
as pasture, and partly mown. Draining, and clearing the bruyeres,
are now actively carried on under the direction of government.
Belgium is rich in various kinds of minerals, as coal, iron, cala- Minerals,
mine, &c., forming a valuable source of employment to many thou¬
sands of its inhabitants.
Under the minister of the interior the mines are superintended by
a corps of mining engineers, composed of an inspector-general, chief
and ordinary engineers, sub and aspirant engineers. Each of the
six mining districts has an ordinary engineer, and each of the two
divisions a chief engineer. A sub-engineer is appointed over a cer¬
tain number of mines. Vacancies in the higher orders of the corps
are filled up from among those who have served at least three years
in the next lower grade. The council of engineers gives advice on
all questions submitted to them connected with the administration
and working of the mines.
Belgium is almost traversed from west to’east by beds of coal.
These may be divided into two great basins. The western basin is
the most important, and has an estimated extent of 90,051 hectares, or
about 222,400 acres ; 75,725 in the province af Hainault, and 14,326
in Namur. The extent of the eastern bed is estimated at 44,062
hectares,—41,745 in the province of Liege, and 2317 in Namur All
varieties, from anthracite to the richest gas-coal, are found.^ In l°b0
there were 153 mines in Hainault, 40 in Namur, 116 in Liege, and
a small one in Luxembourg. The number of persons employed w as
36,002 men, 4045 women, 6559 boys, and 2363 girls : 5,820,588
tons of coals were extracted, valued at 46,471,393 fr.; the expense
of working was 40,310,619 fr. The coal is principally consumed
in the country : 1,439,473 tons were sent to France, 197,569 to Hol¬
land, 14,410 to Prussia, and 7644 to other countries.
The iron districts are the arrondissement of Charleroi, and the pro¬
vinces of Namur, Liege, and Luxembourg. Besides the iron
in Charleroi, Hainault contains a copper mine, commenced in 1849,
calamine and blende in the communes of Solre-St-Gery and of Bar- ^
bencon. Iron is also found in small quantities in the arrondisse-
ments of Mons and Tournay. In Namur the iron ore is rich and plen¬
tiful, and constitutes the principal mineral wealth of the province.
The beds of pyrites are daily becoming of greater importance as the
mining is carried to a greater depth. Veins of lead and zinc are
BELGIUM.
625
Belgium.
Manufac¬
tures.
also wrought to a considerable extent, as is also a bed of oolitic
oligist at Cezin. The iron mines of Luxembourg are much inferior
to those of Namur. The principal are those of Durbuy, Ruette,
Grandcourt, Halanzy, and Musson. At Couthuin, in the province
of Liege, a prolongation of the bed of oolitic oligist at Uezin is
wrought, and at Angleur an important bed of limonite. The fer¬
ruginous basins of Theux and La Reid are of the greatest im¬
portance, both as public works, and from the quantity of ore that
they furnish. Lead and zinc are found here almost always in the
same bed. Alumiferous schist is common in several parts of the
province. The manganese mine at Bihain has been abandoned. In
1850 the different metallic mines yielded 7308 tons of blende, 62,193
of calamine, 3854 of lead, 4084 pyrites, and 472,883 tons of (bud-
died) iron. Comparing the average annual produce from 1841 to
1845, with that from 1846 to 1850, we find a considerable increase
in each; in calamine of 23,767, lead 2858, pyrites 2871, and iron
261,080 tons. The mining of blende only commenced in 1845, in
which year it amounted to 264 tons. The number of workmen
employed in these mines was 5695.
Marble is abundant in many parts of Belgium, and the black mar¬
bles, as those of Dinant and Gochene, may rival the finest produc¬
tions of other countries. There are numerous quarries of various
kinds, as freestone, granite, limestone, slate, &c. The principal
quarrying provinces are Namur and Hainault. They gave em¬
ployment (1846) to 7892 persons.
In 1850 the stationary steam-engines in the kingdom were 2040,
of 51,055 horse-power, being double that of 1838. Most of these
(30,969 horse-power) are employed in working the mines. Low-
pressure engines are rapidly disappearing. Of these there were
289 in 1844, and only 89 in 1850. The number of steam-vessels
(1850) was only 13, having a total of 1000 horse-power; and of
locomotive engines on the different government railroads 170, of
10,703 horse-power.
The total value of manufactures imported in 1850 was 38,646,000
fr., and exported 102,162,000, being an increase of 35 per cent, since
1841. The number of persons employed in the various manufactures
in 1846 was 314,842, being 207,784 adult males, 40,673 adult fe¬
males, 36,356 boys under sixteen years of age, and 30,029 girls.
The number of works in 1850 for the preparation of iron was 351,
steel 2, lead 8, copper 20, zinc 19, alum 2, glass 35; 13,223 work¬
men were engaged, and the value of the produce was 51,261,457 fr.
There is a decrease of 37 per cent, on the average of the three years
preceding 1848, as compared with the three subsequent, in the iron
manufacture. During the former period the demand for iron was
great, and the prices were augmented by the number of railways
constructing in Belgium and other countries.
Notwithstanding many vicissitudes, flax is the most ancient, and
still forms one of the most important branches of industry in the
country. In 1846, 29,872 hectares of land were occupied in the cul¬
tivation of flax, and 1712 in that of hemp ; the various manufactures
of these gave employment to 60,023 persons, viz. :—18,563 men,
7348 women, 3852 boys, and 20,793 girls. In 1850 the value of
the exports and imports was as follows:—
Imported.
Raw flax  5,825,000 fr.
... hemp  676,000
Flax and hemp yarns 896,000
... ... cloths 191,000
Exported.
17,138,000 fr.
26,000
5,027,000
10,082,000
7,588,000 32,273,000
Cotton also forms an important branch of industry, and is at pre¬
sent in a more flourishing condition than at any former period. In
1846 it employed 7552 men, 3129 women, 2494 boys, and 1305 girls.
In 1850 the exports and imports were as follows: —
Imported. Exported.
Raw cotton   16,504,000 fr. 4,587,000 fr.
Cotton yarn   289,000 455,000
Cotton cloths  3,448,000 8,595,000
20,241,000 13,637,000
The manufacture of woollens forms also an important branch of
industry. The wool for this purpose is principally imported from
Prussia, Saxony, &c., the native produce being small in quantity and
chiefly used in hosiery. It employed (1846) 10,134 men, 4686 women,
2076 boys, and 1257 girls. Imports and exports (1850) :
Imports. Exports.
Wool  16,941,000 fr. 1,642,000 fr.
Woollen yarn   3,419,000 1,320,000
... cloths  8,398,000 16,309,000
28,758,000 19,271,000
The manufacture of silk gave (1846) employment to 655 persons ;
value of imports (1850) 11,353,000 fr., exports 637,000 fr. Although
-ae cultivation of the mulberry tree for the breeding of silkworms
VOL. IV.
has been carried on since 1826, it has yet made little progress. The Belgium,
lace, ribbon, and hosiery manufactures employed 1494 males, 675 V _ >
females, 501 boys, and 337 girls. Imports and exports in 1850:
Imports. Exports.
Lace  893,000 fr. 41,000 fr.
Ribbons   493,000 58,000
Hosiery   298,000 513,000
1,684,000 612,000
The excisable manufactures are beer, vinegar, &c. The number
of breweries in the kingdom in 1850 was 2899, employing 6766 per¬
sons, and of vinegar works 84, employing 105 persons. The amount
of excise received from these establishments was 6,436,931 fr. Dis¬
tilleries 587, workmen 1647, excise 3,839,741 fr. Salt works 318,
workmen 495, excise 4,416,372 fr. Refineries of foreign sugar 50 ;
manufactories of beet-root sugar 28, excise 3,169,509 fr. In 1846
2122 hectares of land were occupied in beet-root for sugar, and
4190 persons were employed in its manufacture. The principal of
the other branches of industry, with the number of persons em¬
ployed in each, as shown by the general census of 1846, are as fol¬
lows :—The manufacture of nails, particularly in the provinces of
Liege and Hainault, employs 6786 persons. The manufacture of
bricks and tiles, the chief seat of which is in the province of Ant¬
werp, employs 8203 persons. The manufacture of fire-bricks was
introduced in 1836, and has since been making great progress. The
manufacture of porcelain and earthenware goods employs 1573 per¬
sons ; glass and crystal works 3683; paper-making 2169 ; printing
2026. The maritime fishing employs 207 boats of 5800 tons, and
1224 men. An extensive manufactory of fire-arms at Liege em¬
ploys 1782. The less extensive manufactures are oil, soap, chemi¬
cals, leather, ropes, &c. The number of failures in 1849 was 132,
in 1850, 113, and in 1851 to 15th August 83. Eleven vessels of
3333 tons were built in Belgium during 1850.
In 1851 Belgium possessed 149 trading vessels, of the aggregate Commerce,
burden of 30,577 tons.
The value of the imports and exports for the years 1849, 1850,
and 1851, was as follows:—
Imports. Exports.
1849   405,249,000 fr. 374,776,000 fr.
1850   423,117,000 411,292,000
1851   418,555,325 401,176,052
In 1851 the imports by Belgic vessels were valued at 44,702,097
fr.; by foreign 124,736,164 fr.; and by land and rivers 249,117,064
fr. Exports by Belgic vessels 24,107,306 fr.; by foreign 81,326,815
fr.; and by land and rivers 295,741,931 fr. The laden Belgic ves¬
sels entering were 402 of 70,261 tons, and foreign 1591, of 229,771
tons. The laden Belgic vessels leaving were 351 of 62,996 tons,
and foreign 1168 of 161,314 tons. The number entering in bal¬
last was 149 of 17,434 tons : 1359 vessels entered the port of Ant¬
werp, 448 Ostend, 234 Ghent, and 101 Nieuport. The imports are
principally from France, England, Holland, and the United States,
and the exports principally to France, Holland, Prussia, and Eng¬
land.
The imports are divided into three classes, those for direct con¬
sumption in the country, those in transit, and those brought into
warehouses to be either consumed in the country on paying the
duties, or exported. The value of goods imported for consumption,
and of the productions of the country exported was for the above
three years as follows :—
Imported. Exported.
1849   206,777,000 fr. 179,054,000 fr.
1850   211,923,000 210,033,000
1851     218,085,070 200,129,626
These are divided into three branches. 1. Premieres matieres,
articles consumed in the state in which they are found, as coals, &c.;
2. Articles of food; and 3. Manufactures. The imports and ex¬
ports of 1851 so divided, give—
Imports. Exports.
Premieres matieres   93,663,110 fr. 97,742,481 fr.
Food     84,362,885 26,258,285
Manufactures  40,059,075 76,128,860
The value of the goods in transit for the years 1850 and 1851
was—
Direct. By warehouse.
1850   175,553,000 fr. 25,706,000 fr.
1851   175,104,292 25,942,134
Of the latter the value exported by Belgic vessels was 7,046,655
fr., by foreign 28,712,479, and by land and canals 165,287,292 fr.
Although there is a slight decrease in 1851 as compared with
1850, in comparing 1850 with 1841 we find an increase of 259 per
cent. The value of goods in warehouse at 1st January 1851 was
26,626,000 fr.; entered during that year 65,006,000 ; taken out for
consumption 39,922,000 ; for export 25,942 ; and 25,480,000 were
in bond at the end of that year.
The first five months of 1853, as compared with the same period
4 K
626
Belgium.
Chambers
of Com¬
merce.
Commer¬
cial Asso¬
ciation.
W eights,
&c.
BELGIUM.
of 1852, show a considerable decrease in the importation of many of
the principal articles of trade, as coffee, cottons, rice, tobacco, &c.
On the other hand, however, the increase in the articles of exporta¬
tion is even more marked. In the latter there is an increase of
270,000 fr. in portable arms, 16,264 tons in pig iron, 882 tons in
wrought iron, 540 tons in nails, and 463 tons in iron used in ma¬
chines. The exportation of bar iron and rails during the first five
months of 1853 amounted to 8447 tons. During the whole of 185-
it was only 7325 tons, and during 1851 only 4015 tons. The in¬
crease in the linen and cotton manufactures, and in sugar,
very considerable. A company has been formed for the estabns
ment of regular steam communication between Antwerp and JNew
York, which will undoubtedly give a great stimulus to trade in Bel¬
gium. It is expected to be in operation by May 1854, and ex¬
cept during the first year will have two departures monthly rom
each side of the Atlantic.
There are nineteen chambers of commerce and manufacture esta¬
blished in the principal towns, the members of which are nominate
by the king from a triple list of candidates presented to him by
the chambers. The members of each vary in number from nine o
twenty-one, one-third going out annually. They present to the go¬
vernment or legislative chambers their views as to the best means o
increasing the commercial and industrial prosperity of the country,
report annually upon the state of their districts, and give useful
information or direction to the provincial or civic authorities under
their administration.
Belgium possesses a great number of commercial and financial
associations. In 1851 there were no fewer than 191 legally au¬
thorized joint-stock companies for carrying on public works, or
enterprises, having a united capital of 880,347,298 fr. Of these
12 were assurance companies, 12 private banking companies, and
14 railway companies. It has eight commercial exchanges, under
the direction of government, namely, in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent,
Bruges, Ostend, Mons, Termonde, and Louvain. In 1822 the Gene¬
ral Society for the Encouragement of National Industry was formed
at Brussels under a royal charter for 27 years, and which has since
been extended to 1875. It has a social capital of 30,000,000 florins,
divided into 60,000 shares of 500 florins, bearing interest at 5 per
cent. The administrative body consists of a governor, nominated
by the king, six directors, a secretary, and a treasurer. It dis¬
counts bills, receives money at interest, grants loans and advances
on titles and other deposits, &c. The national bank, instituted by
charter granted in 1850 for twenty-five years, has its seat at Brus¬
sels, and has branches in all the provincial capitals and several
other towns. Its capital is 25,000,000 fr., in shares of 1000 fr.
each. It pays a dividend of 5 per cent, upon the shares, and one-
third at least of the profits, exceeding 6 per cent., goes to form a
sinking fund. The administration consists of a governor nomi¬
nated by the king, six directors, and a council of censors.. The
banking operations are superintended by a government commissary;
a report upon its state is presented to the government every month.
The state funds are deposited in this bank. The bank of Belgium,
chartered in 1835 for twenty-five years, but which has been ex¬
tended to 1875, has a capital of 30,000,000 fr. Its seat is at Brus¬
sels. The bank of Flanders is established in Ghent.
The weights and measures of Belgium are the same as those of
France. Gold, silver, and copper coins are struck at the royal mint
in Brussels. The gold coins are ten and twenty-five franc pieces ;
the silver are of the value of J, 1, 2, and 2J- francs ; and the cop¬
per of 1, 2, 5, and 10 centimes.
After England, there is no country in Europe where, in propor- Belgium,
tion to its extent, the roads are more numerous or better kept than
in Belgium. They are of three kinds—those maintained by the „ ,
state, and those by the provinces and communes. The total length of > c-
the two latter cannot be given with accuracy; that of the first is 1247
leagues, or 3865 English miles. The length of the navigable rivers
and canals has already been given ; the income for the ten years
preceding 1851 was 25,642,467 fr., and the expenditure 11,556,282 fr.
A bill was passed in 1834 authorizing the establishment of a sys-Railroads,
tem of railroads, of which Malines was to form the centre.. One line
extends eastward from Malines to the frontiers of Prussia, passing
Louvain, Liege, and Verviers, another north to Antwerp, a third
west to Ostend, passing Termonde, Ghent, and Bruges, and a fourth
south to Brussels and the frontiers of France. Another bill in
1837 authorized a line from Ghent to the French frontiers and
Tournay, passing Courtray and branches from Namur, Limbourg,
and Luxembourg. The government railways are wrought on.ac-
count of the government, and are under special administration.
The line from Brussels to Malines was opened on 5th May 1835,
and was the first railway in operation on the Continent. The total
length of the various lines of railway in operation in the beginning
of 1851 was 172 leagues of 5000 metres, or 535 English miles, as
per following table :—
Double Lines.
Metres.
Government  452,788
Conceded  94,943
547,731
Single Lines.
Metres.
171,831
141,835
313,666
Total.
Metres.
624,619
236,778
861,397
The amount expended by government in the construction of rail¬
ways to the end of 1850 was 167,333,412 fr., or L.6,623,614. The
expense of working these railways in 1850 was 9,195,315 fr., and
the receipts 14,847,540 fr. ... .,
In 1849 a system of postage was introduced into Belgium similar postage>
to that in this country. All letters not exceeding 10 grammes in
weight (4 oz.), destined for places not more than 30 kilometres (18
miles) distant, pay a postage of 10 centimes (Id.), and those to any
greater distance within the kingdom 20 centimes. This postage
increases with the weight. _ .
The first electric telegraph, which was that between Brussels an Electric
Antwerp, was introduced into the country in 1846 by an Englisl>Telegraph.
company. A law passed in 1850 has authorized the government
to purchase this, as also to establish telegraphs on all the lines ot
raFor an account of the Belgian army and civic guard, see Army.
The following table shows the annual income and expenditure pj nances,
for the seven years preceding 1851:
Income. Expenditure.
1844   198,810,508 fr. 195,185,657 fr.
1845   129,855,951 134,389,349
1846   114,064,043 122,752,999
1847  '.  113,528,063 127,572,374
1848   146,117,886 135,060,595
1849 . 113,871,437 112,267,069
1850 ... 132,877,187 118,730,904
The excess of the expenditure over the revenue since the inde¬
pendence of Belgium to the end of 1850 is 16,129,896 fr.
The budgets for 1852 and 1853 are as under.
Land-tax 
Personal taxes  
Tax on patents 
Rent of mines 
Custom duties  
Excise duties  
Stamp duties  
Domains, forests, &c...
Post-Office 
Railways, &c 
Packet-boats 
Arrears received 
1852.
18,359,750 fr.
9,240,000
3,201,000
207,900
12,275,000
20,470,000
21,695,000
4,485,000
3,200,000
16,040,000
200,000
6,936,600
1853.
18,359,750 fr
9,350,000
3,355,000
207,900
13,000,000
23,220,000
23,495,000
4,300,000
3,400,000
17,375,000
200,000
6,861,600
117,310,250 123,224,250
Expenditube.
Public debt 
Pensions 
Ministry of Justice     
Foreign Affairs
Interior 
Public Works
War 
Finances  
Deficiencies & repayments
Railways and canals 
1852.
36,713,397 fr.
3,497,922
12,853,454
2,181,931
7,599,861
16,695,400
26,787,000
11,626,114
2,278,718
26,708,000
146,941,797
1853.
38,119,299 fr,
3,365,922
11,981,558
2,161,849
6,859,555
17,018,088
39,937,000
11,241,945
2,023,000
132,708,216
The public debt on 1st May 1853 amounted to 643,488,563 fr., of which the sum of 237,036,832 fr. was the share ^
of the public debt of the kingdom of the Netherlands.
Belgorod
II
Believers.
BEL
BELGOROD, a city in the Russian government of
Kursk, on the river Donetz. It is the seat of an arch¬
bishop, and has considerable linen and other manufactures,
five churches, 1800 houses, and about 10,000 inhabitants.
Long. 36. 40. E. Lat. 50. 55. N.
BELGRADE, a famous town and fortress of Servia, in
European Turkey, situated near the confluence of the Save
and Danube. The fortress stands on a steep eminence in
the centre, and commands the Danube. It is inclosed with
high walls, and possesses strong towers and a triple ditch,
and is provided with mines and bomb-proof casemates. The
principal mosque and the residence of the pasha of Servia
are in this part of the town. The water-side division lies
near the junction of the two rivers, on the north side, and
is likewise well defended by walls and ditches. The Ras-
cian town (so called from its inhabitants) is towards the
west, in the direction of the Save ; and the Palanka encir¬
cles the fortress on the south and east. The city is in many
parts well built, but the streets are in general badly paved
and filthy. Belgrade is a place of considerable strength,
and is garrisoned by a large force. It is gradually losing
its Oriental appearance, and assuming more of a European
aspect. It has manufactures of arms, silk and cotton goods,
carpets, and leather; and it is the principal entrepot be¬
tween Constantinople and Saloniki on the one hand, and
between Vienna and Pesth on the other. This important
town has sustained many sieges, and repeatedly passed from
the hands of the Austrians to those of the Turks. It was
taken by Solyman II. in 1522, and retaken by the Austrians
in 1688, but again lost in 1690. In 1717 it surrendered to
Prince Eugene. The imperialists retained it till 1739,
when the Turks invested and reduced it. Austria again
took it in 1789, but it was restored at the peace of 1791.
And, lastly, in the year 1806, the Servian insurgents suc¬
ceeded in carrying it. Pop. about 30,000, chiefly Servians.
Long. 20. 36. ^E. Lat. 44. 48. N.
BELIAL, a Hebrew word which signifies a
wicked, worthless person, and is sometimes used to desig¬
nate the Evil One, as in the sixth chapter of 2 Corinthians,
where St Paul says, “ What concord hath Christ with
Belial ?” The inhabitants of Gibeah, who abused the Le-
vite’s wife, have the name of Belial given them ; and Hophni
and Phineas, the sons of the high priest Eli, are called
sons of Belial, on account of their crimes, and their unbe¬
coming behaviour in the temple of the Lord.
BELIDOR, Bernard Forest de, a very eminent en¬
gineer, born in Catalonia in 1697. He was a brigadier-
general in the French service, inspector-general of mines,
and member of the academies of sciences at Paris and Ber¬
lin, and of the Royal Society of London. He died at Paris
in 1761. His works on mathematics and military engineer¬
ing are held in high estimation. Of these may be men¬
tioned, Cours de Mathematiques, 1725, 4to ; La Science
des Ingenieurs, &c., Paris, 1729; Le Bombardier Lrangais,
Paris, 1731, 4to; Trade des Fortifications, Paris, 1735, 2
tom. 8vo ; Architecture Hydraulique, Paris, 1737—53, 4
tom. 4to ; Bictionnaire Portatif de VIngenieur, 1755,
8vo.
BELIEF, in a general sense, denotes a persuasion or as¬
sent of the mind to the truth of a proposition. In this sense,
belief has no necessary relation to any particular kind of
evidence. Thus we are said to believe our senses, to be¬
lieve our reason, to believe a witness. But, in its more re¬
stricted and technical sense, belief, according to the school¬
men, denotes that kind of assent which is grounded on the
authority or testimony of some person or persons asserting
or attesting the truth of any matter whatsoever. In this
sense it stands opposed to knowledge and science.
BELIEVERS, an appellation given towards the close of
the first century to those Christians who had been admitted
into the church by baptism. They were thus distinguished
BEL 627
from catechumens, who had not been baptized, and conse- Belion
quently did not enjoy the privileges of believers. BJ1L
BELION, in Ancient Geography, a river of Lusitania; i ^ j
otherwise called Linnea, Limius, Limia, and Lethe, or the
river of oblivion ; now El Lima, in Portugal.
BELISARIU S, general of the Emperor Justinian’s army,
who overthrew the Persians in the East, the Vandals in
Africa, the Goths in Italy, and, in a degenerate age, re¬
newed the victories and triumphs which had immortalized
the glorious times of the republic. But notwithstanding all
his exploits, this great commander was falsely accused of a
conspiracy against the emperor s life. The real conspirators
had been detected and seized, with daggers hidden under
their garments ; and one of them died by his own hand,
while the other was dragged from the sanctuary to which
he had fled for refuge. Pressed by remorse, or tempted by
the hopes of safety, the latter accused two officers of the
household of Belisarius ; and they, in the agony of torture,
declared that they had acted according to the secret instruc¬
tions of their patron. But posterity will not hastily believe
that a hero who in the vigour of life had disdained the fairest
offers of ambition and revenge, should stoop to the murder
of his prince, whom he could not expect long to survive.
His followers were impatient to fly ; but flight must have
been supported by rebellion, and he had lived enough for
nature and for glory. Belisarius appeared before the coun¬
cil with less of fear than of indignation ; after forty years’
service the emperor prejudged his case ; and injustice was
sanctified by the presence and authority of the patriarch.
The life of the venerable veteran was indeed spared; but his
fortunes were sequestrated, and for the space of a year he
wtis kept a close prisoner in his own palace. At length his
innocence was acknowledged, and his freedom and honours
were restored ; but death, which might have been hastened
by grief and resentment, removed him from the world about
eight months after his deliverance, a.d. 565. That he was
deprived of his sight, and reduced to beg charity in the
streets of Constantinople, uttering the doleful solicitation of
Date obolum Belisario, “ give a penny to Belisarius,” is a
fiction of later times, which has obtained credit as a sup¬
posed instance of extreme vicissitude of fortune. This idle
fable seems to have been derived from a work of the twelfth
century, entitled the Chiliads, by John Tzetzes, a monk,
who relates the blindness and beggary of Belisarius in ten
doggerel verses (^Chiliad iii. No. 88, 339—348, in Corp.
Poet. Grace, tom. ii. p. 311). The tale seems to have been
imported into Italy with the language and manuscripts of
Greece ; repeated before the end of the fifteenth century
by Crinitus, Pontanus, and Volaterranus ; attacked by Al-
ciatus for the honour of the law, and defended by Baronius
for the honour of the church. Yet Tzetzes, the father of
the fabrication, had confessedly read in the chronicles that
Belisarius did not lose his sight, and that he recovered his
fortune and his fame. (See the works of Procopius, and
the Life of Belisarius by Lord Mahon.)
BELL, a well-known instrument, ranked by musicians
among the musical instruments of percussion.
Bell-metal is an alloy of copper and tin, usually in the
proportion of 80 parts of copper to 20 parts of tin. Zinc
generally enters into the composition of small shrill bells.
By analysis Dr Thompson found an English bell-metal to
consist of 800 parts copper, 101 tin, 56 zinc, and 43 lead.
The thickness of a bell’s edge is usually 1-15th of the dia¬
meter, and its height is twelve times its thickness. The
bell-founders have a diapason, or scale, wherewith they
measure the size, thickness, weight, and tone of their bells.
The sound of a bell is produced by the vibratory motion
of its parts, somewhat like that of a musical chord. The
stroke of the clapper must necessarily change the figure of
the bell, and from a circle convert it into an oval or ellipse;
but the metal having a great degree of elasticity, that part
628
BELL.
Bell.
impinged on by the clapper, and driven farthest from the
centre, will return, and even incline nearer the centre than
before; so that the two parts which were extremes of the
longest diameter become in turn those of the shortest; and
thus the external surface of the bell undergoes alternate
changes of figure, and by this means gives that tremulous
motion to the air in which the sound consists. M. Perrault
maintains that the sound of the same bell or chord is a com¬
pound of the sounds of its several composite parts ; so that
where the parts are homogeneous, and the dimensions of
the figure uniform, there is such a perfect mixture of all
these sounds as constitutes one uniform, smooth, even
sound ; while the contrary circumstances produce harshness.
This he proves from bells differing in tone according to the
part impinged on, although there is a motion of all the parts
wherever the blow happens to be given. Ife therefore con¬
siders bells as a compound of an infinite number of rings,
which, according to their different dimensions, have differ¬
ent tones, as chords of different lengths have ; and when
struck, the vibrations of the parts immediately impinged
determine the tone, being supported by a sufficient number
of consonant tones in the other parts.
Bells are heard at a greater distance when placed on
plains than on hills, and still farther in valleys than on
plains ; the reason of which seems to be, that the higher
the sonorous body the rarer is the medium, and, conse¬
quently, the less impulse it receives, and the less proper a
vehicle it is to convey sound to a distance.
M. Reaumur, speaking of the shape most proper for bells,
remarks, that as pots and other vessels more immediately
necessary to the service of life were doubtless made before
bells, it probably happened that the observing these vessels
to have a sound when struck, gave occasion to making bells
in that form; but that it does not appear that this is the
most eligible figure: for lead, which in its ordinary state
has no sonorous property, yet when cast in a melting ladle
or otherwise into a segment of a sphere, acquires a certain
degree of sonorousness ; and hence he infers that such a^
figure is peculiarly adapted for small bells, such as those of
house-clocks, &c.
The use of bells was very ancient. We find them among
Jews, Greeks, Romans, Christians, and heathens, variously
applied, as on the necks of men, birds, oxen, horses, and
sheep. It is remarkable, however, that there is no appear¬
ance of bells in any of the Egyptian monuments. Bells
were chiefly suspended in buildings, either religious, as in
churches, temples, and monasteries ; or civil, as in houses,
markets, baths ; or military, as in camps and frontier towns.
In the museum at Naples are several kinds of ancient bells,
one of which is a simple disk of metal.
Among the Jews it was ordained that the lower part of
the blue tunic which the high priest wore when he per¬
formed religious ceremonies should be adorned with pome¬
granates and gold bells, intermixed alternately and at equal
distances. (Exodus xxviii. 33, 34.) The number of the bells
worn by the high priest is not specified; but the sacred
historian has intimated the purpose they were intended to
serve, viz., to give intimation both when he entered and
came out of the holy place. The tinkling of a bell at the
elevation of the host in the Roman Catholic sacrament of
the mass is founded upon this circumstance.
Among the Greeks, those who went the nightly rounds
in camps or garrisons, carried with them little bells, which
. they rung at each sentry-box, to see that the soldiers on
watch were awake. A codonophorus or bellman also walked
in funeral processions, some space in advance of the corpse,
not only to keep off the crowd, but to advertise the fiamen
dialis to keep out of the way, lest he should be polluted by
the sight, or by the funerary music. The priest of Proserpine
at Athens, called hierophantes, rung a bell to call the people
to sacrifice. There were also bells in the houses of great
men, to call up the servants in the morning. Zonaras in¬
forms us that bells were suspended along with whips on the v-
triumphal chariots of victorious generals, in order to put them
in mind that they were still liable to public justice. Bells
were also put on the necks of criminals going to execution,
that persons might be warned by the noise to avoid so ill an
omen as the sight of the hangman or the condemned crimi¬
nal, who was devoted to the dii manes.
Of bells on the necks of brutes, express mention is made
in Phaedrus ; and taking them away was construed theft by
the civil law.
With respect to the origin of church-bells, Mr Whitaker
observes, that as bells were used by the Romans to signify
the times of bathing, they were naturally applied by the
Christians of Italy to denote the hours of devotion, and to
summon the people to church. The first application of them
to this purpose is ascribed by Polydore Virgil and others
to Paulinus, bishop of Nola, a city of Campania, about a.d.
400. Hence, it is said, the names nolce and campance were
given them ; the one referring to the city, the other to the
country. In Britain, bells were applied to church purposes
before the conclusion of the seventh century in the monastic
societies of Northumbria, and even as early as the sixth in
those of Caledonia. They were therefore used from the first
erection of parish churches. Those of France and England
appear to have been furnished with several bells. In France
they were sometimes composed of iron ; and in England, as
formerly at Rome, they were frequently made of brass.
Ingulphus mentions that Turketulus, abbot of Croyland.
who died about a.d. 870, gave to the church of that abbey
a great bell, which he named Guthlac, and afterwards six
others, two of which he called Bartholomew and Bettelin,
two Turketul and Tatwin, and two he named Pega and
Bega. All of them rang together ; and the same author
says, Non erat tunc tanta consonantia campanarum in tota
Anglia. Not long after, Kinseus, archbishop of York, gave
two great bells to the church of St John at Beverley, and
at the same time provided that other churches in his dio¬
cese should be furnished with bells. Mention is also made
by St Aldhelm, and William of Malmesbury, of bells given
by St Dunstan to the churches in the West. The number
of bells in every church gave occasion to the curious and
singular architecture which is often found in the campanile
or bell-tower; an addition which is perhaps more susceptible
of architectural embellishment than any other part of the
edifice. It was the constant appendage of every parish
church belonging to the Saxons, and is distinctly mentioned
as such in the laws of Athelstane.
The Greek Christians are usually said to have been un¬
acquainted with bells till the ninth century, when the con¬
struction of these instruments was first taught them by a
Venetian ; but it is not true that the use of bells was entirely
unknown in the ancient Eastern churches, and that they
called the people to church with wooden mallets. In some
learned dissertations on the Greek temples, Leo Allatius
proves the contrary from several ancient writers. In his
opinion bells first began to be disused after the taking of
Constantinople by the Turks; the latter, it seems, having
prohibited them lest their sound should disturb the repose of
souls wandering in the air. Father Simon, however, thinks
that the Turks prohibited the Christians the use of bells
from political rather than religious motives ; inasmuch as the
ringing of bells might serve as a signal for revolts or popular
commotions. ♦
In the ancient monasteries we find six kinds of bells enu¬
merated by Durandus, namely, squilla, rung in the refec¬
tory ; cymbalum, in the cloister ; nola, in the choir ; nolula
or dupla, in the clock; campana, in the steeple; and sig-
num, in the tower. Belethus very nearly agrees with Dur¬
andus, only for squilla he puts tintinnabulurn, and places
the campana in the tower, and campanella in the cloister.
Bell.
B E
Bell. Others place the tintinnabulum or tinniolum in the refec-
toryor dormitory; and add another bell, called corrigiuncula,
rung at the time of giving discipline, to call the monks to be
scourged. The cymbalum is said to have been rung in the
cloister, to call the monks to meals.
From the researches of a writer who has paid particular
attention to this subject, we learn that bells frequently bore
such inscriptions as the following :
Funera plango, Fulgura frango, Sabatta pango,
Excito lentos, Dissipo ventos, Paco cruentos.
In the little sanctuary at Westminster, King Edward III.
erected a clocher, and placed in it bells for the use of St
Stephen’s chapel, round the largest of which were cast in
the metal these words :
King Edward made mee thirtie thousand weight and three.
Take me down and wey mee, and more you shall fynd mee.
But these bells having been ordered to be taken down in
the reign of Henry VIII., some one wrote underneath with
a coal:
But Henry the eight
Will bait me of my weight.
This last distich alludes to a fact mentioned by Stowe in
his Survey of London, that near to St Paul’s school stood a
clocher in which were four bells called Jesus s ib/lls. the
greatest in all England, against which Sir Miles Partridge
staked a hundred pounds, and won them of King Henry
VIII. at a cast of dice. Nevertheless, in foreign countries
there were bells of greater magnitude. In the steeple of
the great church at Kouen, in Normandy, was a bell with
this inscription :
Je suis George d’Ambois,
Qui trente cinque mille pois.
Mais lui qui me pesera
Trente six mille me trouvera.
But it was probably destroyed when the greater part of
the magnificent edifice containing it was consumed by fire.
It is a common tradition that the bells of King’s College
chapel, in the university of Cambridge, were brought by
Henry V. from some church in France soon after the battle
of Agincourt. They were taken down and were afterwards
sold to a bell-founder in Whitechapel, who melted them
down.
The various uses of bells have been summed up in the
following old distich:
Laudo Deum verum, plebem voco, congrego clerum,
Defunctos ploro, pestem fugo, festa decoro.
Matthew Paris observes, that anciently the use of bells was
prohibited in time of mourning; at present, however, the
tolling of them forms one of the principal ceremonies of in¬
terment. Mabillon adds, that it was an ancient custom to
ring bells for persons about to expire, to advertise the people
to pray for them. The passing bell, indeed, was anciently
rung for two purposes ; one, to bespeak the prayers of all
good Christians for a soul just departing ; the other, to drive
away the evil spirits who were supposed to stand near the
bed of the dying, or about the house, ready to seize their
prey, or at least to molest and terrify the soul in its passage.
By the ringing of the bell,—for Durandus informs us th;it
evil spirits are greatly afraid of bells,—they were kept aloof ;
and the soul, like a hunted hai’e, gained the start, or had
what is by sportsmen called law. This dislike of spirits to
bells is mentioned in the Golden Legend by Wynkyn de
Worde. “ It is said, the evil spirytes that ben in the regyon
of thayre, doubte moche when they here the belles rongen :
and this is the cause why the belles ben rongen when it
thondreth, and whan grete tempeste and outrages of wether
happen, to the ende that the feinds and w yoked spirytes
shold be abashed and flee, and cease of the movynge of tem¬
peste.” Lobineau observes, that the custom of ringing bells
at the approach of thunder is of some antiquity ; but that
the design was not so much to shake the air, and so dissi-
L L. 62!)
pate the thunder, as to call the people to church to pray Bell,
that the parish might be preserved from that terrible meteor. ^
In Roman Catholic times bells were baptized and anointed
oleo chrismatis; they were also exorcised and blessed by
the bishop, from a belief that, when these ceremonies were
performed, they had power to drive the devil out of the air,
to calm tempests, to extinguish fires, aad to recreate even
the dead. The ritual for these ceremonies is contained in
the Roman pontifical; and it is still usual in such baptisms to
give to bells the name of some saint. In Chauncy’s His¬
tory of Hertfordshire there is a relation of the baptism of a
set of bells in Italy, which was performed with great cere¬
mony a short time before that book was written. The bells
of the parish church of Winnington, in Bedfordshire, had
each its name cast about the verge, with these rhyming
hexameters :
Nomina Campanis base indita sunt quoque nostris.
1. Hoc signum Petri pulsatur nomine Christi.
2. Nomen Magdalene campana sonat melode.
3. Sit nomen Domini benedictum semper in eum.
4. Musa Raphaelis sonat auribus Immanuelis.
5. Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Maria vocata.
By an old chartulary, it appears that the bells of the priory
of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were, in the year 1501, new-
cast, and baptized by the following names :
Prima in honore Sancti Michaelis Archangeli.
Secunda in honore S. Johannis Evangelist!.
Tertia in honore S. Johannis Baptist!.
Quarta in honore Assumptionis beatse Mari®.
Quinta in honore sanct® Trinitatis, et omnium sanctorum.
The bells of Osney Abbey, near Oxford, which were very
famous, had the respective names of Douce, Clement, Aus¬
tin, Hautecter, or rather Hautcleri, Gabriel, and John.
Nankin, in China, was anciently celebrated for the large¬
ness of its bells. But their enormous weight brought down
the tower which contained them. One of these bells was
nearly twelve English feet in height, seven and a half in
diameter, and twenty-three in circumference, its figure cy-
iindric, except a swelling in the middle, and the thickness
of the metal about the edges, seven inches. From the di¬
mensions, its weight was computed at 50,000 pounds. These
bells were cast about four centuries ago. They were desig¬
nated the hanger (tchoui), the eater (che), the sleeper (choui),
the will (Ji). Father le Comte adds, that there are seven
other bells in Pekin cast in the reign of Youlo, each of which
weighs 120,000 pounds. But the sound of even the largest
Chinese bell is very poor, owing to the circumstance of its be¬
ing struck with a clapper of wood, instead of iron. The bells
of China, however, are far exceeded by those of Moscow.
One presented by Czar Beris Godunot to the cathedral weighs
288,000 pounds, and the great bell of Moscow cast in 1653
by order of the Empress Anne, and still remaining on the
ground, is computed to weigh 443,772 pounds. It is 19
feet high, and has a marginal circumference of 63 feet 11
inches English. In England the heaviest bell is that made
for York Minster in 1845, which weighs 27,000 pounds, but
is not more than 7 feet 7 inches in diameter. I he Great
Tom of Oxford weighs 17,000 pounds ; the Great Tom of
Lincoln weighs 12,000 pounds ; the great bell of St Paul’s
in London is 11,500 pounds, and has a diameter of 9 feet,
or more than 28 feet in circumference.
The practice of ringing bells in change, or regular peals,
is said to be peculiar to England. The custom seems to
have commenced in the time of the Saxons, and to have
been common before the Conquest. The tolling of a bell is
nothing more than the production of sound by a stroke of the
clapper against the side of the bell, the bell itself being in a
pendent position and at rest. But in ringing, the bell is
elevated to a horizontal position, so that, by means of a wheel
and a rope, the clapper strikes forcibly on one side as it
ascends, and on the other side in its return downwards, pro-
630
BEL
Bell.
ducing at each stroke a sound. In England the ringing of
' bells is reduced to a system, and peals have been composed
which bear the names of the inventor.
Electrical Bells are used in a variety of entertaining ex¬
periments by electricians. The apparatus, which is origin¬
ally of German invention, consists of three small bells sus¬
pended from a narrow plate of metal, the two outermost by
chains, and that in the middle, from which a chain passes to
the floor, by a silken string. Two small knobs of brass are
also suspended by silken strings, one on each side of the
bell in the middle, which serve for clappers. When tins
apparatus is connected with an electrified conductor, the
outermost bells suspended by the chains will be charged,
attract the clappers, and be struck by them. The clappers,
becoming electrified, will likewise be repelled by these bells,
and attracted by the middle bell, and discharge themselves
upon it by means of the chain extending to the floor. After
this they will be again attracted by the outermost bells, and
thus, by striking the bells alternately, occasion a ringing,
which may be continued at pleasure. Flashes of light will
be seen in the dark between the bells and clappers, and if
the electrification be strong, the discharge will be made
without actual contact, and the ringing will cease.
Bell, Andrew, f).!)., a clergyman of the English Church,
who is well known for his philanthrophic efforts in the cause
of education, and more particularly for his success in extend¬
ing the monitorial system of instruction in schools. He was
the projector and "founder of those admirable institutions
called national schools ; and the author of An Experiment
in Education at the Male Asylum, Madras ; and of In¬
structions for conducting Schools on the Madras system,
&c., &c. Dr Bell was born at St Andrews in 1753, and
received his education in the university there. Some of his
early years were spent in America ; and he was afterwards
chaplain to Fort St George, and minister of St Mary’s at
Madras. During his residence in the East Indies he ac¬
quired considerable property ; which, together with some
lucrative preferments in England, enabled him to bequeath
no less than L.120,000 in support of national institutions
and public charities. This benevolent man died at Chel¬
tenham in 1832, and his remains were interred in Westmin-
ster Abbey.
To the liberality of Dr Bell St Andrews is indebted for
the foundation of Madras College.
Bell, Benjamin, an eminent surgeon, born at Dumfries
in 1749. He studied at Edinburgh under the celebrated
Monro, and combined with the office of head surgeon to the
Edinburgh Infirmary an extensive practice in that city. He
was the author of several standard works on surgery, among
which may be noticed, A Treatise on Ulcers, and A System
of Surgery. He died in 1806.
Bell, Sir Charles, K.H., an eminent anatomist, physio¬
logist, and surgeon, son of the Rev. William Bell, a clergy¬
man of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, was born at Edin¬
burgh in November 1774. Having studied at the High School
and university of that city, he devoted himself at an early
age to the study of anatomy, under his brother Mr John
Bell, who was twelve years older, and who had already laid
the foundation of his fame as an anatomist and a surgeon.
Under the guidance of this enlightened teacher, Charles
Bell soon gave evidence of the talents which seem to have
been inherited by every member of his family. While yet
a pupil, he published the first volume of his System of Dis¬
sections, illustrated by engravings from his own drawings.
On the 1st August 1799, he was admitted a member of the
College of Surgeons, and consequently became one of the
surgeons of the Royal Infirmary; for all the members of
that college were then in rotation surgeons of the hospital.
His knowledge of anatomy, and the admirable use of his
hands, exhibited both in his dissections and his drawings,
were already conspicuous; and his operations were dis-
B E L
Anguished by their dexterity and simplicity. He eagerly
availed himself of the opportunities afforded by his attend- v»-
ance in the infirmary to improve his knowledge of patho¬
logy, and, with that view, invented a method of representing
morbid parts in models, some of which are still preserved
in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin¬
burgh. About this time a controversy arose respecting the
medical attendance in the Royal Infirmary, which terminated
in the exclusion of several of the surgeons, amongst whom
was Charles Bell. In 1804 he offered to pay L.100 a-year,
and to transfer for the use of the students the museum he
had collected, on condition that he should be “ allowed to
stand by the bodies when dissected in the theatre of the in¬
firmary, and to make notes and drawings of the diseased
appearances;” but this proposal was rejected. In 1806 he
removed to London, where he immediately commenced a
course of lectures on anatomy and surgery, and rapidly rose
to distinction.
Previous to his departure from Edinburgh he had written
his work on the Anatomy of Expression, which was pub¬
lished shortly after his arrival in London, and immediately
attracted attention. Both as an artist and as a physiologist
he had felt the want of some philosophical explanation of the
rationale of expression ; of those muscular movements which
are the natural external indications of the passions and emo¬
tions of the mind; and perhaps no other man was so well
qualified to supply the deficiency. But he did not confine
himself to the illustration of what is useful to the artist; he
also explained how an acquaintance with the anatomy of ex¬
pression might be available to the surgeon or the physician
in distinguishing the nature and extent of some important
diseases. Independent of its intrinsic merit, this work has
another interest; for there is reason to believe that his in¬
quiries into the functions of the nerves in connection with
the anatomy of expression led him to prosecute those inves¬
tigations which terminated in the most remarkable anatomi¬
cal discovery of our time.
In the same manner as it had been taught before the
discoveries of Harvey, that there was a flux and reflux of
the blood in the arteries and veins, so it was taught, before
the discoveries of Bell, that the same nerves transmitted the
mandate of the will from the sensorium to the organs of
voluntary motion, and likewise carried to the sensorium in¬
telligence of the condition of their extremities or sensation ;
and^that, in some mysterious manner, these two impulses
might be simultaneously communicated along the same chord
in opposite directions,'without impairing the efficiency of
either. This doctrine, which now appears to be startling,
continued to be taught, or was left to be inferred, by every
anatomical teacher in Europe for at least a year after Sir
Charles Bell had announced—in letters still extant, and bear¬
ing the London and Edinburgh post-marks of the 5th and 8th
December 1807—his ideas on the nervous system. To him
we owe the discovery that no one nerve serves the double pur¬
pose of ministering both to motion and to sensation ; that
the spinal nerves and the fifth nerve of the brain, which had
been regarded each as one nerve, consisted each of two is-
tinct nerves connected with different portions of the brain,
inclosed in one sheath for the convenience of distribution,
but performing different functions in the animal economy,
corresponding with the different portions of the biain to
which they could be traced—the one conveying the man¬
dates of the will from the sensorium, the other conveying to
the sensorium intelligence of the condition of distant paits
or sensation ;—that, as the arteries carry the blood from the
heart, and the veins carry it to the heart, so one set of nerves
carries the impulses of volition from the brain, and another
carries the impulses of sensation to the brain that the biain
is divided, together with the spinal marrow which is prolonged
from it, into separate parts, ministering respectively to the
distinct functions of motion and sensation ; and that the
Bell.
BEL
Bell, origin of the nerves from one or other of these sources seems
m- to endow them with the particular property of the division
whence they spring. Such were the leading features of
Bell’s great discovery, the greatest in the physiology of the
nervous system for twenty centuries, and one of the most
remarkable that the history of anatomy has to record.
For this discovery the Royal Society of London awarded
him the first annual medal given by George IV. in 1829; and
when a new order of knighthood was instituted on the acces¬
sion of the late king to the throne, Bell was amongst the
first who were invested. This was the only public reward
he received, and he had merited it by the services he ren¬
dered to the wounded after the battles of Corunna and Wa¬
terloo, if he had never rendered any other. On both of these
occasions he had proceeded to the scene of action, relinquish¬
ing for the time his professional avocations in London.
Of his various writings on the practice of different branches
of his profession, it is sufficient to say that they place him in
the highest class of our writers on surgery. But there is
another series of his works, which, of all his labours, afforded
him the greatest pleasure. In his treatise on animal mecha¬
nics, written by desire of the Society for Propagating Useful
Knowledge, he embodied the substance of some of his lec¬
tures on the evidences of design to be found in the anatomy
of the human body, which had attracted admiring crowds to
the College of Surgeons. These views had been deeply
impressed upon his mind, and the success with which he
illustrated them probably pointed him out to the executors
of the late Earl of Bridgewater as a fit person to maintain
a part in that great argument which it was the purpose of
that nobleman’s bequest to have published. Sir Charles’s
contribution was the admirable treatise on the Hand. Still
following out this favourite subject of his contemplation, he
associated himself with Lord Brougham in the illustration of
Dr Paley’s Natural Theology, published in 1836, and con¬
tributed some of the most interesting of these illustrations.
This most estimable and distinguished man died sud¬
denly on the 29th April 1842, at Hollow Park, in Worces¬
tershire. (j. m—ix.)
Bell, George Joseph, brother of the preceding, was born
at Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1770. At the age of
eight he entered the High School, but he received no uni¬
versity education further than attending Tytler’s lectures
on civil history, Stewart’s course of moral philosophy, and
Hume’s lectures on the law of Scotland. He became a
member of the Faculty of Advocates in 1791, and was one
of the earliest and most attached friends of Francis Jeffrey.
It was by his counsel and encouragement that the distin¬
guished critic was persuaded to persevere in his professional
career at a time when his prospects of success at the bar
were dark and discouraging. In 1804 he published a Trea¬
tise on the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland, in 2 vols. 8vo,
which was gradually enlarged in future editions, till at length
a fifth edition was published in 1826, in 2 vols. 4to, under
the title of Commentaries on the Law of Scotland and on
the Principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence—an institutional
work of the very highest excellence, which has guided the
judicial deliberations of his own country till the present time,
and has had its value acknowledged by no less jurists than
Story and Kent. In 1821 he was unanimously elected pro¬
fessor of law in the university of Edinburgh ; and in 1831
he was appointed to one of the principal clerkships in the
Supreme Court. He was in 1833 placed at the head of a
commission to inquire into the expediency of making various
improvements in the Scottish bankruptcy law; and in con¬
sequence of the reports of the commissioners, chiefly drawn
up by himself, many beneficial alterations have been made
in this department of the law. He died at Hull on the 23d
September 1843.
Bell, Henry, an ingenious mechanic, well known for
his successful application of steam-power to the propulsion
BEL 631
of ships, was born at Torphichen in Linlithgowshire, in 1767. Bell.
Having received the ordinary education of a parish school, v—
he was apprenticed to his uncle, a mill-wright; and, after
qualifying himself as a ship-modeller at Borrowstownness,
went to London, where he found employment under Rennie,
the celebrated engineer. Returning to Scotland in 1790,
he first settled as a carpenter at Glasgow, and afterwards
removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth of Clyde, where his
wife superintended a large inn, together with the public
baths, while he pursued his mechanical projects, and also
found occasional employment as an engineer. It was not
until January 1812 that he gave a practical solution of the
difficulties which had beset all previous experimenters, by
producing a steamboat of about twenty-five tons, propelled by
an engine of three-horse power, at a speed of seven miles an
hour. A particular account of this vessel, which he named
the “ Comet,” as well as of the experiments of his predeces¬
sors in the same line, will be found under the head Steam
Navigation. It will there be seen that, although the honour
of priority, by about four years, is admitted to belong to
Robert Fulton, an American engineer, it appears to admit
of no doubt that Fulton had received very material assist¬
ance in the construction of his vessel from Bell and others
in this country. The latter days of this ingenious man were
rendered comfortable by a handsome sum subscribed for
him among the citizens of Glasgow; and he also received
from the trustees of the river Clyde a pension of L.100
a-year. He died at Helensburgh, November 14. 1830.
Bell, John, of Antermony, a Scottish traveller in the
first half of the last century. He was born in 1691, and
was educated for the medical profession, in which he took
the degree of M.D. In 1714 he set out for St Petersburg,
where, through the introduction of a countryman, he was
nominated medical attendant to Valensky, recently appointed
to the Persian embassy, with whom he travelled from 1715
to 1722, through Russia, Turkey, Persia, and China. He
had scarcely rested from this last journey, when he was sum¬
moned to attend Peter the Great in his perilous expedition
to Derbend and the Caspian Gates. The narrative of this
journey he has enriched with interesting particulars of the
public and private life of that remarkable prince. In 1738
he was sent by the Russian government on a mission to
Constantinople, to which, accompanied by a single attendant
who spoke Turkish, he proceeded in the midst of winter,
and all the horrors of a barbarous warfare ; and in May 1738
he returned to St Petersburg. It appears that after this he
was several years established as a merchant at Constanti¬
nople, where he married in 1746. In the following year he
retired to his estate of Antermony in Scotland, where he
lived in ease and affluence, beloved by his neighbours and
respected by all who knew him. He died in l780.
His travels, published at Glasgow, in 2 vols. 4to, 1763,
were speedily translated into French, and widely circulated
in Europe. (t. s. t.)
Bell, John, an eminent anatomist and surgeon, was born
at Edinburgh May 12.1763. He had the merit of being the
first in Scotland who applied with success the science of
anatomy to practical surgery. While still a young man, he
established, in the face of much opposition, an anatomical
theatre in Surgeon Square, where he attracted large au¬
diences by his admirable lectures on anatomy, physiology,
and surgery, in which he was assisted by his younger
brother Charles. After his exclusion from the infirmary
(to which reference has been made in the notice of Sir
Charles Bell), Mr Bell ceased to lecture, and devoted his
time to study and practice. He died at Rome in 1820,
while on a tour in Italy for the benefit of his health. To
great skill in his profession he united high and varied mental
abilities and extensive learning. His principal works are
the following:—Anatomy of the Human Body, 3 vols. 8vo,
1793-1802; Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds,
632
Bell
II
Bellar-
mino.
BEL
2 vols. Svo, 1793-95; Principles of Surgery, 3 yols. 8vo,
1801; and several volumes of Engravings illustrative of the
Human Anatomy. His Observations on Italy were pub¬
lished by his widow in 1825.
Bell Rock Lighthouse. See Sea-Lights.
Bell’s Reaping Machine. See Agriculture.
BELLA, Stefano he la, an eminent engraver, born at
Florence a.d. 1610. He was apprenticed to a goldsmith ; but
some prints of Callot having accidentally fallen into his hands,
he was seized with a passion for engraving ; and studied the
art under Canta Gallina, who had also been the instiuctor of
Callot. De la Bella at first imitated the manner of Callot:
but afterwards adopted one entirely his own, which in hee-
dom and spirit is said even to have surpassed that of his
fellow-disciple. In 1642 he went to Paris, where Caidinal
Richelieu engaged him to go to Arras and make drawings
of the siege and taking of that town by the royal army.
After residing a considerable time at Paris, he returned to
Florence, where he obtained a pension from the grand duke,
whose son, Prince Cosmo, he instructed in the art of design.
He died in 1664.
BELLAGGIO, a town in Lombardy, at the point where
the lake of Como is separated from the lake of Lecco. It is
well built, and surrounded by most picturesque scenery.
BELLAI, or Bellay, Guillaume du, lord of Langey,
a French general, who signalized himself in the service of
Francis I. His great abilities as a negotiator occasioned the
remark of the Emperor Charles V., that “ Langey’s pen had
fought more against him than all the lances in France.” He
was sent as viceroy into Piedmont, where he took several
towns from the imperialists. His address in penetrating
into the most secret designs of the enemy was extraordinary;
and he spared no expense for that end. He was extremely
active in influencing some of the universities of France to
give a judgment agreeable to the desires of Henry VIII.,
when that prince wished to divorce his queen in order to
marry Anne Boleyn. Langey composed several works, the
most remarkable of which was the history of his own times.
He died in 1543, and was buried in the church of Mans,
where a noble monument was erected to his memory.
BELLANO, a town of Lombardy, situated at the end of
the vale where the Pioverna forms a magnificent cataract,
on the east side of the lake of Como. It is a place of con¬
siderable trade, with many country seats in the vicinity.
BELL ARMING, Roberto {Cardinal Bellarmin), the
most eminent of Romish doctrinal controversialists, was born
October 4.1542, at Montepulciano, in Tuscany. At the age
of eighteen he enrolled himself among the Jesuits, and was
appointed by that society to teach theology at Louvain. The
fame of his preaching in that town is said to have attracted
even Protestants from England and Holland to hear him.
After a residence of seven years in the Low Countries, he
returned to Italy, and was appointed by Gregory XIII. to
deliver controversial lectures in the college founded by that
pontiff. Bellarmin, in the capacity of divine, accompanied
the legation sent into France in 1590 by Sixtus V. Eight
years afterwards, Clement VIII. made him a cardinal, which
dignity he is said to have accepted with extreme reluctance.
In 1601 he was appointed to the archbishopric of Capua;
but he resigned that office on being made librarian of the
Vatican by Paul V., and devoted himself, till the time of his
death, to the affairs of the court of Rome. It has been said
that the circumstance of his being a Jesuit was the sole cause
of his exclusion from the papacy on the demise of Leo XI. and
of Paul V. Bellarmin died at Rome, September 17. 1621.
It is certain that no Jesuit ever did greater honour to his order,
and that no author ever defended the cause of the Romish
church in general, and that of the pope in particular, with
greater ingenuity and skill. The Protestants have owned
this sufficiently; for during the space of fifty years there
was scarcely any divine of note among them who did not
BEL
fix upon Bellarmin as the subject of his books of contro- Bellaspoor
versy. But notwithstanding the zeal with which Bellarmin II
maintained the power of the pope over the temporality of ^elIeDdei1;
kings, he displeased Sixtus V. in his work De Romano Port-
tifice, by not insisting that the power which Jesus Christ
gave to his vicegerent was direct, instead of indirect; and
he had the mortification to see it put into the Index of the
Inquisition, though it was afterwards removed. At his death
he left to the Virgin Mary one half of his soul, and to Jesus
Christ the other. Bellarmin is said to have been a man of
great chastity and temperance, and remarkable for his pa¬
tience. His stature was low, and his mien ungainly ; but
his countenance was expressive of genius. His style, though
not pure, is perspicuous ; and the words which he first made
use of to express his thoughts were generally so suitable, that
few erasures appeared in his writings. Cardinal Bellarmin
was the author of numerous works, the principal of which are
the following: Disputationes de Controversiis Christiana}
Fidei, &c.; Institutiones Hebra'icce, linguce ; Explanatio in
Psalmos ; De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ; De Editione La-
tind Vulgatd ; De Officiis Episcoporum; Doctrina Chris¬
tiana ; De Ascensions Mentis in Deum per scalas Rerum
Creatarum; De Arte Bene Moriendi; De gemitu Columba:.
BELLASPOOR, a town of Northern India, on the left
bank of the Sutlej, which is here 100 yards broad when the
water is lowest. Its elevation is 1465 feet above the level
of the sea, and the situation is exceedingly picturesque.
Mr Forster, who visited the place in 1783, found the houses
well and regularly built of stone and mortar, and the streets
all paved, though roughly; but in 1820, according to Moor-
croft, the town was in a ruinous condition from having been
twice plundered by the Ghoorkas. TLhe traveller last men¬
tioned effected the passage of the river in the vicinity of
Bellaspoor, by means of the mussuk or float composed of
inflated skins. His party consisted of 300 persons, with six¬
teen horses and mules, and 150 tons of baggage and mer¬
chandise. Thirty watermen, each managing a skin, con¬
veyed the whole across in about an hour and a half. Bel¬
laspoor is the chief place of the hill state of Kuhloor, and the
residence of the rajah. Long. 76.50. Lat. 31. 19. (e. t.)
BELLEAU, Remi, a French poet, born at Nogent-le-
Rotrou, in 1528. He lived in the family of Rene of L°i-
raine, Marquis of Elbeuf, and attended him in his expedition
into Italy in 1557. Belleau was one of the seven poets of
his time who were denominated the French Pleiades. . He
died at Paris in 1577. His works were published at Paris in
1578 in 2 vols. 12mo.
BELLEGARDE, a barrier fortress of France, stands
on one of the Eastern Pyrenees, in Long. 2. 50. E. Lat.
42. 27. N. . ,
BELLE-ISLE, an island on the coast of France, in the
arrondissement of L’Orient and department of Morbihan.
Its extent is about 75 square miles ; and it contains three
towns and a number of villages, with 9000 inhabitants.
Belle-Isle, an island of North America, at the mouth
of the strait of the same name, between New Britain and
the north end of Newfoundland. It is 21 miles in circum¬
ference, and 16 miles from the coast of Labrador. Long.
55. 20. W. Lat. 52. 5. N.
BELLENDEN, John, archdeacon of Moray, occupies
a conspicuous place in the literary annals of Scotland, but
his personal history is still involved in some degree of
obscurity. Several writers have confounded him with Sir
John Bellenden of Auchinoul; an error founded only on
the identity of their names, as the judge appears to have
survived the archdeacon for twenty-seven years. Bel¬
lenden was probably educated in the university of St An¬
drews. Bale refers his birth to the eastern part of the
kingdom, probably Haddington or Berwick. His educa¬
tion is represented as uncommonly liberal; and as he
took the degree of D.D. in the university of Pans, his
BEL
Bellenden, course of academical study must have been very complete.1
John. Dr Campbell has remarked that his phraseology occasion-
' ally savours of a French education :2 it must however be
recollected, that the poets of this age were too generally
disposed to adopt terms of a French as well as Latin ori¬
gin ; and that the practice cannot be considered as pecu¬
liar to those who had been educated in France. Sir David
Lindsay, in a poem supposed to have been written in the
year 1530, mentions him in the following terms:
Bot now of late is starte up hastelie,
Ane cunnyng dark quhilk wrytith craftelie,
Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,
Quhose ornat warkis my wit can nocht defyne :
Get he into the courte auctoritie,
He will precell Quintyn and Kenedie.3
The literary merit of Bellenden does not seem to have
been disregarded by the court; but he experienced the
precarious fortune which so frequently attends courtiers.
For this information we are partly indebted to his poem
entitled the Proheme of the Cosmographe :
And fyrst occurrit to my remembring.
How that I wes in seruice with the kyng.
Put to his grace in zeris tenderest,
Clerk of his comptis, thoucht I wes inding,
With hart and hand, and euery othir thing
That mycht hym pleis in ony maner best,
Quhill hie inuy me from his seruice kest,
Be thaym that had the court in gouerning,
As bird but plumes heryit of the nest.
In the epistle subjoined to his translation of Boyce’s his¬
tory, he likewise states that he had been in the service of
the king from his majesty’s early infancy. It has been
conjectured that he was employed in superintending the
young monarch’s education: but he makes no allusion to
such an appointment, of which it would have been very
natural to remind the king, if they had ever stood in the
relation of tutor and pupil; and he very clearly informs
us that his place in the royal household was that of clerk
of accompts. James’s preceptor was Gavin Dunbar, after¬
wards promoted to the archbishopric of Glasgow. Being
dismissed from the king’s service, as he states in the verses
last quoted, Bellenden is supposed to have entered into
that of Archibald earl of Angus, because a person of the
same name was the earl’s secretary in the year 1528. In
the course of that year, Angus and some of his relations
were accused of treason: John Ballentyne, who is de¬
scribed as his secretary, presented himself at the bar of
the parliament on the 4th of September, and delivered a
BEL 633
written protest in the name of the earl of Angus, his bro- Bellenden
ther George Douglas, and his uncle Archibald Douglas of J°hn.
Kilspindie, stating the reasons why they ought not to be
compelled to answer to the charge of treason which had
been preferred against them; and in the afternoon of the
same day, the secretary again made his appearance, pro¬
bably because they found such a protest altogether una¬
vailing, and explained the conditions on which the earl
was willing to surrender to his trial.4 But in a transaction
of this nature we should expect to find him employing a
lawyer rather than a clergyman; and accordingly we are
informed by Hume that the individual who thus appeared
for the Douglases was “ Sir John Ballandine, who was
then one of their dependers, and afterward justice clerk.”5
Whatever may have been Bellenden’s employment at
this period, it is certain that he was soon afterwards an
attendant at court; and that at the request of the king
he undertook a translation of the Roman history of Livy,
and the Scotish history of Boyce.6 In this formidable
task he appears to have been engaged in 1530 and the
three ensuing years. The treasurer’s accounts contain va¬
rious entries respecting the remuneration of his labours :
the sum total which he is there stated to have received
amounts to L.114; namely, L.78 for the translation of
Boyce, and L.36 for that of Livy. But this was not the
only reward which he obtained. The archdeaconry of
Moray had become vacant during the vacancy of the see ;
and two clergymen, Duncan and Harvey, having solicited
the pope in favour of James Douglas, were convicted of
treason, and their property escheated to the crown. The
annual emoluments arising from the pensions and benefices
of John Duncan, who was parson of Glasgow, and from all
the property belonging to Alexander Harvey for the two
successive years 1536 and 1537, were bestowed upon Bel¬
lenden. hor the first grant he paid a composition of 350
marks, and for the second, of L.300J It must have been
upon the present occasion that he was promoted to the
archdeaconry, which had lapsed to the crown in conse¬
quence of the vacancy in the bishopric: it was perhaps
about the same period that he was appointed a canon of
Ross ; and this appears to have been the full extent of his
preferment in the church, while many worthless and illi¬
terate men were enjoying its highest dignities and emolu¬
ments.
His translation of Hector Boyce’s history of Scotland is
said to have been printed in the year 1536.8 Neither the
title-page nor the colophon exhibits the year of the im-
nnlvn Interea Mu®aru™ memoriae foeliciter litabat Joannes Balantyn, archidiaconus Moraviensis, accuratissima sedulitate in literis a
puero usque educatus.” (Gray, Oratio de ilhutribus Scotia; Scriptoribus, p. xxx.)
Lindsay’s Works, vol. i. p. 287.
Biographia Britannica, vol. i. p. 572, 2d edit.
4 Ants of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 322-4.
* Hume’s History of the Houses of Douglas and Angus, p. 258. Edinb. 1644, fol.
th‘ li Z.T?br SUpp0ued, that,.the kinf? wa® able t0 read Latin authors with much facility. Lindsay, vol. i. p. 259, mentions
stateof hiT k n o wledgcT- ^ ^ ^ ^ twelve; and the metrical parapbrast of Boyce’s history has more particularly described the
The kingis grace I knaw is nocht perfyte
w In Latyn toung.
ofliTE^Tr^r86 th,atr,theuking was entire^ ignorant °f the Latin language. It may perhaps be considered as a proof
in -dg ’ that.,he ur"ed Buchanan to write against the Franciscan friars, and to render his satire more poignant. “ Igitur
Sir iw/TS-JliSSUS scnbere’ eam Sllvam, quae nunc sub titulo Franciscani est edita, inchoatam regi tradidit.” (Buchanani Vita, n 3)
his intention mlYflrV P°em c°mpo®fd abol,n this period> exhorts James to study the chronicles of Scotland ; and it might possibly be
ms intention to refer his grace to Bellenden’s translation. (Works, vol. i. p. 302.) S ^ ^
The cronikillis to knaw I the exhort,
Quhilk may be mirrour to thy majestic ;
Thare sail thou find baith gude and evill report,
Of everilk prince efter his qualitie :
Thocht thay be deid, thair deidis sail nocht dee.
Traist weill how salt be stylit in that storie
As thow deservis, put in memorie.
VOLn^ * Di0graphlcal Production, p. xl. 8 Mackenzie’s Lives of Scots Writers, vol. ii. p. 596.
4 L
634
BEL
Bellenden, pression ; so thcit the date here assigned, if it is not mere-
John. ly conjectural, must have been ascertained from some
other document. The book was printed by Thomas Da¬
vidson, who styles himself printer to the king.1 On the
26th of July 1533, a sum of money was paid to Bellenden
“ for ane Cronikle gevin to the kingis grace, but this
must have been in manuscript. The printed book de¬
scribes the translator as archdeacon of Moray and canon
of Ross : the bishopric did not become vacant till the
year 1534,2 and, as we have already seen, the archdea¬
conry was vacated at a later period. Under the date ot
April 1538, when he obtained a grant of the two clergy¬
men’s emoluments for the preceding year, he was not de¬
scribed as a dignitary. It has likewise been stated that
the work was reprinted in 1541,3 but such copies as we
have had an opportunity of inspecting seem all to belong
to the same edition. It was Bellenden’s intention to execute
a complete version of Livy, but he did not advance beyond
the first five books, nor was his translation printed till the
year 1822. From a manuscript in the Advocates Library,
it was then published by Mr Maitland, to whose antiqua¬
rian zeal we are likewise indebted for a new edition ot his
other translation, as well as for some curious and interest¬
ing notices of Boyce and Bellenden.4 The archdeacon is
reported to have continued the history of bcotla-nd tor
one hundred years subsequent to the period at which the
printed narrative closes ;5 and a passage in his I roheme
of the History seems to imply that he had at least foimed
such a project.
Bring nobyll dedis of mony yeris gone.
Als fresche and recent to our memorie
As thay war bot in-to our dayis done,
That nobyll men may haue baith laud and glone
For tbair excellent brut of victorie.
And yit becaus my tyme hes bene so schort,
I thynk, quhen I haue oportunite,
To ring thair bell in-to ane othir sort.c
These two works exhibit the most ample specimen of
ancient Scotish prose that has descended to our times,
and are distinguished beyond most others by their fluency
and neatness of style. Bellenden frequently surprises a
modern reader by the happy vivacity of his expressions ;
BEL
nor can we peruse these translations without being con- Bellenden,
vinced that his learning and talents had qualified him for
original composition. In his version of the Scotish histo¬
rian, he does not adhere very scrupulously to his author;
he has assumed the liberty of adding, as well as. of re¬
trenching, and may therefore be considered as having ex¬
ceeded the proper limits of a translation. He has at all
events produced a very curious, and, to those who have a
competent knowledge of the language, a very entertaining
work. To his version of Boyce’s history he has subjoined
an epistle, addressed to James the Fifth, and written in a
strain of manly freedom: of the distinction between a
kino- and a tyrant, and of the miseries to which wicked
princes have generally been exposed, he speaks in bold and
unequivocal terms, which may excite some degree of sur¬
prise, but which cannot fail of exciting a high degree of
respect for his character.7 Bellenden was then a digni¬
tary of the church, and might still hope for preferment;
and in all ages ambitious churchmen have been sufficient¬
ly disposed to encourage sovereigns in their most flagiant
attempts to encroach on the liberties of their subjects ;
but the conduct of the worthy archdeacon, and of some
other beneficed clergymen of the ancient Scotish church,
must completely exempt them from this censure. John
Mair, who was provost of St Salvator’s College, and trea¬
surer of the chapel royal, and Hector Boyce, who was prin¬
cipal of King’s College, canon of Aberdeen, and rector of
Tyrie, have each written the history of their native coun¬
try, and have each evinced a laudable zeal in vindicating
the unalienable rights of the people. If such sentiments
were cherished by some of the catholic clergy, it is not
surprising that they should animate the breast of Bu¬
chanan, who had never been accustomed to pace in the
trammels of the church, and who had more completely
imbibed the spirit of classical antiquity.
Whatever misrht be the liberality of his political senti¬
ments, Bellenden seems to have been unprepared for any
change in the national religion.8 Stern and unbending vir¬
tue is not on all occasions to be expected among mankind :
truths which threaten the extinction of dignity and emo¬
lument cannot so easily be embraced; nor must we forget
the invincible force of prejudices, admitted in early youth,
1 Heir bemnnis the Hystory and Croniklis of Scotland. Fol.-It was “ imprentit in Edinburgh be me Thomas Bauidson prenter
to the kyngis nobyl grace?” On the reverse of the title Davidson has inserted an address,
“ The Excusation of the Prentar.” In the library of the university of Edinburgh, and in that of the duke ot Hamilton, there
splendid copies of this work printed on vellum. 3 H b t, Tvp0„rapMcai Antiquities, vol. iii. p. 1474.
2 Keith s Catalogue of the Scottish Bishops, p. 159. .tier Deri s VF & r , , UC , 110110,111011 nrobdean of
4 The History and Chronicles of Scotland : written in Latin by Hector Boece ; an pins a ec 3 . „ , T’ . • o
Moray, and canon of Ross. Edinb. 1821,2 vols. 4to. The first five books of the Roman History : tran lated from the Latin ot litus
Livius by John BelLenden, &c. Edinb. 1822, 4to. The two works are uniformly and elegantly printed.
: seems to have been a favourite with the Scotish poets, and particularly with the
bishop of Dunkeld.
Ane nothir wyse that bell sail now be roung . .
Than euer was to fore herd in our toung. (Douglas’s Virgil, p. 38.)
For quhy the bell of rethorick bene roung oo , .
Be Chawcer, Gower, and Lidgate laureat. (Lindsay’s Works, vol. 1. p. 284.)
7 In the Proheme of the History, Bellenden takes occasion to suggest that it is impossible for a king to possess at once the hear s
and the goods of his barons. . . „
Schaw mony reasonis how na king micht hail
His baronis hartis and thair geir atanis. . f ,
8 It however appears from the following stanza of the same Proheme, that he was not insensible to the pro iga e
clergy.
Schaw how of kirkis the superflew rent
Is ennime to gud religion,
And makis preistis more sleuthfull than fervent
In pietuus werkis and devotion,
And not allanerly perdition
Of commoun weill be bullis sumptuus,
Bot to evill prelatis gret occasion
To rage in lust and life maist vicius.
BEL
Bellenden, and cherished through a lengthened life. The archdeacon
William. 0f Moray is represented as a strenuous opponent of the
reformation, which he did not live to see completed.1 He
is said to have visited Rome, and there to have terminat¬
ed his career in 1550.2 The particular object of his jour¬
ney has not been recorded: nor are we better informed
with respect to his age ; but if he was entered at the uni¬
versity in 1508 and died in 1550, we may conjecture that
he had scarcely exceeded his sixtieth year. In this aca¬
demical record however we are only guided by the iden¬
tity of names, without the aid of any additional evidence.
Bellenden has been extolled as a master of every branch
of divine and human learning,3 and his attainments have
even extorted applause from the zealous bishop of Ossory,
John Bale, who has so frequently treated the papists with
unrelenting severity. In Ids poetical remains, which are
not numerous, he frequently displays an excursive fancy,
with considerable taste and skill as a versifier; and it is
therefore to be regretted that so few of his compositions
have been preserved. The most poetical of his works is
the Proheme of the Cosmographe : the principal incidents
are borrowed from the ancient fiction of the choice of
Hercules,4 but he has imparted to his copy the character¬
istic air of an original. Nor is his Proheme of the History
destitute of poetical merit. These two poems, as well as
the metrical prologue to his translation of Livy, bear in¬
ternal evidence of having been composed for the instruc¬
tion of the young king. Two copies of his unpublished
prolusion on the conception of Christ are to be found in
Bannatyne’s MS.
Beside the works already enumerated, Bellenden is said
to have composed a tract on the Pythagorean letter, De
Litera Pythagora ; nor is there any necessity to adopt Dr
Mackenzie’s emendation, and substitute Vita for Litera:
the letter of Pythagoras was upsilon, which he had select¬
ed as his favourite in consequence of certain emblemati¬
cal properties indicated by its form. Vossius has men¬
tioned Bellenden as the author of a work on cosmography,5
but this is evidently his translation of Boyce’s preliminary
description of Scotland. It was stated by Dr Campbell
tliat many of his writings were then in the possession of
persons of distinction in Scotland; and he particularly
mentions that several of his poems were in the possession
of Laurence Dundas, apparently the professor of humani¬
ty at Edinburgh.6 It is not however improbable that all
these were merely the works with which we are still ac¬
quainted, and that the poems to which he alludes were
modern transcripts. (x.)
Bellenden, William, is a Scotish name familiarly
known to those who have explored the recesses of modern
literature, but with respect to the history of the individual
■ BEL 635
himself very few particulars have hitherto been disco- Bellenden,
vered. Whether he belonged to any family of distinction, ^
we are not informed; nor is the gentility of his birth attest-
ed by Dempster, who supplies the only biographical notices
with which we are acquainted. According to this con¬
temporary authority, he was a professor in the university,
and an advocate in the parliament of Paris. We must ap¬
parently conclude that he relinquished the functions of a
professor, and betook himself to the practice of the bar.
The same writer has stated that both Queen Mary and
King James employed him in some diplomatic services,
and that the latter nominated him master of requests.7
That he bore such a title, is sufficiently ascertained from
his own publications, in all of which he is described as
“ Magister supplicum Libellorum August! Regis Magnae
Britanniae but there are obvious reasons for suspecting
that his office, if not unconnected with emolument, was
altogether unconnected with official duty; for he appears
to have spent the greater part of his life in France. Ma¬
gister Libellorum was an officer in the court of the Roman
emperors,8 and it was his duty to receive and examine pe¬
titions addressed to the prince. A similar office was esta¬
blished in several modern kingdoms; and Maitre des Re-
quetes being an honourable title in France, Bellenden
might solicit and obtain such a title from a sovereign who
could not so easily bestow an ample salary. The terms
employed by Dempster in describing his appointment,
seem rather to indicate honour than emolument. It is
supposed that he must have belonged to the Scotish esta¬
blishment, for, in England, a person who bore this title was
a judge of a particular court: of the court of requests,
which professed to distribute justice gratuitously, the lord
privy seal was chief judge, and was assisted by two judges
called masters of requests, the one for the common, and
the other for the civil law.9 In a list of the officers
of state in Scotland, “William Ballenden, magist. supplic.
libellor.” is said to have succeeded Mark Ker as master of
requests in 1608, and to have been succeeded in 1624 by
Sir James Galloway, afterwards Lord Dunkeld.10 But the
date of his appointment seems to have been borrowed from
that of his earliest publication ; and Bellenden continued
to describe himself as master of requests in the year 1625.
If he practised at the bar in Paris, his early education
must in all probability have been French ; and if he was
a regent or professor in one of the colleges, he may be
supposed to have adhered to the popish religion. Since
the massacre of St Bartholomew, which had proved fatal
to Ramus and other men of learning, there probably had
been no protestant professor in any college of Paris. His
nephew, William Bellenden, was a catholic and a priest.
Bellenden’s earliest publication bears the subsequent
1 “ Jacobus Balandenus, Moraviensis ecdeslae archidiaconus, in celebri Sorbonse schola magistri laurea donatus, summo studio po-
pularium suorum animos heresi laborantes, cum scribendo turn disputando, conatus est liberare. (Conseus de duplici Statu Religionis
apud Scotos, p. 167. Romse, 1628. 4to.) Both Conn and Dempster have inaccurately given him the name of James.
2 “ lionise tandem obiise dicitur.” (Bale, cent. xiv. p. 223.) “ Obiit Romae, anno, ut puto, 1550.” (Dempster, p. 107-) The former
writer speaks with some degree of hesitation respecting the place, and the latter respecting the date.
3 “ Laboriosa cura et incredibili studio artes onines humanas atque etiam divinas percepit.” (Dempster. Hist. Ecclesiast. Gent.
Scotor. p. 107.)
4 Xenophontis Memorabilia, lib. ii. § 21. 5 Vossius de Scientiis Mathematics, p. 252.
6 Biographia Britannica, vol. i. p. 573.
7 “ Guilielmus Bellendenus, sive Ballantinus, honestissimo bonarum artium studio Parisiis inclaruit professor in academia, patro-
nus causarum in supremo Galliarum senatu; turn demum oratoris munere honestatus principibus suis, lieginse Mariae, filioque Jaco-
bo, fidelem operam navavit, a quo posteriore magistri libellorum supplicum elogio honorifico est donatus. Ejus sunt: Princeps Ci-
ceronis, lib. i. Orator Ciceronis, lib. i. Senator Ciceronis, lib. i. In omnia Ciceronis Opera Observationes, lib. i. Yivit adhuc Lu-
tetise, et plura molitur.” (Dempsteri Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum, p. 110. Bononise, 1627, 4to.)
8 Brissonius de Verborum quae ad Jus Civile pertinent Significatione, tom. ii. p. 769. edit. Heineccii.
“ See Sir Thomas Smith’s Common-wealth of England, p. 245. edit. Lond. 1633, 12mo.—“ 'i herein, for the most part,” says Sir
Thomas Ridley, “ are handled poore miserable persons causes, as widows and orphans, and other distressed people, whose cases wholly
relie on pietie and conscience.” (View of the Civile and Ecclesiasticall haw, p. 276, 2d edit. Oxford, 1634, 4to ) The court of re¬
quests was instituted about the ninth of Henry VII., and was dissolved by statute, 16 Car. I. c. 10.
*° Scot’s Staggering State of the Scots Statesmen, p. 189. Edinb. 17^4, 12mo.
636
BEL
Bellenden, title : “ Ciceronis Princeps, Rationes et Consilia bene ge-
Williatn. rendi firmandique Imperii: ex iis repetita quae ex Cicero-
'-r~nianis defluxere fontibus in libros xvi. de Statu. Rerum
Romanarum, qui nondum lucem acceperunt. Paris. 160S,
8vo. This was followed by1 “ Ciceronis Consul, Senator,
Senatusque Romanus: illustratus public! observatione juris,
gravissimi usus disciplina, administrandi temperata ration.c,
notatis inclinationibus temporum in Rep. et actis rerum in
Senatu : quae a Ciceroniana nondum edita profluxere me-
moria annorum cccx.congesta in libros xvi. de Statu Rerum
Romanarum : unde jam manavit Ciceronis Princeps, dignus
habitus summorum lectione principum. Editio prima. A
inclytum serenissimumque Principem HenricumPrincipem
Scotiae et Walliae.” Paris. 1612, 8vo. This mode of not¬
ing a first edition is somewhat pleasant f nor must we
overlook the important intelligence that his former pubh-
cation had been thought worthy of the attention of mighty
princes. Both these works partake of the nature of a
cento. In the first of them, the author has collected from
the writings of Cicero the various precepts and remaiks
which relate to the origin and principles of regal govern-
ment, and with no small labour has combined the whole
in a regular and systematic form. Adopting a similar
plan in the other work, he has compiled a treatise on the
dignity and authority of the consuls, and on the constitu¬
tion of the Roman senate. Although this may seem an
effort of mere diligence, it required both learning and abi¬
lity to present such materials in such a shape.
His next publication is entitled “ De Statu prisci Orbis
in Religione, Re politica, et Literis, liber unus. Ad sere-
nissimum Principem Carolum Principem Scotiae et Wal-
Ike.” Paris. 1615, 8vo. This is a work of more origi¬
nality, and affords a very favourable specimen of the au¬
thor’s talents and erudition.3 It exhibits, in a very con¬
densed form, a sketch of the history of philosophy and
civil polity, tracing its progress among the Hebrews,
Greeks, and Romans. Of this work very few copies ap¬
pear to have been separately published; for the author
speedily combined all the three tracts in a volume which
bears the following title: “ De Statu libri tres. I. De
Statu prisci Orbis in Religione, Re politica, et Literis.
II. Ciceronis Princeps, sive de Statu Principis et Imperii.
III. Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque Romanus, sive
de Statu Reip. et Urbis imperantis Orbi. Primus, nunc
primum editus: caeteri, cum tractatu de Processu et Scrip-
toribus Rei Politicae, ala autore aucti et illustrati.” Paris.
1615, 8vo. Notwithstanding this notice on the title-page,
we suspect that the second and third treatises were not
actually reprinted. Each treatise has a distinct series of
pages, and it was therefore easy to combine the whole.
In its separate form and in this volume, Ciceronis Consul
exhibits the very same list of typographical errors. Dr Parr
remarks, that in all the copies which he had seen, the date
seems to have been changed from m.dc.xv. to m.dc.xvi.
by the printer adding the letter i after the impression had
been finished : but in a copy belonging to the Advocates
Library, the additional letter is apparently printed, not
with a type, but with a pen ; and in a copy belonging to
the writer of this notice, the original date remains unal¬
tered. Another minute variation may likewise be men-
BEL
tioned; in the latter copy, the ^XaiTthe
is not impressed on the reverse of a printed page ot tne
dedication. In a paper written by Dr Bennet, the late
bishop of Cloyne, we find the subsequent statement re¬
specting the books De Statu. “ The great work being now
completed, Bellenden looked forward with a pretty well-
orounded expectation for that applause which his labour
and his ingenuity deserved. But his views were disap¬
pointed, by one of those events which no art of man could
foresee or remedy. The vessel in which the whole im¬
pression was embarked was overtaken by a storm before
she could reach the English coast, and foundered with a
her cargo. A very few copies only, which the learned
author either kept for his own use, or had sent as presents
by private hands, seem to have been preserved from the
destruction which awaited the others. 4 We are not aware
of any early authority for such a statement; and the learned
prelate, misled by an imperfect recollection, seems to have
misapplied Dr Warton’s account of Bellenden s larger
work, which is likewise an account that requires confir¬
mation. There is a manifest fallacy in supposing that
almost all the impression of such a book must have been
destined for England. After a long interval, the fame of
the author was greatly extended by Dr Parr s publication
of “ Gulielmi Bellendeni, Magistri supplicum Libellorum
August! Regis Magnse Britanniae, &c. de Statu hbn tres.
Editio secunda longe emendatior.” Lond. 1787, 8vo. Ihe
preface, extending to seventy-six pages, is written in a
style of elegant and powerful Latinity, but is too much
replenished with modern politics, and, in the opinion o
some readers, is not free from a considerable mixture
of pedantry. It is however such a composition as no
other Englishman of that period could perhaps have pro-
The last work which B^llenden himself published is of
very small extent, consisting merely of two short P°ems:
“ Carol! Primi et Henricae Mariae, Regis et Reginae Mag-
nae Britanniae, &c. Epithalamium; et in ipsas augustissi-
mas Nuptias, celeberrimamque Legationeni earum causa
obitam, &c. panegyricum Carmen, et Elogia. Pans. lb^>,
4to. This little work has likewise been republished by
But the greatest labour of his life was a posthumous
production, which made its appearance under the title of
“ Guilielmi Bellendeni Scoti, Magistri supphcum Libel¬
lorum Augusti Regis Magnae Britanniae, de tribus Lumi-
nibus Romanorum libri sex-decim. Pans, ib^, loi.
With respect to the date of this publication, one biblio¬
grapher frequently contradicts another, and some minute
particulars require explanation. In the Advocates Library,
that great repository of Scotish literature, there are two
copies of the book, which exhibit considerable variations.
In both of them we find the same extract of the royal pri¬
vilege, dated on the third of September 1631. I he one
bears, “ Acheve d’imprimer pour la premiere tois, le
vingtseptiesme jour d’Aoust 1633. Of this copy t e
dedication, “ Henrico Borbonio, Sacro-sancti Imp. Rom.
Principi, illustriss. Metens. Pnesuli,” is subscribed by the
author’s nephew, “ Guilielmus Bellendenus, Presbyter
Scotus.” It consists of nearly four pages, but is not lol-
* This work of Bellenden did not escape the notice of the learned and indefatigable labricius, Bibliographia Antiquaria, p
AnoUieAearnWi philologer had recently set him the example: “ Julii Claris Euler,geri Juliodunensis de Theatre Ludisque
Scenicis libri duo. prim,:' Tricaesibus, 1603, dvo.^ ^ ^ ^ ^ comn,endation. « Stylus eat Bellendeni per
Dr Barr, in his famous preface to Bellenden, p.
librum huncce, dilucidus in primis, neque exquisitus nimis. Sententiae hie illic occurrunt reconditae, quibus adhibita, tanquam h ^
est ratio. Operis porro totius ita sunt aptae inter se colligataeque partes, nihil ut sit asoerum, vel hiu cum, >
alienum irruerit locum, nihil non positum sit suo.v
4 See Dr Johnstone’s Memoirs of Farr, p. 182.
BEL
Bellenden,lowed by a preface. The other copy has a similar title-
William. page, but with the date of 1634; and the note subjoined
v^'Y'w/ to the privilege bears, “ Acheve d’imprimer pour la pre¬
miere fois, le vingtroisiesme jour de Mars 1634.” It con¬
tains a different and a shorter dedication, “ Potentissimo
et invictissirno Principi Carolo Magnae Britanniae Regi,
&c.” subscribed by the publisher, Toussaint du Bray.
This dedication is followed by a brief preface, “ Lectori
benevolo.” In other respects the two copies present a
complete resemblance ; and it appears sufficiently evident
that one set of copies must have been intended for the
French, and another for the British market.
Of this elaborate work, which consists of no fewer than
824 pages, printed on a small type, the subject is very
faintly indicated by the title. It is the author’s object to
combine, in an historical form, all the statements and re¬
flections of Cicero which relate to the civil and religious
affairs of Rome ; and his plan is executed in such a man¬
ner as to display the essence of the Roman history, from
the foundation of the city to the extinction of the repub¬
lic.1 In the text he adheres to his former method of ex¬
pressing himself in no other words than those of Cicero;
but he has interspersed occasional observations, drawn
from various sources of information. The latter part of
the work, relating to the times of his great prototype, is
very ample and satisfactory; and here it is evident that
the materials must be chiefly derived from the epistles.
The reader cannot fail to perceive that this is precisely
such a digest as would be necessary for an historian of
the life and times of Cicero; it is such a digest as Dr
Middleton professes to have formed by his own unaided
industry. “ My first business therefore,” as he is pleas¬
ed to state, “ after I had undertaken this task, was, to
read over Cicero’s works, with no other view than to ex¬
tract from them all the passages that seemed to have any
relation to my design ; where the tediousness of collect¬
ing an infinite number of testimonies scattered through
many different volumes ; of sorting them into their classes,
and ranging them in proper order; the necessity of over¬
looking many in the first search, and the trouble of re¬
trieving them in a second or third; and the final omission
of several through forgetfulness or inadvertency; have
helped to abate that wonder which had often occurred to
me, why no man had ever attempted the same work before
me, or at least in this enlarged and comprehensive form, in
which it is now offered to the public.”2 If previously ac¬
quainted with the work of Bellenden, he must have been
fully aware that this labour of collecting and digesting was
altogether superfluous ; nor is it probable that such a book
was unknown to Dr Middleton, a man of extensive learn¬
ing, and the keeper of a great public library, that of the
university of Cambridge. He has therefore been repeat¬
edly accused of plagiarism ; and it must be confessed that
the accusation does not appear to be destitute of founda¬
tion. “ It may be worth observing,” says Dr Warton,
“ that he is much indebted, without acknowledging it, to
a curious book little known, entitled G. Bellendeni Scoli
BEL 637
de tribus Luminibus Romanorum, &c. It comprehends a Bellero-
history of Rome, from the foundation of the city to the ph°n.
time of Augustus, drawn up in the very words of Cicero,
without any alteration of any expression. In this book
Middleton found every part of Cicero’s own history, in
his own words, and his works arranged in chronological
order, without further trouble. The impression of this
work being shipped for England, was lost in the vessel,
which was cast away, and only a few copies remained that
had been left in France.”3 The same opinion respecting
the biographer’s plagiarism is adopted, and strongly ex¬
pressed by Dr Parr.4
M. Morabin, the French biographer of Cicero, who soon
followed Dr Middleton, has, in the dedication of his work,
acknowledged his acquaintance with Bellenden, but has
not mentioned him in the most appropriate terms. “ Si
Bellenden, dans son traite De tribus Luminibus Romano¬
rum, a evite cet ecueil, en rassemblant tout ce qu’il y a
d’historique dans Ciceron, et en n’employant que les ex¬
pressions de cet orateur, il a donne dans un autre; et sa
compilation, de quelque utilite qu’elle puisse etre a un
auteur qui embrasseroit une histoire generale, ne sauroit
guere servir dans la composition d’une histoire particuliere,
qu’a fournir la matiere d’un gros livre qui ne seroit lu.”5
But certainly an ample collection of matexfials was in
either case desirable; and for a person who undertook to
write the history of Cicero in two volumes quarto, it
might have been thought necessary to inspect all the ma¬
terials which Cicero had himself furnished.
Bellenden has bestowed upon his book a title which to
many readers must require explanation. It appears to
have been his original intention to compose, on a similar
plan, three different works illustrative of the civil and li¬
terary history of Rome. The first of his three luminaries
is Cicero, w ho has supplied him with the materials of civil
history. According to Lenglet du Fresnoy, the other two
whom he had in his contemplation were Seneca and the
elder Pliny ;6 and we may conclude that, by means of the
same laborious arrangement and digest of their respective
writings, he intended to exhibit a comprehensive view of
the moral and physical science of the Romans, (d. i.)
BELLEROPHON or Bellerophontes, in fabulous
history, the name given to Hipponous the son of the Corin¬
thian king Glaucus and Eurymede, after his murder of the
noble Corinthian Bellerus. In order to expiate his crime,
he fled to Prcetus, whose wife Anteia or Stenebcea, became
enamoured of the young stranger; and when he rejected
her advances she accused him to the king of an attempt
against her honour. Proetus, unwilling to infringe the laws
of hospitality, made Bellerophon the bearer of his own
death warrant in a sealed letter addressed to his father-in-law
lobates king of Lycia; whence the proverb Bellerophontis
liter as affert, equivalent to “ Uriah’s letter.” As a certain
means oi destruction,Bellerophon was sent to kill the Chimaera;
but with the assistance of the winged horse Pegasus he rose
into the air, and slew the monster with his arrows. The like
success attended his expeditions against the Solymi and the
1 Clement has described this work in terms of too extensive import: “ Guillaume Bellenden, grand admirateur de Ciceron, s est
donnd la torture pour derire 1’Histoire des Empereurs et des Consuls Remains, avec les propres termes de cet ancien orateur, dont il a
cite constamment les ouvrages a la marge : et comme il n’osoit pas s’etendre a son grd, en eenvant d’une mamere si bornee, il a ajoute
des notes a la fin de chaque livre, dans lesquelles il explique plus amplement ses idees.” (Bibliotheque cuneuso historique et critique, ou
Catalogue raisonne, de Livres difficiles d trouver, tom. iii- p. 72 )
2 Middleton’s Hist, of the Life of M. T. Cicero, vol. i. p. xx.
3 ^Varton's Essau on the Genius and Writings of Pope, vol. ii. p- 324. __ . n j
* “ Permoleste autem fero,” says Dr Parr, “ potuisse ilium, qui ingenn tam aens elegantisque esset, laudibus Bellendenum me¬
ntis ac debitis privare. Fidentissime enim confirmamus, Middletonum non modo ex^Bellendem qpere supellectilem sibi sublegisse
satis lautam atque amplam, sed libri ipsius prope formam, qua res ferret, adumbrasse. {Piof. p. m.)
5 Morabin, Histoire de Cictron, avec des Remarques historiques et critiques, laris, 1/45, 2 tom. 4to. .
* “ L’auteur avoit dessein de faire la meme chose sur Pline 1’ancien, et sur Seneque; mais il n y a eu d imprime que ce qui regaratf
Cicdron, et I’ouvrage meme n’est pas commun.” (Lenglet du Fresnoy, Mtthode pour etudier l Histoire, tom. xi. p. 72, edit. 1772.)
638 BEL
Belles- Amazons; and on his return to Lyciahe slew a party of
Lettres t]ie bravest Lycians who were set in ambush against his me.
II. . lobates, in admiration of’ his valour, and convinced that his
^ Bellini. ^ innocence alone could have shielded him in all these
gave him his daughter in marriage, and nominated him his
successor in the kingdom ; intelligence that drove Steneboea
to despair and suicide. Belleropbon now grew vain ofhis pros¬
perity; and as he attempted, with the assistance of 1 egasus,
to ascend to heaven, Jupiter checked his presumption by
sending a gadfly which stung the horse, and caused Belle-
rophon’s fall to the earth, where he wandered in contempt
and misery to the end of his days : while Pegasus, mounting
to heaven, was placed among the constellations.
BELLES-LETTRES,a French term for polite literature
generally. It would be endless to enumerate the various
branches both of science and literature which learned men
have thought proper to comprehend under this title. ^*ie"
toric, poetry, history, and philology, are usually included
under belles-lettres; but the vagueness of the term has
rendered its use nearly obsolete, though it is still retained
in some universities. .
BELLEVOIS, an excellent painter of marine subjects,
but of whose history nothing is recorded except that he died
at Hamburg in 1684.
BELLEY, a town of France, in the department of Ain,
and capital of an arrondissement of the same name, is situated
near the Rhone, 39 miles east of Lyons. It is the seat of a
bishopric founded as early as 412, and contains an episcopal
palace,an ecclesiastical school, a museum,and apublic library.
In the vicinity are the best lithographic stones in France.
Pop. (1851) 4517. The arrondissement comprehends nine
cantons and 112 communes, with a population of 83,626.
BELLINI, Gentile,a Venetian painter, born in the year
1421. He was employed by the republic of Venice; and
to hjm and his brother that state is indebted for the noble
works which are to be found in its council-hall. Mahommed
II. having seen some oflhis performances, was so struck with
them that he wrote to the republic, entreating that the artist
might be sent to him. Bellini accordingly proceeded to
Constantinople, where he painted a number of pieces, among
which was the decollation of St John the Baptist, whom the
Turks revere as a great prophet. Mahommed admired the
proportion and shading of the work ; but remarking a defect
in regard to the skin of the neck, from which the head was
separated, the sultan, to prove the truth of his observation,
sent fora slave and ordered his head to be struck off. The
painter by no means relishing this capital style of instruction,
and, anxious to place his owm head beyond the reach of ex¬
periment, earnestly solicted his dismission, which was granted
by the grand signior. The republic settled a pension upon
him at his return, and made him a knight of St Mark. He
died in 1501, in the eightieth year of his age.
Bellini, Giovanni, the son of Jacopo Bellini, and brother
of Gentile, was born at Venice in 1422. Fie surpassed his
brother in grace and softness ; and may be considered as the
chief emancipator of the V enetian school from the dry manner
of his predecessors. Flis works are numerous, but his best
pictures are to be seen only in Italy. (Lanzi, Stona Pittor.}
Bellini, Jacopo, an early Venetian painter, who having
learned the art of painting in oil, produced some pictures
in that manner which are still considered as remarkable pro¬
ductions. He died in 1470.
Bellini, Lorenzo, a celebrated physician and anatomist,
born at Florence a.d. 1643. After completing his studies
in general literature, he went to Pisa, where, assisted by the
generosity of the grand duke Ferdinand II., he studied under
two of the most learned men of that age, Oliva and Borelli,
the former of wdiom instructed him in natural philosophy,
and the latter in mechanics. He likewise studied medi¬
cine under Redi, and mathematics under Marchetti. At the
early age of twenty he was chosen professor of philosophy
BEL
at Pisa, but did not long continue in this office ; for he had Bellini
acquired such a reputation for skill in anatomy, that the 11
grand duke procured him a professorship in that science, and
was himself a frequent auditor at his lectures. Bellini died
in 1703, in the sixtieth year ofhis age. His works were pub¬
licly read and explained at Leyden by our countryman Dr
Pitcairn, professor of physic there.
Bellini, Vincenzio, the operatic composer, was born at
Catania in Sicily, on the 3d November 1802 according to the
best authorities. He was the son of a musician, and received
his education in the Conservatorio at Naples, under Zingarelli.
His principal works are the following well-known operas
11 Pirata, La Straniera, La Sonnambula, Norma, I Puri-
tani. He died at Puteaux near Paris, after a short illness,
September 23. 1835. Combined with an elegant person and
fascinating manners, Bellini possessed high moral worth; and
his compositions, which are characterized by tenderness and
sweetness, are a happy reflection of the amiable disposition
of the author.
BELLIS, a genus of composite plants, the best known of
which is the common daisy. See Botany.
BELLONA, in Roman Mythology, the goddess of war,
and the companion of Mars. Some, however, describe her
as his sister or his wife. She is commonly represented in
an attitude expressive of fury and distraction, with her hair
composed of snakes clotted with gore, and her garments
stained with blood; sometimes she is depicted driving the
chariot of Mars, with a bloody whip in her hand, sometimes
with a lighted torch or brand, and a trumpet. Bellona had
a temple at Rome near the Circus Flaminius. Her priests,
called Bellonarii, used to mangle their bodies with knives in
order to pacify the deity, offering their own blood in sacrifice.
BELLORI, Giovanni Pietro, an eminent antiquary and
connoisseur, born at Rome in 1615. Hewrote Vitejle' Pittori,
Scultori, ed Architetti, Moderni, 4to, Rome 1672, of which
the first part only was printed; and he was also the author
of various works on antiquities and medals. He died in 1696.
BELLOVACI,a people of Gallia B elgica, the most power¬
ful and bravest of the Belgse. In Caesar’s time they could
bring 100,000 men into the field.
BELLOWS, a machine so contrived as alternately to in¬
spire and expire the air, by enlarging and contracting its
capacity. See Blowing Machines.
BELLUNO, one of the delegations into which the Aus¬
trian kingdom of Venetian Lombardy is divided. It is
bounded on the west and north by the Tyrol, on the east
by Friuli, on the S.E. by Treviso, and on the S.W.
by Vicenza. Its extent is 1240 square miles, or 793,600
acres. It is generally a hilly and mountainous countiy.
The widest valley is that through which runs the river
Piave, and which, like several other much narrower ones,
is tolerably fertile in rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat;
while some parts yield a little wheat, much maize, and some
flax and hemp. The mountains contain veins of iron, lead,
copper and vitriol; but the mines are all worked upon a very
contracted scale. The population amounted in 1317 to
114,772, in 1827 to 122,840, and in 1851 to 157,120. 1 he
capital, of the same name, stands at the confluence of the
Piave and the Ardo. Besides the cathedral, there are thir¬
teen churches, and several religious houses for males and
for females. The inhabitants amount to 9800, some of
whom are employed in the spinning of silk. Long. 12. 8.
46. E. Lat. 46. 7. 46. N. v ,. J r .. . .
BELOMANCY (/3eA.os and pavreLa), a kind of divination
by means of arrows drawn at random from a bag or quiver ,
practised by the ancient Scythians, Babylonians, ia lans,
and other Eastern people. (See Ezekiel xxi. 21.)
BELON, Pierre, a distinguished French naturalist, born
at the hamlet of Soulletiere, inLe Maine, about the year lot <.
He published several works in Latin and in trench, me u
ing a book of travels, or observations of many singularities
BEL
and memorable things found in Greece, Asia, Judaea, Egypt,
and other foreign countries. Botany and zoology are par¬
ticularly indebted to Belon ; and he may be considered as
the great reviver of the study of natural history. He was
murdered near Paris by one of his enemies in 1564.
BELOOCHISTAN, a country of Asia, situate on the
north-western coast of the Indian Peninsula. It is bounded
on the N. by Afghanistan ; on the E. by Sinde; on the S.
by the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea; and on the W.
by Persia. It extends from Lat. 24. 50. to 30. 20., and from
Long. 57. 56. to 68. 38.; its extreme length from E. to W.
being 660 miles, and its breadth 370.
The outline of the sea-coast is in general remarkably re¬
gular, running nearly due E. and W., a little N. of Lat.
24. 46. from Cape Monze, on the border of Sinde, in Long.
66. 35., to Cape Zegin, in Long. 58. 4. It is for the most
part craggy, but not remarkably elevated, and has in some
places, tor considerable distance, a low sandy shore, though
almost everywhere the surface becomes much higher inland.
The principal headlands, proceeding from E. to W., are Cape
Monze or Has Moarree, which is the eastern headland of
Sonmeanee Bay ; Goorab Sing, Has Arubah, Has INoo,
forming the western headland of Gwadel Bay ; Has Jewnee,
forming the eastern point of Gw'ettar Bay, and Cape Zegin
at the western extremity. There is no good harbour along
the coast, though extending about 600 miles ; but there
are several roadsteads with good holding-ground, and shel¬
tered on several points. Of these the best are Sonmeanee
Bay and Choubar Bay, at which last point is the only place
on the coast deserving the name of a town, there being else¬
where nothing but small and wretched villages.
Of the early history of this portion of the Asiatic con¬
tinent little or nothing is known. The poverty and natural
strength of the country, combined with the ferocious habits of
the natives, seem to have equally repelled the friendly visits
of inquisitive strangers and the hostile incursions of invading
armies. The first distinct account which we have is from Ar¬
rian, who, with his usual brevity and severe veracity, nar¬
rates the march of Alexander through this country, which
he calls the country of the Oritse and Gadrosii. He gives a
very accurate and judicious geographical account of this for¬
lorn tract, its general aridity, and the necessity of obtaining
water by digging in the beds of torrents ; describes the food
of the inhabitants as dates and fish ; adverts to the occa¬
sional occurrence of fertile spots, the abundance of aromatic
and thorny shrubs and fragrant plants, and the violence of
the monsoon in the western part of Mekran. He notices
also the impossibility of subsisting a large army, and the
consequent destruction of the greater part of the men and
beasts which accompanied the expedition of Alexander. At
the commencement of the eighth century, this country was
traversed by an army of the kaliphate.
The Belooehes are, with few exceptions, Mahommedans of
the Soonnee persuasion. They date their origin from so late
a period as the Mahommedan invasion of Persia, and are very
desirous of being supposed to be of Arabian extraction ;
but the latter part of this supposition derives no confirma¬
tion from their features, their manners, or their language,
which bear not the slightest similitude to those of the Arabs.
There can be little doubt, however, that they originally
came from the westward; of which indeed there is strong
evidence in the affinity between the Beloochekee and Per¬
sian languages ; and their institutions, habits, and religion,
seem to indicate that they are of Turkoman lineage. It
appear^ highly probable, indeed, that, during the frequent
sanguinary revolutions to which the monarchy of the Sel-
jukide Tartars was subject, some of these barbarians had
been forced to wander over the country in quest of new
settlements ; and that a portion of them had found refuge
in the mountainous districts of Beloochistan. But, besides
the Belooches, there are in Beloochistan other distinct
•BEL 639
tribes of inhabitants. These are, the Brahooes, apparently Beloo-
a race of Tartar mountaineers, who settled at an early ^cillsta»-
period in the southern parts of Asia, but whose history is ^
extremely obscure and uninteresting ; the Dehwars, a Per¬
sian colony, whose original settlement cannot be traced ;
and the Hindus, who appears to have been the first settlers
in the upper part of the Brahooick Mountains, on their be-
in<>- expelled from Sinde, Lus, and Mekran, by the armies
of the khalifs of Baghdad. This last tribe appears for a time
to have constituted the governing party. Beloochistan was
subsequently exposed to the transient and devastating^ in¬
roads of the Moguls, and became nominally a portion of the
dominions of the Emperor Akbar. I he Brahooes and Be¬
looches, however, gradually spread over the country ; and
the Hindu power was at length subverted by a revolution,
which placed the ancestors of the present khan of Kelat
upon the throne.
The precise period at which this revolution took place
cannot be accurately ascertained ; but it is probable that
two centuries have not elapsed since that event. I he last
rajah of the Llindu dynasty found himself compelled to call
for the assistance of the mountain shepherds, with their
leader, Kumbur, in order to check the encroachments of a
horde of depredators, headed by an Afghan chief, who in¬
fested the country, and even threatened to attack the seat
of government. Kumbur successfully performed the ser¬
vice for which he had been engaged ; but having in a few
years quelled the robbers against whom he had been called
in, and finding himself at the head of the only military tribe
in the country, he formally deposed the rajah, and assumed
the reins of government.
The history of this country subsequently to the accession
of Kumbur is involved in the same obscurity as during the
Hindu dynasty. It would appear, however, that the sceptre
was quietly transmitted to the descendants of that chief,
who seem to have persevered in a peaceable system of go¬
vernment, until the time of Abdulla Khan, the fourth in
descent from Kumbur ; who, being an intrepid and ambi¬
tious soldier, turned his thoughts towards the conquest of
Kutch-Gundava, then held by different petty chiefs, under
the authority of the Nawaubs of Sinde.
After various success, the Kumburanees at length pos¬
sessed themselves of the sovereignty of a considerable por¬
tion of that fruitful plain, including the chief town, Gundava.
It was during this contest that the famous conqueror Nadir
Shah, commonly called Thamas Koolee Khan, advanced
from Persia to the invasion of Hindustan ; and while at
Kandahar, he despatched several detachments into Beloo¬
chistan, and established his authority in that province. Ab-
doolla Khan, however, was continued in the government of
the country by Nadir’s orders ; but he was soon after killed
in a battle with the forces of the Nawaubs of Sinde. He was
succeeded by his eldest son, Hajee Mohummud Khan, who
abandoned himself to the most tyrannical and licentious way
oflife, and completely alienated his subjects by his arbitrary
and oppressive system of taxation. In these circumstances
Nusseer Khan, the second son of Abdulla Khan, who had
accompanied the victorious Nadir to Delhi, and acquired
the favour and confidence of that monarch, returned to
Kelat, and was hailed by the whole population as their de¬
liverer. Finding that expostulation had no effect upon his
brother, he one day entered his apartment when the prince
was alone, and stabbed him to the heart. As soon as the
tyrant was dead, Nusseer Khan mounted the musnud,
amidst the universal joy of his subjects, and immediately
transmitted a report of the events which had taken place to
Nadir Shah, who was then encamped near Kandahar. The
shah received the intelligence with satisfaction, and de¬
spatched a firman, by return of the messenger, appointing
Nusseer Khan beglierbey of all Beloochistan. This event
took place in the year 1739.
BELOOCHIST AN.
Nusseer Kban proved an active, politic, and warlike
prince. He took great pains to re-establish the internal go¬
vernment of all the provinces in his dominions, and im¬
proved and fortified the city of Kelat. On the death of
Nadir Shah in 1747, he acknowledged the title of the king
of Cabul, Ahmed Shah Abdalla. In 1758 he declared him¬
self entirely independent; upon which Ahmed Shah de¬
spatched a force against him, under one ot his ministers.
The khan, however, levied his troops and totally roiited the
Afghan army. On receiving intelligence of this discom -
ture, the king himself marched with strong reinforcements,
and a pitched battle was fought, in which Nusseer Khan
was worsted. He retired in good order to Kelat, whitiev
he was followed by the victor, who invested the place with
his whole army. The khan made a vigorous defence ; and,
after the royal troops had been foiled in their attempts to
take the city by storm or surprise, a negotiation was pro¬
posed by the king, which terminated in a treaty of peace.
By this treaty it was stipulated that the king was to receive
the cousin of Nusseer Khan in marriage ; and that the khan
was to pay no tribute, but only, when called upon, to fur¬
nish troops to assist the royal armies, for which he was to
receive an allowance in cash equal to half their pay.
Subsequently to this period, the khan frequently distin¬
guished himself by his gallantry and judgment in the wars
carried on by the monarch of Cabul; and, as a reward for
his eminent services, the king bestowed upon him seveial
districts to hold in perpetual and entire sovereignty. Hav¬
ing succeeded in quelling a dangerous rebellion, headed by
his cousin Beheram Khan, this able prince at length died
at an extreme old age, after a long and prosperous reign,
in the month of June 1795, leaving three sons and five
daughters. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Muhmood
Khan, then a boy about fourteen years of age. During
the reign of this prince, who has been described as a very
humane and indolent man, the country was distracted by
sanguinary intestine broils ; the governors of several pro¬
vinces and districts withdrew their allegiance ; and the do¬
minions of the khans of Kelat gradually so diminished, that
they now comprehend only a small portion of the provinces
which were formerly subject to Nusseer Khan.
In 1839, when the British army advanced through the
Bolan Pass towards Afghanistan, the conduct of Mehrab
Khan, the ruler of Beloochistan, was considered so treacher¬
ous, hostile, and dangerous, as to require “ the exaction of
retribution from that chieftain,” and “ the execution of such
arrangements as would establish future security in that
quarter.” General Willshire was accordingly detached from
the army of the Indus at Quetta to assault Kelat. A gate
was knocked in by the field-pieces, and the town and citadel
were stormed in a few minutes. Above 400 Belooches
were slain, among them Mehrab Khan himself; and 2000
prisoners were taken. The British force consisted of 1049
men. In the following year Kelat changed hands, the go¬
vernor established by the British, together with a feeble
garrison, being overpowered. At the close of the same
year, it was re-occupied by the British under General Nott.
In 1841, Nadir Khan, the youthful son of the slain Mehrab
Khan, was recognised by the British, who soon after eva¬
cuated the country.
The territories of Beloochistan are now comprised under
the following divisions—Ihalawan, Sarawan, Kelat, Mekran,
Lus, Kutch-Gundava, and Kohistan.
The most remarkable features of this extensive country
^ , are its rugged and elevated surface, its barrenness, and its
Mountains, deficiency of water. A stupendous range, to which the ap¬
pellation of the Brahooick Mountains has been assigned,
and which seems to be the primitive root of all the others,
springs abruptly to a conspicuous height out of the sea, at
Cape Moaree, or Monze, in E. Long. 66. 58. N. Lat. 25.,
whence it takes a north-easterly direction for about ninety
Physical
aspect;
miles. There it projects a ridge, E. by N., the base of
which is washed by the river Indus, at the fort of Sehwan.
From the separation of this arm, in Lat. 25. 45. to that of
30., the primitive body runs due N., marking the western
limits of Sinde, Kutch-Gundava, and a part of Seistan;
and from thence it once more regains its original inclination
to the N.E., and decreases in magnitude and elevation so
rapidly, that, in the course of forty miles, it sinks to a level
with the hills inhabited by the Kaukers and other Afghan
tribes, with which it becomes incorporated. To the west¬
ward the Brahooick Mountains send forth many collateral
chains, some of which extend the whole length of Beloo¬
chistan, and join the mountains of Persia; others elongate
southward till they touch the sea, or come within a few
miles of it, and then either take the inclination of the
coast or subside in the low and barren plains in its vicinity.
The main body, or rather its western face, stretches away
N.W. by N., to the 28th degree of N. latitude, where it
meets the south-eastern corner of the sandy desert, about
the 64th degree of E. longitude : from thence it inclines
with a northern aspect between the N.E. and N. points
of the compass to Nooshky, in latitude 30 N.; from which
place it runs more easterly, till at length it gradually sinks,
like the eastern front, to an equality of size with the Af¬
ghan hills. Besides the Brahooick chain, there are seve¬
ral other ranges of mountains, extending in various direc¬
tions and ramifications throughout Beloochistan, but all of
them inferior to the former in magnitude and height. This
stupendous chain is believed to attain its greatest alti¬
tude at Kelat; from which city, according to the natives,
a traveller, whatever route he may pursue, must descend ;
but the descent is so very trifling for a long way on either
side of that capital that it is not perceptible by the eye.
In brief, Beloochistan may be described as one maze of
mountains, except on the N.W.; in which direction the
surface descends to the Great Desert on the S., where a
low tract stretches along the sea-shore, exhibiting a dreary
waste of inconsiderable rocks or dry barren sands, and for
a small extent on the E., where the burning plain of Kutch-
Gundava extends along the eastern base ot the Hala Moun¬
tains. From this plain to the elevated table-land lying to
the W., the eastern face of the mountain range is furrowed
by two long and very deep ravines, through which the Bo¬
lan (called by Pottinger “Koahee”) and Moola Rivers hold
their way. Along the courses of these rivers he the cele¬
brated passes bearing their names, and affording the means
of communication between the valley ot the Indus and
Beloochistan. , , .
In the northern part of Beloochistan, the only rivers ofRivers.
any importance are the two just mentioned, and these are
little more than prolonged torrents, being ultimately lost
in the sands of Kutch-Gundava. Pottinger observes that
“ there is not a single body of running water in this part ot
the country worthy of a higher appellation than that ot a
rivulet, unless when swollen by partial floods to a tumul¬
tuous and unfordable torrent, nor one even ot that descrip¬
tion that can be said to flow through a regular and unbroken
channel to the main.” The southern part abounds m tor¬
rents, which rise in the mountains, and cross the low sandy
tract lying between them and the ocean. Near the base ot
the mountains the channels are very small, and in the dry
season are filled with vegetation. Towards the coast they
are much broader and deeper. Of this description ot water¬
course is the Hub, rising in that part of the Hala Moun¬
tains which separates Beloochistan and Sinde. A tel icavy
rains, it rushes down with a vast body of water; but on e
setting in of dry weather the flow ceases; there is no ongei
any stream, the bed containing merely a few pools. I e
Poorally, another of these torrents, farther west, has gene-
rallv a very inconsiderable stream, which in long-continue
dry* weather totally ceases at Lyaree, about twenty miles
BELOOCHISTAN.
641
Beloo-
chistan.
' Climate
and soil.
Minerals.
Vegetable
products.
\nimals.
*’ity of
* Kelat.
from its mouth. Below that town it becomes a creek of
the sea, navigable for small boats. The Aghor, farther
west, passes by Hinglaj, the celebrated place of Hindu pil¬
grimage. It is thought to have a longer course than most
of the streams along this coast, and to rise amidst moun¬
tains frequently covered with snow, as, at the setting in of
hot weather its waters, as is the case with such rivers, be¬
come higher. Proceeding westward from Hinglaj to the
mouth of the Dustee, a distance of 250 miles, we find that
only a few small rivulets occur. The Dustee, where Pot-
tinger crossed it, was, within 100 yards of the beach, about
20 inches deep, and 20 yards wide; yet, if his opinion be
correct, it has a course of nearly 1000 miles, rising in the
Gurmsehl, near the southern course of the Helmund river.
The upper part, called the Boordoor, makes its way, in the
wet season, through the loose and parched sands of the de¬
sert south of Seistan; but for the greater part of the year
its channel is a dry ravine. Pottinger makes a bold, yet
perhaps not improbable, conjecture, that this was formerly
a channel through which the superfluous water of the valley
of the Helmund was discharged into the ocean, but that
now the whole is carried off by means either of absorption
or of evaporation from the swamp of Hamoon. Westward
of the Dustee there are only a few small brooks, which dis¬
charge themselves into the sea, and, in fact, along the whole
distance of 600 miles, through which the coast of Beloo-
chistan extends, there is no stream which might not in dry
weather be forded by a child.
The climate of Beloochistan is extremely various in the
different provinces. The soil in general is exceedingly stony.
In the province of Kutch-Gundava, however, the soil is
rich and loamy, and so very productive, that, it is said, were
it all properly cultivated, the crops would be more than
sufficient for the consumption of the whole of Beloochistan.
Gold, silver, lead, iron, tin, antimony, brimstone, alum, sal-
ammoniac, and many kinds of mineral salts, and saltpetre
are found in various parts of the country. The precious
metals have only been discovered in working for iron and
lead, in mines near the town of Nal, about 150 miles S.S.Wh
of Kelat. The different other minerals above enumerated
are very plentiful. The gardens of Kelat produce many
sorts of fruit, which are sold at a very moderate rate, such
as apricots, peaches, grapes, almonds, pistachio-nuts, apples,
pears, plums, currants, cherries, quinces, figs, pomegranates,
mulberries, plantains, melons, guavas, &c. All kinds of grain
known in India are cultivated in the different provinces of
Beloochistan, and there is abundance of vegetables. Madder,
cotton, and indigo are also produced; and the latter is con¬
sidered superior to that of Bengal. The culture of the date
fruit is conducted with great attention in the province of
Mekran. The domestic animals of Beloochistan are horses,
mules, asses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, black-cattle,
sheep, goats, dogs, and cats, besides fowls and pigeons;
but there are neither geese, turkeys, nor ducks. The wild
animals are lions, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals,
tiger-cats, wild dogs, foxes, hares, mangooses, mountain
goats, antelopes, elks, red and moose deer, wild asses, &c.
Of birds they have almost every species to be met with
either in Europe or India.
The principal city of this country is Kelat, the capital of
the whole of Beloochistan. This city stands on an elevated
site on the western side of a well-cultivated plain or valley,
about eight miles long and two or three broad, a great part
of which is laid out in gardens and other inclosures. The
town is built in an oblong form, and on three sides is de¬
fended by a mud wall, eighteen or twenty feet high, flanked,
at intervals of 250 yards, by bastions, which, as well as
the wall itself, are pierced with numerous loopholes for
matchlock-men. The defence of the fourth side of the
city has been formed by cutting away perpendicularly the
western face of the hill on which it is partly built. On
VOL. iv.
the summit of this eminence stands the palace, commanding Beloo-
a distinct view of the town and adjacent country. That chistan.
quarter of the hill on which the khan’s residence is erected
has been inclosed by a mud wall, with bastions; the entrance
to it is on the south-western side; and here, as well as at
the city gates, which are three in number, there is constantly
a guard of matchlock-men. Within the walls there are
upwards of 2500 houses, and the number of these in the
suburbs probably exceeds one half of that amount. The
houses are mostly built of half-burnt brick or wooden frames,
and plastered over with mud or mortar. In general the streets
are broader than those of native towns, and most of them
have a raised pathway on either side for foot-passengers,
and an uncovered kennel in the centre; the latter of which
is a great nuisance, from the quantity of filth thrown into
it, and the stagnant rain-water that lodges there. The upper
stories of the houses frequently project across the streets,
and thereby render the part beneath them gloomy and
damp. This seems a very rude attempt to imitate the bazaars
of Persia and Cabul. The bazaar of Kelat is extensive, well
furnished with every kind of goods; and all the necessaries
of life may be procured daily at a moderate price. The town
is supplied with delicious water from a spring in the face of
a hill on the opposite side of a plain, whence it meanders
nearly through its centre; having the town and suburbs
on one side, and on the other the gardens. It may be re¬
marked of this spring, that the waters, at their immediate
issue from the smaller channels, possess a considerable de¬
gree of tepidity until after sunrise, when they suddenly be¬
come exceedingly cold, and remain so during the day.
We have no data from which we can form an accurate inhabit-
computation of the total amount of the population of Beloo-ants.
chistan. The inhabitants are divided into two great classes,
distinguished by the appellations of Belooche and Brahooe;
and these two are again subdivided into an infinite number
of tribes, which it were tedious and unnecessary to enume¬
rate. The most remarkable distinctions between these two
classes consists in their language and appearance. The Be¬
looche or Beloochekee language partakes considerably of
the idiom of the modern Persian, although greatly disguised
under a singularly corrupt pronunciation. The Brahooekee,
on the other hand, has nothing analogous to the Persian
idiom. It appears to contain a great number of ancient
Hinduwee words; and, as it strikes the ear, bears a strong
resemblance to the dialect spoken in the Punjaub. With
regard to external appearance, the contour of these two
classes seems to differ, in most instances, as much as their
language. The Belooches in general have tall figures, long
visages, and raised features; the Brahooes, on the contrary,
have short thick bones, with round faces and flat lineaments.
The Belooches are a handsome active race of men, not
possessing great physical strength, but inured to changes of
climate and season, and capable of enduring every species
of fatigue. In their habits they are a pastoral people, and Manners,
much addicted to predatory warfare, in the course of which
they do not hesitate to commit every kind of outrage and
cruelty. Notwithstanding their predatory habits, however,
they are considered to be a hospitable people. After the
fashion of other barbarous tribes in that part of the world,
they will protect and kindly entertain a stranger while their
guest, but feel no scruple in robbing and murdering him as
soon as he has left their precincts. They are indolent, and,
unless excited by amusement or war, or compelled to action
by some urgent motive, spend their time in the manner
common to all savage people—in idleness, rude dissipation,
and the enjoyment of such coarse luxuries as they can pro¬
cure; in lounging, gambling, smoking tobacco or hemp,
and chewing opium. The tenets of their religion, and still
more, perhaps, their poverty, preserve them from the abuse
of fermented liquors. Their principal articles of food are
milk in all its forms, the flesh of domestic animals, not ex-
4 M
642
BEL
Beloo-
chistan.
Dress.
Govern¬
ment and
laws.
cepting that of the camel, and game, inducing wild asses,
the flesh of which is considered a delicacy. Their appetites
like those of most savages, are voracious; they consume
incredible quantities of flesh when it can be obtained, an
prefer it in a half-cooked state. They also ^e grain in the
form of bread, and of various preparations; but tney en y
most such articles of food or condiment as possess a stiong
and stimulating flavour, as capsicum, onions, and gar .
Their indolence prompts them to keep as many
they can obtain and support. Polygamy is umversal. Some
of die lower order have as many as eight women either as
wives or mistresses, and the number is increased in proper
tion to the rank and means of the man. Wives are ob^ ned
by purchase, payment being made in cattle or other article
of pastoral wealth. The ceremony of marriage is performed
by the moollah or priest; and on this occasion, as well a. o
some others affecting females, practices similar to those o
the Levitical law are observed. For instance, in this coun¬
try, as also among the Afghans, a man is expected to mm ry
the widow of a deceased brother. When a death takes
place the body is watched for three successive nights by
assembled friends and neighbours, who spend them tune in
feasting, so that the ceremony seems intended rather t
furnishenjoymentto the living than to render honour to the
GThe common dress of the Belooches is a coarse white or
blue calico shirt, buttoned round the neck and reaching
below the knee; their trousers are made of the same cloth
or of a kind of striped stuff called Soosee, and puckered
round the ankles. On their heads they wear a small silk
or cotton quilted cap, fitted to the shape of the skull, over
which, when in full dress, they place a turban, either checked
or blue, and a kummurbund or sash, of the same colour,
round their waists. In winter the chiefs and their relatives
appear in a tunic of chintz, lined and stuffed with cotton;
and the poorer classes, when out of doors, wrap themselves
up in a surtout made of cloth manufactured from a mixture
of goats’ hair and sheep’s wool. The women s dress is very
similar to that of the men; their trousers are preposterously
wide, and made of silk, or a mixture of silk and cotton.
The fluctuation of power renders it difficult to define
precisely the nature of the government of Kelat. during
the reign of Nusseer Khan, the whole kingdom might be
said to have been governed by a complete despotism; yet
that ruler so tempered the supreme authority by the privi¬
leges granted to the feudal chiefs within their own tribes,
that, to a casual observer, it bore the appearance of a ™lli-
tary confederation. The tribes all exercise the right of
selecting their own sirdar, or head; and the khan has the
power of confirming or disapproving of their nomination;
but this power is never exercised, and appears to be merely
nominal. The khan of Kelat declares war and makes
treaties connected with the whole of Beloochistan, and can
order the sirdar of each tribe to attend in person with his
quota of troops. Agreeably to a code of regulations framed
by one of the earliest princes of the Kumburanee dynasty,
the entire administration of justice was vested in the person
at the head of the government. The sirdar, however, has
the power of adjusting petty quarrels, thefts, and disputed
points of every description, among the inhabitants of a kheil
or society; but, in all cases of importance, an appeal lies in
the last instance to the khan at Kelat. ^ „ .
The amount of revenue enjoyed by the khan of Kelat is
inconsiderable, as the ruling races, Belooche and Brahooe,
pay no direct taxes, and their poverty and simple habits
prevent them from contributing much indirectly. His in¬
come is therefore derived from his resources as a proprietor
of lands or towns, from a proportion of the produce paid in
kind by the Afghan, Dehwar (Parsee), and Jet cultivators;
from dues on direct and transit trade, and from arbitrary
exactions, a never-failing mode with Eastern potentates of
BEL
recruiting an exhausted treasury. Pottinger estimates the Helper
amount at 350,000 rupees; Masson, who had ample means ^
of acquiring information through colloquial channels, at ^
300 000: which of these statements makes the nearest
approximation to correctness cannot be determined, but
neither seems improbable. With such a revenue, .t is ob-
vious that no standing army can be maintained, and M -
son certainly very competent to the task of acquiring in¬
formation on this subject, states that Mehrab Khan, the late
ruler, “ nearly destitute of troops in his own pay, was com¬
pelled, on the slightest cause for alarm, to appeal to the
tribes, who attended or otherwise as suited their whims or
convenience.” Pottinger computes the numbers available
for the service of the khan at 60,000 fighting men but has
not mentioned how so vast a host could, if collected, find
food in this barren country. Mehrab Khan could on no oc¬
casion assemble more than 12,000; and in Ins final struggle
for property, power, and life, the number of his troops d d
not ^amount to 3000. The Belooche soldier is heavily
encumbered with arms, carrying a matchlock, a spear, a
sword, a dagger, and a shield. Pottinger considers them
good marksmen, and states that in action they tins prm
cipally to their skill in this respect, avoiding close combat,
but their readiness in general to close with the Britis
troops shows that he is in this instance mistaken, ihey
formed the strength of the armies of Sinde; but the battle o
Meanee proves how little, even with great superiority of num¬
bers they are able to withstand a disciplined force. Ihe
greater part serve on foot; but a number, not inconsider¬
able have horses, and, in their irregular forays, camels,
which they often prefer, on account of their grater powers
°f BEEPER, a market-town and chapelry of Derbyshire,
in the parish of Duffield, and hundred of Appletree. 1 he
town is agreeably situated on the banks of the Derwent which
is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge. It ^ seven
miles north of Derby, on the line of the North Midland
railway. Belper, now one of the most flourishing towns of
Derbyshire, is principally indebted for its prosperity o the
establishment of cotton works here by Messrs Stmtt. It
also manufactures linens nails, hosiery, &c. ^ three
churches, several chapels for Independents, Methodists,
Baptists, &c., a mechanics’ institution, and a subscnptio
library. Pop. (1851) 10,082. .
BELSHAM, Thomas, LL.D., for some years the prin¬
cipal of the Dissenters’ Academy at Daventry, was born at
Bedford in 1750. He abandoned Calvinism for the Unita¬
rian theology, and proved himself in numerous publications
alearned exponent of that system. In
world Elements of the Human Mind, andof^1 h
sonhu in which, following the doctrines of Hartley, he ex
plained all mental operations by the association of ideas.
HeBElresHltMHH?/P/mm, the younger brother of the preceding,
was born in 1752, and died at Hammersmith ml 827. He
published various political tracts m suppor of Whig Fin
ciples, and was the author of a history of Great Br tern from
the accession of George I. to the peace of Amiens m 1802
iu 12 vols. 8vo. His volume on the Philosophy oj me
^BELSHAZZAR, the last king of Babylon, generally
supposed to be the son of Evilmerodach, and gmtdson ^
Nebuchadnezzar. See Daniel, chap. v. anrees with
that Xenophon’s account vm^,^) 0
the Book of Daniel as to the fate of aits which
BELT, Great an^
connect the Baltic mi , Funen. Its greatest width
tween the islands of Zealand and r unt b twenty
is about twenty miles, and its depth vanes from ^otej
fathoms. The navigation of the Great Belt is dangerous,
from the number of sand-banks and small islands which it
BEL
Belt contains. The shores in general are neither bold nor
|l lofty, but they afford convenient harbours and anchorage.
Belzoni. Vessels passing this strait pay toll at Nyborg, where a guard-
ship is stationed to enforce compliance. 1 he Little Belt
separates the island of Funen from Jutland. Its greatest
breadth is not more than the half of that of the Great Belt,
and at the fortress of Fredericia, where the tolls are levied,
it does not exceed a mile. The depth is from four to twenty
fathoms. It contains several sand-banks, and the current
from the Baltic to the Cattegat is of great strength. The
passage of both Belts is attended with risk for large vessels,
and on that account the Sound is more generally frequented.
Belt, Balteus, properly denotes a kind of military girdle
or cincture, usually of leather, by which the sword or any
other weapon is sustained. The belt was an essential piece
of the ancient armour; insomuch that we sometimes find
I it used to denote the whole armour. In later ages the belt
was given to a person when he was raised to knighthood;
and hence it has also been used as a badge or mark of the
knightly order.
Belts, in Astronomy. See Astronomy.
I BEL-T ein, or Bel-tane, a superstitious custom formerly
observed in the Highlands of Scotland, being a kind of rural
sacrifice, performed by the herdsmen on the 1st of May. It
seems to have been a remnant of some Oriental supersti¬
tion relative to the worship of Baal or the Sun, and derived
from Druidical times. Some account of this festival may be
found in Pennant’s Tour, General Stewart’s Sketches, and in
almost every work which treats of the Highlands. The Bel¬
tane of the Irish is celebrated on the 21st of June.
BELT URBET, a town of Ireland, in the county of Cavan,
on the river Erne, 77 miles N.W. of Dublin. A corn-
market is held here weekly. Pop. (1851) 2054.
BELUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a considerable town
of Rhaetia, about twenty miles N.E. of Feltria, in the terri¬
tory of the Veneti; now Belluno.
BELUS, now Nahr Naman, a small river of Phoenicia,
which enters the sea close to Acre, the ancient Ptolemais.
Here the discovery of the manufacture of glass is said to
have been accidentally made by some shipwrecked mariners
who kindled a fire on its banks. See Pliny, xxxvi. 26.
Reland conjectures that the name BrjXevs may be the origin
of the Greek veXos or vaXos, glass.
BELVEDERE, in Italian Architecture, denotes a pa¬
vilion on the top of a building, or an artificial eminence in
a garden. The word signifies a fine prospect.
Belvedere, a town of Naples, in the province of Cala¬
bria Citra, on the Mediterranean, 32 miles N.W. of Cosenza.
Pop. 4000.
BELZONI, Giovanni Battista, the well-known tra¬
veller, was born of humble parentage at Padua, about 1778.
Much of his early youth was passed at Rome, with an inten¬
tion of adopting the monastic life ; but from this plan he was
diverted by the French invasion. He came to England in
1803 ; and for some time obtained a livelihood as an athlete
at Astley’s amphitheatre and elsewhere, for which his colos¬
sal stature and extraordinary muscular power eminently
qualified him. While residing at Rome he had paid con¬
siderable attention to the study of hydraulics, and with the
view of constructing improved machines for the purposes of
irrigation, he went in 1815 to Egypt, where he was em¬
ployed by the pacha to construct an hydraulic machine for
his garden at Zubra, near Cairo, which, however, proved an
unsuccessful attempt. He was then employed by Mr Salt to
remove the colossal bust erroneously styled the “Young
Memnon.” This he effected with much ingenuity, and shipped
it for England. Pursuing his travels through Egypt, he
was the first to open the temple of Ipsambul, an under¬
taking involving extraordinary personal exertion. During
a second journey in Upper Egypt he made excavations atCar-
nac, which well repaid his labours. It is unnecessary here to
recount his various and most interesting discoveries, as they
BEN <>43
are detailed at some length in the articles Egypt, Nubia, Bem
&c. In 1820 he published a narrative of his operations; and Ben|res
in the following year he exhibited at London a beautiful v enaiL j
model of the two principal chambers of the magnificent
tomb he had opened at Beban-el-Molouk, near Thebes. In
1823 he again visited Egypt; but while making preparation^
for passing from Benin to Timbuctoo, he was attacked by
dysentery at a place called Gato, and there he died on the
3d of December.
BEM, Joseph, a distinguished general in the Hungarian
war of 1848, was born in Poland, of German parents, in 1795.
He died in exile at Aleppo in December 1850. See
Hungary.
BEMBEA. See Bamba.
BEMBO, Pietro, Cardinal, a noble Venetian,secretary
to Leo X., and one of the best writers of that illustrious age.
Fie was a good poet, both in Italian and Latin; but he is
justly censured for the licentiousness and immodesty of some
of his poems. Besides these, he published A History oj
Venice ; Letters ; and a book in praise of the Duke and
Duchess of Urbino. He died in 1547, in the seventy-seventh
year of his age. His collected works and life were published
at Venice in 1729, in 4 vols. folio.
BEN or Beinn, a Gaelic word signifying a mountain.
Hence the names Ben-Nevis, Ben-Macdhui, &c.
BENACUS Lacus, the ancient name of the Lago di
Garda.
BENARES, a British district of Hindustan, situate on
both sides of the river Ganges, in the territory denominated
the North-West Provinces of Bengal. It lies between Lat.
25. 7. and 25. 32. Long. 82. 45. and 83.38., and has an area
of 994 square miles. The principal commercial products of
the district are sugar, opium, and indigo. According to the
census of 1848 the population amounts to 741,426, of whom
676,050 are Hindus, and 65,376 Mussulmans. The total
number of towns has been returned at 1888 ; of these 1818
contain each less than 1000 inhabitants; 67 have each more
than 1000 and less than 5000 inhabitants; two are stated
each to have more than 5000 and less than 10,000; and
one alone contains more than 50,000 inhabitants. The
territory was ceded to the East India Company in 1775 by
the vizier of Oude.
Benares, an extensive and opulent city of Hindustan, in
the province of Allahabad, is the capital of the Benares dis¬
trict. It has long been celebrated among the Hindus as a
seat of piety and learning, as well as a noted emporium of
trade. The Ganges here forms a fine sweep of about four
miles in length, and the city is situated on the northern bank
of the river, and on the outward side of the curve, which is
the most elevated. It is about three miles in length by one
in breadth, rising from the river in the form of an amphi¬
theatre, and is thickly studded with domes and minarets. The
bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, in which are many
very fine ghats or landing-places, built by pious devotees, of
large stones, to the height of thirty feet before they reach the
level of the street, and highly ornamented. These are gener¬
ally crowded with bathers and worshippers. Shrines and tem¬
ples, even within the limits of the river’s rise, almost line its
banks. The streets of this great city are so winding and
narrow that there is not room for a wheel-carriage to pass;
and it is difficult to penetrate them even on horseback.
The streets are considerably lower than the ground-floors
of the houses, which have mostly arched rows in front, with
little shops behind them ; and above these they are richly
embellished with verandahs, galleries, projecting oriel win¬
dows, and very broad overhanging eaves supported by carved
brackets. The houses are built of a very good stone from
Chunar, and are mostly lofty, none being less than two stories
in height, most of them three, and several of five or six
stories, close to each other, with terraces on the summit,
and extremely small windows, for the sake alike of cool¬
ness and of privacy. The Hindus are fond of painting the
*
644 BEN
Benares, outside of tlieir houses of a deep red colour, and of coveiing
the most conspicuous parts with paintings in gaudy colours
of flower-pots, men, women, bulls, elephants, gods, and god¬
desses, in all the forms of Hindu mythology. The number
of temples is very great; they are mostly small, and stuc
in the angles of the streets, and under the shadow of the
lofty houses. Their forms are not ungraceful, and many
of them are covered over with beautiful and elaborate
carvings of flowers, animals, and palm branches, rivalling in
richness and minuteness the finest specimens ot Gothic 01
of Grecian architecture.
The mosque, which was built by Aurungzebe on the site
of a Hindu temple, and in order to mortify the Hindus, is a
handsome building, placed on the highest and most con¬
spicuous point of land, and close to the river. Its minarets
are very lofty, and command an extensive view of the town
and adjacent country, and of the numerous Hindu temples
scattered over the city and the surrounding plains. 1 he
Sanscrit College, instituted in 1792, is a large building divided
into two courts with galleries above and below. An English
department has been attached to this college.. In 1850 the
number of pupils amounted to 240 ; of whom six were native
Christians, sixteen Mahometans, and 218 Hindus. 1 he com se
of instruction embraces Sanscrit, Persian, Hindu law, and
general literature. In this city a new government college
has been recently established, in which the whole range
of European literature and science is thrown open to the
native student.
Benares, having from time immemorial been a holy city,
contains a vast number of Brahmins who either subsist by
charitable contributions or are supported by endowments in
the numerous religious institutions of the city. These esta¬
blishments are adorned with idols, and send out an unceas¬
ing sound from all sorts of discordant instruments; while
religious mendicants from the numerous Hindu sects, with
every conceivable deformity “ which chalk, cow-dung, dis¬
ease, matted locks, distorted limbs, and disgusting and hideous
attitudes of penance, can show, literally line the principal
streets on both sides.” Some are seen with their legs or arms
distorted by long continuance in one position ; others with
their hands clenched until the finger-nails have pierced en¬
tirely through the hand. A stranger, as he passes through the
streets, is saluted with the most pitiful exclamations from these
swarms of beggars. But besides this immense resort to Ben¬
ares of poor pilgrims from every part of India, as well as from
Thibet and the Burman empire, numerous rich individuals in
the decline of life, and almost all the great men who are dis¬
graced or banished from home by the political revolutions
which have been oflate years so frequent among the Hindu
states, repair to this holy city to wash away their sins in the
sacred waters of the Ganges, or to fill up their time with
the gaudy ceremonies of their religion. All these devotees
give away large sums in indiscriminate charity, some of them
to the annual amount of L.8000 or L.9000 ; and it is the
hope of sharing in these pious distributions that brings toge¬
ther from all quarters such a concourse of religious mendi¬
cants. Bulls are reckoned sacred by the Hindu, and being
tame and familiar, they walk lazily up and down the streets,
or are seen lying across them, interrupting the passage, and
are hardly to be roused, as, in compliance with the preju¬
dices of the fanatic population, they must be treated in the
gentlest manner. Monkeys, also held sacred, are seen cling¬
ing to all the roofs and projections of the temple.
But, amid all this wretchedness and fanaticism, Benares
is a splendid, wealthy, and commercial city ; the bazaars are
filled with the richest goods, and there is a constant bustle
of business in all the principal streets. It is a great com¬
mercial emporium for the shawls of the north, the diamonds
of the south, and the muslins of Dacca and the eastern pro¬
vinces ; and it has very considerable manufactures of silk,
cotton, and fine wool, as well as of gold and silver lace ;
BEN
while English hardware, swords, shields, and spears from Benavidius
Lucknow and Monghyr, and the finer manufactures of Europe, II
are exported to Bundelcund,Gorruckpoor,Nepaul, and other v JieDC •
tracts removed from the main channel of communication by *~
the Ganges. The population of the city and suburbs, ex¬
clusive of the military cantonment, is returned at 183,491,
of which number 147,082 are Hindus, and 36,409 Mahome¬
tans ; and during religious festivals, the concourse of people
from all parts is immense. Yet the city, notwithstanding
its crowded population and narrow streets (the new market¬
place, constructed by the present government, being the
only square or open part in it), is not unhealthy; which is
probably owing to its dry situation on a high rocky bank,
sloping towards the river, and to the frequent ablutions and
temperate habits of the people. There are but tew Europeans
in Benares ; a judge, collector, and register, with a few other
civil servants, constitute the whole of the Company’s establish¬
ment ; to which may be added a few private merchants and
planters. The residence of the English judge and ci vil esta¬
blishment is at Secrole, a pleasant village about two miles from
the city, where there is a military cantonment for a battalion
of sepoys. Distant N.W. from Calcutta 420 miles; from
Allahabad E. 74 ; from Delhi S.E. 466 ; Lat. 25. 17. Long.
83.4. (t.g.)(e.t.)
BENAVIDIUS, or Bonavidus, Marcus Mantua, a cele¬
brated civilian, who during sixty years taught civil law with
high reputation at Padua, the place of his birth. He died in
1582, aged ninety-three.
BENBECULA, a low, sandy, and unproductive island
of the Hebrides, eight miles in length, and the same in
breadth. It is situated between the islands of North and
South Uist, from the latter of which it is separated by a
narrow channel. It forms part of the county ot Inverness.
BENCH, or Banc, in Law, has various significations.
Free-BENCH signifies that estate in copyhold-lands which
the wife, being espoused a virgin, has, after the decease of
her husband, for her dower, dum sola et casta fuerit, accor¬
ding to the custom of the manor. With respect to this free-
bench, different manors have different customs.
Queen’s Bench, a court in which the sovereign was for¬
merly accustomed to sit in person. It is called the King’s
Bench in the reign of a king, and was styled the Upper
Bench during Cromwell’s protectorate. This was originally
the only court in Westminster Hall, being styled Aula Be-
gia, and from it the courts of Common Pleas and Exchequer
are supposed to have been derived. As the sovereign in
person is still presumed in law to sit in this couit, though
only represented by the judges, it is said to have supreme
authority ; and the proceedings in it are supposed to be
coram nobis, that is, before the sovereign. This court con¬
sists of a lord chief justice and four other judges, or puisne
justices, the former appointed by writ, the latter by patent,
who are, according to Sir William Blackstone, “ by their
office the sovereign conservators of the peace, aad supreme
coroners of the land.” They hold their offices quamdiu se
bene gesserint, and in case of misconduct are removable only
by address of both houses of parliament. By the 2d and 3d
Will. IV. cap. 116, and 14th and 15th Viet. cap. 41, the chief
justice receives a salary of L.8000, and the other judges of
L.5000 each, with an allowance of LAO a year to the senior.
“The jurisdiction of this court,” observes Mr Justice
Blackstone, “is very high and transcendent. It keeps all
inferior jurisdictions within the bounds of their authority,
and may either remove their proceedings to be determined
here, or prohibit their progress below. It superintends all
civil corporations in the kingdom, and commands magistrates
and others to do what their duty requires in every case
where there is no other specific remedy. It protects the li¬
berty of the subject by speedy and summary interposition. It
takes cognisance both of civil and criminal causes : its juris¬
diction on the plea side or civil branch embracing all actions
BEN
Bench between subject and subject, excepting only those of the
II real class and matters of revenue, and extending throughout
Bends. t}ie entire realm 0f England, the principality of Wales, and
the town of Berwick-on-Tweed ; and on the crown side or
crown office, it includes all criminal causes from high treason
down to the most trivial breach of the peace, and whether
against the public good or to the injury of any particular
person. Nor can any private subject suffer unlawful vio¬
lence or injury against his person, liberty, or possessions,
without a proper remedy being afforded him here, not only
for satisfaction of damages sustained, but for the punishment
of the offender; and wherever this court meets with an of¬
fence contrary to the first principles of justice, it may punish
it by its own authority. Persons illegally committed to
prison, though by the king and council, or by either house
of parliament, may be bailed in it, and in some cases even
upon legal commitments. Writs of mandamus are issued
by this court, for the restoring of officers in corporations un¬
justly turned out, freemen wrongfully disfranchised, and in
a variety of other cases. Into this court also indictments
from all inferior courts may be removed by writ of certiorari,
and tried either at bar or at nisi prius. Error lies from this
court to the court of Exchequer Chamber, under the 11th
Geo. IV., and 1st Will. IV. cap. 70.
The officers on the crown side are, under the 6th and 7th
Viet. cap. 20, “ the queen’s coroner and attorney, one mas¬
ter, and one assistant-master.” On the side of the pleas
there are five masters and the following clerks: four to the
masters, six in the rule department, three in the writ depart¬
ment, four in the judgment department, three in the appear¬
ance department, two in the treasury department, one in the
error and outlawry departments ; to which may be added,
the marshal and associate to the chief justice, comptroller
of judges’ fees, three ushers, three tipstaffs, train bearer,
crier at nisi prius, and body clerk. (r. m—m.)
Common Bench. See Common Pleas, Court of.
BENCHERS, in the inns of court, the senior members
of the society, who are invested with the government of the
body to which they belong.
BENCOOLEN, formerly the chief establishment pos¬
sessed by the East India Company in the island of Sumatra,
on the south-western coast. It was for a few years a dis¬
tinct presidency. In 1719 the settlers were expelled by
the natives, but were soon permitted to return. In 1760 all
the English settlements on the coast of Sumatra were de¬
stroyed by a French fleet under Comte d’Estaign. They
were afterwards re-established and secured to the British
by the treaty of 1 763 ; but in 1825 they were finally ceded
to the king of the Netherlands in exchange for the Dutch
settlements on the continent of India. Long. 102. 3. E.
Lat. 3. 50. S.
BEND, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable ordi¬
naries, containing a third part of the field when charged, and
a fifth when plain.
BENDER, a town of Bessarabia in European Russia,
seated on the river Dniester, 48 miles from its mouth. It
is inclosed by a wall and ditch, and has a citadel, with about
10,000 inhabitants. It was stormed and taken by the Russians
in 1770, and again in 1809, and finally ceded to them by
the treaty of Bucharest in 1812. In the vicinity is Varnitza,
the retreat of Charles XII. after the battle of Pultowa.
Long. 29. 36. E. Lat. 46. 50. 32. N.
BENDIDEIA, a festival celebrated by the Athenians
in honour of Bendis, a Thracian divinity, whom they identi¬
fied with their own Artemis. This festival bore much re¬
semblance to those of Dionysus.
BENDING, in nautical language, the tying of two ropes
or cables together ; thus, to bend the cable, is to make it fast
to the ring of the anchor; to bend the sail, to make it fast
to the yard.
BENDS, in a ship, more generally called wales, are the
BEN 615
thickest and stoutest planks in her side, on which men set Bendy
their feet when climbing up. They form the chief strength II
of a ship’s sides, and have the beams, knees, and foot-hooks, Be.nedic*
bolted to them. v tines. ^
BENDY, in Heraldry, is the field divided into four, six,
or more parts, diagonally, varying in metal and colour.
BENE, a city of the province of Mondovi, in the kingdom
of Sardinia. It stands on a hill between the rivers Sturo
and Tanaro, 18 miles N.E. of Cuneo, and contains several
churches and other religious houses. Pop. 6000.
BENEDICITE, among ecclesiastical writers, an appella¬
tion given to the song of the three children in the fiery fur¬
nace, on account of its beginning with the word benedicite.
The use of this song in Christian worship is very ancient,
having been sung in all the churches as early as the time of
St Chrysostom.
BENEDICT, Sx, the founder of the order of the Benedic¬
tine monks, was born in Italy about a.d. 480. He re¬
ceived the first part of his education at Rome ; and at four¬
teen years of age he removed to Sublaco (Subiaco), about
thirty miles distant. Here he lived an ascetic life, shut up in
a cavern, where nobody knew anything of him except St
Romanus, who used to descend to him by a rope, and supply
him with food. Being afterwards discovered by the monks
of a neighbouring monastery, they chose him for their abbot;
but as their manners were not in accordance with his own,
he returned to his solitude. Many persons followed him and
put themselves under his direction ; so that in a short time he
was enabled to build twelve monasteries. In the year 528
or 529 he retired to Monte Cassino, where idolatry was still
prevalent, a temple of Apollo having been erected there.
He instructed the people in the adjacent country, and, having
converted them, broke in pieces the image of Apollo, and
built two chapels on the mountain. Here he also founded
a monastery, and instituted the order of his name, which in
time became so famous, and extended itself all over Europe.
In this place, too, he composed his Begula Monachorum,
which Gregory the Great speaks of as the most sensible and
best written piece of the kind ever published. The period
of his death is uncertain. He was looked upon as the Elisha
of his time, and is reported to have wrought a great number
of miracles, which are recorded in the second book of the
Dialogues of St Gregory the Great.
Benedict, abbot of Peterborough, an ancient English
historian. He was educated at Oxford, became a monk in
the monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury, and was some
time afterwards chosen prior by the members of that society.
Although a great admirer and the biographer of Thomas
^ Becket, he was so much esteemed by Henry II. that,
by the influence of that prince, he was elected abbot of
Peterborough a.d. 1177. He assisted at the coronation
of Richard I. in 1189, and was appointed keeper of the great
seal in 1191. He died on Michaelmas day 1193. He wrote,
besides his life of a, Becket, a history of Henry II. and
Richard I., from 1170 to 1192, which was published at Ox¬
ford by Hearne in 1735, 2 vols. 8vo.
Benedict XIV., Pope (Prosper Lambertini), was born
of an illustrious family, at Bologna, in 1675. He was cele¬
brated for his learning, moderation, and exemplary life, which
gained him the esteem even of Protestants. He greatly pa¬
tronized learned men and celebrated artists, and was an ela¬
borate writer on theological subjects. His works fill 16 vols.
4to. He succeeded Clement XII. in 1740, and died in
1758, at the age of eighty-three.
BENEDICTINES, an order of monks who profess to
follow the rules of St Benedict. Tbe Benedictines, who of
all the regular clergy are alone entitled to the appellation of
monks, wear a loose black gown with large wade sleeves, and
on their heads a capuche or cowl ending in a point behind.
In the canon law they are styled black friars, from the colour
of their habit.
646
Benedic¬
tion.
BEN
The rules of St Benedict, as observed by the English
monks before the dissolution of the monasteries, were as
follows: The monks of this order were obliged to perform,
seven times in twenty-four hours, their devotions, the who
circle of which had reference to the passion and death ot
Christ; they always went two and two together; every y
in Lent they fasted till six in the evening, and abated of the
usual time of sleeping and eating, but they were not aHoned
to practise any voluntary austerity without leave ot then
superior; they never conversed in tieir re '-' s intures ’
but were obliged to attend to the reading f ^beds
and they all slept in the same dormitory, m separate Deus,
and lay in their clothes. For small faults t fy U m.
from meals, for greater they were debarred religious com
merce and excluded from the chapel; and incomgib^ o|
fenders were excluded from the monasteries. Every monk
had two coats, two cowls, a table-book, a a ^ed^nd
a handkerchief. The furniture of their cells was a mat, a
blTrI"theayear 596 Pope Gregory sent into England Augus¬
tin prior of the monastery of St Andrew at Home, with se-
veml other Benedictine monks; to whom the English owe
their conversion from idolatry. Augustin became archbishop
of Canterbury, and the Benedictines founded several monas¬
teries in England, besides the metropolitan church ot Can¬
terbury, and other cathedials. _ „ .
Pope John XXII., who died in 1334, found, after an exact
inquiry, that, since the rise of the order, it had produced
I •y’ ’ v  >7nm archbishops, 15,000
24 popes, nearly 200 cardinals, /000 ^ .
bishops, 15,000 abbots, and above 4000 saints, besides found-
ino- upwards of 37,000 monasteries. There have been like¬
wise of this order 20 emperors and 10 empresses, 47 kings, and
above 50 queens, 20 sons of emperors and 48 sons of kings,
above 100 princesses, daughters of kings and emperors, be¬
sides dukes, marquises, earls, countesses, &c., innumerable.
The order has produced an immense number of eminent
writers and learned men. Rabanus set up the school o er-
many ; Alcuinus founded the university of Paris ; Dionysius
Exiguus perfected the ecclesiastical computation ; Guido in¬
vented the scale of music, Sylvester the organ; and t icy
boast of having produced Anselm, Ildephonsus, \ enerable
Bede, and many others of equal or superior name. Ihere
are nuns likewise who follow the rule of St Benedict. _
BENEDICTION, in a general sense, the act of blessing,
or giving praise to God, or returning thanks for his favours.
Neither the ancient Jews nor the early Christians ever ate
without a short prayer. The Jews are obliged to rehearse
a hundred benedictions a-day ; of which eighty are to be
spoken in the morning. The first treatise of the first order
in the Talmud, entitled Seraim, contains the form and order
of the daily benedictions. Benedictions were likewise given
among the ancient Jews, as well as Christians, by the im¬
position of hands. When at length the primitive simplicity
of the Christian worship became corrupted by ceremony, they
added the sign of the cross. The custom of receiving bene¬
diction by bowing the head before the bishops, is very an¬
cient ; and even emperors did not decline this mark ot sub¬
mission.
Benediction is also used for an ecclesiastical ceremony,
whereby a thing is rendered sacred or venerable. In this
sense benediction differs from consecration, as in the latter
unction is applied, but not in the former. Thus the cha ice
is consecrated, and the pix blessed, as the former, not the
latter, is anointed; but in common usage these two words
are applied promiscuously. .
Beatic Benediction, Benedictio beatica, is the viaticum
given to dying persons.
Nuptial Benediction, the external ceremony performed
by the priest in the oflice of matrimony. The nuptial bene¬
diction is not essential to, but the confirmation of, a marriage
in the civil law.
BEN
BENEFICE was applied by the old Romans to the por- Benefice.
tions of lands obtained by conquest and given to the soldiers  v—
as rewards or beneficia for past services, and as an encourage¬
ment to future exertions. Hence in time it became appli¬
cable to the portions of land granted under the feudal system
bv a lord to his vassal for maintenance, and as a stipendiary
return for military services which they were expected to
render. In this sense, a benefice was an estate in land, at
first granted for life only, and so called because it was held
ex mero beneficio of the donor ; and the tenants were bound,
to swear fealty to their lord, and to serve him m the wars. In
aftertimes, as'these tenures became perpetual and hereditary,
the name of beneficia was transferred to the livings ot the
clergy, and that ot feuda assumed.
According to Duarenus, its strict and proper interpreta¬
tion is “an ecclesiastical estate which is granted to some
priest or clergyman for term of life, to be enjoyed by him on
die account of his ministry in the church.” But in the va¬
rious statutes relating to church matters the term is ex-
pressly defined. Under the 12th section of the 1st and
2d Viet. cap. 106, and section 3 of the Amendment Act,
14th and 15th Viet. cap. 98 (as to the holding of benefices
in plurality), the word is to be understood to mean a ^be¬
nefice with cure of souls,” and therein to comprehend all
parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed public cha¬
pels, parochial chapelries, and chapelries or districts belong¬
ing or reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be an-
““17 2 fill Mtfcap. 49, sec. 21 (relating to
the assignment of districts to churches augmented by Queen
Anne’s Bounty), it extends to “ all rectories with cure of
souls, vicarages, perpetual curacies, and cbap^-ies the in¬
cumbents of which respectively shall, in right thereof, be
C0IU0nrder0 the°5eth and 6th Viet. cap. 27, sec. 15, and 5th
and 6th Viet. cap. 108, sec. 31 (as to the grant of farming
leases and leases for long term of years), it comprehends
“ every rectory, vicarage, perpetual curacy, donative, en¬
dowed" public chapel, parochial chapelry, and district c
pefry, the incumbent of which, in respect thereof, shall be
a Tcortg teL canons of the Church of England, a
benefice cannot be taken without the Wshoj. s consent nor
bp divided; and any division is decreed null, nor is it to be
dven on the bare report of the death of the incumbent, nor
to be promised white full, nor to be seized by n“
to be farmed to a layman, unless to a clerk who shall be
fully instituted as general procurator for the time g d .
and under the 1st and 2d Viet. cap. L06, sec. 108, benehce ,
so far as pluralities and residence are concerned, are subject
to the jurisdiction of the archbishop or bishop within whose
province or diocese they are locally situate.
The following requisites are indispensable in order to be
lea-ally entitled to a benefice : 1. Presentation, nomination,
decollation ; 2. Examination as to ability, &c., yte op ,
3. Institution or collation, after taking the oaths agmnst
simony of allegiance and supremacy, of canonical obedience,
and by’subscribing the three articles ^^^rtides’
macy, the Common Prayer and the T i y _
and the declaration of conformity ; 4. ?nduct ( ^
ing the Common Prayer, the
claration of assent thereto, together with the ordmary _s ce
tificate of subscript ion to the declaration of conform t y , ,
6. Taking the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjura
tion at the sessions.  . p ,ieatb ;
An avoidance of a benefice takes p ac^-l- By deato
9 Bv resio-nation; 3. By cession, or the acceptance or a
benefice incompatible therewith; 4‘ Bv^cfoTlaw" for
a sentence in the ecclesiastical com , • Y ’
simony, non-subscription of arttcles, &c.; and, 6. By non
compliance with the requisites.
BEN
BEN 647
Benefice By the returns for the year 1850 made to Her Majesty
II in council by the respective archbishops and bishops, there
Bengal. were jn the dioceses of England and Wales—
Total number of benefices in which the in¬
cumbents were resident, ... ... ... 8077
Total number of benefices in which the in¬
cumbents were non-resident,   2952
Miscellaneous cases, ...   ... 699
Total, 11,728
Total number of benefices on which there is a
glebe-house, ... ...   8214
Of these 11 are under L.10 ; 19 from L.10 to L.20; 32
from L.20 to L.30; 235 from L.30 to L.50; 1629 from
L.50 to L.100 ; 1602 from L.100 to L.150; 1354 from L.l50
to L.200; 1979 from L.200 to L.300; 1326 from L.300 to
L.400; 830 from L.400 to L.500 ; 954 from L.500 to L.750 ;
323 from L.750 to L.1000; 134 from L.1000 to L.1500; 32
from L.1500 to 2000; 16 of L.2000 and upwards. Among
the last-mentioned is the rectory of Stanhope, in the county
of Northumberland, of the annual value of L.4843 ; and the
rectory of Doddington, in the county of Cambridge, worth
L.7306 a-year.
Benefice in eommendam(ecclesia cornmendata) is, accord¬
ing to Godolphin, an ecclesiastical living which, being void, is
commended to the charge and care of some sufficient clerk, to
be supplied until it may be conveniently provided with a
pastor ; the person to whom the church is thus commended
having the fruits and profits thereof only for a certain time.
The law relating to this subject has, however, been abo¬
lished by the 6th and 7th Will. IV. cap. 77, sec. 18, which
enacts that no ecclesiastical dignity, office, or benefice, shall
be held in commendam by any bishop, unless he held the
same at the time of the passing of the act, and every com¬
mendam thereafter granted, whether to retain or to receive,
and whether temporary or perpetual, is declared to be abso¬
lutely void to all intents and purposes.
BENEFICIARII, in Homan Antiquity, those who were
promoted on account of their merits, or exempted by special
favour from ordinary military service. The term was like¬
wise applied to such as were discharged from the military
service, and provided with benejicia or pensions. They were
Bengal.
sometimes called upon to do military service as volunteers, Beneficiary
when they were denominated evocati. Before their recall
they were styled emeriti.
The word beneficiarius frequently occurs in the Roman
inscriptions found in Britain, where consulis is always joined
with it; but besides beneficiarius consulis, we find in Gruter
beneficiarius tribuni, prcetorii, legati, prcefecti, proconsulis,
and such like expressions.
BENEFICIARY, Beneficiarius, one who holds a bene¬
fice. A beneficiary is not the proprietor of the revenues of
his church ; he has only the administration of them, though
not accountable for his conduct therein to any but God and
his superior.
This term is applied by the writers of the middle ages to a
feudatory or vassal; and also to the clerks or officers who kept
the accounts of the beneficia.
BENEFIELD, Sebastian, a very eminent divine, born
in 1559, at Prestonbury in Gloucestershire, and educated at
Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1613 he was chosen
Margaret professor in that university ; which appointment
he held with great reputation till 1626, when he resigned it
and retired to his rectory of Meysey-Hampton, in Glouces¬
tershire. He published commentaries upon the first, second,
and third chapters of Amos ; a considerable number of ser¬
mons ; and some Latin treatises. He died in 1630.
BENEFIT of Clergy. See Clergy.
BENEFIT Societies. See Friendly Societies.
BENEVENTO, a city of Italy, capital of a small dele¬
gation of the same name, which belongs to the States of the
Church, and is bounded by the Neapolitan province of Prin-
cipato Ultra. The town is surrounded by walls and defended
by a castle. It is situated on a hill near the confluence of the
Calore and the Sabato, 32 miles N.E. of Naples. It occu
pies the site of the ancient Beneventum, and is almost en¬
tirely built of the ruins of that town. Except Rome, per¬
haps no city can boast of so many remains of antiquity. Of
these the most beautiful and perfect is the Arch of Trajan,
52 feet in height, consisting of a single arch of Parian marble
of the Corinthian order, highly ornamented with basso and
mezzo rilievos. See Serlio, Architettura. It is the see of
an archbishop, and has a cathedral, several churches, a town-
hall, diocesan seminary and library, and several hospitals.
Pop. of delegation (1843) 23,910; of city 17,500.
BEN
Boundaries The largest and most important division of Hindustan, si¬
tuate towards its eastern extremity, and containing Calcutta,
the seat of the British government in India. Excluding
the possessions of the native princes, over which the British
government merely exercises political supremacy, and ex¬
cluding also the Punjab and the Agra, or north-western
provinces, which are administered by functionaries having
the powers and authority of lieutenant-governors, the tract
embraced within the presidency of Bengal lies between the
10th and the 28th degrees of north latitude, and between
the 83d and 99th degrees of east longitude. Its most
northern extremity is situate in the province of Assam, and
its most southern point lies on the coast of Tenasserim.
The district of Mirzapore, under the jurisdiction of the
lieutenant-governor of Agra, forms the extreme boundary
on the west, and the frontier of Siam constitutes its most
eastern limit. The longest line which could be drawn with
extremities lying within the limits of the presidency, is that
in a direction from S.E. to N.W., from the Pak Chan river
in Tenasserim to the north-western angle of the district of
Sarun, where the river Gunduck issues from the mountains
of Nepaul, in Lat. 27. 25. Long. 83. 55., and would measure
about 1550 miles in length. A considerable part of this
jine would, however, lie across the Bay of Bengal. The
Gr K Xj,
longest line that could be drawn without crossing the bay
is from N.E. to S.W., from the boundary of Assam to that
of the British district of Palamow, a distance of about 870
miles. The extreme breadth of the presidency, measured
at right angles to this last-stated line, is about 465 miles,
bearing from S.E. to N.W., from the mouth of the Hooghly
to the exit of the Gunduck from the mountains of Nepaul.
The area of the presidency, as thus defined, amounts to
225,103 square miles.
Bengal, especially as it approaches the sea, may be de- Aspect of
signated a level country. Even in its northern frontier, it the coun¬
is reached only on one point by any of the branches that try-
diverge from the Himalayas. A spur from the great cul¬
minating range bounds the north-eastern extremity of As¬
sam; and thence taking a southerly direction through the
native states of Munneepore and independent Tipperah,
forms the eastern frontier of the British district of Chitta¬
gong. Continuing from this point its southerly course, it
stretches, under the name of the Yoomadoung Mountains,
through the province of Arracan to its southernmost point
at Cape Negrais, forming the western boundary of the valley
of the Irrawaddy. This spur where it touches upon Assam
attains an elevation of 14,540 feet above the level of the
sea, and there its summit is covered with perennial snow.
648
Bengal.
BENGAL.
Climate.
At the Blue Mountain, in the latitude of Chittagong, it
rises to die height of 8000 feet; but, with these exceptions,
the general elevation of the ridge ranges between 3000 and
4000 feet. Westward of this ridge, the northern frontie
of Bengal is bounded by the Sub-Himalaya Mountains
of no great elevation. Separated from these subordinate
ranges by the valley of the Ganges, is the eastern exUemity
of the tropical zone, crossing the continent of India rom
west to east, and known as the Vmdhya range. In its jp
proach towards Bengal, this mountainous tract expands i t
several parallel ranges, some of whmh, stretching into
British districts of Palamow, Ramghur Chote Nagpore^and
the northern part of Orissa, hem in the p , J
western frontier. The area thus circumscribed by moun
tains is as before observed, a level country, i he Ganges,
whXnLrs o„ the western frontier and runs d^naUy
across Bengal, gives to the country its peculiar character
and aspect About 200 miles from its mouth it spreads
out into numerous branches, forming a ^f^thVfVeehs
posed, where it borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of creeks
and rivers named the Sunderbunds, and exhibiting during
the annual inundation the appearance of an immensesea
At this time the rice-fields to the extent of some hundreds
of miles are submerged, and are navigated bY boay*
rious sizes and shapes, many of them handsome, and fitted
both for commerce and for state. The scene presents to
a European eye many objects of singular novelty and
terest;Pnamely, the fields covered with waterto agreat
depth, with ears of rice floating on the surface, the stupe
dous dikes, which restrain, without altogether preventing,
the excesses of the inundations; and peasants, in a 1 quar¬
ters, repairing to the markets, and even to the fieids wit
their families and their domestic animals m the fear that the
swelling waters may sweep away their habitations, with a
that they contain, in the absence of their boats. The many
navigable streams which fall into the Ganges intersect the
country in every direction, and afford a wonderful faci ity
of internal communication. In most parts boats can ap¬
proach, by means of lakes, rivulets, and water-courses, to
the door of almost every cottage; and even in the driest
season there is scarcely any spot twenty miles distant from
a navigable river. The lower region of the Ganges is the
richest and most productive portion of Bengal, abounding
in valuable produce. Another mighty river by which Ben¬
gal is intersected is the Brahmapootra, the source of whose
remotest tributary is on the opposite side of the same moun¬
tains that give rise to the Ganges. These two rivers, which,
from the contiguity of their sources, and their resemblance
in length of course and bulk, have been termed sisters and
rivals,—proceed in opposite courses until they are more than
1200 miles asunder; and again approaching each other, inter¬
mix their waters before they reach the ocean. The other prin¬
cipal rivers in Bengal are the Gogra, Sone, Gunduck, Coosy,
Teesta; the Hooghly, formed by the junction of the Bhag-
rattee and Jellinghee; and farther to the west, the Dam-
moodah and the Mahanuddy. In a level country such as
Bengal, where the soil is composed of yielding and loose
materials, the courses of the rivers are continually shifting,
from the wearing down of their different banks, and also
from the water being turned off, by obstacles in its couise,
into a different channel. As this channel is gradually wi¬
dened, the old bed of the river is left dry. The new channel
into which the river flows is of course so much land lost,
while the old one constitutes an accession to the adjacent
estate. Thus one man’s property is diminished, while that
of another is enlarged or improved. Rules applicable to
such contingencies are accordingly in operation, under which
the land-tax is subject to increase or diminution in propor¬
tion to the quantity of land lost or acquired.
The position of Bengal brings it within the range of the
tropical heats; and the year is distinguished into three sea
sons, the cold, the hot, and the rainy. The cold season Bengal,
begins in October, when the rains cease. During the sue-
ceeding four months the temperature is mild and agreed-
able, Fahrenheit’s thermometer falling frequently to 70 .
The spring and the dry season then succeed, and continue
for four months, during which the heat continues progres¬
sively to increase, until it becomes almost intolerable to the
natives themselves, the thermometer in the shade rising to
100°. In the beginning of April, occasional thunder-storms
in the middle and south-eastern parts of Bengal, with ram
or hail driven by sudden tempests of north-west wind, tem¬
per the immoderate heat. In the eastern districts, mild and
refreshing showers of rain are still more frequent; but to¬
wards the west, in the country contiguous to Bahar, a parch¬
ing west wind prevails in the day-time during the greater
part of the hot season; night, however, bringing a cooling
breeze from the opposite quarter. These west winds some¬
times gives place to easterly gales which continue for days
and weeks. The southerly and northerly winds, which al¬
ternately lire vail in the Bay of Bengal during the summer
and the winter, extend their influence over that part of the
flat country which faces the bay, until they are diverted in
their progress up the country by mountains corresponding
with the course of the Ganges. About the beginning o
June, the south-west monsoon, with thunder and lightning
that seem to rend the sky, ushers in the periodical rams
which refresh the atmosphere and the parched earth, i lie
rains continue for four months, when all the rivers are in
flood; and in the latter part of this season, in beptember,
if the rains break up early, the weather is extremely close
and sultry, and the inhabitants, especially the Europeans,
suffer from sickness. Fogs are frequent during the dry
months; and dews continue copious and refreshing, greatly
assisting vegetation, as they afford nearly as large a supply of
moisture as the loose soil of the country appears to require.
These heavy dews are supposed to be no more than suth-
cient to compensate for the daily evaporation by the sun
during the dry season, and so far to contribute to salubrity.
The damp of the climate is ascribed to the natural want of
any general system of drainage in a level country, to the
luxuriant vegetation, and to the denseness of the woods,
which obstruct the free circulation of the air, and retain an
undue quantity of moisture amid decayed leaves and other
putrid vegetable substances. This is found in all countries
to be a fertile source of disease; and there is little doubt
that the clearing of the forests, and a judicious system of
drainage, would be followed in Bengal, as m all other parts,
by a decided improvement in the climate. . ,
The soil of so extensive a province vanes, of course, in Soil and
its character and fertility with the physical peculiarities otproduce.
the country. In the level tract interlaced by the Ganges
and Brahmapootra, with their numerous branches and tri¬
butaries, the soil is alluvial, its basis being composed of sand,
on which are annually deposited, by the retiring waters,
clay, calcareous matter, and other fertilizing substances. In
the tracts which lie beyond the reach of inundation it is
marked by different degrees of productiveness, from the dry
and arid rocks of the south-western frontier overrun with
brushwood, to the hills of Chittagong and T enassenm clothed
with magnificent forests. Taken as a whole, howei er, the
soil of Bengal, enriched as it is by the combined influence
of fierce suns and deluging rains, may be said to be charac¬
terized by an amazing fertility. Its productions are those
both of the tropical and the temperate climates. Gt the
grains which contribute to the subsistence °f man’nce .1S f
the first importance : it is the great staple of Bengal agic
ture, is particularly luxuriant within the tract of mundat ,
and thrives in all the southern districts. It is sown after
the first showers at the end of March down to the setting m
of the rainy season, and occupies a period ranging (accor
ing to its variety, of which there are three principal deno-
BENGAL.
649
Bengal, minations) from three to five months to ripen. Ihe early
crop is sown broadcast; the later crop, after the seed has
attained the height of a few inches, is planted with the hand
in rows at the distance of about a foot asunder. I he rice-
harvest is succeeded by the cold-weather crops, which are
sown in autumn and reaped in spring. 1 hey consist chiefly
of vetches, gram, barley, pease, mustard, &c. Millet and
other small grains, sown at the beginning of the rains and
reaped at the end, constitute the food of the poorer classes,
and, bearing a very low price, are of importance. Maize is
less cultivated in Bengal than in those countries where the
climate is more suitable, having no preference above millet
to compensate for the greater labour required for its culture.
Potatoes have lately been introduced into Bengal, and have
succeeded well. They are suited to the climate; and the
small potato is little inferior to that raised in England. Es¬
culent plants are found in Bengal in great abundance and
variety. The different species of the cucumber are much
more numerous than in Europe, and whole fields are covered
with them. The water-melon is of incredible size; and its
stalk, leaves, and blossoms form a finely variegated matting,
with which most of the cottages in the villages are entirely
covered.
The universal and vast consumption of vegetable oils
which takes place in Bengal is supplied by the extensive
cultivation of mustard, linseed, sesamum, and palma-christi,
in addition to the produce obtained from the cocoa-nut.
The sesamum comes to maturity during the rains, or soon
after them, the others during the cold season. Among the
most important of the commercial crops are tobacco, sugar,
the opium poppy, indigo, cotton, and silk, most of which
require land solely appropriated |o their peculiar culture ; of
late years coffee has been successfully cultivated. 1 obacco,
which was unknown in India before the discovery of Ame¬
rica, is now produced everywhere. The sugar-cane has
flourished in Bengal from the remotest times; there is
scarcely a district in which its cultivation is not pursued
with success, and there seems to be no limit to its produc¬
tion, except the demand for it. It is cheaply and frugally
manufactured; and as it now enters the British market on
equal terms with West India sugar, it forms an important
article of export. The manufacture of indigo appears to
have been known and practised in Bengal from an early
period; and from the East Europe was supplied with this
dye until the superior produce of America engrossed the
markets. European skill has, however, succeeded in reviv¬
ing this branch of trade in Bengal, and the indigo now ex¬
ported from this presidency amounts to five-sixths of the
supply obtained from the whole world. Cotton is raised in
abundance, but the produce scarcely exceeds the consump¬
tion ; and the demand of the British and China markets for
the cotton wool of India is almost wholly supplied from the
western side of the country. Silk is an ancient product of
India; the silkworm, it is said, being originally introduced
from China. Formerly the raw material was brought from
India to Greece and Italy, whence Europe was chiefly sup¬
plied. Bengal still carries on a trade in this valuable article;
and although the quality is scarcely equal to the finest Italian
silk, the annual export from Calcutta exceeds in value half
a million sterling. A coarse species of silk is procured from
the wild silkworm, which is found in the countries border¬
ing on Bengal, and in several districts included within it.
It is rendered useful in the fabrication of inferior silks, though
bearing no comparison to the produce of the domesticated
insect. The cultivation of the poppy is entirely regulated
and controlled by the government. Annual contracts are
made with the farmers to sow certain quantities of land with
the plant, and to deliver the produce to the government in
the form of opium at a fixed price. The sowings commence
in November, and the crop arrives at maturity by the end
of February. The revenue realized by the government from
VOL. iv.
the sale of opium produced in Bengal alone amounts to be- Bengal,
tween two and three millions sterling per annum. ^
The orchard is a great object of cultivation with the pea¬
sant in Bengal; and it attaches him to his native soil, from
the almost superstitious predilection which he feels for the
trees planted by his ancestor. The seasons, however, from
the long continuance of the rains, which occupy the greater
part of the summer, are not particularly favourable for bring¬
ing fruit to maturity; yet the orange, lime, shaddock, citron,
tamarind, and other fruits, may be reckoned among the pro¬
ductions of Bengal. Orchards of mango, a tree thriving
with little care, and yielding a fruit esteemed one of the best
among those of India, diversify the plains. In size and foliage
this tree resembles the Spanish chesnut; its fruit is extremely
delicious, and is said to surpass in flavour the large yellow
peach of Venice. Another fruit-tree is the cocoa-nut, valu¬
able not only on account of the nut, from which a superior
oil is largely extracted, but in consideration also of its tim¬
ber, which is peculiarly fitted for the construction of water-
pipes and other useful purposes. Even the husk which
envelopes the fruit furnishes a fibre from which the best
cordage is manufactured. The mulberry is extensively
planted in consideration of its leaves, which afford the food
of the silkworm. Assam abounds with the genuine tea
plant; and the bassia thrives in various localities, especially
in the hilly districts. Its produce is esculent and nutri¬
tious, and its flowers yield an intoxicating spirit. From its
seeds is expressed an oil which is sometimes used as a sub¬
stitute for butter. There are also valuable forest trees,
among which may be noticed the teak, equal to the oak for
purposes of ship-building, the sal and the banyan. I here
is also the bamboo, which, being hollow, light, and strong,
is serviceable in supplying the peasant with materials for his
buildings, as well as for the manufacture of baskets, mats,
and other articles of like character, to which, when split, its
flexible fibre is well adapted.
From the alluvial character of the greater portion of the Minerals,
soil of Bengal, no great amount of mineral wealth is to be
expected. In the hilly tracts, however, both in the eastern
and western parts of the country, two of the most useful
products which the mineral kingdom can boast, coal and iron
ore, exist in abundance. Gold, in the form of dust, is found
in a few places, but not in quantities sufficient to encourage
to any extent the search for it.
The lands in Bengal, prior to the entrance of the British, Landed
were under the management and control of rajahs and ze- !e^a^ind
mindars, who collected the rents from the immediate occu- n ax‘
piers and cultivators, and were held responsible for the pay¬
ment of a fixed yearly sum into the treasury of the nabob.
The titles of the different classes of occupiers were not very
exactly defined; and in the anarchy which prevailed, in the
country, rights of every description were often violated.
When the British obtained possession of Bengal, a difference
of opinion arose respecting the character of the zemindars
and the rights of the tenantry ; one party asserting that the
zemindar was the true landlord, in whom alone was vested
the proprietary right; the other contending that the culti¬
vators were the real proprietors, and that the zemindar was
merely the collector of the revenue for the behoof of the
sovereign, who, according to the Eastern maxims of policy,
was the proprietor of all the lands in the country. With¬
out entering into a controversy, which at this period can be
attended with no practical results, it seems certain, and is
indeed admitted on all hands, that the lands were assessed
in a certain rate for the public tax; and that as long as this
tax was regularly paid, the occupiers of land were secured
in the possession of their properties, which they mortgaged
for debts, and quietly transmitted to their heirs through a
series of generations. It was not, however, to each indivi¬
dual occupier, but to the zemindar, that government looked
for the immediate payment of the tax, which he again col-
4 N
650
Bengal.
BENGAL.
lected from the under-tenants, called the ryots or cultiva¬
tors; and whether we admit the zemindars to be proprietors,
or merely government stewards, it seems clear that the tax
was a sort of quit-rent, and that its regular payment was the
tenure by which both zemindar and cultivator held their
properties. Between the acquisition of the Dewanny in 116o
and the year 1793, various expedients were resorted to by
the British government in the collection of the land revenue,
and during that period the relation between the zemindar and
the cultivator remained undisturbed. In the year last men¬
tioned, however, Lord Cornwallis introduced into the lower
provinces the permanent settlement, whereby the state
pledged itself not to increase the public demand on the land
at any future period. The arrangement was made not with the
cultivators, whose rights were virtually disregarded, but with
the zemindars as the proprietors of the land; and there can
be little doubt that the settlement was based upon erroneous
principles. This is the more extraordinary, as in the dis¬
cussions which took place previous to the settlement a
sound and just view of the subject seems to have prevailed.
It was admitted, that the cultivator had a right to the soil
so long as he paid the public assessment, which was held to
have been fixed beyond the power of the zemindar. It was
acknowledged that the zemindar had no right ot absolute
property in the land itself, and there was no proof “ of the
existence of such right discernible in his relative situation
under the Mogul government in its best form. Yet the
Bengal government proceeded to recognise the zemindars
as the actual proprietors of the land, and to transfer to their
keeping, and surrender to their mercy, the rights of all other
persons,—rights far more generally admitted and respected
than the right of the zemindar to collect and pay over the
revenue of government. The right of the ryot appears, as
has been expressed, to be “the greatest right in the country,”
and “ a right which never seems to die.” The zemindars
have in many cases been in a state of constant change, but
the right of the ryot is believed to be inalienable. He may
quit his land for any period of time, and the cultivation may
be assumed by others; but if he or his heir return and re¬
claim the land, he has only to come to a compromise with the
party in possession for the value of the crop on the ground,
and his inheritance is restored to him immediately.
The permanent zemindary settlement was a favourite plan
of Lord Cornwallis, and undoubtedly originated in benevo¬
lent intentions. Its effects, however, have not been such
as its projectors anticipated. It was felt and declared to be
“ the duty of the ruling power to protect all classes of the
people, and more particularly those who from their situations
are most helpless;” but the interests of all parties, except
of the zemindars, were unfortunately sacrificed.
By the permanent arrangement the amount of the pay¬
ment to government, which had previously been variable,
was fixed in perpetuity. But while the government thus
excluded itself from any prospective increase of revenue, by
limiting its own demand upon the zemindar, it did not pro¬
tect the cultivator from oppression, by limiting the demand
of the zemindar upon him. A provision was indeed made
that puttahs or leases should be granted; but this was, in
fact, annihilating the rights of the superior class of cultiva¬
tors who had an hereditary title to their land, and reducing
them to the condition of the inferior class who possessed no
hereditary right of occupancy. The zemindar was elevated
from the situation of a revenue agent to that of a landlord.
He was enjoined to grant leases, but he might demand what¬
ever terms he pleased, and obtain the best that he was able.
He even acquired a power to dispose of rights far more an¬
cient, and in the eyes of the people more venerable, than
his own ; and might, to use the words of the home govern¬
ment, “ oust even the hereditary ryots from the possession of
their lands, when the latter refused to accede to any terms of
rent which might be demanded of them, however exorbitant.”
The local government had anticipated, that the reciprocal Bengal,
wants of the zemindars and cultivators would compel them
to enter into just and equitable arrangements; but these flat¬
tering expectations were not realized, and it is almost impos¬
sible not to feel some surprise that they should have deceived
the good and able men by whom they were indulged. The
reciprocity, as Lord Hastings observed, is by no means clear.
It indeed resembles some other projects of alleged recipro¬
cal advantage, of which it has been said that the reciprocity
is all on one side. The zemindar wants cultivators ; but, in
the language of Lord Hastings, “ he wants them upon his
own terms; and he knows that if he can get rid of the here¬
ditary proprietors who claim a right to terms independent
of what he may vouchsafe to give, he will obtain the means
of substituting men of his own; and such is the redundancy
of the cultivating class, that there will never be a difficulty
of procuring ryots ready to engage on terms only just suffi¬
cient to secure bare maintenance to the engager.” The
existence of such a state of things justified his lordship in
affirming that, “ if it were the intention of our regulations
to deprive every class but the large proprietors, who en¬
gaged with government, of any share in the profits of the
land, that effect has been fully accomplished in Bengal.”
This was not indeed the intention of the originators of the
permanent zemindary settlement, but it has unhappily been
the result of their measures.
Cotton piece goods form the staple manufacture of Ben-Manufac,
gal; though the use of Indian fabrics of this description in tures and
Europe has almost entirely ceased, while even in India the commerce,
demand for them has been in a great degree superseded by
the cheaper goods of Great Britain. The district of Dacca,
in the eastern quarter of Bengal, has long been famed for
the manufacture of plain muslins, distinguished by various
names according to the fineness and the closeness of their
texture, as well as for flowered, striped, or chequered muslins
of the most beautiful and exquisite fabrics. Several kinds
more closely woven are manufactured on the western side of
the delta of the Ganges ; but those of a more rigid texture do
not seem to be limited to particular districts : coarse turbans
and handkerchiefs are also made in almost every province.
Under the general appellation of calicoes, are included va¬
rious species of cloth, which are still distinguished by their
Indian designations. Moorshedabad and its neighbourhood
is the chief seat of the silk manufacture.
The internal trade of Bengal consists chiefly in the ex¬
portation from the grain districts ot corn and rice in exchange
for salt. The supply of this article in Bengal is provided
partly by manufacture conducted on account of the govern¬
ment, partly by importation, and to a small extent by private
manufacture under a system of excise. The duty on all
imported salt is at the rate of five shillings on 82 lb., ox
about three farthings per lb.; and the same rate ot duty is
levied on the home manufacture of the article, the prime
cost of which amounts to about one farthing per lb. The
wholesale price of salt at Calcutta may therefore be esti¬
mated at one penny the pound. Its supply is no longer a
monopoly; for though the manufacture and sale have not
been relinquished by the government, yet the public parti¬
cipate in its provision, under a combined system of customs
and excise. The net revenue derived from salt by the
government within the presidency ot Bengal exceeds a
million and a half sterling per annum. i, t? + x *
Salt is a very ancient source of revenue in the Last; but
a feeling against its manufacture being carried on by the
government has been for some time on the increase. During
the parliamentary session of 1853, a clause was proposed to
be inserted in the India bill, then in its progress through
parliament, forbidding the manufacture after the st ay
1856; and though opposed by the ministry, it was m the
House of Commons carried. By the House of Lords it was
however rejected, it being deemed unsafe thus suddenly to
Bengal.
BENGAL.
651
diminish the resources of India by so large an amount as
that of the revenue produced by the trade as at present con¬
ducted. The facilities afforded for the introduction of Eng¬
lish salt have for several years past caused a great increase
of the imported article, the quantity received in Calcutta in
the official year 1850—51 being double that ol previous years.
The internal trade of Bengal is greatly aided by the navi¬
gable communications which intersect the country in every
direction. The boats used in this navigation vary in form
and construction, being each adapted to the nature of the
rivers which they generally traverse. Steam navigation has
been introduced upon the Ganges with success; and the
macadamized trunk road from Calcutta to Delhi has afforded
facility of communication with the capital to various parts of
the presidency: but there can be little doubt that in the course
of a few years the rivers and roads of Bengal will alike become
subsidiary to the great arteries of communication which, in
the form of railways, are now commencing to intersect the
country. The line from Calcutta to Burdwan is advancing
rapidly to completion ; from this point it will be continued
in a northerly direction to Rajmahal on the Ganges, whence
it will traverse the heart of the presidency in a north-wes¬
terly direction to Allahabad.
Bengal carries on an extensive commerce with Britain.
The exports consist chiefly of all the staple articles of the
country, such as cotton, silk, sugar, rum, and indigo. The
imports are metals of all sorts, wrought and unwrought; Bengal,
woollen and cotton manufactures of various kinds, which can v"—'
be sent from Britain and sold cheaper than the home manu¬
factures of the same description ; naval and military stores ;
gold and silver bullion ; and almost every article of British
manufacture. An extensive trade is carried on to China
and the countries and islands to the east. The exports are
chiefly opium, saltpetre, gunpowder, cotton, and cotton piece
goods. . . .
The wild animals are such as are commonly found in Hin- Animals,
dustan, namely, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the bear, the
tiger, the leopard, the wild boar, the jackal, and the buffalo,
with apes, monkeys, &c., which swarm in all the woods, and
some times plunder the fruit shops of a village ; for, being
considered sacred animals, they are never disturbed by the na¬
tives. The elephant is tamed for domestic uses, and is found
extremely valuable in the military service. The Ganges
and its numerous tributary streams abound in a variety of
excellent fish ; and during the periodical rains, when reser¬
voirs and jhils overflow, and the rivers rising run into every
creek, fish are to be had for the mere catching, and then be¬
come the food of the poorest classes. It also abounds in a
peculiar species of crocodile.
The area and population of the several districts and terri- Popula-
torial divisions comprised within the presidency are giventIon-
in the table below.
District.
Area,
Sq. miles.
Jessore  ! 3,512
1,186
2.224
2,089
2,942
Twenty-four
Pergunnahs
Burdwan 
Hooghly 
Nuddea 
Bancoora  ! 1,476
Baraset i 1,424
Bhangulpore ...j 5,806
Dinajpore  i 3,820
Monghyr I 2,558
Poorneah I 5,878
Tirhoot  7,402
Maldah | 1,000
Cuttack j 3,061
Pooree  1,768
Balasore I 1,876
Pop.
381,744
288,000
1,854,152
1,520,840
298,736
480,000
522,000
2,000,000
1,200,000
800,000
1,600,000
2,400,000
431,000
Midnapore & j
Hidgellee
Koordah 
Moorshedabad
Bagoorah  
Rungpore 
Rajshaye 
Pubna 
5,029
1!
1,000,000
556,395
666,328
District.
Area,
Sq. miles.
4,730
1,960
2,052
8,424
930
1,856
2,160
4,130
2,084
2,606
571,160
1,045,000
900,000
2,559,000
671,000
600,000
3,794
Birbhoom  
Dacca  
Furreedpore and)
Deccan Jelalpore j
Mymensing  4,712
Sylhet, including
Jyntea 
Backergunge, in¬
cluding Deccan
Shabazpore 
Shahabad  
Patna  
Babar  
Sarun, with Chum- )
paran J
Chittagong  
Tipperah and Bui- 1
loah j
The Sunderbunds
from Saugor Is¬
land on the west,
to the Ramna-
bad Channel on
the east 
Cossya Hills 
Pop.
1,040,876
600,000
3,721
1,828
5.694
2,560
2,560
4,850
6,500
729
855,000
,487,000
380,000
733,800
1,600,000
1,200.000
2,500,000
1,700,000
1,000,000
/ 806,950
\ 600,000
Unknown.
10,935
District.
Lower
Assam
Cachar 
Camroop
Nowgong
Durrung
(Joorhat ... I
(Seebpoor) J
Luckempoor
Assam ] Sudya,
with Mu-
C truck ...
Goalpara 
Arracan  
Tenasserim Pro-
Area,
Sq. miles.
4,000
2,788
4,160
2,000
2,965
2,950
6,942
vinces  J
Sumbulpore 
Ramgurh, or Ha- 1
zareebah /
T , f Chota )
Lohur- l yjagpore )
ffiiggajpalamow
Singboom  
Maun- f Pachete ...
bhoom 1 Barabhoom
Total.
3,506
15,104
29,168
4,693
8,524
5,308
3,468
2,944
4,792 \
860/
225,103
Pop.
60,000
300,000
70,000
80,000
200,000
30,000
30,000
400,000
321,522
115,431
800,000
372,216
482,900
200,000
772,340
41,094,325
The following are the principal towns, with their popula¬
tion : Calcutta, 413,182; Dacca, 60,617; Moorshedabad,
146,963 ; Burdwan, 53,900.
Small villages containing from 100 to 500 inhabitants
are very numerous ; forming, in many parts of the country,
a continuous town for many miles along the banks of the
rivers, and presenting to the inland navigator, as he passes
along, the cheerful bustle of a crowded population. The
genuine Bengali towns are not arranged into streets, but
into divisions of east, west, north, south, and centre. The
Hindus, Mahometans, and others not professing either of
those creeds, reside each in their own quarter. A Bengal
hut has a pent roof constructed of two sloping sides, which
meet in a ridge, forming the segment of a circle, so that
they have the appearance of a boat turned upside down. The
Bengali has one hut for himself and another for his cattle.
The framework in general consists entirely of bamboos. The
door is the only opening in the hut.
The elevated tracts in Bengal are inhabited by a race of
a different origin from the people of the plains. In the
northern mountains, beyond the limits of the province, the
natives appear to be of a Tartar origin, by which race also
the northern parts of Bengal are peopled. The high country
which Bengal includes on the west is peopled by several races
of mountaineers, who are supposed to be the aborigines of the
country, being distinguished by religion, character, language,
and manners, as well as by features, from the Hindu na¬
tives. Some of them have scarcely emerged from a state of
barbarity. In the mixed population of Bengal the Hindus
and Mahometans are easily seen to be distinct classes, as
among the latter the Mogul, the Afghan, and their imme¬
diate descendants, may be distinguished from the naturalized
Mussulman. The character of the Bengali has never been
held in high esteem. That he is pusillanimous cannot be
denied ; that he is deficient in a regard for truth and honesty
must be readily admitted; but at the same time it ought not
652
BEN
BEN
Benguela to be forgotten that the peasant of Bengal has been over-
ridden for ages by an uninterrupted rule of priestcraft and
oppression, of one or the other of which both his weaknesses
and his vices are the genuine offspring. In the enumera¬
tion of his good qualities, patient endurance must certainly
not be omitted. He is, moreover, acute and mtelhgen .
Under the beneficent rule which is now paramount m maia,
the defects of character which have been generated by des¬
potism may be expected to lose their universality ; those
which have had their rise in superstition will probably be
of longer duration, and will not, perhaps, give way o
more robust qualities,* either of disposition or intellect, un¬
til the influential classes who are now being educated
the government colleges shall diffuse European knowledge
throughout the masses of the population. A list of the go¬
vernment colleges and schools, in which a complete educ -
tion in European literature and science is afforded tlnough
the medium of the English language, is given below. 1 he
names of the Oriental institutions supported by the state
are appended, together with the number of pupils attache
to each institution, whether British or Oriental.
Institutions*
Chris¬
tians.
Hindu College  
n ,, Pautshala ..
„ ,, B. School ..
Sanscrit College  
Calcutta Mudrissa  
Hooghly College 
,, „ B. School
„ ,, Mudrissa
„ Mukhtub  
Seetapore Mudrissa .......
Dacca College  
Kishnagur College  
Chittagong School  
Committah ,,  
Ma¬
home¬
tans.
Sylhet ,,  
Bauleah ,,   
Midnapore ,,  
Cuttack ,,  
Patna ,,  
Bhangulpore ,,  
Moozufferpore ,,  
Gyah ,,  
Jessore ,,  
Burdwan ,,  
Bancoora ,,  
Baraset ,,
Howrah ,, .......
Ooterparah ,,
Birbhoom ,,   
Barrackpore ,,  
Russapuglah ,,  
Assam (72 schools)  
Arracan (2 schools)  
Tenasserim (2 school )....
S.W. Frontier (2 schols)
Vernacular Schools  
32
1
18
4
19
280
5
1
151
22
40
26
4
9
10
19
Hindus.
Other
Per¬
sua¬
sions.
488
215
453
299
395
165
30
11
4
13
328
195
98
69
110
80
113
89
70
34
83
80
1
37
64
70
146
30
139
208
14
Grand Total  104
75
23
9
796
1
18
72
74
12
488
215
453
299
280
407
166
182
33
40
386
200
125
83
132
82
117
122
61
115
57
103
86
66
70
147
144
208
87
89
51
4025
150
107
39
1904
4153 189 11,319
Of Bengal, prior to the Mahommedan invasion of India, our
knowledge is very imperfect. From its conquest by Shaha,
budin at the commencement of the thirteenth century, it
appears to have been ruled in feudal subordination to the
empire, until the year 1340, when, during the reign of Mo- ^
hammed Toghluk, it succeeded inthrowing offits allegiance.
A few years later, the successor of Toghluk consented to re¬
ceive an embassy from Bengal, and thus recognised the in¬
dependence of its ruler. In 1528 the king of Bengal, having
been defeated by Baber, consented to terms of peace.
Shortly after the province was again brought under the do-
minioit of Delhi by the Afghan monarch Shir Shah ; and
though subsequently it succeeded in re-establishing its in¬
dependence, it was finally reunited to Delhi by the Em¬
peror Akbar, who formed it into a soubah or viceroyalty of
the empire. Bengal continued to be ruled by governors
under the Mogul dynasty, until the breaking up of the empire
in the middle of the last century. The attack upon Cal¬
cutta by the nabob of Bengal in 1756, and the barbarous
treatment of the servants of the East India Company, led
to the battle of Plassy, and to the increased power and in¬
fluence of the British. In 1765, the Emperor of Delhi con¬
ferred upon the East India Company the dewanny of Ben-
gal, Bahar, and Orissa, and thus did this part of Ipdia fonn
one of the earliest and most important of the acquisitions of
the British in the East. (E- Jv
Bengal, Bay of, a portion of the Indian Ocean, ot the
figure of a triangle, having on its western side the coast
of Bengal, and on the east the coast of Arracan, Pegu, and
the Malayan peninsula. Its two sides, from Bengal to
Ceylon on the west, and to Junkseylon on the east, may be
estimated at 1120 miles in length, and the whole is com¬
prehended within the latitudes of 8° and 20 N. At the bot¬
tom of the bay the breadth from Chittagong to Balasore is
not above 250 miles ; and at its mouth, from Cape Comorin
to the Malayan peninsula, the breadth may be estimated at
1200 miles. The western and eastern coasts of the Bay of
Bengal form a singular contrast in all the points most essen¬
tial to a navigator. On the western coast there aie no hai-
bours for large ships, while on the eastern coast there are
many excellent harbours, such as Arracan, Cheduba, hse-
srais, and Syriam, in Pegu ; a harbour near Martaban,
Tavay river, and King’s Island; and several harbours in
the Mergui Archipelago, besides Junkseylon, Telebone, and
Pula Lada. Off the west coast of Coromandel there are
no soundings about thirty miles from the shore, while the
east coast has soundings two degrees from it. Coromandel
presents an open country: it is often parched with drought
from winds blowing over sultry sands ; the mouths of its
rivers are shallow from bars of sand, and it is often visited by
dangerous gales. The east coast, on the other hand, is
covered with wood. The climate is always temperate ; the
rivers are deep and muddy; and the weather is generally
calm. The monsoons blow over the Bay of Bengal, though
it is remarkable that here, as in many parts of India, strong
winds are found blowing directly from the sea, while at some
distance from the land it is a dead calm. Thus m Bengal
there are strong northerly winds, while at sea calms prevail
until May and June ; and on the Malabar coast the south¬
west monsoon does not commence blowing till the begin¬
ning of the rainy season, while on shore there are strong
westerly winds about and after the time of the vernal equi-
J (r>. b—n.;
Bengal
Bay
Benguela.
nox.
BENGUELA, a considerable country on the western
coast of Africa, included in the territory of Angola. Being
occupied by the Portuguese, to the exclusion of all other
European nations, the knowledge of it is withheld from
the latter with the most jealous care. The general obser¬
vations made upon the coast of Angola will in a great mea¬
sure apply to Benguela. The air is said to be unwholesome,
the water is bad, and the natives are extremely fierce and
uncivilized. The mountains contain mines of copper, whmh
is extracted only in very small quantities. The port o b
Felipe de Benguela was formed by the Portuguese on the
Bahia das Valias or Cone’s Bay, and made the centre of
their trade upon this coast, especially of the iniquitous traffic
in slaves, which is still clandestinely carried on. The articles
almost exclusively in demandamong the natives arecoral and
beads, which are not only used as ornaments, but circulate as
BEN
Benicarlo money. The few Portuguese ships which now pass to and
II from the East Indies touch here for refreshment. Long. 13.
( Benin. ^ 37. £_ j at> j2. 30. S. Pop. of town about 3000.
~ J BENICARLO, a city of Spain, in the province of Cas-
tellon de la Plana, on the coast of the Mediterranean. It is
celebrated for its red wine, of which large quantities are an¬
nually exported to Bordeaux for mixing with clarets and
other French wines. Pop. 6060.
BENIN, an extensive country of Western Africa, situ¬
ated on a bay or bight of the same name, near the eastern
extremity of the Gulf of Guinea. Here commences that
long chain of estuaries by which the Niger discharges itself
into the ocean. See Niger.
Benin was discovered by the Portuguese about the year
1485. It escaped the observation of Diego Cam when he
sailed from El Mina to the mouth of the Congo; but tid¬
ings of it having been there obtained, Alfonso de Aveiro
sailed thither, and brought the first specimen of the plant
called long or Guinea pepper. He came accompanied also
by an ambassador from the king of Benin, requesting, it is
said, that missionaries should be sent to instruct the people
in the Christian religion. The king of Portugal accordingly
despatched an expedition under Fernando Po, who discovered
and gave his name to a fine island near the mouth of the
gulf; and having ascended the river, established a settle¬
ment at Gatton. A church was built, and upwards of a
thousand persons received baptism. Much interest was ex¬
cited by the account of a regular embassy sent at the acces¬
sion of every new prince to the court of a powerful sovereign
named Ogane, whose capital lay about 700 miles to the east¬
ward. He was held in almost religious veneration, and his
sanction was considered necessary to render valid the title
of any new monarch. This mysterious prince maintained
himself in retired pomp, and at every audience a silk cur¬
tain concealed him from view. At the parting interview,
however, his foot was put forth from behind the curtain, and
was venerated as a sacred object. He delivered to the
ambassador a staff, a helmet, and a cross, all of brass, to be
presented to his sovereign. From these circumstances the
Portuguese inferred that this was the Prester John or
Christian prince whom they expected to find in the interior
of Africa; but Major Rennell has more reasonably concluded
that he was the king of Ghana or Cano, who then held ex¬
tensive sway over that continent.
The Portuguese carried on for some time a brisk trade
in slaves, who were carried to El Mina, and sold to the natives
of the Gold Coast. John III., however, prohibited this
nefarious traffic; and as the situation was found very un¬
healthy, while fhe conversions were professed only with the
view of obtaining military aid against their neighbours, the
settlement was ordered to be withdrawn. The Dutch after¬
wards established factories, and maintained them for a con¬
siderable time, chiefly with a view to the slave trade. The
English and French have also formed occasional settlements.
But all these are at present abandoned, and trading vessels
come merely to the mouth of the river. On the whole, the
river of Benin has always been, and now is, much less fre¬
quented for commercial purposes than that of Bonny and
the towns situated at the opening of more southern estu¬
aries.
The coast of Benin presents a succession of river branches,
all diverging from one great trunk, connected and inter¬
laced with numerous creeks and channels, which afford easy
navigation for boats from one to the other. The whole of
this territory consists of an immense swamp, either covered
with water or composed of soft mud, out of which rises a
dark and impenetrable forest. The waters are so muddy
that no fish except eels can subsist in them. The river,
called by the Portuguese Formosa, is about two miles wide
at its mouth; but it is crossed by a bar of mud, on which
there is only twelve feet of water at spring tides. Eighteen
BEN 653
miles up is New Town, where vessels can anchor in 3|- Benish-
fathoms water. It is a mere trading station, consisting of Bays,
hovels built on a foundation of mud, so soft as to render it
necessary to place old canoes with their bottoms upwards
to form a passage from house to house.
At New Town a branch strikes off on each side, and these
are followed by traders in preference to the main trunk.
The left or northern branch leads first to Gatton, the port
of Benin, to which barks of sixty tons can ascend, and near
which dry land first appears emerging out of the morass.
Benin, the capital, is forty miles further up the river.
From information obtained on the Gold Coast, M. Dupuis
considered Benin as exceeding in importance even Ashantee
and Dahomey; possessing an extensive and highly cultivated
territory, and capable of sending 200,000 men into the field,
10,000 of whom were armed with muskets. But Captain
Adams, who appears to be the last that actually penetrated
to Benin, leads us to believe this description exaggerated.
The city was indeed found to cover a great extent of ground;
but the houses were so scattered that the population did not
appear to exceed 15,000. The country around was also
fruitful, but by no means highly cultivated. Sheep, goats,
pigs, and poultry, were plentiful; but the vegetable food con¬
sisted almost entirely of yams. No information, however,
is given respecting the districts in the interior. 1 he king
is absolute, being revered by his subjects as a species of
divinity. It is a crime to believe that he either eats or
sleeps; and all offences against him are punished with the
utmost severity. At his death, or that of any of his gregt
men, numerous human victims are devoted to attend them
in the other world; and every year, at the mouth of the
river, three or four are presented as votive offerings, to at¬
tract ships and commerce. Yet the practice of human sac¬
rifice does not appear to exist on the same dreadful scale as
in Ashantee and Dahomey.
The large channel that branches off to the right from
New Town communicates with the Rio de Forcados, and
then with another river whose branches inclose the beautiful
island of Waree, which is about five miles in cireumference,
and seems almost like a spot fallen from the clouds in the midst
of a desert. Being somewhat elevated above the surround¬
ing swamps, it is dry, verdant, and cultivated. The soil
consists of a tenacious red clay, fitted for the manufacture
of earthen jars, which form an article of trade. The island
contains two towns, the joint population of which is esti¬
mated at 5000. The government is monarchical, but mild;
and the natives seem to enjoy a considerable degree of free¬
dom and equality. The houses are neatly built of clay, and
some of them are ornamented with wooden pillars. Waree
carries on a communication with the sea by New Town,
which is at present dependent upon it.
The main stream of the Formosa extends upwards in an
east-north-easterly direction, but is not navigable for ships
of fifty tons burden for more than fifty miles. Europeans
have never ascended it, nor received accounts of any town
situated on its banks.
Since the abolition of the slave trade, the chief commo¬
dities to be obtained in the river of Benin are palm oil and
ivory, both at tolerably cheap rates. The imports consist
of salt, silk and cotton stuffs, guns and gunpowder, coral,
beads, iron, brass, brandy, tobacco, &c. (See Lander’s
Travels; Clapperton’s Second Exped.; Smith’s Voyage
to Guinea; Adams’s Remarks on the West Coast of
Africa. (h. m.)
BENISH-Days, among the Egyptians, a term applied
to three days of the week, which are days of less ceremony
in religion than the other four, and are so called from the
benisk, a garment of common use, not of ceremony. At
Cairo the benish-days are Monday, Wednesday, and Satur¬
day, on which the citizens throw off all business and cere¬
mony, and go to their little summer-houses in the country.
654 BEN
Benjamin BENJAMIN (Sept. Bma/xtv), youngest son of Jacob,
II by Rachel. In Gen. Ivi. 21, sq., the immediate descendants
Bennet. 0p Benjamin are given to the number of ten, whereas in
Num> xxvi> 33_40, only seven are enumerated, and some
even under different names. This difference probably arose
from the circumstance that some of the direct descendants
of Benjamin died either early or childless.
The tribe of Benjamin, though the least numerous of
Israel, became nevertheless a considerable race. In the
desert it counted 35,400 warriors, and at the entrance of
Israel into Canaan even as many as 45,600. 1 he portion
allotted to this tribe was encompassed by the districts of
Ephraim, Dan, and Judah, and contained thirty-six towns
(with the villages appertaining to them), of which the prin¬
cipal were Jericho, Bethagla, Bethel, Gibeon, Ramah, and
Jebus or Jerusalem. . .
In the time of the Judges, the tribe of Benjamin became
involved in a civil war with the other eleven tiibes. This
war terminated in the almost utter extinction of the tribe,
but it eventually revived, and in the time of David it num¬
bered 59,434 able warriors ; in that of Asa, 280,000 ; and
in that of Jehoshaphat, 200,000.
This tribe had the honour of giving the first king to the
Jews, Saul being a Benjamite. After the death of Saul,
the Benjamites declared themselves for his son Ishbosheth ;
until, after the assassination of that prince, David became
king of all Israel. David having expelled the Jebusites
from Zion, and made it his own residence, the close alliance
that previously existed between the tribes of Benjamin and
Judah was cemented by the circumstance that, while Jeru¬
salem belonged to the district of Benjamin, that of Judah
w as immediately contiguous to it. At the division of the
kingdom after the death of Solomon, Benjamin espoused
the cause of Judah, and they formed a kingdom by them¬
selves. Indeed, the two tribes stood always in such a close
connection as often to be included under the single term
Judah.
Benjamin of Tudela, in Navarre, a celebrated Jewish
rabbi of the twelfth century, whose Itinerary is a literary
curiosity. He visited Constantinople, Egypt, Assyria, and
Persia, penetrating to the frontiers of China. I hough credu¬
lous, and not accurate in discriminating fable from history,
his work contains some curious notices of the countries he
visited. The Itinerary was translated from the Hebrew into
Latin by Arias Montanus in 1575. It appeared in French
in 1734, and again in 1830. An English translation was
published in 1783, with notes by the Rev. Benjamin Ger-
rans, from the Hebrew and Latin edition of the Elzevirs of
1633.
BENNET, Henry, Earl of Arlington, a distinguished
statesman in the reign of Charles II., was born of an an¬
cient family in Middlesex, in the year 1618. In the be¬
ginning of the civil war he was appointed under-secretary
to George Lord Digby, secretary of state. He afterwards
entered himself as a volunteer for the royal cause, and did
the king good service, especially at Andover in Hampshire,
where he was severely wounded. He was made secretary
to the Duke of York, received the honour of knighthood
from Charles II. at Bruges in 1658, and was sent as envoy
to the court of Spain. Upon the return of the king to
England, he was called home, made keeper of the privy
purse, and principal secretary of state. In 1670 he was of
the council distinguished by the title of the Cabal, and one
of those who advised the shutting up of the exchequer. In
1672 he was made Earl of Arlington and Viscount Thet-
ford, and soon after knight of the Garter. “ Henry Bennet,
Lord Arlington (Macaulay’s Hist., vol. i. p. 212), then
secretary of state, had, since he came to manhood, resided
principally on the Continent, and had learned that cosmopo¬
litan indifference to constitutions and religions which is
often observable in persons whose life has been passed in
BEN
vagrant diplomacy. If there was any form of government Bennet
he. liked, it was that of France. If there was any church II
for which he felt a preference, it was that of Rome. He vB^DS0D-
had some talent for conversation, and some talent also for
transacting the ordinary business of office. He had learned,
during a life passed in travelling and negotiating, the art of
accommodating his language and deportment to the society
in which he found himself. His vivacity in the closet
amused the king; his gravity in debates and conferences
imposed on the public ; and he had succeeded in attaching
to himself, partly by services and partly by hopes, a con¬
siderable number of personal retainers.” He died in 1685.
His Letters to Sir William Temple were published after
his death.
Bennet, Dr Thomas, an eminent divine, born at Salis¬
bury on the 7th of May 1673, and educated at St Johns
College, Cambridge. In 1700 he was made rector of St
James’s in Colchester ; afterwards became lecturer of St
Olave’s, Southwark, and morning-preacher at St Lawrence,
Jewry ; and at last was presented to the vicarage of St
Giles’s, Cripplegate. His writings were chiefly of a con¬
troversial character. He died Oct. 9. 1728.
BENOIT, Rene, a famous doctor of the Sorbonne, and
curate of St Eustace at Paris, was born at Savernieres,
near Angers, in 1521. He was a secret favourer of the
Protestant religion ; and that his countrymen might be able
to read the Bible in their own tongue, he published at Paris
the French translation which had been made by the re¬
formed ministers at Geneva. This translation was approved
of by several doctors of the Sorbonne before it went to the
press, and Charles IX. had granted a privilege for the print-
in<r of it; yet when it was published it was immediately
condemned. He had previously been confessor to Mary
queen of Scotland during her stay in France, and attended
her when she returned to Scotland. Sometime before the
death of Henry HI., Benoit, or some of his friends with
his assistance, published a book, entitled Apologie Catho-
lique; in which it was shewn that the profession of the
ProtesUnt faith was not a sufficient reason to deprive Henry
kino- of Navarre of his right of succeeding to the crown of
France. When Henry IV. had resolved to embrace the
Catholic religion, Benoit assisted at the assembly in which
the king abjured the reformed religion. In 1597 Henry
. promoted him to the bishopric of Troyes in Champagne,
but he could never obtain the pope’s bulls to be installed.
He enjoyed however the temporalities of that bishopric for
eleven years, when he resigned it. He died in 1608.
BENSER ADE, Isaac de, an ingenious French poet,
born in 1622 at Lions-la-Foret in Normandy. He made
himself known at court by his verses and his wit, and had
the good fortune to please the cardinals Richelieu and Ma-
zarin. He wrote, 1. A Paraphrase upon Job ; 2. Verses
for Interludes ; 3. Rondeaux upon Ovid; 4. Seveial Tra¬
gedies. A sonnet of his, which he sent to a young lady with
his paraphrase on Job, having been placed in competition
with the Urania of Voiture, a dispute on their relative merits
long divided the whole court and the wits into two parties,
who were respectively styled the Johelins and the Uranists.
Some years before his death, Benserade applied himself to
works of piety, and translated almost all the Psalms. Ac¬
cording to the Abbe Olivet, he latterly withdrew from court
to his residence at Gentilly, where he died on the 19th
October 1691, in the eighty-second year of his age.
BENSHEIM, a city of the province of btarkenburg, in
the duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt; situated between Darm¬
stadt and Mannheim, about fifteen miles from the foimer.
Pop. 4500, mostly manufacturers, or cultivators of vineyards.
BENSON George, a learned dissenting minister, born
at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, in 1699. His mental
capacity was so precocious, that at eleven years of age e
was able to read the Greek Testament. He afterwards
BEN
tent Grass studied at Dr Dixon’s academy at Whitehaven, from which
II he removed to the university of Glasgow. In 1721 he was
Bentham. c]10sen pastor of a congregation of dissenters at Abingdon,
in Berkshire ; in 1729 he received a call from a society of
dissenters in Southwark, wdth whom he continued eleven
years ; and in 1740 he was chosen by the congregation of
Crutched Friars colleague to the learned Dr Gardner. In
1731 appeared his “Defence of the reasonableness of
Prayer, with a Translation of a Discourse of Maximus Ty-
rius, containing some popular Objections against Prayei',
and an Answer to these.” Subsequently to this he published
Paraphrases and Notes on the Epistle to Philemon, the
two Epistles to the Thessalonians, the first and second to
Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus ; adding dissertations on
several important subjects, particularly on inspiration. In
1735 he published his History of the First Planting of
Christianity, in 2 vols. 4to, a work of great learning and
ability. He also wrote the “ Reasonableness of the Chris¬
tian Religion,” the “History of the Life of Jesus Christ,”
a Paraphrase and Notes on the seven Catholic Epistles, and
several other works, which procured him great reputation.
One of the universities in Scotland sent him a doctor’s di¬
ploma ; and several prelates of the Church of England, as
Herring, Hoadly, Butler, Benson, and Conybeare, bestowed
on him marks of favour and regard. Dr Benson died in 1763.
BENT Grass, a species of agrostis. It has bent and
wiry stems, and is exceedingly difficult to eradicate from
the soil.
BENTHAM, Jeremy, was born in Red-Lion Street,
Houndsditch, London, on the 15th of February 1748. He
received his boyish education at Westminster school, and
entered Queen’s College, Oxford, in the summer of 1760,
when he was little more than twelve years old. It was ever
a consolation to him, when he had formed the great leading
opinions of his life, that he had been exempted, by his tender
age, from the subscription of the Thirty-nine Articles. He
had a precocious capacity for acquiring knowledge; and pa¬
ternal vanity subjected him to a degree of educational for¬
cing, accompanied by occasional displays of the acquisitions
of the accomplished youth, which would not, according to
ordinary anticipations, have been favourable to the progress
of so original and self-constituted a mind as his became.
The father, a sagacious attorney, who had realized a con¬
siderable sum by practice, brought up his promising son to
the bar, as a sphere in which the fortunes of the family
might in such hands rise to great state and eminence. There
was, however, little permanent geniality between them, for
the son turned into a course entirely his own, and disap¬
pointed all the glittering hopes of the ambitious father. In
his own work, the Chrestomathia, Bentham has given a
sketch, quite unconsciously, of that paternal ambition which
he did not realize. “Of the apothecary,” he says, “ the
ambition is to see his child a physician of the highest emi¬
nence; of the attorney, to behold in his son a lord chan¬
cellor; of the parish clergyman, to behold in his an arch¬
bishop. The Lord Chancellor More makes his reverence
and begs a blessing, as in the great hall of Westminster
he passes by his father, then sitting in the Common Pleas;
but the puisne judge, and not the lord high chancellor, is
the great object of envy to a paternal breast.”
That the son should turn out a philosopher and a law
reformer, instead of realizing his father’s practical anticipa¬
tions, was perhaps the more mortifying, as the attorney,
after the death of Jeremy’s mother, married, in 1765, the
widow of Dr John Abbot and the mother of Charles Abbot,
afterwards speaker of the House of Commons and Lord
Colchester. The step-brothers were matched against each
other; and as young Abbot went straight onwards through
a course of practical advancement, the erratic self-will of
his own son, destined by the father’s ambitious anticipations
for the woolsack, became the more mortifying.
BEN 655
With the exception of some trifling youthful efforts, Ben- Bentham.
tham’s earliest publication was his Fragment on Govern- ^
ment, which appeared in 1776. As of many of his subse¬
quent works, the title contained nothing to lead men to a
notion of its object, which in this instance was a political
criticism on the fundamental principles of Blackstone’s po¬
pular commentary on the law of England. Bentham was
peculiar in almost everything; and though he was not defi¬
cient in an egotism and vanity of his own kind, yet his first
publication, so far from being that nervous ordeal which it
generally proves to other authors, was a matter of trivial
and fugitive thought to him, for he was occupied, when he
printed it, in elaborating his great work on the Principles of
Morals and Legislation. Before it was completed he had
been brought into a social circle which offered to him wider
views and more genial immediate elements than the dusty
inns of court or the money-making cronies who dined with
his father. Lord Lansdowne, with the instinctive apprecia¬
tion of high eminence which has been remarkable in his
family, sought out the author of the Fragment on Govern¬
ment, and received him as a guest at Bowood. Bentham
evidently relished the life he led there; he had the first so¬
ciety of his day to converse with, and could retire to write
on ethics and jurisprudence when he pleased. The one
romance of his life, indeed, centred in Bowood. Among
the young ladies whom he met there, one, who must have
been little more than a child when he approached middle
age, made so deep an impression on his heart, that, more
than twenty years afterwards, and when he had entered his
fifty-fourth year, he made her a formal offer of marriage.
The lady’s answer—a refusal—has been preserved in the
memoir of Bentham by Dr Bowring {Works, x. 419.) The
rejection was conceived in a tone honourable both to the
head and heart of the writer; and since death has removed
all who were connected with this little incident in the life
of a great man, it need, perhaps, no longer be concealed,
that Miss Caroline Fox, Lord Holland’s sister, was the per¬
son on whom Bentham had bestowed his affections.
Almost all the other events of Bentham’s life are em¬
bodied in the preparation and publication of his books. With
the exception of a tour in Russia which he undertook in
1785, and a subsequent visit to France, he lived the life of
a hermit, admitting some chosen friends or pupils only to
his table and study in Queen Square, Westminster, and
generally labouring, through all available hours unnecessary
for rest and refreshment, at his varied works. He died on
the 6th of June 1832.
It has not been deemed necessary to make this article a
critical history of his works, since they are amply noticed
under various heads of the Encyclopcedia. There is espe¬
cially a full critical history of the fundamental principles of
his ethical philosophy in the Introductory Dissertation by
Sir James Mackintosh (p. 393 et seq.) It is there men¬
tioned, that Bentham’s writings on jurisprudence do not
come within the scope of the dissertation. These works,
which he began with systematic inquiries into the principles
of the science, were in his latter years a continuous elabo¬
rate application of these fundamental principles to the exist¬
ing state of the law in Britain, or, in practical language,
they were works on law reform. They have had a singular
literary fate, of which the Rationale of Judicial Evidence—
published in five octavo volumes in 1826—may be taken as
a type. The object of this work was to show how much
more rational it is for the tribunal which examines evidence
to decide what is to be believed and what discredited, than
for the legislature to separate credible from incredible evi¬
dence, and, permitting the tribunals to listen only to the
former, exclude the latter class as tainted. His opinions, ela¬
borately maintained, were in his day deemed so paradoxical
that very few people would undergo the task of reading
what he said. Through the exertions of these few readers,
656
BEN
BEN
Bentham however, opinion has now been so entirely revolutionized
II that, by the abolition of disqualifications, the
Bentinok. the Rationale of Evidence have been established by s
V v / tute, and have become so familiar as the only true and
sound principles, that the book in which they are set forth
is deemed unreadable, as a string of truisms. The sa
history attaches to many of his practical suggestions, an ^
would occupy considerable space to describe 1 J
first suggested from his utilitarian hermitage, which are now
in legal force. He advocated a uniform system of poor-laws
under central inspection and superintendence, and an organ
ization for the protection of the public health by sanitary p -
rification. He pleaded for the adoption of local courts, tor
the cheap conveyance of letters, for a register of merchant
seamen, L the "protection of savings’-banks and friendly
societies as the depositories of the savings o working
people, and for many other projects with the realization o
which we are now familiar. Bentham’s works were chiefly
known through the French abridged translation °f Dumon
of which a collected edition was published at Brussels
1829 in three large octavo volumes. A
his works in English was commencedin 1838, under the su
perintendence of his literary executor Dr Bowring, and com¬
pleted in 1842, in eleven volumes, royal octavo, (j.h.b.;
P Bentham, Thomas, bishop of Lichfield and Coventry,
was born at Sherbourn, in Yorkshire, in 1513, and edu¬
cated in Magdalen College, Oxford. On Edward VI. s ac¬
cession to the crown, he threw off the mask of popery
which, during the equivocal reign of Henry VIII., he ha
worn with reluctance. On the accession of Mary he was
deprived of his fellowship, and retired to Basle in Switzer¬
land, where for some time he expounded the Scriptures to
the English exiles in that city, but returned before the death
of the queen, and was appointed superintendent of a private
congregation in London. In the second year of Elizabeth,
Bentham was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coven¬
try. He died in 1578. He had the character of a pious
and zealous reformer, and was particularly celebrated for his
knowledge of the Hebrew language. ,. , „ ,
BENTINCK, William Henry Cavendish, third Duke
of Portland, was born in 1738. During the American war
he joined the Opposition; and on the resignation of Lord
North he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but held
that office little more than three months, being recalled
when Lord Shelburne came into power. He held the situa¬
tion of prime minister vrhen the coalition came into power,
and went out of office with them. In 1792 he was elected
chancellor of the University of Oxford, and shortly after¬
wards joined Mr Pitt’s party. He was home secretary from
1794 till 1801; and in 1807 he succeeded Lord Grenville
as first lord of the treasury. He continued in this office till
within a short time of his death, October 30. 1809.
The abilities of his Grace were certainly but moderate,
and altogether inadequate for the authorship of Junius s
Letters, of which, absurdly enough, some have endeavoured
to prove him the writer; but his understanding was good,
and his political integrity has never been questioned.
Bentinck, Lord William George Frederic Cavendish,
better known as Lord George Bentinck, second son of the
fourth Duke of Portland, by Henrietta, sister to the Vis¬
countess Canning, was born February 27. 1802. He was
educated at Eton, and at Christ Church, Oxford; aitei
which he entered the army, and served for several years in
the Guards. On retiring from the army, he acted for some
time as a private secretary to his uncle Mr Canning, then
prime minister; in which capacity he gave proofs of high
ability for the conduct of public business. In 1828 he suc¬
ceeded his uncle Lord William Bentinck as member for
Lynn-Regis, and continued to represent that constituency
during the remaining twenty years of his life. Till within
three years of his death, Lord George Behtinck was little
known out of the sporting world. His early attempts at
public speaking afforded no indication of the abilities whic
the subsequent course of political events served to develop
so conspicuously. His failures in the House of Commons
seem to have discouraged him from the attempt to acquire
reputation as a politician. The natural energy of his cha¬
racter, however, found scope in another arena. As one o
the leaders on “the turf,” he was there distinguished by
that integrity, judgment, and indomitable determination,
which, when brought to bear upon matters of weightier im¬
portance, placed him, with a rapidity almost unexampled,
in the foremost rank of British senators. On his first en¬
trance into parliament he belonged to what may be called
the moderate Whig party, and voted in tavour ol Catholic
emancipation, as also for the Reform Bill, though he opposed
some of its principal details. Soon after, however he joined
the ranks of the Opposition, with whom headed up to the
important era of 1846. When, in that year, Sir Robert Peel
openly declared in favour of free trade, the advocates of the
corn-laws, then without a leader, after several ineffectual
attempts at organization, discovered that Lord George Ben¬
tinck was the only man around whom the several sections o
the Opposition could be brought to rally. His sudden eleva¬
tion to so prominent a position took the public mind by sur-
nrise * but he soon gave convincing evidence of powers sc
formidable, that the position of the Protectionist party^at
once assumed an imposing aspect. Towar
Peel, in particular, his hostility was marked and uncompro
misins. Believing, as he himself expressed it, that that
statesman and his political colleagues had “ hounded to the
delth his illustrious relative” Mr Canning, he combined
with his opposition as a political leader a degree of persona
animosity that gave additional force to the poignancy of his
invectives. On entering on his new position, he at once
abandoned his favourite pursuits, disposed of f'^ omgnifi-
cent stud, forsook all connection with the turf, and devotecl
his whole time and energies to the laborious and trying duties
of a parliamentary leader. Apart from the questton of the
corn-laws, his politics were strictly independent. In oppo
sidon to the rest of his party, he supported the bill tor re
moving the Jewish disabilities, and was favourable to the
scheme for the payment of the Roman Cathohc derg^”
Ireland by the landowners. Having held no high office
under government, his qualifications as a statesman neve
found sScope beyond the negative achmvements of a leader
of Opposition ; but it may be safely affirmed that nothing
but iruntimely death coild have barred Inm ^in ¬
quiring a distinguished position among the statesmen o
Britain. This sudden and melancholy event,causedby
rupture of a vessel in the heart, took place on the -1st bep
tember 1848, while his lordship was proceeding on foot to
visTt a friend in the country. His biography has been
written by his friend the Right Hon. B-Disraeh.
BENTIVOGLIO, Giovanni, was born at Bologna in
1443, two years before the murder of ^ ^ Anm^de
then the chief magistrate of the '
vanni contrived to make himself master of the ^te ^hic1!
he continued to rule with a stern sway for nearly half a cen
turyTbut his encouragement of the fine arts, a"d h,s ^0
ration of the city by sumptuous edifices, gilded his usurpa
tan He was finally expelled by Pope Juhus II, m 1506,
aud died in the *“e of Milan at, the^ ofseventy-^^
Br.NTlvOGi.TO, Guido, Cardinal, an em , , at
historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579. Alter stuayj^
Padua, he went to reside at Rome where h b ^
sally esteemed. He was send ^ nuncio ^ ^ ^
afterwards to France; and "be Management of the
was intrusted by Louis XIII. w intimate friend
French affairs at that court. He 'ey the injimte Inend
nf Pone Urban VIII., and on the death ot Urban puDiic
opiffion marked out Bentivoglio for his successor. But on
BENTLEY.
Bentley, entering the Conclave, the excessive heat of the weather
threw him into a fever, of which he died on the 7th of Sep¬
tember 1644. He has left several works, the most remark¬
able of which are, A History of the Civil Wars of Flanders;
An Account of Flanders; Letters, and Memoirs.
BENTLEY, Richard, one of the greatest critics of
modern times, was born at Oulton in the west riding of
Yorkshire, on the 27th of January 1662. His ancestors
belonged to the higher class of English yeomen. His
father, Thomas Bentley, who was the possessor of a small
estate at Woodlesford, married, as his second wife, Sarah,
the daughter of Richard Willie, a stone-mason at Oulton;
and their first child was the individual who afterwards ren¬
dered the family illustrious. For the first elements even
of classical learning he is said to have been indebted to
his mother, who is described as a woman of an excellent
understanding. After having been a day-scholar at the
neighbouring hamlet of Methley, he was sent to the gram¬
mar-school of Wakefield. On the 24th of May 1676, he
was entered as a subsizar of St John’s College, Cambridge.
Having continued at college for upwards of two years, he be¬
came a scholar on the foundation of Dr Dowman ; and at the
expiration of the third year, he succeeded to one of the York¬
shire scholarships founded by Sir Marmaduke Constable. At
the regular period he took the degree of A.B. From a fel¬
lowship of his college he was excluded by a provision in the
statutes, which prohibited more than two fellows from being
chosen from the same county. He was however appointed
head master of the grammar-school of Spalding in Lincoln¬
shire. On attaining the age of majority, he disposed of his
interest in the Oulton property to his brother; and the
money thus procured he devoted to the purchase of books.
After an interval of about twelve months, he became do¬
mestic tutor to the son of Dr Stillingfleet, dean of St Paul’s.
In July 1683 he took the degree of A.M. Soon after the
Revolution, Stillingfleet, now Bishop of Worcester, sent
his son James to Oxford, where both he and his tutor be¬
came members of Wadham College.
He now projected editions of Greek grammarians and
of Latin poets; he indeed pursued an arduous course of
study, which gradually prepared him for any department
of classical enterprise. The plan which he contemplated
as the foundation of his fame was a complete collection
of the fragments of the Greek poets. This plan he never
executed; but of his competency for such a task he has
left sufficient evidence in his collection of the fragments
of Callimachus, afterwards communicated to Graevius.
At the suggestion, as is supposed, of the very learned
Bishop Lloyd, he undertook the stupendous task of pub¬
lishing a complete edition of the Greek lexicographers:
but the general design, which was too vast to be properly
executed by one individual, appears to have been aban¬
doned after a short interval; and it is much to be regret¬
ted that he did not at least publish an edition of Hesy-
chius, an author in whom he professes to have made up¬
wards of five thousand corrections. Of his familiarity with
this lexicographer he exhibited a sufficient specimen in
his earliest publication, his Epistola ad. cl. v. Joanneni
Millium, S. T. P. subjoined to Dr Hody’s edition of the
chronicle of Joannes Malela Antiochenus, which was
printed at Oxford in the year 1691. By the publication
of this little work, at the age of twenty-nine, he laid the
foundation of a high reputation among men of learning.
His next appearance before the public was in the cha¬
racter of a divine. He had received deacon’s orders from
Compton, bishop of London, in the year 1690, and soon
afterwards had been appointed one of the bishop of Wor¬
cester s chaplains. In 1692 the four trustees, one of
whom was Evelyn, honoured him with the first nomination
to Boyle s lectureship. The eight discourses which he
vol. rv.
657
preached in consequence of this appointment, embrace a Bentley,
confutation of atheism : they are in a great degree direct- v>—
ed against the principles of Hobbes and Spinoza, which
have too certain a tendency to atheism, although they are
not professedly atheistical; and Bentley claims the merit
of having been the first to display the discoveries of New¬
ton in a popular form, and to explain their irresistible
force in the proof of a Deity. His reputation was great¬
ly augmented by the publication of his lectures ; of which
the sixth edition, including other three discourses, was
printed at Cambridge in the year 1735. The lectures were
translated into Latin by Jablonski, who was himself a
writer of distinguished learning. Nor did the merit of the
author remain without its reward: in 1692, soon after he
had taken priest’s orders, he obtained a prebend in the
cathedral of Worcester; and in the course of the follow¬
ing year, he succeeded Henry de Justel as keeper of the
king’s library. In 1694 he was again appointed to preach
the Boyle lectures, and he then selected as their subject
the defence of Christianity against infidels ; but this series
of discourses his friends could not prevail upon him to
publish, nor has it been ascertained that the manuscript
is still preserved. In the following year, his patron the
bishop of Worcester gave him the rectory of Hartlebury,
to be held till his old pupil should arrive at the canonical
age. The interest of the same worthy prelate had, about
this period, procured him the nomination of chaplain in
ordinary to the king. It must be recorded as an instance
of scandalous ingratitude, that, when the bishop’s grand¬
son Benjamin Stillingfleet was left an orphan, and was
sent in the humble capacity of a sizar to Trinity College,
Bentley refused to give him a fellowship, and preferred
several competitors of inferior attainments. At the be¬
ginning of the year 1696, he ceased to reside in the
bishop’s house in Park-street, Westminster, and took pos¬
session of the librarian’s apartments in St James’s Palace ;
and in the month of July he took the degree of D. D. at
Cambridge.
Dr Bentley was now making a rapid approach to the
full height of his literary fame; and his principal ef¬
forts were more the result of accidental excitements than
of his own deliberate plans. In the year 1692 Sir Wil¬
liam Temple, one of the most fashionable writers of the
age, had published an Essay upon the Ancient and Modern
Learning, in which he strenuously opposed the opinions of
Fontenelle and Perrault, who had given a very decided
preference to the moderns. But his own learning was in¬
adequate to so serious an undertaking, and his commenda¬
tion of the ancients is therefore of very doubtful value.
Of his mode of estimating the merit of modern writers, it
has been justly mentioned as a curious specimen, that the
names of Shakspeare, Milton, Bacon, and Newton, have
not found a place in his essay. In confirmation of his
position, that the oldest books extant are still the best of
their kind, he produces the Fables of iEsop and the Epis¬
tles of Phalaris, which he believed to be the most ancient
pieces of prose written by profane authors. And in re¬
ference to the work which bears the name of the ancient
tyrant, he is pleased to remark, “ I think he must have
little skill in painting, that cannot find out this to be an
original.” The attention thus directed to Phalaris seems
to have suggested the expediency of a new edition; and
the dean of Christ Church, Dr Aldrich, committed the
task of editing his epistles to the Honourable Charles
Boyle, brother to the earl of Orrery ; a young gentleman
of pleasing manners, and of a relish for learning creditable
to his age and station. On his admission at Christ Church,
he was placed under the tuition of Atterbury, who, if not
a profound, was at least an elegant scholar. In his edito¬
rial labours he was aided by his private tutor John Freind,
4 O
658
BENTLEY.
J ; Fnistles of Phalaris, with an Answer to the Objections of Bentley.
Bentley, then one of the junior students, and afterwards a phys - p H bl Charles Boyle, Esquire.” They are both ' 
' clan of no small celebrity. The editor of Phalaris wished ^ Honou^ ^ ^ exten(ling t0 obout 300
to procure a collation of a manuscript belonging to tne ^ ^ ^ ^ The witg of Chnst Church
royal library ; but, instead of making any direct appnca- i ^ ’overwhelmed with an immense mass of learning, and
tion to the librarian, he had recourse to the agency o ^ ^ well digeSted, and animated with so much spirit,
Thomas Bennet, a bookseller m St Paul s ChVr^ya^’ Jhat it WOuld be difficult to mention many critical works
who appears to have executed his commission wi WOrthy of being compared with Bentley’s Dissertation,
traordinary degree of zeal or dispatch. °J His learning was superior, immeasurably suPer10’’:t0 .that
ceal his own negligence, he is supposed to have misrep e ^ 0xf°rd combination ; nor did they find him infe-
sented the entire transaction to his empioye ’ rior in the use 0f tbeir own weapons of wit and sarcasm.
and the preface to Mr Boyle s edition o P Bentley’s wit is not without a certain tinge of rusticity, but
lished in the year 1695 contains a ^rc^Uc refleC ^ ^ ne^ertheless full of poignancy. He everywhere mam-
Bentley for his want of civility. To the editor he i ^ ah. of undaunted confidence, and he doubtless
mediately addressed a letter, explaining the real circu ^ ^ advergaries that contempt which he so strongly
stances of the case ; but instead of receiving an answer i d A he has incidentally discussed many diffe-
the spirit of conciliation, he was given to understand that expres ^ hig work is interesting
he might seek redress m any way he pleased. valuable even to those who may not deem the prm-
ever dangerous to take a hon by the bearcl. • al question of much importance. The extent ot his
Dr Wotton, his friend and fellow-collegian, ha^ ^ce ^;- and the dexterity with which he applies it to
ly engaged in the controversy respecting the comparative ^ b itsein are not more conspicu-
sent to’the^ress ZtefieZmZpZAncient and Modern ous thaa the intuitive sagacity of h.s conjectural emen a-
Learning, Bentley happened to state, in the courseOt Th.g controverSy produced an ample number of tracts,
their conversation, and in re£ereoee , “that which are chiefly anonymous, and have little intrinsic
commendation bestowed by Sir Wdham Temp ^ the ^ of Bentiey’s nominal antagonist, pre^
the Epistles of Phalaris are spurious, and that we have e ^ ^ fashionj was strongly arrayed. It is not
nothing now extant of iEsops own composition Tins d^^ to read the following COuplet in Garths
casual remark was converted into a promise that he wo d Di d t cornpare the partial estimate of con-
furnish a written statement of his opinion, to be added to J with the matPure decision of posterity,
the second edition of the Reflections. To the second tempo a . . . , . .
edition, which appeared in 1697, was accordingly subjoin-
ed Dr Bentley’s “ Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phala
ris, Themistocles, Socrates, Euripides, and others, and
the Fables of TEsop.” Of the spuriousness of all the pro¬
ductions thus enumerated, his demonstration is by every
So diamonds take a lustre from their foil
And to a Bentley ’tis we owe a Boyle.
But it is only by himself that an author can be written
down. A confederacy of wit and fashion may for a cer¬
tain time succeed in exalting one writer above, and in
ductions thus enumerated, his demonstration is by eve y g . another beloW) bis proper standard; but as no
competent judge admitted to be very complete , but d p ^ { f men is without a latent sense of jus-
most vigorous efforts are d.rected against the Epistles ot nC°™ tyof this nature can be attended with ulti-
Phalaris. After having produced the chronological proof, ^ce’ n0 at^Pnor ig it more certain that heavy or light
Srw" &any maintain Some perceptible relation to their actual
toms of hasty composition; but the number ef e^r1tien Bentley produced this singular work, he was in
or oversights which his adversaries were capable of de ^ qo-p. His literarv merit,
tecting was surprisingly small. The entire disputation is
managed with great learning, and with sagacity not inte¬
rior to his learning. The contemptuous strain of Ben
ley’s animadversion excited great indignation in the mem¬
bers of Christ Church ; and an answer was speedily pre¬
pared by a confederacy, which, however deficient in criti¬
cal learning, was by no means deficient m self-esteem.
The leaders were Francis Atterbury and George bmal-
ridge both of whom were afterwards elevated to the
episcopal bench : Robert Freind, afterwards head-master
of Westminster school, his brother John Freind, and An-
the'thirty-eighth year of his age.’ His literary merit
though not duly appreciated by the public, was we
known to the most competent judges; and on the pi o-
motion of Dr Montague to the deanery of Durham, he
was recommended to the vacant office of mastei of lu-
nity College, Cambridge. To this office he was admitted
onRie first of February 1700, and was thus placed in a
situation of dignity and emolument; but his appointment
was unpopular from the beginning, and his admimstra-
tion was marked by a series of the ™st flagrant acts of
rapacity, injustice, and oppression. On the 4th of Jan
of Westminster school, his brother John Freind, and An- married Joanna the daughter of Sir John
thony Alsop, all students of Christ Church, aie genera y Y ^ of Brampton in the county of Huntingdon
understood to have lent their aid. The share of Attei- Bern > the sa£e yearj Bishop Patrick bestowed
bury is sufficiently ascertained from a. passage in one of In t archdeaconry of Ely, which, being endow-
his letters to Boyle, in which he reminds him t m , in up tbe tw0 bvingS 0f Haddenham and Wilburton,
writing more than half the book, in reviewnig a goo | nflRrP of emolument as well as dignity. The resi-
of tberest, aud in transcribing the whole, half a year of was ““^^“STistory we shall com--
„.s life had passed away.'1 „ i ’ few sentences. His stall at Worcester
The motley production, bearing the title of “ Dr Bentley s the compass 0 J In 1709 he was an unsuccessful
Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris and the Fables ie 4\r the bishopric of Chichester. In 1717 he was
of TEsop, examined by the Honourable Charles Boyle, In 1724 he refused
Esq.” was published in the year 1698 ; and in the follow- eec e g nf Bristol and in 1730 the deanery of Lin-
ing year Bentley published “ A Dissertation upon the the bishopric of Bristol, and in w   
1 Atterbury’s Epistolary Correspondence, vol. ii. p- 21.
BENTLEY.
Bentley, coin. If' he had not disgraced himself by the indecent
violence of his conduct, he would in all probability have
attained to one of the highest stations in the church; but
the history of his proceedings at Cambridge presents a
sickening detail, which is happily unparalleled in the aca¬
demical annals of the united kingdom. His great prospe¬
rity, operating upon the native arrogance of his disposi¬
tion, and unattended by the salutary restraint of religious
feeling, seems to have produced a total disregard of every
consideration except those of his own power and interest.
His government of Trinity College was that of an unprin¬
cipled despot. In the course of three years, he had no
fewer than six lawsuits before the court of king’s bench ;
and these animosities and contentions, injurious to the
university, and scandalous to the church, commenced in
the vigour of his manhood, and were only terminated wdth
his long life.
Some of the fellows of the college made repeated and
strenuous attempts to procure his removal from the office
of master. Their first petition, dated in February 1709-
10, was addressed to Dr Moore, bishop of Ely, as visitor
of Trinity College; and among the thirty fellows who
subscribed it was the celebrated Conyers Middleton, who
afterwards proved the most formidable of his literary an¬
tagonists. After many proceedings of a preliminary na¬
ture, the cause at length obtained a hearing at Ely House
in the year 1714, and was before the court for the period
of six weeks. The visitor came to the conclusion that
the charges of wasting the goods and violating the sta¬
tutes of the college had been sufficiently established;
and he accordingly directed a sentence of ejectment from
the mastership to be prepared in due form; but having
caught cold in consequence of his long sittings in the hall,
he was seized with an illness which terminated fatally be¬
fore judgment could be pronounced. To his successor in
the see of Ely, Dr Fleetwood, fresh articles of accusation
were speedily presented by one of the fellows, Edmond
Miller, serjeant at law, subscribed by him “ in the name and
behalf of many of the fellows but the bishop declined to
take cognizance of the cause, and a petition, subscribed by
nineteen fellows, was in 1716 presented to the king. This
attempt likewise proved ineffectual; and Dr Greene having
succeeded to the bishopric of Ely, a petition was present¬
ed to him in the year 1729. The promoter in this suit
was Robert Johnson, B. D., one of the fellowrs; and the
articles of accusation, which are sixty-four in number, em¬
brace almost all the material events in the history of the
college for the space of eighteen years.1 The final deci¬
sion of the visitor was preceded by much litigation in the
king’s bench and house of lords; but at length, on the
27th of April 1734, he pronounced sentence of depriva¬
tion against the master, for dilapidating the goods and
violating the statutes of the college. Bentley’s usual in¬
trepidity and address did not forsake him on so critical
an occasion; and he placed his chief reliance on the very
defective provision of the fortieth statute, according to
which a master, convicted before the visitor of any of the
greater offences there specified, is immediately to be de¬
prived by the vice-master of the college. Soon after the
sentence had been pronounced, his devoted adherent
Dr Walker was appointed to this office. Notwithstanding
various applications to the court of king’s bench, the
sentence was never carried into execution; and Bishop
Greene dying in the year 1738, the course of nature, and
not of law, put a period to the contest. In this protract¬
ed and complicated suit the master’s share of the ex-
659
penses amounted to no less than four thousand pounds ; Bentley,
and this sum he had no scruple in drawing from the funds
of the college.
In addition to these disgraceful contentions with his own
college, he engaged in a violent contention with the uni¬
versity. During the royal visit of 1717, several doctors
of divinity were created by mandate ; and on the perform¬
ance of the ceremony by Dr Bentley as regius professor,
he made an unauthorized demand of four guineas from
each candidate. One of these was Dr Middleton, who
paid the fee, and .afterwards brought an action for its re¬
covery in the vice-chancellor’s court. The professor was
convicted of contempt, and was deprived of all his de¬
grees, which were only restored in consequence of a man¬
damus from the king’s bench.
Soon after the first petition against him had been pre¬
sented to the bishop of Ely, he had sufficient energy of
mind to compose one of his most remarkable works, his
Emendationes in Menandri et Philemonis Reliquias, in
which Le Clerc is treated with the most caustic severity.
Under the borrowed name of Phileleutherus Lipsiensis,
they were committed to the press by Burman,2 who was
a willing agent on such an occasion. His next literary
enterprise was his famous edition of Horace, which was
printed at Cambridge, and was completed in the year
1711. In 1713, Anthony Collins published his Discourse
of Free-thinking; and his work was followed by several
answers, but the most effective of these was Dr Bentley’s
“ Remarks upon a late Discourse of Free-thinking, in a
Letter to F. H. D. D., by Phileleutherus Lipsiensis.”
The friend thus designated in the title-page was Francis
Hare, D. D., who was then dean of Worcester, and was
afterwards successively bishop of St Asaph and Chiches¬
ter. Collins’s superficial learning was exposed with un¬
relenting severity, and his arrogance was repelled by the
most arrogant of mankind. Even the most pious may
sometimes do well to be angry; but when a religion,
breathing peace and gentleness, is defended in the worst
spirit of its enemies, the cause of truth is but imperfectly
promoted. Bentley’s remarks were however written with
much ability, and were received with much applause;
nor did he leave his adversary the same power of im¬
posing on the ignorant and unwary. In 1720 he issued
proposals for publishing a critical edition of the Greek
Testament, which were attacked by Dr Middleton with
much ability, and perhaps with virulence not inferior to
his ability. There is little or no reason to believe that
his scheme was defeated by this angry exposure : he long
afterwards reverted to the plan of such an edition; nor
were his nerves so infirm, or his mind so unaccustomed
to the utmost bitterness of invective, as to render it pro¬
bable that he could be deterred by any literary opposi¬
tion, however formidable. His edition of Terence and of
Phsedrus was published at Cambridge in 1726. At the
suggestion of Queen Caroline, he afterwards undertook to
prepare an edition of Milton’s Paradise Lost ;3 a task for
which he was neither qualified by the elegance of his
taste nor by the course of his previous studies; and, of
all his literary enterprises, this was the most injudicious
and most unsuccessful. It greatly contributed to impair
his general reputation as a critic; for many readers, un¬
prepared to judge of his violent distortions in the text of
Horace, were sufficiently prepared to judge of his violent
distortions in the text of Milton ; and certainly those who
were left to form an opinion of his literary merits from the
mere inspection of his lucubrations on the English poet,
1 See Bishop Monk’s Life of Richard Bentley, D. D. Lond. 1830, 4to.
* Trajecli ad Rhenum, 1710, 8vo. s Lond. 1732, 4tO.
660
B E R
Benzoic
Acid
II
Berbice.
could not but be astonished at his former renown. He re¬
sorts to the extraordinary device of introducing an imaginai y
editor, whom he chooses to represent as having not mei e y
, committed many unintentional errors, but even as having
made various additions according to his own judgment or
caprice. Another labour of his declining years was a pro¬
jected edition of Homer; and it is deeply to be regrette
that he did not relinquish more unprofitable pursuits, and
devote himself to an undertaking so worthy of his name and
reputation ; but his literary projects were numerous, and ns
thoughts must often have been distracted by the perpetua
succession of his quarrels and contentions. One object to
which he directed much of his attention was the poets ver¬
sification, of which he proposed to effect a general restora¬
tion, derived from ancient manuscripts, the examination o
the numerous quotations dispersed in ancient writers, and,
beyond all other sources, the systematic insertion of the Aeolic
digamma. His edition of Manilius, which he had prepared
about forty-five years before, was published in 1 73 J, one lei
the superintendence of his nephew, Richard Bentley, U. •
The death of Bishop Greene, in 1738, had relieved him
from the hazard of deposition ; and he continued to enjoy
his offices till 1742, when he died on the 14th of July, after
having completed the eightieth year of his age. His wife
had died two years before. His only surviving son, who
bore the same name, was educated to no profession ; it was
one of the many scandalous acts of the father’s administra¬
tion, that the son was elected a fellow of Trinity College at
the age of fifteen. The younger Bentley, who was con¬
sidered as a man of excellent talents, was the author of seve¬
ral works, but is best remembered as the friend of Gray.
When his father once found him reading a novel, “ Why,
said he, “ read a book which you cannot quote ?” The doc¬
tor’s two daughters, Elizabeth and Joanna, were both mai-
ried: the latter was the wife of Denison Cumberland, who
was grandson to the learned bishop of Peterborough, and
who himself became bishop of Kilmore, and the fathei of
Richard Cumberland, one of the most eminent of the recent
English dramatists. .
The principal works published during the author’s lifetime
have already been enumerated ; but we must not neglect to
mention the posthumous collection entitled “ Richardi Bent-
leii et doctorum Virorum Epistolac partim mutuse. Accedit
Richardi Dawesii ad Joannem Taylorum Epistola singularis.
Lond. 1807, 4to. Of this splendid volume two hundred
copies were printed at the expense of the late Dr Burney,
not with any view to publication, but as presents from the
munificent editor. An enlarged edition of the same collec¬
tion has very recently been printed in a more accessible
form : “ Richardi Bentleii et doctorum Virorum Epistol®
partim mutuse: ex editione Londinensi Caroli Burneii re-
petiit, novisque additamentis, et Godofredi Hermanni Dis-
sertatione de Bentleio ejusque Ed. Terentii, auxit Frid.
Traug. Friedemann.” Lipsiae, 1825, 8vo. The Rev. J.
Wordsworth has published an edition of Bentley’s Letters,
with notes, in 2 vols. 8vo; and a complete edition of his works
by the Rev. A. Dyce, has appeared in 3 vols. 8vo. (d. i.)
BENZOIC Acid, Benz amide, Benzine, Benzyle. See
Chemistry.
BENZOIN, or Benjamin, a concrete resinous juice which
exudes from incisions made in the Styrax Benzoin, a tree of
Sumatra, &c. It is a combination of resin and benzoic
acid, and is much used by the perfumer on account of its
fragrance.
BERAR. See Nagpore.
BERBERIS, a genus of plants belonging to the nat. ord.
of Berberidia, of which the best known is B. vulgaris, com¬
mon barberry. The fruit of B. aristata and B. Nepalensis
is prepared in India like raisins.
BERBICE. The colony of Berbice is described in the
article Guiana, British.
b e r
Berbice, a river in British Guiana. Lat. at its mouth, 6. Berbice
20. N. Long. 57. 11 W. It runs from south to north, and ;l
discharges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. The coast on ^:mi
each side of it forms a bay at its entrance, which is nearly a ° _r  ,
mile in width, having a small island in the middle, called ^
Crab Island, from the number of land-crabs on it. Outside
the entrance of the river there is a bar of sand, over which at
high tide there is seldom more than eighteen feet of water ;
but within, the water is of sufficient depth, and the river is na¬
vigable for ships of burden 200 miles from its mouth. On
account of the bar, however, few vessels anchor here, pre¬
ferring the port of Demerara.
BERCHEM, or Berghem, Nicholas, an eminent
painter, born at Haerlem in 1624. He received instruction
from several distinguished masters ; and it was no small ad¬
dition to their fame that Berchem was their pupil. J ne
pictures of cattle and figures by this master are highly
esteemed; and many of them have been finely engraved
by John Visscher, an eminent artist in his own line, ihe
distinguishing characters of Berchem’s pictures are, the
breadth and just distribution of the lights, the grandeur o
his masses of shadow, the nature and simplicity m the atti¬
tudes of his figures, the just gradation of distances, brilliancy
and transparency of colouring, the correctness and true per¬
spective of his design, and the elegance of his composition.
He died in 1683.
BERCHETT, Peter, an eminent historical painter, was
born in France in 1659, and at the age of eighteen was em¬
ployed in the royal palaces. He came to England in 1681,
to work under Rambour, a French painter of architecture ;
but after staying a year, he returned to Marh. He revisited
this country, however, and was employed by King William
to decorate the palace then building at Loo, which occupied
him fifteen months. Coming to England a third time, he
painted the ceiling of the chapel of Trinity College, Oxford,
the staircase at the Duke of Schombergs in I all-mall, the
summer-house at Ranelagh, and various other works. 1 o-
wards the close of his life he retired to Marybone, and
painted only small pieces of fabulous history. He died there
in January 1720. „
BERCHTESGADEN, or Berchtolsgaden, a small
town, most beautifully situated on the south-eastern confines
of Bavaria, and long celebrated for its extensive mines of
rock-salt. Fresh water is brought into the mine, which, after
acting a certain time upon the salt rock, becomes brine, and
in that state is run off in pipes to a reservoir in the vicinity ;
whence by the aid of two celebrated water column engines,
constructed by Reichenbach of Munich, it is raised 1
feet, and conducted to Traunstein and Rosenheirn, about
forty miles farther inland. The town contains three ol
churches, and some good houses. Its inhabitants, amount¬
ing to about 1600, are principally employed in the mines and
the manufacture of salt. Some few also are engaged in
making toys and small articles of stag and chamois horns.
Its vicinity comprehends the most picturesque portion of Ba¬
varia ; the snow-capped peaks of the Watzman towering over
it to the height of 7000 feet, while the Komgssee at its foot,
one of the wildest lakes among the Alps, is not exceeded by
any in beauty and sublimity. The small red trout of the
Konigssee, called by the common people schwartzveitic zve
highly prized; and no portion of the Alpine range is.bt
supplied with game, particularly the stag, the <*amO£ and
the steinbok or ibex, an animal elsewhere ^most exunct.
BERDASH, a name formerly used in England for a ce
tain kind of neck-dress. The maker or vender of such ar¬
ticles was called a berdasher, whence our word haher^f^
BERECYNTHIA, a surname of Cybele, denved bom
Mount Berecynthus, where she was worshipped.
BERENGARIANISM, a name applied by ancient eccle¬
siastical writers to the doctrine of those who deny the actual
presence of the body and blood of Christ in the euchanst
B E R
i
Berengario The denomination took its rise from Berengarius, archdea-
|| con of the church of St Mary at Angers, who in the year 1045
Berenice, publicly maintained the opinion of John Scotus that the
bread and wine, even after consecration, do not become the
true body and blood of our Lord, but only a figure and sign
thereof; which is the distinctive feature of the Protestant
doctrine. Berengarius died in 1088.
BERENGARIO, Giacomo, a celebrated anatomist and
physician, born at Carpi, near Modena. He was a professor
in the university of Bologna from the year 1502 until 1527,
and may be considered as one of the chief restorers of ana¬
tomy, which he found in a very low state. He made seve¬
ral important discoveries in anatomy, and communicated the
result of his researches in his various works. He employed
mercurial frictions largely in his practice; but he was not
the first who employed mercury, as is often erroneously re¬
ported.
BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes king of
Egypt, and eldest sister of the famous Cleopatra, ascended
the throne on the deposition of her father by the Alexan¬
drians, b.c. 58. Berenice, in order to support her authority,
married Seleucus the brother of Antiochus XIII. king of
Syria; but soon growing weary of her choice, she caused
Seleucus to be put to death. She then married Archelaus,
whom Pompey had made king of Comana in Pontus; but
a few months afterwards Ptolemy was reinstated by the Ro¬
mans, and Berenice and Archelaus were slain, b.c. 55. (Liv.
Epit. 109 ; Dion Cass, xxxix. 55-58.)
Berenice, wife of Ptolemy Euergetes king of Egypt,
cut off her hair in pursuance of a vow, and consecrated it in
the temple of Venus. This deposit having disappeared,
Conon the mathematician, in compliment to the queen, de¬
clared that her locks had been conveyed to heaven, and
composed the constellation which to this day is called Coma
Berenices. Callimachus celebrated the hair of Berenice in
a poem, of which only a few lines are extant: it still exists
however in the translation of Catullus.
Berenice, daughter of Costobarus, and of Salome the
sister of Herod the Great, was first married to Aristobulus,
son of the same Herod and of Mariamne. The cruel Herod
having put his son to death, Berenice married a second time ;
and again became a widow, but whether or not by similar
means it is not said. She accompanied her mother to Rome,
where she enjoyed the favour of Augustus, and the friend¬
ship of Antonia the wife of Drusus, which ultimately proved
of great service to her son Agrippa.
Berenice, or Berenice, grand-daughter of the preceding,
and daughter of Agrippa 1. king of Judaea, acquired a dis¬
creditable celebrity by her amours. She was betrothed to
one Marcus, but he died before the marriage was consum¬
mated. Soon after she married her uncle Herod, who, at
the desire of Agrippa, his brother and father-in-law, was
created king of Chalcis by the Emperor Claudius. On the
death of her husband, a. d. 48, she lived for a consider¬
able time with her brother Agrippa, with whom it was
rumoured that she committed incest. To avoid this scandal,
she offered herself in marriage to Polemon, king of Cilicia,
provided he would change his religion. He accepted her
offer, was circumcised, and married her. But Berenice soon
left him, and returned to Agrippa, with whom she was still
living when St Paul appeared before him at Caesarea, a.d.
62. She seconded her brother in his attempt to prevent the
desolation of Judaea, and at the risk of her own life inter¬
ceded with Floras to spare her miserable countrymen. This
artful woman drew Titus into her snares ; but the murmurs
> °f the Roman people opposed an obstacle to their contem¬
plated marriage, and she became the concubine of the em¬
peror.
Berenice, the name of several cities, particularly of a
celebrated seaport in the Sinus Arabicus, near Ras-Benas.
Lat. 23. 50. N. Long. 35. 34. E.
B E R 661
BERESINA, or Berezina, a river of Russia, rising in the Beresina
north of the province of Minsk, and falling into the Dnieper, il
after a course of 200 miles. It is connected with the Dwina vBergam0'/
by a canal, which thus establishes a communication between
the Black Sea and the Baltic. The passage of the Beresina is
celebrated as one of the most disastrous events in the retreat
of Napoleon from Moscow. See France.
BEREWICHA, or Berewica, in our old writers, de¬
notes a village or hamlet belonging to a town or manor. The
word frequently occurs in Doomsday-book : e. g. Isles sunt
berewichcB ejusdem manerii.
BEREZOV, a Russian town of Siberia, on the river
Soswa, 18 miles from its confluence with the Obi. It con¬
tains three churches and a chapel. Its northern situation
forbids all kind of agricultural industry : the inhabitants sub¬
sist by hunting and fishing ; and the furs which they procure
are exchanged with the Russian merchants for such articles
as they require. They also supply Tobolsk and other places
on the Irtisch with dried fish in summer, and with frozen
fish during winter. The inhabitants are chiefly Cossacks,
and are much addicted to drinking. This town has afforded
a place of exile to several distinguished statesmen. Be¬
rezov is 400 miles N.N.W. of Tobolsk. Lat. 63. 30. N.
Long. 65. 55. E.
BEREZO VSKOI, a town and fortress of Asiatic Russia,
in the government of Orenburg, on the river Oural. In the
vicinity are several productive gold mines.
BERG, formerly a duchy of Germany, on the right bank
of the Rhine, and bounded on the north by the duchy of
Cleves, on the east by the county of Mark and the duchy of
Westphalia, and on the south by the Westerwald. It con¬
tained about 1188 square miles. It was formerly subject to
the elector palatine, but since 1815 has been included in
the grand duchy of the Lower Rhine. The duchy of Berg
was taken from Bavaria in 1806, and bestowed upon Murat,
afterwards king of Naples, who derived from it the title of
Grand Duke of Berg. It is a populous and flourishing dis¬
trict, very fruitful along the Rhine, but mountainous and
woody towards the county of Mark. The principal rivers,
besides the Rhine, are the Wipper, Agger, and Sieg.
BERGA (ancient Bergium), a town of Spain, province
of Barcelona, in a mountainous district, 14 leagues N.N.W.
of the city of Barcelona. It has a garrison, several churches
and convents, and a hospital founded a.d. 1290. Pop.
6999, principally engaged in cotton weaving. It is a place
of considerable industry and commerce.
BERGAMO, a province, or, as it is usutilly termed, a
delegation, of the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy. It is
bounded on the north by the delegation of Valtelino, on the
east by those of Tyrol and Brescia, on the south by Cremona,
Lodi, and Crema, and on the west by Milan and Como.
The extent is about 1615 square miles, or 1,033,600 acres.
It is divided into 18 districts, and these into 372 communes
or parishes, and comprehends one citv, 22 market-towns,
and 333 villages. Pop. (1851) 378,123.
The whole northern part of the delegation is filled with
the Alpine mountains, whose spurs extend to the capital;
but the southern division forms part of the plain of Lom¬
bardy. The country is deficient in corn ; but the surplus
of cattle, with iron from the mines in the northern part,
and the silk produced in the southern, are exchanged
for the grain required by the inhabitants. There are manu¬
factures of silk, and of woollen goods. There are some
quarries of marble, and of other kinds of stone from which
grindstones and whetstones are cut and prepared for export¬
ation.
The capital of the province is the city of the same name,
laid out on several elevations in the form of an amphitheatre,
surrounded with walls and ditches, and defended by two in¬
significant forts. It is the see of a bishop, and the seat of
the provincial courts of law; and comprehends, besides the
.u
662
B E R
B E R
Bergamo cathedral, fourteen churches, four hospitals, six orphan-
11 houses, a number of monasteries and nunneries, town-hall,
Bergen-op. colle„e? athenamm, public library, &c. Its principal manu-
Zoom. factures are spii) woollen, cotton, and linen goods, hard-
ware, &c. The largest fair in northern Italy is annually
held here in the month of August, and continues tor a tort-
night. Pop. 32,000. Bernardo Tasso, the father ot the
illustrious Torquato was born here in 1493.
Bergamo (the ancient Pergamus), a city of Anatolia, on
the river Mendere-Chai (ancient Simois), in Lat. 3J. 4. IN.
Lono-. 27. 12. E. It is still a place of some importance, with
a mixed population, estimated at 14,000. The houses are
mostly small and mean, but it still preserves many remains
of its former magnificence. See Pergamxts.
BERGAMOT, a species of citron, Citrus hmetta, dis¬
tinguished from the orange and lemon by having wingless
leaf-stalks. It is a native of the south of Europe, and is
produced abundantly in the neighbourhood ot Nice. I he
fruit has a delicious taste and smell, and its essential oil is
highly esteemed as a perfume. The essence of bergamot
is also called essenzia di cedro. It is extracted from t e
yellow rind of the fruit by cutting it in small pieces, and
expressing the oil, or by distilling it from water. One hun¬
dred bergamots of Nice yield, by expression, 2¥ ounces
of oil.
Bergamot is also the denomination of a coarse tapestry,
manufactured with flocks of silk, wool, cotton, hemp, cow s
or goat’s hair, and supposed to have been invented at Be’ -
gamo in Italy.
BERGEN, a fortified city and seaport of Norway, capital
of the province of South Bergen. It is situated at the
head of a deep bay, on the Atlantic, has a fine harbour with
two good entrances, and is surrounded by hills, some of
which attain the height of 2000 feet. The appearance of
the town is picturesque; it rises in the form of an amphi¬
theatre, and is generally well built, though some of the houses
are of wood. Pop. (1845) 25,611, employed chiefly in the
fishery. The export trade, which consists of stock-fish,
lobsters, timber, rock-moss, skins, horns, fish-roes, herrings,^
oil, &c., is chiefly carried on with the northern countries of
Europe. In 1842 the number of ships that entered the
port was 1078, with a tonnage of 80,545.
Bergen contains a cathedral, several churches and hospi¬
tals, a national museum, diocesan college, naval academy,
several public libraries, various charitable institutions, and a
theatre. It is the seat of a tribunal of secondary jurisdiction,
and of one of the three public treasuries of Norway. This
city was founded in the eleventh century by one of the kings
of Norway, and joined at an early period the Hanseatic
League. Long. 5. 20. 33. E. Lat. 60. 24. N.
Bergen, a town of Prussian Pomerania, circle of Stral-
sund, and capital of the Isle of Riigen. It contains a castle,
a court of justice, and a convent for noble ladies; and has
some woollen manufactures. Pop. 3024.
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a maritime town of Holland,
province of North Brabant, situated on the river Zoom,
near its confluence with the Scheldt. The houses are well
built, the market-places and squares handsome and spacious.
It contains a town-house, grammar-school, a school of design
and architecture, and has numerous earthenware manufac¬
tures, besides a considerable trade in anchovies. Pop.
(1846) 8000. It is so strongly fortified, both by nature
and art, as to be deemed almost impregnable. The forti¬
fications are reckoned the masterpiece of the celebrated
Ccehorn, the rival and contemporary of Vauban. In 1586
it was unsuccessfully besieged by the famous Duke of
Parma; and afterwards, in 1622, it defied the utmost at¬
tempts of Spinola, who was forced to abandon the enter-
prize, after a siege of ten weeks, with the loss of 12,000
men. In 1747, however, it was taken by stratagem by the
French under Count Lowendahl, and in 1814 was again
rendered famous by an unsuccessful attempt of the British Bergerac
troops under Lord Lynedoch, then Sir Thomas Graham, to »
take it by a coup de main on the night of the 8th of March.
The troops destined for this attack amounted to 3950, and ^
were divided into four columns, two of which, after most
desperate efforts, succeeded in establishing themselves on
the ramparts; but the other two were completely unsuc¬
cessful, and driven back with prodigious loss. Above two-
thirds of the whole assailing force were killed, wounded, or
taken in this attempt. A marble tablet recording the
names of the brave men who fell on the occasion, has been
erected in the church by the British officers. The place,
however, was given up at the treaty of peace in May 18 .
Bergen-op-Zoom is fifteen miles north of Antwerp, and
twenty-two W.S.W. of Breda.
BERGERAC, the capital of an arrondissement ot the
same name, in the department of Dordogne, in France. It
is situated in a fertile plain, 27 miles S.S.W. of Pengueux
and on the right bank of the Dordogne, which is here crossed
by a magnificent bridge of five arches. The town is well
built, and has a communal college, tribunals of primary juris¬
diction and commerce, a public library, and manufactures
of paper, iron and copper ware, serges, hats, hosiery, leather,
&c. It has an active trade with Bordeaux and Libourne
in wines, grain, &c. The fortifications by which it was once
surrounded were demolished in 1621, by order of Louis
XIII. Pop. (1851) 9971. The arrondissement contains 13
cantons and 174 communes : pop. (1851) 118,247.
BERGHEM. See Berchem. , , . ,
BERGMAN, Sir Torbern, a celebrated chemist and
natural philosopher, born in 1735, at Catharineberg, in West
Gothland. His father was receiver-general ot the finances,
and had destined him to the same employment; but nature
had designed him for the sciences. His first studies were
confined to the mathematics and physics ; and the eftorts that
were made to divert him from science having proved in¬
effectual, he was sent to Upsal, with permission to follow
the bent of his inclination. The fame of Linnaeus at that
time filled the whole kingdom ; and Bergman was attracted
by the splendour of his renown. He applied himself at first
to the study of insects, and made several ingenious researches
into their history, particularly into that of the genus of ten-
thredo, so much preyed on by the larvae of the ichneumons,
which nestle in their bowels. He discovered that the leech
was oviparous ; and that the coccus aquaticus is the egg of
this animal, from which issue ten or twelve young. Lin¬
naeus, who had at first denied this fact, was struck with as¬
tonishment when he saw it proved. Vidi et obstupm, were
the words he wrote at the foot of the memoir when he
o-ave it his sanction. Bergman not only distinguished him¬
self as an astronomer, naturalist, and geometrician: 'Gien
the chair of chemistry and mineralogy became vacant by the
resignation of Wallerius, he appeared as a competitor ; an
without having before this period paid any particular attention
to chemistry, he published an able memoir on the prepara¬
tion of alum. His dissertation was warmly attacked m the
periodical publications, and Wallerius himself criticized it
without reserve. The Prince Gustavus, afterwards king ot
Sweden, and then chancellor of the university, took cogniz¬
ance of the affair ; and after consulting two persons most
competent to give him advice, and whose testimony went m
favour of Bergman, he addressed a memorial, written
his own hand, in answer to all the grievances alleged against
the candidate, to the consistory of the umyersRy and t e
senate, who in consequence confirmed the wis
r° Bergman had now a hard duty to fulfil. He had to satisfy
the hopes which had been conceived of him, to fill the place
of Wallerius, and to put envy to silence. Accustomed to
precision, he applied himself to experiments without paying
any attention to theories; and he was the first to introduce
B E It
Bergmote into chemistry that process of analysis which is the essential
|| antecedent of scientific system.
Berkeley. The continual application which Bergman bestowed on his
studies proved ruinous to his health. He died in June 1784.
The university of Upsal paid the most distinguished honours
to his memory; and the academy of Stockholm consecrated
to him a medal to perpetuate the recollection ol his merits.
His Physical and Chemical Essays were translated by
Dr Edmund Cullen, and published in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1 < 88 ;
to which a third volume was added, published at Edinburgh
in 1791.
BERGMOTE (Saxon beorg, a hill, and mote, a meet¬
ing), a term still applied to an assembly or court held upon
a hill in Derbyshire for deciding controversies among the
miners.
BERGOMUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Transpadana, built by the Gauls on their incursions into
Italy; now Bergamo, in Lombardy.
BERIA, Eerie, Berry, signifies a large open field; and
hence those cities and towns in England, the names of which
end with that word, are built on plain and open places, and
do not derive their names from boroughs, as Sir Henry
Spelman imagines. Most of our glossographers, in the names
of places, have confounded the word berie with that of bury
and borough, as if it had been the appellative of ancient
towns; whereas the true sense of the word berie is a flat
wide champaign, as is proved from sufficient authorities by
Dufresne, who observes that Beria Sancti Edmundi, men¬
tioned by Matthew Paris, 1174, is not to be taken for the
town, but for the adjoining plain.
BERING, Vitus, of Copenhagen, a Latin lyric poet and
historian, who flourished about 1650.
BERJA, a town and partido of Spain, province of Al-
meria, pleasantly situated in a valley of the Sierra de Ga-
dor, in the centre of the mining district, nine leagues from
Almeria. It is well built, and contains one church, several
monasteries, and three primary schools. Pop. 8709, chiefly
employed in agriculture and mining. The principal traffic
consists in the conveyance of the lead to the neighbouring
port of Adra. One mine in the neighbourhood yielded from
1820 to 1841, 3,000,000 arrobas of ore.
BERKELEY, George, celebrated as the bishop of
Cloyne, by which title he is almost as often referred to in
philosophical writings as by his family name, was born at
Kilcrin, near Thomastown, in the county of Kilkenny, and was
the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the family of
Earl Berkeley. On his monument it is stated that the
year of his birth was 1679; and as he died in 1753, his life
would thus be exactly contemporaneous with that of the
great German philosopher Christian Wolf. In truth, how-^
ever, he was born five years later, namely, on the 12th of
March 1684. Sent very young to Kilkenny school, where
Swift had already received his early education, he at the age
of fifteen followed Swift to Trinity College, Dublin, and
obtained a fellowship in 1707. It was there probably that
he first became acquainted with his great Irish contem¬
porary, who seems to have patronized him in some degree,
and to have been the means of introducing him at a later
period to Steele and Addison, Arbuthnot, and Pope.
He not only became a fellow in 1707; he also became an
author, publishing a tract, Arithmetica absque Algebra aut
Euclide demonstrata, which, however, appears from the pre¬
face to have been written three years before, at the age of
twenty. But far more important, and indeed so important
as to form an epoch in science, was the work which made
its appearance in 1709, An Essay towards a New Theory
of Vision, in which he is considered to have established the
B E R
663
doctrine that the eye, no more than the ear, has any natural Berkeley,
perception of space ; all its perceptions of distance, of mag-
nitude, and of situation, being acquired from the sense of
touch. Mr Stewart has, in his Preliminary Dissertation,
dwelt upon this theory at such length, that here it is only
necessary to record that a great living authority in optics,
Sir David Brewster, has questioned the truth of it; and
that the question is interesting not only to the optician, but
also far more to the psychologist, suggesting, as it does,
many inquiries into the origin of our ideas generally. It
may also be added, that twenty-four years afterwards (1733),
Berkeley published a pamphlet in vindication of his theory,
which is not, however, collected in his works.1 Its title is,
The Theory of Vision, or Visual Language, showing the im¬
mediate Presence and Providence of the Deity, vindicated
and explained. By the author of Alciphron, or, the Mi¬
nute Philosopher.
From this title it will be seen, that his early essay on the
nature of vision contains the germs which afterwards fruc¬
tified into the Berkeleian philosophy; and, especially, it will
be seen that his speculations were not merely speculations,
but had a noble practical object in view—the service of re¬
ligion. The common opinion of him would seem to be, that
he was a dreamer, who wrote romances in philosophy, and
acted romances in religion. Judged by the standard of his
own time, judged by any ordinary standard, his missionary
zeal was certainly romantic; but in philosophy he was no
romancer. The premises with which he starts, premises
almost universally accepted amongst philosophers until the
time of Reid, drag absolute idealism after them by a chain
of the most irresistible logic; and the distinguishing charac¬
teristic of Berkeley's system is, that it is more reasonable
than all previous ones, while it is at the same time applied
to a more practical end.
This system was first promulgated (1710) in A Treatise
concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, wherein
the chief causes of error and difficulty in the sciences, and
the grounds of scepticism, atheism, and irreligion, are in¬
quired into. We have quoted this title in full, that we may
again call attention to the end which young Berkeley had
in view,—it was to erect a polemic against the infidelity of
the age. And he did so by denying, on the received prin¬
ciples of philosophy, the reality of an external world; thence
arguing, that as there is no such world, we must, in order
to account for the phenomena of sense, postulate a Deity
continually acting on the minds of men, and necessitating
certain perceptions. This scheme of objective or theistic
idealism, it will be seen, is essentially distinct from the sub¬
jective or egoistic idealism of Fichte and the later German
schools ; it fraternizes with the idealism of Malebranche (to
a certain extent), of Collier, and, in later times, of Schelling.
(But for a more explicit statement of Berkeley’s position, we
must refer to Sir William Hamilton’s Discussions, No. VI.
p. 187, and to his Dissertations affixed to Reid’s W orks,
pp. 816—819.)
Three years later, Berkeley went to London, and pub¬
lished a defence of his system in Three Dialogues between
Hylas and Philonous. This was in 1713, a date which
ought to be remembered, as it was in the same year that
Arthur Collier first published in the Claris Universalis his
demonstration of the existence of the impossibility of an ex¬
ternal world. So that, although Collier’s speculations are
quite independent of Berkeley’s, they were published three
years after; and Berkeley is thus the first philosopher who
proposed a scheme of absolute idealism.
These dialogues, without making many converts, pro¬
cured Berkeley many friends. He became intimate, chiefly
1 This pamphlet seems to have been utterly unknown until it was lately discovered by Sir illiam Hamilton, who is in possession o
a copy which he has kindly shown to the present writer, at the same time pointing out a footnote in the works ot Berkeley (vo . i.
p. 145, ed. 1784) where the existence of this pamphlet is expressly indicated.
664
BERKELEY.
Berkeley, through Swift, with the great wits of the time, contributing
several essays to the Guardian; and before the end of the
year accompanied the Earl of Peterborough to Italy, as
chaplain and secretary of legation,—this also, on the re¬
commendation of Swift, who seems to have taken a fancy
to him. Berkeley’s letters from the Continent are interesting
in themselves, and as showing the sociability of his nature;
he writes like a poet to Pope; he writes like a naturalist to
Arbuthnot; he writes like a boon companion to 1 homas
prior_his dear Tom. He returned next year to England,
but soon again departed on a continental tour with a Mr
Ashe. It was on this tour that he paid the celebrated visit
to Malebranche, which ended in the death of the reverend
father. On his former trip to Paris, he wrote to Prior,—
46 To-morrow T intend to visit Father Malbranch, and dis-
course him on certain points;” so that probably the present
was not his first visit. On this occasion “ he found the in¬
genious father in his cell, cooking in a small pipkin a me¬
dicine for a disorder with which he was then troubled, an
inflammation in the lungs. The conversation naturally
turned on our author’s system, of which the other had re¬
ceived some knowledge from a translation just published.
But the issue of the debate proved tragical to poor Male¬
branche. In the heat of disputation, he laised his voice so
high, and gave way so freely to the natural impetuosity of a
man of parts and a Frenchman, that he brought on himself
a violent increase of his disorder, which carried him off a
few days after.” And no wonder, for Berkeley must easily
have demolished the peculiar system of the father. The
principles of Malebranche lead directly to absolute idealism,
and Berkeley followed them to that result. But if absolute
idealism be true, what becomes of the doctrine of ti'ansub-
stantiation ? To save himself from heresy, the Catholic
father had to bolster up his philosophy with an hypothesis,
a mere hypothesis, which was, after all, but a vain attempt
to frustrate the logical result of his speculations.
Berkeley returned to London in 1721. During his ab¬
sence he had been elected senior fellow of his college, and
on his return he took the degrees of bachelor and doctor
in divinity. In the year following his fortune received a
considerable accession from a very unexpected bequest. On
his first going to London (1713), Swift introduced him to
the family of the celebrated Vanessa, Mrs Esther Vanhom-
righ, and took him often to dine at her house. It was the
intention of this lady to have made the dean of St Patrick’s
her heir, but—her story is well known—she was disappointed
in him, and left the whole of her fortune, about L.8000, to
be divided equally between her near relation, Mr Justice
Marshall, and Dr Berkeley. If money were an object to
the philosopher, he shortly afterwards (1724) received a
deanery, the value of which, about L.1100 a-year, his more
worldly friends constantly, wonderingly, pityingly, contrasted
with the paltry L.100 for which his missionary zeal very
soon prompted him to exchange it. He resigned his fel¬
lowship, and became dean of Derry.
The scheme on which he had set his heart, and which the
ease and comparative wealth of his deanery could not make
him forego, was that of erecting a college in the Bermudas,
to train pastors for the colonial churches, and missionaries
for the American Indians. His position is thus described
by Swift in a letter of recommendation to Lord Carteret,
which we quote entire, as it conveys a very lively idea of
what Berkeley’s contemporaries thought of him:—“ Sep¬
tember 3.1724. There is a gentleman of this kingdom just
gone for England; it is Dr George Berkeley, dean of Derry,
the best preferment among us, being worth about L.1100 a
year. He takes the Bath in his way to London, and will,
of course, attend your excellency, and be presented, I sup¬
pose, by his friend my Lord Burlington ; and because I be¬
lieve you will choose out some very idle minutes to read
this letter, perhaps you may not be ill entertained with some
account of the man and his errand. He was a fellow in Berkeley
the university here, and going to England very young, about v'*-1
thirteen years ago, he became the founder of a sect there,
called the Immaterialists, by the force of a very curious book
on that subject: Dr Smallridge and many other eminent
persons were his proselytes. I sent him secretary and chap¬
lain to Sicily, with my Lord Peterborough ; and upon his
lordship’s return, Dr Berkeley spent above seven years in
travelling over most parts of Europe, but chiefly through
every corner of Italy, Sicily, and other islands. When he
came back to England, he found so many friends that he
was effectually recommended to the Duke of Grafton, by
whom he was lately made dean of Derry. Your excellency
will be frighted when I tell you, all this is but an introduc¬
tion ; for I am now to mention his errand. He is an abso¬
lute philosopher with regard to money, titles, and power;
and for three years past, hath been struck with a notion of
founding a university at Bermuda, by a charter from the
crown. He hath seduced several of the hopefullest young
clergymen and others here, many of them well provided for,
and all of them in the fairest way of preferment; but in
England his conquests are greater, and I doubt will spread
very far this winter. He showed me a little tract which he
designs to publish, and there your excellency will see his
whole scheme of a life academico-philosophical (I shall make
you remember what you were), of a college founded for In¬
dian scholars and missionaries, where he most exorbitantly
proposeth a whole hundred pounds a-year for himself, forty
pounds for a fellow, and ten for a student. His heart will
break if his deanery be not taken from him, and left to your
excellency’s disposal. I discourage him by the coldness of
courts and ministers, who will interpret all this as impossible
and a vision, but nothing will do. And therefore I do hum¬
bly entreat your excellency either to use such persuasions
as will keep one of the first men in the kingdom for learn¬
ing and virtue quite at home, or assist him by youi ciedit
to compass his romantic design, which, however, is very
noble and generous, and directly proper for a gieat person
of your excellent education to encourage.” With much
importunity, and after a tedious attendance, Berkeley at
length obtained from the minister an assurance that his
scheme would be supported, and it was in the happiness of
this prospect that he penned these well-known lines:
« Westward the course of empire takes its way,
The four first acts already past;
A fifth shall close the drama with the day;
Time’s noblest offspring is the last.”
Being now certain of success, Berkeley prepared to de¬
part, and his first step was to marry. In August 1728, he
married Anne, eldest daughter of the Right Hon. John
Forster, speaker of the Irish House of Commons; and
next month he set sail for Rhode Island. But in vain; the
promises of the government were never fulfilled; he was
left alone to fight his own battle; and after years of weary
waiting beyond the sea, worried to death by creditors, all his
expectations baffled, he returned to England sick at heart,
having spent seven years of his prime, and the greater part
of his fortune, in attempting to establish a scheme which,
with all its simplicity, was yet too grand and too pure or
the powers that then were to appreciate. His only earthly
comfort seems to have been in his wife and child, in his
wife he must have been very happy. When he married
her, he wrote to his dear Tom, with a beautiful simplicity,
“ Her humour and turn of mind pleases me beyond anything
I knew in her whole sex.” Perhaps he was easily pleased;
at least we gather as much from the way in which he talks
of her painting and singing. Of her painting he says:
“ For my part, I think she shows a most uncommon genius;
the worthy bishop being then more than sixty years of age,
and his wife having never handled a brush till six months
before. Then of her singing: “ My wife, I am told, is this
B E R
Berkeley, day inferior to no singer in the kingdomthe bishop not
being himself able to judge as having no ear for music, but
seeming to take great delight in the music lessons, and sum¬
moning his family at four in the morning to the bass-viol and
the Italian master.
By this time, however, Berkeley was settled in the bishop¬
ric of Cloyne, which he received in 1734 as a special mark
of favour from the queen. It will be remembered that
Queen Caroline was fond of listening to metaphysical con¬
versations, and debates often arose in her presence between
Clarke and Berkeley as principals, Hoadly and Sherlock
as seconds. Hoadly had no sympathy whatever with Berke¬
ley, blasting his philosophy and his Bermuda project as the
reveries of a visionary. Sherlock, on the other hand, we are
told, warmly espoused his cause, and particularly when The
Minute Philosopher made its appearance, carried a copy of
it to the queen as a triumphant testimony in favour of Berke¬
ley. Her Majesty gave Berkeley the first bishopric that fell
vacant. And so we find him happy and content as ever at
the little village of Cloyne, admiring his own portrait painted
by his wife after six months’ lessons, and enjoying her sing¬
ing without understanding a note of the music.
The Minute Philosopher was written against freethinkers
of the Shaftesbury class. Soon after he became bishop of
Cloyne, Berkeley wrote another polemic,The Analyst, against
the mathematical sceptics, and especially against Halley,
who had in conversation hazarded the remark, that the doc¬
trines of Christianity are incomprehensible, and the religion
itself an imposture; and he showed in this work that mys¬
teries in faith are unjustly objected to by mathematicians,
who admit much greater mysteries in science—the doctrine
of fluxions for example. The most important of his remain¬
ing treatises are, Queries proposed for the good of Ire¬
land (1735) ; a letter addressed to Roman Catholics during
the rebellion of 1745 ; another to the Catholic clergy,
entitled A Word to the Wise (1749); Airis, a Chain of
Philosophical Reflections and Enquiries concerning the
Virtues of Tar-Water (1744); and Farther Thoughts on
Tar- Water, published 1752. This was his last performance
for the press, and he did not survive it long. His health
was delicate, he was somewhat of a hypochondriac, and
drenched himself, perhaps hurt himself, with copious draughts
of tar-water, the receipt of which he was constantly send¬
ing to his friends: “ Give a heaped spoonful of common
rosin, powdered in a little broth, &c.&c.” Hypochondriac in
his later days, tar-water was the absorbing idea of his mind ;
to drink it seemed to be in his eyes a moral obligation incum¬
bent on all mankind. He advises a friend, in one letter,
to shun late hours and drink tar-water; again he announces
in another, that a spoonful half tar half honey is the remedy
for cold. “ My cholic,” he says in a third letter, “ is changed
to gout and sciatica, the tar-water having drove it into my
limbs.” What a horrible complication of maladies cam¬
paigning it through his poor body,—stormed out of this fast¬
ness only to be driven into some out-of-the-way limb ! So
entirely did tar-water at this time seem to engage his highest
intellect, that in the above-mentioned treatise entitled Siris
he not only appears to regard it as the infallible all-heal of
creation, but easily and naturally passes from the contem¬
plation of it to the contemplation of the loftiest mysteries,
so that, beginning with tar, he ends with the Holy Trinity.
In 1751, feeling the infirmities of age, and wishing to
retire from the care of his diocese to superintend the educa¬
tion of his son, then nominated a student of Christ Church,
that the revenues of the church might not be misapplied, nor
the interest of religion suffer by the absence of the pastor
from his flock, he sought to resign his bishopric, the annual
income of which was not less at that time than L.1400.
Failing of success in this application, he let the lands of
his demesne at Cloyne on very easy terms, at the rent of
L.200, which he directed to be distributed every year until
VOL. 1Y.
B E R
665
his return among the poor housekeepers of Cloyne, Youghal, Berkeley
and Aghadda. He removed to Oxford in July 1752, being 11
then in a very feeble state of health. “ On Sunday evening, Berkshire.
January 14. 1753, as he was sitting in the midst of his
family, listening to a sermon of Dr Sherlock’s, which his lady
was reading to him, he was seized with what the physician
termed a palsy of the heart, and instantly expired. The
accident was so sudden, that his body was quite cold and
his joints stiff before it was discovered, as the bishop lay
on a couch, and seemed to be asleep, till his daughter, on
presenting him with a dish of tea, first perceived his in¬
sensibility.”
The best edition of Berkeley’s works is that published in
London in 1784, 2 vols. 4to. (See Life of Berkeley, pre¬
fixed to his works. Tenneman says that it was written by
Dr Arbuthnot. It was really drawn up by Dr Joseph Stock,
most of the particulars having been furnished by the bishop’s
brother, the Rev. Robert Berkeley, D.D.) (e. s. d.)
Berkeley, a market-town in the county of Gloucester,
near the river Severn, on the Bristol and Gloucester railway.
It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a rich pas¬
toral vale to which it gives name, and which is celebrated for
its dairies, producing the famous cheese known as “ double
Gloucester.” The town has a handsome church, a gram¬
mar-school, town-hall, market-house, and some trade in tim¬
ber, malt, and cheese, by means of the Gloucester and Berke¬
ley canal. Berkeley was the birthplace of the celebrated
Dr Jenner, whose remains are interred in the church. Mar¬
ket-day Wednesday. Pop. (1851) 949.
Berkeley Castle, on an eminence S.E. of the town, is still
in good preservation. This magnificent structure was built
in the reign of Henry L, but it suffered considerably during
the civil wars of the seventeenth century. It is still one of
the noblest baronial castles extant in England. It is noted as
the scene of the most barbarous murder of Edward II.
BERKHAMSTEAD, GREAT,amarket-town of England,
in the county of Herts, 26 miles N.W. of London, on the
Junction canal and the London and Birmingham railway.
It has a church, three chapels, an old market-house, a
grammar and a free school, several almshouses, gaol, &c.
Pop. (1851) 3395, chiefly engaged in straw-plaiting.
BERKSHIRE, one of the midland counties of England,
bounded on the north by Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire,
from which it is separated by the Thames; on the east by
Surrey ; on the south by Hampshire ; and on the west by
Wiltshire. At the north-eastern corner this county comes
slightly in contact with Gloucestershire. It is of a very
irregular figure, its whole northern and eastern side being
bounded by the sinuosities of the Thames. From east to
west it extends about forty-two miles; from north to south,
in its widest part, it is about thirty miles; but in its nar¬
rowest it is not more than seven. Area 451,040 acres.
The surface is generally level, diversified with undulations,
though in some parts, as in the vicinity of the Thames, the
hills rise rather abruptly, and give diversity and beauty to the
scenery. This is especially the case near Farringdon, and
on the opposite corner of the county near Windsor. Wind¬
sor forest was immortalized by Pope, at a time when its
beauties were even less conspicuous than at present. The
south and east sides of the county are well wooded, but the
trees are not generally of great size, nor of the most valuable
or picturesque kind. A line of chalk hills, a continuation of
the Chilterns, runs east and west through the county at its
broadest part, separating the two fertile valleys of the Ken-
net and the Thames. The highest land in the county is a
range of chalk downs which extend from the banks of the
Thames, between Reading and Wallingford, towards the
north of Wiltshire, the highest point being White-Horse Hill,
893 feet high. The western and most elevated partis devoted
to the pasture of sheep. The most celebrated breed is the
well-known Southdown, which, together with a cross from
4 p
666
B E R
Berkshire, the old Notts and Leicester breeds, has almost entirely
superseded the native stock. „ i- tnthe
The agriculture of the county varies much according to the
locality. Wheat and beans are well cultivated: and a spec
of peal found on the banka of the Kennet y.elda aate that
are of meat value to the soils near that river. More than
one-half of the land is calculated to be under tillage, a m
one-quarter ispasturage, and the remainder consists of wood
lands of uncultivated heaths. In the ™ H«se
mentioned, namely the vales of Rennet and W hite-Horse,
dairy farming predominates. There is a large piopoi lori
woodland l/tfe south and east P^s of the coun Jhe
district to the south of Reading, w ic i 1 ^
clay, gravel, and sand, together with the fertl'|
east of Wantage, yield rich crops of corn. Near * airing
^ Jgs are eltensively reared, and the b«ed -s cetoated.
The eastern part of the county, though picturesque, is,
with some exceptions, the most backward in its agriculture.
The "/Sr Pu’sey, M.P. for Berks, ^ted m the
N.W. of the county, may be cited as one o ^
examples of the improved system of Arming. The farm
are generally held from year to year. The condition or tne
labouring population is considered to have improved, and
COt£e heuer smlied with the facili¬
ties of water communication than the county of Ber .
Connected by means of the Thames, which runs round or
through it, on one hand with London and the sea, and on
the other with the Severn at two separate points on that
river; one through the Thames and Severn canal, with
Gloucester; the other through the river Rennet and the
Rennet and Avon canal, with Bath and Bmtol. Besides
the navigable rivers, it enjoys the benefit of the Wilts and
Berks canal, which connects the Thames at Abingdon
with the Avon at Trowbridge in Wiltshire, and comum-
cates with the Rennet and Avon canal. The other rivers,
which all finally fall into the Thames, are the Ock, the Lod-
don, the Auburn, and the Lambourn.
The turnpike roads are generally good. I he principal o
these are the roads from London to Bath and Oxford, both
of which enter the county at Maidenhead, and soon a t
wards separate, the former running S. W. to Reading,
the latter nearly due west to Henley. The Great Western
railway passes through Berkshire from Maidenhead to near
Swindon. The branch lines pass from Didcot to Oxford,
from Reading to Newbury and Hungerford, from Reading
to Basingstoke, on the South-Western railway, and frorn
Reading to Guildford and Reigate, on the South-Eastern and
Brighton railways. Besides these there is a branch of the
South-Western line to Windsor, and another branch to that
town from the Great Western.
The woollen manufacture was introduced into this county
under the Tudors; and the story of the celebrated clothier,
Jack of Newbury, has been handed down to the period when
the establishments founded by him passed to the northern
parts of the kingdom. At Abingdon some linen manufactures
still lino-er. The copper smelted in Wales is conveyed to
some large mills near Marlow, where it is rolled into sheets
for coppering vessels. There are some few paper-mi s neat
Newbury. The chief commerce of the county consists in
the sale of its agricultural produce, and some transit trade,
from being in the way of inland navigation between the two
greatest English rivers, the lhames and the Severn.
The county is divided into twenty hundreds, containing
twelve market-towns and 142 parishes, besides fouiteen
others chiefly or partially included in Berks. The county
is in the diocese of Oxford and the ecclesiastical province of
Canterbury. It forms an archdeaconry by itself, and is
divided into the four rural deaneries of Abingdon, Newbury,
Reading, and Wallingford. It is on the Oxford judicial cir¬
cuit, and the assizes are held alternately at Reading and
BER
Abino-don. County courts are held at Abingdon, Fairing- ^
don Hungerford, Maidenhead, Newbury, Reading, Wal¬
lingford, Vantage, Windsor, and Wokingham.
Berkshire returns nine members to parliament, three for
the county, two each for Reading and New Windsor, and
one each for Abingdon and Wallingford.
At the five decennial enumerations the population of the
county was as follows :—
Berlin.
Year. Males.
1811 57,936
1821 65,832
1831 72,983
1841 80,582
1851 84,927
Females.
61,494
66,807
73,251
81,177
85,138
Total.
119,430
132,639
146,234
161,759
170,065
From the vicinity to the metropolis, the salubrity of the
climate, and the general beauty of the country, few counties
have more numerous seats of the nobility and gentry than
are to be found in Berkshire. Among these stands pre¬
eminent the royal castle of Windsor, the favourite residence
of our monarchs during many centuries ; for although chiefly
rebuilt in the reign of Edward III., it was originally con¬
structed by William the Conqueror. See Windsor.
Antiquities, both Roman and Saxon are numerous in
various parts of this county. The Watlmg Street road o
the former enters Berkshire from Bedfordshire at the village
of Streatley, and leaves it at Newbury. Another Roman
road passes from Reading to Newbury, where it divides into
two branches, one passing to Marlborough in W iltshire, and
the other to Cirencester in Gloucestershire. A branch o
the Icknield Street road passes from Wallingford to Wantage.
Near Wantage is a Roman camp, of a quadrangular form;
and there are other remains of encampments at East Hamp¬
stead near Wokingham, on WThite-Horse Hill near l osey,
andatSinodun Hill near Wallingford. At Lawrence Wal¬
tham there is a Roman fort and near Denchworth a fortress
said to have been built by Canute the Dane, called Chet
bury Castle. Dragon Hill is supposed to have been the
burying-place of a British prince called Uter Pendragon,
and near to it is Uffington Castle, supposed to be of Danish
construction. On White-Horse Hill, in the same vicinity,
is the rude figure of what is called a horse, although it bears
a greater resemblance to a greyhound. It has been formed
bv cutting away the turf and leaving the chalk bare. It
said to occupy nearly an acre of land, and to have been exe¬
cuted by Alfred to celebrate a victory over the Danes in
the reign of his brother Ethelred, in the year 8/2.
Berkshire comprehended the principality inhabited by the
Atrebates a tribe of people who originally migrated from
Gin! before the island was divided into Roman provinces
Under that nation it formed part of Britannia Pnma, and
during the Saxon heptarchy was included in the kingdom
of West Saxony. When Alfred divided the country into
shires, hundreds, and parishes, it obtained the name o
rocscire, which was subsequently changed to that which it
now bears. It was frequently the scene of military operations
from the time of Offa down to the troubles in the reign of
Charles I. During the civil war two battles were fought at
Newbury. In 1643, after a siege, Reading was taken by
the parliament forces, and the royalist party were expelled
from the whole of the county except WaUingford.
Mineral springs are found at Cumnor and Sunning nil,
an" Ste/there are establishments for the receprion
of visitants. There is a strong chalybeate called^Go k
Well, near Luckley House, and some springs near Windso
of the nature of the Epsom waters. ntv • 
The following are the principal towns m this cou y .
Reading, Newbury, Thatcham, Wokingham, Walling c ,
Windsor, Abingdon, Wantage, Farrmgdon.
BERLIN, the capital of Prussia, and one of the most
beautiful towns in Europe is situated m the provrncejf
Brandenburg, regency of Potsdam, in Lat. • •
BERLIN..
667
Berlin.
Long. 13. 24. E., in the middle of a sandy plain on both
banks of the Spree, and is twelve miles in circumference.
It is the ordinary residence of the king, and seat of the prin¬
cipal authorities.
It is divided into five large parts or quarters, which in
German are called towns : Berlin, properly so called ; Co¬
logne, divided into Old and New Cologne ; Friederichswer-
der, Friedrichstadt, Dortheenstadt or Neustadt. These are
divided into 22 quarters or sections, which altogether com¬
prehend 280 streets and 20 public places. The streets are
broad and straight, crossing at right angles; the houses and
even the greater part of the public buildings are of brick and
plaster; and, from the flatness of the ground, the water in
the drains stagnates, causing disagreeable and noxious
odours, and the foot pavements are so narrow that two per¬
sons can scarcely walk abreast. Among the streets the prin¬
cipal are the Friederichstrasse, 4068 paces in length, and
the magnificent street called Unter den Linden, 1032 paces
long and 161 feet in breadth, planted with four rows of
trees, and lined with superb edifices. This fine street is ter¬
minated on the west by the magnificent Brandenburg gate,
erected in 1790, of colossal size, designed as an imitation
of the Propylaeum at Athens, and surmounted by a car of
Victory drawn by four horses, which was carried away by
the French in 1807, and brought back in triumph in 1814,
when the Prussians bestowed upon the goddess the eagle
and the iron cross which she now bears. Among the places
or squares may be mentioned the Wilhelmsplatz, bordered
with lime trees and ornamented with statues of the cele¬
brated warriors of Prussia; the Lustgarten, planted with pop¬
lars and chestnut trees, and adorned by a statue of Prince
Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau ; the square of the Opera, with
the statue of Blucher and other military heroes.
Berlin is encircled by a wall with sixteen gates, besides
two portes d’eau. The ramparts serve for the purposes of
police, but are useless as means of defence. There are 41
bridges, the most remarkable of which are the Lange-Briiche,
adorned by a statue of Frederick William, and the Kcenigs-
Briiche.
The city is embellished with many splendid buildings.
Among the principal of these is the royal palace or schloss,
imposing by its magnitude. In the White Hall, fitted
up at an expense of L.120,000, the first meeting of the
Prussian parliament was held (April 1847). I he museum,
begun in 1823 and finished in 1830 from designs by the
architect Schinkel, is the finest edifice in the city. Opposite
the entrance is a gigantic basin of polished granite, 22 feet
in diameter, which was formed out of a vast isolated boulder
which lay at Furstenwald, about 30 miles from Berlin, and
was conveyed in a flat-bottomed boat along the Spree to the
city. The royal library is a tasteless heavy-looking build¬
ing : it contains about 500,000 volumes, and nearly 5000
manuscripts, the former including Luther’s Hebrew bible.
This library is entitled to a copy of every work printed in the
Prussian dominions. The arsenal, erected in 1695, forms
a square each side of which is 268 feet in length, and pre¬
viously to the revolution of 1848 contained a large store of
warlike ammunition. When taken possession of by the mob
it was plundered. The churches are numerous, but by no
means handsome. Among these are the cathedral, an un¬
sightly building; the Lutheran church of St Nicholas, the
most ancient in the town ; that of St Mary, with a steeple
or tower 286 feet high ; the Reformed church; the French
church. Among the other buildings are the bourse, the opera-
house, the charity and maternity hospitals, the invalid hotel,
the custom-house, the mint, the post-office, the barracks,
&c. The Thiergarten promenade is renowned throughout
Germany.
It was not till 1851 that a monument was raised in honour
of Frederick the Great. In that year an equestrian statue
in bronze, modelled by Rauch, was erected in the Unter
den Linden, opposite Prince William’s palace and the uni- Berlin,
versity; the statue is 17 feet 3 inches in height, and stands V'—
on a granite pedestal 25 feet high. The monarch is repre¬
sented in the costume he usually wore, and on each face
of the pedestal are represented the great military com¬
manders in the Seven Years’ War, with other figures. This
is one of the most magnificent monuments in Europe. A
little out of the town, near the Halle gate, is a Gothic spire
in bronze, raised to the memory of the brave men who fell
in the campaigns of 1813-14-15.
The university, founded in 181$, ranks among the first : 0
in Germany, especially as a medical school, and has the
largest number of pupils next to that of Vienna. Before the
late disturbances it was attended by nearly 1800 students.
The number of professors, regular and extraordinary,
amounts to 156, besides 8 teachers of languages and gym¬
nastics. The number of students for the session ending June
1852 was 1409 (exceeding that of the previous year by 81),
classed as follows
Theology.
Law,
Medicine
Philosophy
Natives, 128
Foreigners, 41
  169
Natives, 497
Foreigners, 123
  620
Natives, 210
Foreigners, 65
  275
Natives, 210
Foreigners, 106
  345
Total (besides unmatriculated auditors, 762), 1409
Berlin may be regarded as the principal centre of the in¬
telligence of Germany, and it possesses to a great extent
the means of intellectual advancement. Besides the uni¬
versity, there are six royal gymnasiums or high schools,
numerous inferior academies, schools for trade, the fine
arts, architecture, &c. All these institutions are under the
direction of men of distinguished merit. The benevolent
establishments, which are no less numerous, include seven¬
teen hospitals, institutions for the deaf and dumb and for the
blind, hospitals for orphans, &c.
Berlin is one of the first manufacturing towns in Ger¬
many. Its principal branches of industry—which supply
the simplest wants as well as the delicacies of the most re¬
fined luxury—are porcelain, silks, linen and cotton stuffs,
hosiery, ribbon-weaving, gunpowder, paper, tobacco, jewel¬
lery, clock-making, Berlin iron, &c. Cast-iron goods of all
kinds are manufactured at the foundry outside the Oranien-
burg gate. The finer kinds of ornamental iron-work of
Berlin are very celebrated. The navigation of the Spree,
which communicates by means of canals w ith the Elbe and
the Oder, and the numerous railroads and the different routes
of which Berlin is the centre, promote the commerce of this
town with the interior of the country and with Europe.
In 1688 the population of Berlin was about 18,000; in
1775 it had increased to 135,900; in 1816 itwras 182,381 ;
in 1838, 290,797 ; and in 1849, 423,902—of whom, 22,748
were military, 220,874 males, 203,028 females, 398,727
Protestants, 15,532 Roman Catholics, and 9604 Jews. The
number of dwelling-houses at this date was 9155. The
denseness of the population arises from the custom of dif¬
ferent families dwelling in the separate stories of the same
house. In May 1852 the population was 446,931, exclusive
of military- The total number of deaths in 1852 was 11,614.
Of these 226 were by violence (of which 107 were suicides),
and 2389 by bronchial affections and consumptions.
Among the many celebrated men to whom Berlin has
given birth, maybe mentioned the philosopher Baumgarten,
the chemist Achard, the lawyer Albrecht, the diplomatist
Ancillon, Tieck the poet, and the two Humboldts.
668
Berme
II
Bermudas,
B E R
The history of Berlin is very obscure. According to the
most common opinion, Albert the Bear, Count of Anhalt,
who took the title of Margrave of Brandenburg, founded the
city. It increased and acquired importance under VV aide-
mar of Anhalt, who died in the year 1319. It declined, how¬
ever, considerably under the reign of the princes ot the
house of Luxembourg; but under Frederic of Hohenzollern,
elector of Brandenburg, Berlin entered on a new eia o
prosperity. Lutheranism, adopted by the house ot Bran¬
denburg under the reign of Joachim II. (1535-1570), gave
an increasing impulse to arts and sciences, tra e, com
merce, and everything which makes towns flourishing and
a people happy. In spite of a terrible pestilence which ra¬
vaged the town in 1582, and the disasters of the Thirty Years
War, Berlin continued to advance in prosperity, it is to
Frederick William, and especially to Frederick the Great,
that the capital of Prussia is indebted for its prosperity and
magnificence. The two most remarkable events connected
with the history of the town are its occupation by the Aus¬
trians in 1760, and by the French in 1806, after the battle of
Jena. It contains no remains of the mediaeval period, but is
entirely indebted to modern art for its present magnificence.
BERME, in Fortification, a space of ground left between
the rampart and the fosse, designed to receive the ruins ot
the rampart, and prevent their filling the fosse. It is some¬
times palisadoed, and in Holland it is generally planted with
a quickset hedge. It is also called liziere, rdais, foreland,
retrait, pays de souris, &c.
BERMUDAS, or Somers’s Islands, a cluster ot small
islands in the Atlantic Ocean, about four hundred in num¬
ber, but for the greater part so small and barren that they
possess neither inhabitants nor name. The north part of
these islands is situated in Long. 62. 28. W. Lat. 32.
Their discovery resulted from the shipwreck of Juan Ber¬
mudas, a Spaniard (whose name they now bear), when on
a voyage from Old Spain to Cuba with a caigo of hogs,
about the year 1522. Henry May, an Englishman, suffered
the same fate in 1593 ; and lastly, Sir George Somers
shared the destiny of the two preceding navigators in 1609.
Sir George was the first who established a settlement upon
them, but he died before he had fully accomplished his
design. A company of 120 persons was formed in Virginia,
sixty of whom, under the command of Mr Henry More, pro¬
ceeded to the island; and an accession of inhabitants was
gained during the civil wars, many having sought a refuge
from the tyranny of the ruling party in this distant sanctuary.
Of the vast number of islands composing this archipelago,
not above twelve are inhabited. The names of the principal
of these are St George, Hamilton, St David, Cooper, Ire¬
land, Somerset, Nonsuch, and Long and Bird Islands. These
are closely connected, and in their characteristic features so
similar, that they may be considered and described as one
island. The coast is of the most dangerous description,
being thickly studded with rocks, which appear and disap¬
pear with the ebb and flow of the tide. A landing is nevei
attempted without a pilot. The extreme length of the colony,
from St Catherine’s Point on St George’s to the western
extremity of Bermudas, is not more than twenty miles; but
the road continues round the Great Sound to the N.E.
point of Somerset, making the distance 24 miles. The
greatest breadth from north to south by land is about one
mile and a half, and the whole superficies is 12,161 acres.
The harbour of St George’s Island has water and space
enough to accommodate the whole British navy; yet until,
by the labour of the convicts and submai'ine blasting, the
entrance was deepened and enlarged, it was so obstructed
by rocks that the harbour was almost unapproachable.
The appearance of Bermudas at first sight is highly ro¬
mantic ; but a closer inspection does not justify the first
impression, and the prospect becomes very monotonous.
Broad fields of barren rock, and tracts of evergreen cedar,
B E R
are scattered over the whole island, which is traversed by Bermudas,
numerous sheets of salt water. There are a great number v—•'
of caves, some of which pierce far into the land. Beau¬
tiful varieties of stalactites and stalagmites fret these sub¬
terranean halls. Bermudas is still greatly behind in agri¬
culture, although capable of producing all varieties of vege¬
tables. In 1827 there was only one plough in the whole
colony, the spade being in more general request. Since
1843, however, the produce of the land has largely in¬
creased. The neglect of internal resources may be ascribed
to the facility with which supplies are received from Ame¬
rica, and also to the great variety of excellent fish with
which the shores abound, withdrawing the attention of num¬
bers of the lower orders from the cultivation of the soil.
The whale is an annual visitor of the coast; the fishing of
which being a lucrative employment, is another inducement
to neglect the spade. The soil is very fertile in the growth
of esculent plants and roots, such as potatoes, onions, cab¬
bages, carrots, turnips, pease, French beans, &c. The citron,
sour orange, lemon, and lime, grow spontaneously in great
luxuriance; but the apple and the peach arrive at no. per¬
fection. Medicinal plants, such as castor, aloe, and jalap,
grow to great perfection without culture; and coffee, indigo,
cotton, and tobacco, are also spontaneous products. A great
quantity of arrow-root is raised, which is considered of first-
rate quality. Few oxen or sheep are reared in the colony,
these being supplied from North America. Bermudas pos¬
sesses no fresh-water streams, and only a few wells, the
water of which is brackish; but there are a great many
tanks, which fill during the rainy season, and afford the
principal supply of water. Vegetation is very rapid on these
islands, there being but little variety of temperature in the
different seasons. Spring may be said never to forsake them,
and accordingly the fields and forests are clad with a mantle
of perpetual green. The climate, however, is by no means
healthy, and only a short residence is necessary to foster the
o-erms of constitutional disease. The yellow fever and
typhus are often destructive. In 1853 the former of these
diseases made dreadful ravages. ,
There are only two small towns in Bermudas, St George s
and Hamilton, each of which has a mayor and other civic
officers. The former was the capital until Sir James Cock-
burn removed the senate and courts of justice to Hamilton,
which, being centrally situated, is much more convenient.
There is little display of architectural taste in these places,
the buildings being both disproportioned and irregularly
huddled together. They are built of sandstone, veins ot
which are everywhere found. Limestone is also abundant.
There are three signal stations, one at St George’s, another
at Mount Langton, and a third at Gibb’s Hill. At each of
these a small party of soldiers is stationed. A dockyard,
prisons, a lighthouse, a mansion for the naval commissioner,
and several other public works, have been built, for the
erection of which about 1700 convicts are employed. I he
annual cost of the maintenance of these people is about L.20
a-head. The churches and schools are numerous. Govern¬
ment has made great efforts to encourage education in the
colony; but these have been feebly seconded by the inha¬
bitants, especially the whites. In the admiralty school at
Ireland Island, the white and coloured children are in¬
structed together; but in other parts of the colony prejudice
as yet runs too high for such a combination. The resu t is,
that the children of the poorer class of whites, who will not
associate with the coloured class, are either sent °J™a
schools badly conducted, or not sent to school at all. It Has
been found that the coloured people are not only moie
eager to procure a good education for their children, bu
are better able to pay for it, than the lower class of whites..
The revenue in 1849 was L.11,914; in 18o0, L.12,63 ,
to which is to be added the annual parliamentary grant ot
L.4049. The expenditure in 1849 was L.l i,426; in loo ,
Berna¬
dette
II
Bernard.
B E ft
L.l 6,227. The military expenditure in 1850 was L.70,160.
The charge for 1566 prisoners during 1850 was L.34,595.
The value of imports in 1849 amounted to L.l 32, (33; in
1850, to L.l 30,501: of these the larger proportion was from
the United States. The exports for 1849 amounted to
L.15,315; for 1850, to L.19,960.
The population in October 1843 was 9934; on the 1st
January 1851, 11,092,—consisting of 4669 whites; males
1965, females 2704. The coloured population amounted
to 6423; males 2832, females 3591. The increase of white
population since 1843 has been at the rate of one-eighth
per annum; the increase of the coloured population at two-
eighths. The great disproportion between the males and
the females among the whites is attributed to the increasing
emigration of the young men.
BERNADOTTE, afterwards Charles XIV., king of
Sweden and Norway, was the son of a lawyer at Pau in
Bearn, and was born Jan. 26. 1764. His original name
was Jean-Baptiste-Jules Bernadette. He was destined by
his parents for the law ; but he chose the profession of
arms, and enlisted in 1780 as a private in the royal marines.
When the revolution swept away the arbitrary distinction
of classes, and opened up to all alike the path of preferment,
the abilities of Bernadotte were speedily acknowledged. In
1792 he was made a colonel; in the following year a gene¬
ral of brigade ; and soon after a general of division. In the
campaigns of the Rhine and of Italy his military talents
found ample scope for display; and his diplomatic abilities
had also been tested as ambassador at the court of Vienna.
During Buonaparte’s absence in Egypt, Bernadotte was ap¬
pointed minister of war. He re-organized the whole army,
and prepared the way for the conquest of Holland. Not¬
withstanding the rivalry that all along existed between him
and Napoleon, Bernadotte was made a marshal on the esta¬
blishment of the empire. He was also nominated to the go¬
vernment of Hanover, and took part in the campaign of 1805
at the head of a force of 20,000 men. At the battle of Aus-
terlitz he covered himself with glory ; and in 1806 he was
created prince of Ponte-Corvo. In 1810 the assembled
states of Sweden nominated him as successor to Charles
XIII. of Sweden, a distinction for which he was scarcely
less indebted to his nobility of character than to his military
talents. The jealousy exhibited by Napoleon on that occa¬
sion, and Bernadotte’s politic rebuke, are characteristic of
the two men. “What!” said Bernadotte, “would you make
me greater than yourself, by compelling me to refuse a
crown ?” Napoleon could only reply, “ Go—our fates must
be accomplished.”
As crown-prince of Sweden, Bernadotte devoted his whole
energies to the welfare of his adopted country. Owing to
the infirmities of the king, he was intrusted with the entire
conduct of the government. On the death of Charles X1IL,
in February 1818, Bernadotte ascended the throne. The
events of his administration, so conducive to the prosperity of
that country, are given in the article Sweden. He died at
Stockholm, March 8. 1844, at the age of seventy-nine; and
left an only son, Oscar, who succeeded him. See Sweden.
BERNARD, St, the first abbot of Clairvaux, was the
third son of Tescelin of Fontaine in Burgundy, where he was
born in 1091. He acquired so great a reputation by his
zeal and abilities, that all the affairs of the chuch appeared
to rest upon his shoulders, and kings and princes seemed
to have chosen him as general arbitrator of their differences.
It was owing to him that Innocent II. was acknowledged
sovereign pontiff, and that, after the death of Peter Louis
the anti-pope, Victor, who had been named his successor,
voluntarily abdicated the dignity. Bernard convicted Abe¬
lard at the council of Sens, in the year 1140; he opposed the
monk Raoul; he persecuted the followers of Arnold of
Brescia; and, in 1148, he caused Gilbert de la Porvice,
bishop of Poitiers, and Eonde 1’Etoile, to be condemned in
B E R 669
the council of Rheims. By such zealous behaviour he ve- Bernard,
rifled, according to Bayle, the interpretation of his mother’s
dream. She had dreamed, when with child of him, that she
should bring forth a white dog, whose barking should be
very loud. Astonished at this dream, which she was unable
to unriddle, she consulted a monk, who said to her, “Be of
good courage ; you shall have a son who shall guard the
house of God, and bark loudly against the enemies of the
faith.” But St Bernard went far beyond the prediction ; for
he barked sometimes against chimerical enemies, and was
more successful in exterminating the heterodox than in put¬
ting down infidels, although he attacked the latter, not only
with the ordinary arms of his eloquence, but also with the
extraordinary weapon of prophecy. He preached the crusade
under Louis the Younger, and added greatly to the troops of
the crusaders. But all the splendid visions with which he
had flattered the people were disappointed by the event;
and when it was alleged that he had hurried a vast number
of Christians to slaughter without sharing the dangers him¬
self, the saint alleged in his defence that the sins of the cru¬
saders had destroyed the efficacy of his prophecies. He is
said to have founded 160 monasteries, and to have wrought
a prodigious number of miracles. He died August 20.
1153, aged sixty-three. Of the numerous editions of his
works, the best is that of Father Mabillon, printed at Paris in
1690, in 2 vols. folio, which also contains the biography of
St Bernard written by his secretary and disciple Geoffrey.
Bernard, Dr Edward, a learned astronomer, linguist,
and critic, was born at Perry St Paul, near Towcester, May
2. 1638, and educated at Merchant-Tailors’ school, and St
John’s College, Oxford. On entering the university, he
was already master of all the elegancies of the Greek and
Latin tongues, and not unacquainted with the Hebrew.
He there applied to the study of history, philology, and philo¬
sophy, and mastered the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and Cop¬
tic languages; after which he studied mathematics under
Dr Wallis. Having taken the degrees of bachelor and mas¬
ter of arts, and afterwards that of bachelor of divinity, he
went to Leyden to consult several Oriental manuscripts left
to that university by Joseph Scaliger and Levinus Warnerus.
On his return to Oxford he collated and examined the most
valuable manuscripts in the Bodleian library, and became
engaged in a very extensive correspondence with the learned
of most countries. In 1669, when the celebrated Christo¬
pher Wren, Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, was
appointed surveyor-general of His Majesty’s works, and
obliged to spend much of his time in London, he obtained
leave to name Bernard as his deputy at Oxford. In 1676
he went to France as tutor to the dukes of Grafton and
Northumberland, sons of Charles II. by the duchess of
Cleveland, and then living with their mother at Paris; but
the simplicity of his manners not suiting the gaiety of the
duchess’s family, he returned about a year after to Oxford.
He composed tables of the longitudes, latitudes, right
ascensions, and declinations of the fixed stars; Observations
in Latin on the Obliquity of the Ecliptic ; and several other
pieces inserted in the Philosophical Transactions. He also
wrote, 1. A Treatise on Ancient Weights and Measures;
2. Chronologies Samaritanoc Synopsis, in two tables ; 3.
Testimonies of the Ancients concerning the Greek Version
of the Old Testament by the Seventy ; and several other
learned works. This learned and pious man died January 12.
1696, in the fifty-eighth year of his age, leaving behind him
a number of manuscripts which are now deposited in the
Bodleian library. His biography has been written by Dr
Smith.
Bernard, James, professor of philosophy and mathema¬
tics, and minister of the Walloon church at Leyden, was
born at Nions, in Dauphine, September 1. 1658. Having
studied at Geneva, he returned to France in 1679, and was
chosen minister of Venterol, in Dauphine, whence he was
670 B E R
Bernard removed to the church of Vinsobres. The persecution
li against the Protestants obliging him to abandon his native
Bernay. countryj ]ie retired to Holland, where he was well received,
v'—an(j appointed one of the pensionary ministers of Gauda.
In July 1686 he commenced his Histoire Abregee de
VEurope, which he continued monthly till December 1688.
In 1692 he began his Lettres Historiques, containing an ac¬
count of the most important transactions in Europe ; and he
carried on this work till the end of 1698. It was afterwards
continued by other hands, and consists of a great number
of volumes. When Le Clerc discontinued his Bibliotheque
Universelle in 1691, Bernard wrote the greater part of the
twentieth volume, and the five following volumes. In 1698
he collected and published Actes et Negociations de la Paix
de Rgsivic, in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he began the
Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres, which continued
till December 1710. Having acquired great reputation by
his works, as well as by his sermons at Gauda and the Hague,
he was unanimously elected in 1705 one of the ministers of
the Walloon church at Leyden. About the same time he
succeeded M.de Valder in the chair of philosophy and mathe¬
matics at Leyden ; and the university presented him with
the degrees of doctor in philosophy and master of arts. In
1716 he published a supplement to Moreri’s Dictionary, in
two volumes folio. The same year he resumed his Nou¬
velles de la Republique des Lettres, and continued it till his
death, which happened on the 27th of April 1718. Besides
the works above mentioned, he was the author or two ex¬
cellent treatises, one on a late repentance, the other on the
excellency of religion.
Bernard, Simon, a celebrated French general of en¬
gineers, and aide-de-camp to Napoleon, was born at Dole
in 1779. Subsequently to the emperor’s fall he emigrated
to the United States, where he executed a variety of works,
unequalled for magnitude, consisting of vast canals, nume¬
rous forts, and 1400 leagues of frontier fortifications. He
returned to France, and in 1836 was secretary at war. He
died in 1839.
Bernard, The Great St, a celebrated mountain pass
of the Pennine Alps, upwards of 8000 feet in height, be¬
tween the Swiss canton of Valais and the valley of Aosta.
Near the summit is the famous hospice, said to have been
founded by St Bernard of Menthon in Savoy in 962, for the
succour of travellers crossing the mountain. In their phil¬
anthropic labours the monks inhabiting the hospice have
valuable assistants in their dogs, which are known as the
St Bernard breed, and are noted for their extraordinary size
and sagacity. In 1800 Napoleon crossed the Alps here at the
head of an army of 30,000 men, with cavalry and artillery.
BERNARDINE, St, of Siena, was born at Massa in
Tuscany, in 1380. In 1404 he entered into a Franciscan
monastery near Siena, and was afterwards sent to Jerusalem
as commissary of the Holy Land. On his return to Italy,
he preached with such applause that Ferrara, Siena, and
Urbino applied to Pope Eugenius IV. to appoint him their
bishop ; but Bernardine declined the honour, accepting only
the office of vicar-general of the Friars of the Observance
for all Italy. He repaired and founded above 300 monas¬
teries in that country, died in 1444, and was canonized by
Nicholas V. in 1450. His works were published at Venice,
1591, 4 vols. 4to.; and at Paris, 1636, 2 vols. folio.
BERNARDINES, an order of monks founded at Citeaux
in 1098, by Robert abbot of Moleme, and reformed by St
Bernard.
BERNAY, capital of an arrondissement of the same name
in the department of Eure, France, is agreeably situated on
the left bank of the Charentonne, 26 miles W.N.W. of
Evreux. It is a town of great antiquity, and was at one time
a fortified place. It was besieged by Duguesclin in 1378,
taken by the English in 1418 and in 1421, and by the Ad¬
miral de Coligny in 1563. The fortress was razed in 1589.
B E R
It has two fine old churches, a communal college, an hos- Bernburg
pital, and some precious remains of mediteval architecture. II
It has manufactures of woollen, linen, and cotton goods, v Berne- 1
and is noted as being the seat of the greatest horse tair in j
France, frequently attended by upwards of 40,000 persons.
Pop. (1851) of town 7233, of arrondissement 77,202.
BERNBURG, a city, the capital of the duchy of Anhalt-
Bernburg. It is situated on the river Saale, by which it
is divided into two parts. It is the seat of the ducal courts
of judicature, revenue, and other branches ot administration.
The sovereign residence or castle is on an elevation, sur¬
rounded with deep ditches, below which are the gardens
and a fine orangery. It is a neat well-built capital in minia¬
ture, with a college, a mint, a gymnasium, orphan-house,
and other public buildings. It has some trade in brewing,
in snuff-making, earthenware, and ironmongery. Pop. 6100.
Long. 11. 39. 23. E. Lat. 51. 47. 55. N.
BERNE, a canton in the centre of Switzerland, is situ¬
ated between Lat. 46. 19. and 47. 30. N. Long. 6. 50. and
8. 28. E. It is bounded by the cantons of Soleure, Argau,
Lucerne, Unterwalden, and Uri on the east; the Valais on
the south ; the cantons of Vaud, Fribourg, and Neufchatel
on the west; and by the canton ot Soleure and France on
the north and north-west. Berne is the largest canton in
Switzerland: its surface is estimated at 2562 square miles.
The population in 1851 amounted to 457,921, of whom
403,769 were Protestants, and 54,044 Catholics. Nature
has divided this canton into three regions, in which the
climate varies with the elevation. In the southern part,
called the Oberland, rise the Alps, and rich valleys lie
stretched beneath them. Of the mountains, the highest are
the Finsteraarhorn, the Schreckhorn, the Wetterhorn, the
Eiger, and the Jungfrau. Of all Switzerland this region is .
the most interesting and attractive to travellers ; below are
fertile plains, a little above are green pastures, and higher
still are gigantic glaciers, roaring waterfalls, and precipices
with lofty peaks lost in the sky ; below there is the temper¬
ate heat of southern climates, and above the coldness of the
pole. Towards the north the ranges of the J ura are consider¬
ably lower. The central part is a fertile and carefully culti¬
vated plain, abounding in corn and all sorts of fruits; the corn
raised, however, is insufficient for the inhabitants, and large
quantities require to be imported. The pastures in the Ober¬
land and Emmethal are excellent, and produce the finest
cattle : the latter valley is celebrated for its breed of horses,
many of which are exported to France for draught and heavy¬
armed cavalry. It also produces cheese of excellent quality •
the quantity made is estimated at 50,000 cwt. a-year, a great
part of which is sent into Germany and Italy.
The principal river in the canton is the Aar, which re¬
ceives numerous tributaries, the chief of which are the Em-
mat, the Birs, and the Doubs : the Emme forms the lakes
of Bienne and Thun. The industrial productions are cot¬
ton, woollen, and flaxen stuffs, leather, watches, lace, and
wood-work of all kinds. The rivers and roads which tra¬
verse the canton are favourable to commerce. The exports
consist of hides, stuffs, kirschivasser cheeses, horses, and
cattle. Iron, lead, and copper mines are wrought; there
are also quarries of marble, lime, grit-stone, &c.; and the
numerous forests furnish wood in abundance.
The canton of Berne is divided into 28 bailiwicks or pre¬
fectures. Its capital is Berne: the other chief towns are
Bienne, Burgdorf, Thun, Porentruy, and Delemont. In
the year 1798, 30,000 French invaded the canton, at which
time Berne was deprived of nearly the half of its territory.
A portion of it was restored in 1814 ; and there was like¬
wise added to it the larger part of the bishopric of Bale. N
The canton of Berne occupies the second rank in the con¬
federation, and returns twenty-three members to the national
council. Its federal contingent is 104,080 Swiss francs,
and 5824 men. For an account of the government and ju-
!
Berne
I!
Berners.
BEE,
dicial system, in which great changes were made on the adop¬
tion of the new federal constitution in 1848, see Swit¬
zerland. .
Berne, capital of the canton of the same name, and since
1849 the permanent seat of the Swiss government and diet,
and the residence of the foreign ministers. It stands on a
sandstone promontory formed by the winding ot the river
Aar, which nearly surrounds it, at an elevation of 1710 feet
above the sea. Lat. 46. 57. N. Long. 7.25. E. Berne was
founded a.d. 1191 by Duke Berchtold of Zahringen, and
gradually became a refuge for those who were oppressed by
feudal exactions. In 1218 it was declared a free and im¬
perial city by the Emperor Frederic. It thenceforward in¬
creased in importance, and excited the jealousy of the neigh¬
bouring states. They combined against it with the nobility
of Berne, but w ere completely defeated in the battle near
Laupen, June 21. 1339, by the Bernese, under Rodolph
Von Erlach, to whose memory a bronze statue has been
erected in the Miinster-platz. In 1352 it joined the Swiss
confederation. A fire destroyed the city in 1405 ; but it
was afterwards rebuilt on the same plan. The Aar is here
crossed by two fine stone bridges, one of which is 900 feet
long, with a central arch 150 feet wide, and 93 feet high.
Viewed from a distance Berne presents a striking appear¬
ance. Situated within view of the snowy range of the Bernese
Alps, the landscape is one of indescribable sublimity. The in¬
terior of the town itself is imposing. “ It is impossible,” says
Stapfer, “ for a stranger not to be struck with the breadth of
the streets, and with the equal height and beautiful appear¬
ance of the houses, all of hewn stone, adorned with arcades,
the pillars of which support the first floor ; but he cannot help
feeling a kind of sad solitude which pervades the almost de¬
serted streets, the tide of passengers who traverse the tho¬
roughfares being concentrated under the arcades. A very
small number of striking edifices interrupt this row of sin¬
gular habitations, all constructed on the same plan, and
presenting in their general aspect the appearance of a large
convent. Among these are the cathedral and the guild¬
hall in the middle of the city, on the southern and northern
sides of the declivity on which Berne is situated ; two mag¬
nificent hospitals; an asylum for orphans ; a large corn¬
granary ; a mint, and two towers for public uses. These
are the only buildings which break the line of perfect repub¬
lican equality which reigns in the rest of the town.”
Berne possesses a university (founded in 1834), a great
number of educational establishments and admirable charit¬
able institutions, a valuable museum, a public library of
40,000 volumes, and several literary and scientific societies.
Although, properly speaking, not a commercial city, it
carries on some trade in cloth, printed calico, muslin, silk
stuffs, silk and cotton stockings—articles fabricated in the
manufactories of the town. The climate is severely cold in
winter, the town being situated at so considerable an ele¬
vation above the level of the sea. The population, com¬
prehending that of the villages under the town’s jurisdic¬
tion, is reckoned at 27,000.
Berne Machine, the name of an engine for rooting up
trees, invented by Peter Sommer, a native of Berne.
BERNERA, an island on the western coast of Lewis,
from which it is separated by Lochs Bernera, Burglow, and
Roag. It is about 5 miles in length by 3 in breadth, and
has a number of large upright stones, remains of a druid-
ical structure. A small island off its north coast is called
Little Bernera.
BERNERS, Juliana, prioress of Sopewell nunnery, near
St Albans, was the daughter of Sir James Berners, who
was beheaded in the reign of Richard II. She was cele¬
brated for her beauty, her spirit, and her passion for field
sports. To her are attributed the treatises on “ Hawkynge,
Huntynge, and Fysshynge with an Angle ; also a right
noble Treatyse on the Lygnage of Cot Armours, endynge
BEE
671
Bernon.
with a Treatyse which specyfyeth of Blasynge of Armys,” Bemeville
printed in folio by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496. The first
and rarest edition, printed at St Albans in 1486 does not
contain the treatise on fishing. Juliana Berners is noticed -
by Ames and Wharton; and Hazlewood, who published an
edition of the work (in facsimile of that of W ynkyn de W orde)
in 1811, folio, London, has more lately examined, with in¬
dustry and ability, the fair author’s claims to figure as the
earliest female writer in the English language.
BERNEVILLE, Gilebert de, a celebrated trouvereof
the thirteenth century, is supposed to have been a native of
Berneville, a small village near Arras. Tw'enty-six of his
songs are preserved.
BERNHARDI, August Friedrich, a learned German
philologist, was born at Berlin in 1768, and died there in
1820. His System of Language (1801-3), and Elements
of the Science of Language (1805), are works of great
merit, as philosophic attempts to develop the science of vocal
expression.
BERNI, Francesco, an eminent writer of Italian jocose
poetry, in very pure Tuscan, though often disfigured by licen¬
tious equivoques. His humour is broad, and his satire often
cutting, though generally good-natured. He is best known
in this country for his remodelling of the Orlando Innamor-
ato of Boiardo, which was introduced to the English reader
by the analyses and specimens by W. S. Rose in 1823. I he
best edition of Berni’s Rifaciamento is that of 1545, which
has been followed by Molini of Florence, in 1827.
BERNICLE. See Ornithology, Index.
Bernicle Shell. See Mollusca, Index.
BERNIER, Nicholas, an eminent French musician,
born at Mantes in 1664; died at Paris in 1734. He has
left various works, and was esteemed one of the ablest com¬
posers of his time.
Bernier, Frangois, surnamed the Mogul on account of
his travels and residence in the dominions of the Mogul,
was born at Angers in France. After taking his degree of
doctor of medicine at Montpellier in 1654, he visited Syria,
Egypt, and the kingdom of the Mogul, where he became
physician to Aurung-Zebe, and remained twelve years.
Upon his return to France, he published the history of the
countries he had visited, and spent the remainder of his life
in composing various other works, particularly an abridg¬
ment of the philosophy of Gassendi, in 8 vols. 12mo. He
died at Paris in 1688.
BERNIER’S ISLAND, a small island near the mouth of
Shark’s Bay, on the western coast of New Holland. This
island consists of regular horizontal beds of sand and lime¬
stone, containing shells which sometimes appear at the height
of 150 feet above the level of the sea. Vegetation is lan¬
guid ; the chief production being a species of Cyprus, the
long roots of which spread over the soil like net-work. Cor¬
morants and sea eagles in small numbers are found in the
island ; and there are three species of lizards, one of which
measures between four and five feet in length. A beau¬
tiful kangaroo is peculiar to this and two neighbouring
islands, which, though timid, makes a vigorous resistance in
defence of its young, few animals being more conspicuous
for maternal affection. Lat. 24. 50. S. Long. 113. 5. E.
BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, commonly called the Ca¬
valier Bernin, an Italian artist, born at Naples in 1598, was
not only an architect and a sculptor, but also a painter and
a mechanician. He was patronized by Pope Urban VIIL
He lived during nine pontificates, and the works he exe¬
cuted at Rome are numerous, though of very questionable
taste. He died in that city in 1680.
BERNON, elected abbot of Reichenau, on the lake of
Zell, near that of Constance, in the year 1014, was cele¬
brated as a poet, rhetorician, musician, philosopher, and di¬
vine. Besides other works, he wrote several treatises on
particularly De Instruments Musicalibus, and De
music.
*
672
BERNOULLI.
Bernoulli. Mensura Monochortla;; but his most celebrated work is a
treatise De Musica sea Tonis. This latter tract is part ot
the Baliol manuscript, and follows the Enchiridion of Odo.
Bernon was highly esteemed by the Empei'or Henry II*, and
succeeded so well in his endeavours to promote learning,
that the abbey of Reichenau was as famous in his time as
those of St Gal and Clunk He died in 1048.
BERNOULLI, a name illustrious in the annals of the
exact sciences, and belonging to a family of respectability,
originally of Antwerp. During the oppressive and bigot¬
ed government of Spain, when the Flemings, like the ex¬
patriated Greeks with their stores of ancient learning, car¬
ried their arts, industry, and genius, to the less enlight¬
ened portions of Europe, this exiled family, driven from
their liberties and soil for their attachment to the reform¬
ed religion, sought first an asylum at Frankfort in 1583,
and afterwards at Basel, where they ultimately obtained
the highest professional and civic distinctions. In the
course of a single century not less than eight of its mem¬
bers successfully cultivated different branches of the ma¬
thematics, and by their personal labours contributed much
to the extension of science and to the diffusion of correct
knowledge over a great portion of Europe. The most
celebrated of these distinguished men were James, John,
and Daniel; but, for the sake of perspicuity, it may be
proper to consider them nearly in the order of family suc¬
cession. i or; 1
I. Bernoulli, James, was born at Basel on the 2/th
December 1654. He was educated at the public school of
Basel, and, preparatory to his philosophical course in the
university of the same city, he received private instruction
from the learned lexicographer Hoffman, then professor
of Greek. At the conclusion of his philosophical studies,
some geometrical figures, which fell in his wayr, excited in
him so ardent a passion for mathematical pursuits, that
it was not to be checked even by the opposition and en¬
treaties of his father, who wished him to be a clergyman.
Like Pascal, whom he also resembled in intensity of reli¬
gious feeling, he applied himself in secret to his favourite
science, and by his unaided exertions became one of the
most distinguished mathematicians of his time. In these
forbidden labours he chiefly cultivated astronomy; while,
with classic propriety, he chose for his device Phaethon
driving the chariot of the sun, with the motto, Invito
patre sidera verso.
In the spring of 1676 he visited Geneva on his way to
the south of France, and subsequently extended his tra¬
vels to England and Holland, without however relinquish¬
ing the studies of his choice. While at Geneva he taught
a blind young lady several branches of science, and also
how to communicate her ideas in writing; and he after¬
wards gave to the public, under the title of A Method of
teaching Mathematics to the Blind, an account of the plan
he had followed, which consisted in having recourse to
the sense of touch, instead of that of sight.1 At Bordeaux
his Universal Tables on Dialling were constructed; and at
London he had the happiness and advantage of being in¬
troduced into the philosophical meetings of Boyle, Hooke,
Stillingfleet, and other learned and scientific men worthy
of the age of Newton.
On his final return to Basel in 1682, he devoted himself
to physical and mathematical investigations ; and, in order
to make the knowledge which he had acquired in travelling
available, he opened a public seminary for experimental
physics or mechanical philosophy,2 which, from the interest Bernoulli,
of the experiments and the eloquence of the lecturer, be-
came a source of attraction to his fellow-citizens. In the
same year he published his essay on comets, Conamen novi
systematis Cometarum, occasioned by the appearance of the
comet of 1680, which had excited the attention of all the
astronomers of Europe. This essay, and his next publica¬
tion, entitled De Gravitate JEtheris, though both deeply
tinged with the philosophy of Descartes, contain some
truths not unworthy of the more correct philosophy of the
Principia. But these, and several interesting papers in
the Journal des Savans and Acta Eruditorum of that pe¬
riod, were only the preludes to greater labours and higher
achievements. ,
The pleasure which Pythagoras and Archimedes de¬
rived from their respective discoveries, was perhaps as
vividly felt by the discoverers of the differential calculus.
Newton and Leibnitz being independent discoverers, may
be allowed to have had an equal share in that refined
pleasure, as well as an equal claim to the merit of an
invention which forms an epoch in mathematical science.
But James Bernoulli, having had both the aid of his younger
brother John, and the perusal of Leibnitz’s new method
of tangents and of maxima and minima, previously pub¬
lished in the Leipsic Transactions,3 cannot be strictly called
an independent discoverer; but, from his extensive and
successful application of the calculus, he is well deserving
of a place by the side of Newton and L<eibnitz. As an ad¬
ditional claim of merit, he was the first to solve Leibnitz s
problem of the isochronous curve, and to determine a curve
mistaken by Galileo for a parabola—the catenaiian (Ja
chainelte) or the curve formed by a chain suspended by
its two extremities, and which he also showed to be the
same as the curvature of a sail filled with wind. , This
curve, though proposed at first as a trial of Leibnitz s skill,
is of much practical utility in regard to the nature of arches,
and particularly of those of suspension.
These inquiries, like step following step, led to another
interesting and useful curve, which, from being formed by
an elastic plate or rod fixed at one end and bent by a
weight applied to the other, he called the elastic curve,
and which he also showed to be the same as thecuivature
of an impervious sail filled with a fluid such as water. In
his investigations respecting cycloidal lines and different
spiral curves, his attention was particularly directed to the
loxodromic and logarithmic spirals; and his discoveries
regarding the last, which possesses the remarkable pio-
perty of reproducing itself under a great variety of condi¬
tions, induced him afterwards to make it the monument of
his labours and the emblem of his hopes.
Whether in the frailty of envying the scientific honours
of his younger brother, or in the better spirit of noble emu¬
lation, which then urged the torch of truth into brighter
animation, he proposed to geometers in general, and to
his brother in particular, the famous problem of isopen-
metrical figures, with a promised reward for its solution.
This problem engaged the attention of the British as well
as continental mathematicians; and however little we may
be prepared to expect such a result in the calm researches
of abstract truth, it gave rise to a most unfortunate family
quarrel. His brother John’s solution being too hasty,
and not quite satisfactory, a discussion arose, which, after
much altercation, became a lasting feud, to be ended on y
by death.
1 Journal des Savans, 1685. Jacobi Bernoulli Opera.
2 “ Collegium Experimentale Physico-Mechanicum publice aperuit.” Vita Jac. Bern, a Bat.
* Nova Methodus pro Maximis e*t Minimis, itemque Tangentibus, quie nec fractas nec irrationales quan i a
lare pro illis calculi genus; per G. G. L. Act. Erud. 1684.
moratur, et singu-
BERNOULLI.
673
Bernoulli.
As the reward of merit, the mathematical chair of the degree of bachelor in philosophy. In a year after, at the Bernoulli,
university of Basel, vacant by the death of the learned age of eighteen, he obtained that of master of arts. His
Megerlin, had been conferred upon James not long after thesis on the one occasion was De Igne lambente, writ-
his return from his travels; and, in the discharge of the ten in Latin verse; and, on the other, Que le Prince est
duties of his office he was so successful as to attract stu- pour les Sujets, written in Greek verse,
dents from foreign parts, and to have pupils who became In his mathematical education, it was his good fortune
afterwards professors in some of the most celebrated uni- to have the able instruction of his elder brother James,
versities of Germany. He was once made rector of the whom he ultimately equalled in this congenial department
distinguished university of which he was a member, and he of science. Chemistry, however, as well as mathematics,
had other honourable distinctions bestowed on him. He seems to have been the object of his early attention. In
and his brother John were the first two foreign associates the year 1690 he published a chemical dissertation on ef-
of the academy of sciences at Paris; and, at the earnest re- fervescence and fermentation,2 in which he endeavours to
quest of the discriminating Leibnitz, they were both made explain the phenomena of chemical action by the differ-
members of the academy of Berlin. His fame, too, was ent figures of what he calls active and passive particles,
increased by his posthumous work De Arte Conjectandi, But to have made a juvenile failure where so many have
which embraces the application of the doctrine of proba- erred, and where some uncertainty yet remains, can scarce-
bilities to moral, political, and economical subjects. ly infer any disgrace.
Three years previous to his official appointment at Ba- In the same year he went to Geneva, where he gave
sel, he had been offered a professorship at Heidelberg; some instructions in the differential calculus to Fatio de
but his union with an accomplished lady of his native city Duiller, and afterwards proceeded to Paris, where he en-
led him to decline the invitation. In this marriage he was joyed the society of Malebranche, Cassini, De la Hire, and
happy; but his family, consisting of a son and daughter, Yarignon. With the Marquis de I’Hopital he spent four
though highly respectable in life, possessed little of the months at his country residence in the study of the higher
characteristic genius of their father. Intense application geometry, and the resources of the new calculus, of which
brought on infirmities, and a slow fever, of which he died he was an ardent promoter, and which he had the honour
on the 16th of August 1705, with all the resignation of a of imparting to his distinguished host. But his indepen-
Christian, and all the firmness of a philosopher. Like dent discoveries in mathematics are numerous and impor-
another Archimedes he requested, previous to his death, tant. Of these it may be proper to mention the expo-
that the logarithmic spiral should be engraven on his nential calculus, and the curve called by him the linea
tombstone, with these words, Eadem mutata resurgo ; ele- brachystochrona, or line of swiftest descent, which he was
gantly alluding, by the properties of the curve, to the not only the first to determine, but at the same time to
Christian’s hope of the resurrection of the body. point out the beautiful relation which this curve bears to
In James Bernoulli were united many of the highest the path described by a ray or particle of light passing
powers of the understanding with some of the best quali- through strata of variable density, such as our atmosphere,
ties of the heart. From a regard to truth he chose rather On his return to his native city he studied medicine, a
to be silent than eloquently wrong; and in religion he pursuit in some degree allied to his now favourite study
was equally removed from superstition and from free- of mathematics; and in 1694 he took the degree of M. D.
think&g. With a bilious temperament, inducing that On this occasion he maintained an ingenious thesis on
“ philosophic melancholy” which is so often the attend- muscular motion,3 in which, however questionable may be
ant of true genius, his mind was peculiarly marked by the theory which he adopts respecting the contraction
elegance and simplicity, and by retentiveness rather than of the muscles, he displays a happy application of ma-
quickness. Like Plato, he combined the elegant exer- thematical principles to the investigation of their motive
cises of the imagination with the more severe labours of power.
the understanding ; poetry with mathematics, and elo- At this period he formed a connection by marriage with
quence with philosophy.1 He wrote elegant verses in La- one of the oldest and most respectable families in Basel;
tin, in German, and in French; but although these were and although he had already declined a professorship in
held in high estimation in his own time, it is on his mathe- Germany, he now accepted an invitation to be professor of
matical works that his fame now rests. These are, 1. Ja- mathematics4 at Groningen. By his learned instructions
cobi Bernoulli Basiliensis Opera, Genevse, 1744, 2 tom. he endeavoured to re-animate the then decayed state of ma-
4to; 2. Jacobi Bernoulli Ars Conjectandi, opus posthu- thematical science in that university; and in order to excite
mum : accedunt tractatus de Seriebus Infinitis, et epistola a taste for such pursuits, he gave a course of experimental
(Gallice scripta) de Ludo Pilae Reticularis, Basiliae, 1713, physics to the public of that city.5 During a residence of
1 tom. 4to. (See also Memoires de 1’Acad. de Paris, from ten years in Groningen, his controversies were almost as
1702 to 1705; Journal des Savans ; Acta Eruditorum; numerous as his discoveries. An incidental expression
Eloges de Fontenelle; and Biographic Universelle.) regarding the resurrection, founded on the anatomical
II. Bernoulli, John, was born at Basel on the 7th Au- doctrine of a constant change in the particles of the body
gust 1667. His education was begun at six years of age ; during life, brought on him a charge of heresy, which was
and his progress was such as to give a fair promise of fu- preferred by a theologian of more zeal than wisdom.6
ture greatness. Having finished his literary studies, he Both his voice and pen, however, were exerted against
was sent to Neufchatel to learn commerce and acquire his opponents in vindication of “ his reputation, his reli-
the French language. But at the end of a year, re- gion, and his honour;” and in a medical dissertation De
nouncing the enriching pursuits of the merchant for the Nutritione, published at the time, he fully states his sen¬
less lucrative investigations of the philosopher, he returned timents on this subject, and triumphs over his enemies
to the university of Basel, where he was admitted to the with the resolution of living down such accusations.
1 “ Poeta suavis et ingeniosus, orator copiosus et elegans.” Vita Jac. Bern, a Bat.
* Dissertutio de Effervescentia et Fermentatione nova hypothesi fnndata. Basil. 1690; itcrum, Venetiis, 1721; tertium, Neapoli, 1734.
a Dissertatio Inauguralis Physico-Anatomica de Motu Musculorum. Basil. 1694.
4 See Commercium Philosophicum, epist. xi. and xii. i Hist, de VAcad, des Sciences, an 1748.
* Cummer. Phil. ep. 73; and Disputatio Medico-Physica de Nutritione. Groningse, 1699.
VOL. IV. 4 Q
674
Bernoulli
BERNOULLI.
An electrical appearance of the barometer first observ¬
ed by Picard, and considered by John Bernoulli under the
name of mercurial phosphorus, or mercury shining in va¬
cuo,1 procured for him the notice of royalty, and engager
him in controversy. Through Leibnitz he received from the
king of Prussia a gold medal for his supposed discoveries ,
while Hartsceker and some of the French academicians
disputed the fact. If we could suppose the calm breast ot
his brother James to have been in any respect ruffled by
this mark of royal favour, it might perhaps be considered
as the remote cause of the family quarrel about the pro¬
blem of isoperimetrical figures above mentioned. But be
this as it may, the problem was proposed on this occasion ;
and we have no desire to use any softening when truth f01 -
bids it. Indeed his most ardent admirers must allow that,
in his dispute with his brother, in his controversies with the
English and Scottish mathematicians, and in his harsh and
jealous bearing to his son Daniel, he showed a temper no
less unfortunate for its possessor than calculated to impair
the lustre of his character, and detract from the respect
otherwise due to it. Having declined, during his resi¬
dence at Groningen, an invitation to Utrecht, he however
accepted, in 1705, the mathematical chair in the univer¬
sity of his native city, vacant by the death of his brother
James; and here he remained till death, though flatter-
jngly invited to higher emoluments in other distinguished
universities.2 His inaugural discourse was De tatis Nova
Analyseos et Geometries Sublimis, which he himself so
successfully applied in investigating the solid of least re¬
sistance, the problem of orthogonal trajectories, and va¬
rious others both in pure and mixed mathematics. Suc¬
cessful in his official labours, at the request of the magis¬
tracy of Basel he applied himself to correct the relaxed
discipline of the university, which was not indeed the
least difficult task which he achieved.
He was several times a competitor for the prizes given
by the academy of sciences of Paris; and his essays
crowned with success were, on the laws of motion,3 on
the elliptical orbits of the planets, and on the inclination
of the planetary orbits.4 This last honour his son Daniel,
the pupil of a better philosophy than the Cartesian, had
the merit to divide with him ; though the ambitious sen¬
sibility of the old man seems to have been hurt with what
in other circumstances would have afforded him pleasure.
Some years after his return to Basel he published a
valuable essay, entitled Nouvelle Theorie de la Manoeuvre
des Vaisseaux, which was occasioned by the questionable
principles advanced by Renau on the same subject. But
his works in pure mathematics are the permanent monu¬
ments of his fame, and must be studied to be fully ap¬
preciated. D’Alembert indeed acknowledges in grati¬
tude, that “ whatever he knew of mathematics he owed to
the works of John Bernoulli.” If his Hydraulica, one of
the latest of his productions, was written, as has been
supposed, in rivalry of the more original work of his son
Daniel, it can only be considered as a proof of that infir¬
mity from which great minds are not always free.
His health had at one period suffered much, as he says,5
from those midnight hours of mental labour stolen from
sleep; yet such was the vigour of his constitution, that he
continued to pursue his usual mathematical studies till the
age of eighty. He was then attacked by a complaint at
first apparently trifling ; but his strength daily and rapidly
declined till the 1st of January 1748, when he fell asleep, Bernoulli,
and thus expired without agony, or even a discomposing
pang ;6 a death not unlike that of the illustrious chemist
Black, who died with his usual meal of milk balaftced in
his hand, as if to show by an experiment how easy his
exit from life had been.
He was a member of almost every learned society in
Europe, and one of the first mathematicians of a mathe¬
matical age. With great warmth of temperament, he was
as keen in his resentments as ardent in his friendships:
a tender husband, though a severe brother; fondly at¬
tached to his family, yet disliking a deserving son; giving
full praise to Leibnitz and Euler, yet blind to the sur¬
passing excellence of Newton ; sincere in his religion,
though attacked by a theologian, and eulogised by a free¬
thinker. The graphic if not faultless pencil of Voltaire
has thus drawn his character :
Son esprit vit la verite,
Et son cceur connut la justice.
II a fait I’honneur de la Suisse,
Et celui de Thumanite.
His various writings were collected under his own eye
by Cramer, professor of mathematics at Geneva, and pub¬
lished under the title of Johannis Bernoulli Opera Omnia,
Lausan. et Genev. 4 tom. 4to; and his interesting corre¬
spondence with Leibnitz under the title of Gul. Leibnitii
et Johannis Bernoidli Commercium Philosophicum et Ma-
thematicum, Lausan. et Genev. 1745, 2 tom. 4to. _
III. Bernoulli, Nicholas, the eldest of the three distin¬
guished sons of John Bernoulli, was only a few months
old when his father went to Groningen in the autumn of
1695J His early indications of genius were cherished
with all the fond attention usually bestowed on a first¬
born. At the age of eight he could speak German, Dutch,
French, and Latin. When his father returned to Basel
he went to the university of that city, where, at the age
of sixteen, he took the degree of doctor in philosophy, and
four years after the highest degree in law.
During these pursuits the study of mathematics had
not been neglected, as appears not only from his giving
instructions in geometry to his younger brother Daniel,
but from his writings on the differential, integral, and
exponential calculus, and from his father considering him,
at the age of twenty-one, worthy of receiving the torch of
science from his own hands.8
Gladly embracing his father’s permission to travel, he
visited Italy and France. In the one he formed a friend-
ship with Varignon, and in the other with Riccati, one of
the first mathematicians of Italy, and the father of a fa¬
mily in some degree talented like the Bernoullis them¬
selves ; but ill health precluding him from reaping the ad¬
vantages of more extended travelling, he returned to his
native city.
The invitation of a Venetian nobleman, however, in¬
duced him again to visit Italy, where he resided two years,
till his return to be a candidate for the chair of jurispru¬
dence in the university of Basel. Disappointed in this
object by the rather singular mode of election by lot, he
was soon afterwards honourably appointed to a similar of¬
fice in the university of Berne. Here he resided three
years, respected and beloved, and with no other regret
than what he felt on account of his separation from his
brother Daniel; an attachment of kindred minds united
1 Diss. Physica de Mercurio lucente in vacuo. Basil. 1719. A T> ria 1797
a Commer. Phil. ep. 214. * Ditcours sur les Loix de la Communication du Mouvement. A raris, i/z/.
* Essai d'unc Nouvelle Physique Celeste. A Paris, 1735. 6 Commer. Phil. ep. 14.
* Hist, de VAcad. 1748. 7 Commer. Phil. ep. 17- . .
8 “ Lampada nunc tradam filio meo natu maximo, juveni xxi. annorum, ingenio malhematico aliisque dotibus satis instructo.
{Com. Phil. ep. 223.)
BERNOULLI.
675
Bernoulli, in sentiment and pursuit, and deserving, in truth, the ap-
pellation of “ par nobile fratrum.” Both seemed fortu¬
nate in being appointed at the same time professors of
mathematics in the academy of Petersburg; but this im¬
portant office Nicholas enjoyed for little more than eight
months. In the end of July 1726 he was cut off by a lin¬
gering fever, in the prime of life, and in the opening ca¬
reer of useful labour.
Sensible of the loss which the nation had sustained by
the death of Nicholas Bernoulli, the Empress Catherine
ordered him a funeral at the public expense; and, wait¬
ing at the academy, she presented her condolence in per¬
son to his surviving brother.1
Some of his papers are published in his father’s works,
and the others in the Acta Eruditorum, and the Comment.
Acad. Petropol.
IV. Bernoulli, Daniel, second son of John Bernoulli,
was born 9th February 1700, during his father’s residence
in Groningen. Like his father, Daniel was intended for
a mercantile life; but, preferring a learned profession, he
studied medicine, became a physician, and, following with
hereditary ability and ardour his paternal steps, he rose to
an eminence and fame worthy of his first and favourite
appellation, “ Son of John Bernoulli.”
Taught by his father to regard mathematical learning
as the sure foundation of all science and all practical art,
his attention was early directed to geometrical studies,
though the severity of his father’s manner was ill calcu¬
lated to encourage the first efforts of one of so sensitive a
disposition; but fortunately, at the age of eleven, he be¬
came the pupil of his affectionate brother Nicholas.2 Ma¬
thematics and medicine were equally the studies of his
youth, and these he had the means of cultivating with
particular advantage in Italy under Michelotti and Mor¬
gagni ; the former being an able geometer, and the latter
well skilled in several branches of physical science, as
well as in anatomy. In such society he breathed a kindred
element; and when he left Italy, he returned to his na¬
tive country with well-won literary and scientific honours.
About this time, though only twenty-four years of age,
he was invited to become president of an academy then
projected at Genoa; but, declining this honour, he was, in
the following year, appointed professor of mathematics at
Petersburg. In this situation, although he enjoyed a com¬
petent salary, he still looked back with fond regard to the
humble but equal lot of his native country. And on his re¬
solving to leave Russia, the court of Petersburg not only
augmented his salary, but granted him the half as a re¬
tiring pension, with the liberty of returning if he chose.
This truly generous conduct made him for a time forego
the gratification of a desire so peculiarly strong in a native
of Switzerland. His health, however, allowing him only
to remain three years longer, he returned to Basel, where
in a short time he was appointed professor of anatomy and
botany, and afterwards of experimental and speculative
philosophy. In the useful and honourable labours of this
office he spent the remaining years of his life, which are
scarcely marked by any other events than the calm con¬
quests of intellect, and the communication of valuable
knowledge and good deeds to mankind.
He had previously published some medical and botani¬
cal dissertations, besides his Exercitationes queedam Ma¬
thematics, containing a solution of the differential equa¬
tion proposed by Riccati, and which now bears the name
of that celebrated geometer. In 1738 his Hydrodynamica
appeared; and whatever may be its defects, it must be
allowed to be at once an original and useful work. The
equilibrium, the pressure, the re-action and varied velo- Bernoulli,
cities of fluids, are considered, not merely theoretically, 'Y"''-''
but practically, with reference to the conveyance of water
in pipes and canals, to machines for raising water, and
also as a moving power in different mechanical operations.
The concluding problem, illustrated by experiment, em¬
braces an ingenious mode of propelling vessels by the re¬
action of water ejected from the stern.—Hydrodynamica,
p. 30. Some of his experiments on this subject were per¬
formed in the presence of Maupertuis and Clairaut, whom
the fame of the Bernoullis had attracted to Basel—a city
famed for learning, and which had then, as D’Alembert
remarks, become to the philosophers of France what Egypt
had been to the philosophers of ancient Greece.
With a success equalled only by Euler, his fellow-citi¬
zen, his friend, and successor at Petersburg, Daniel Ber¬
noulli gained or shared no less than ten prizes of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences of Paris. The first, on the construc¬
tion of a clepsydra for measuring time exactly at sea, he
gained at the age of twenty-four ; the second, on the phy¬
sical cause of the inclination of the planetary orbits, he
divided with his father; and the third, on the tides, he
shared with Euler, Maclaurin, and another competitor,
whose only merit consisted in making a last effort to sup¬
port the system of Descartes.
The problem of vibrating cords, which had been some
time before resolved by Taylor and D’Alembert, became
the subject of a long dispute between Daniel Bernoulli
and his illustrious friend Euler. This discussion, however,
was conducted with that generous spirit which soars above
personalities, and with almost equal claims to praise ; the
one, in support of D’Alembert, displaying all the force of
analysis; and the other, in defence of Taylor, using all
the address of a mind fertile in resources.
In one of his early investigations on mechanics, he has
given an ingenious though indirect demonstration of the
problem of the parallelogram of forces; and in other papers,
contained also in the Petersburg Memoirs, he has published
researches of a higher character and of equal utility. His
labours in the decline of life were chiefly directed to the
doctrine of probabilities in reference to practical purposes,
and in particular to economical subjects; to inoculation
as an object of national interest, and to the duration of
married life in the different sexes, and the relative propor¬
tion of male and female births. But in such speculations
the premises often do not embrace all the existing circum¬
stances ; so that we need not be much surprised to find the
results sometimes at variance with nature. His great ob¬
ject however was, in the spirit of true philosophy, to em¬
ploy theory only as a means to investigate the secrets of
nature, and to apply mathematics to explain with accuracy
and certainty the phenomena of the universe.
By a regular and calm tenor of life, though of a delicate
constitution, he retained his usual vigour of understand¬
ing till near the age of eighty, when his nephew James
relieved him of his public duties. Being afflicted with a
troublesome asthma, his retirement was confined to the so¬
ciety of a few chosen friends. In the spring of 1782 all
his complaints were increased, and, after some days illness,
this excellent man and true philosopher died like his fa¬
ther, in the repose of sleep.3
He was never married, owing, it is said, to a misplaced
affection in youth. His manners were unaffected, and his
society agreeable. His house, his table, and his dress, had
nothing inconsistent with simplicity. Frugal without par¬
simony, and benevolent without ostentation, the wealth
which might have been expended in selfish pleasure or
1 See Vita JV. Bernoulli, Com. Acad. Petrop. vol. ii.
* Vita Nic. Bern.
See Mtm. de I'Acad. an 1782.
676
BERNOULLI.
Bernoulli, idle show was judiciously employed in forming an endow-
ment for poor students at Basel. Excluded by his pro¬
fessional character from the councils of the republic, he
however received all the deference and honour of a first
magistrate. He indeed enjoyed an esteem and respect
seldom accorded to living worth. One of the first lessons
which a parent taught his child was to bow to Daniel
Bernoulli. Gratified as he must have been by this flat¬
tering regard of his fellow-citizens, he was yet wont to
mention two incidents in his life as having afforded him
the greatest pleasure ; the accidental meeting and indirect
approbation of Newton, and the solving of Kcemg s difficult
problem, while he did the honours of the table for him.
Like his father, he was a member of almost every learned
society of Europe, and he succeeded him as foreign asso¬
ciate of the academy of Paris. Several of his interesting
investigations are contained in the earlier volumes of t ie
Petersburg Memoirs; and his separately published works
are 1. Dan. Bernoulli Dissertatio Inaugur. Phys. Med. de
Resyiratione. Basil. 1721, 4to. 2. Positiones Anatomico-
Botanicce. Basil. 1721, 4to. 3. Exercitationes quadam
Mathematics. Venetiis, 1724,4to. 4. Dan. Bernoulli Hy-
drodynamica. Argentorati, 1738, 4to. . .
V. Bernoulli, John, the youngest of the three distin¬
guished sons of John Bernoulli, was born at Basel on the
18th May 1710. He studied law and mathematics, and, after
travelling in France, was appointed professor of eloquence
in the university of his native city. In this office he conti¬
nued five years, till the death of his father, whom he suc¬
ceeded as professor of mathematics. He was thrice a suc¬
cessful competitor for the prizes of the academy of sciences
of Paris. His prize subjects were, on the capstan, on the
propagation of light, and on the magnet. The friendship
of Maupertuis, who died under his roof while on his way
to Berlin, was esteemed by him not the least of his honours.
He himself died in 1790, at the age of eighty. His two
sons, John and James, are the last noted mathematicians of
the Bernoulli family.
VI. Bernoulli, Nicholas, cousin of the three preceding,
and son of Nicholas Bernoulli, one of the senators of Basel,
was born in that city on the 10th October 168/. He is
frequently mentioned with approbation both by his uncle
and Leibnitz in their epistolary correspondence. He vi¬
sited England, where he was kindly received by Newton
and Halley,1 previously to his appointment at Padua to the
mathematical chair which Galileo had once filled. But
neither the classical recollections, nor the superior wealth
of Padua, were sufficient to prevent his return to the free¬
dom and happy mediocrity of his native city. At Basel
he was successively professor of logic and of law, where
he died on the 29th of November 1759. He was editor of
the Ars Conjectandi of his uncle James. His own works
are not published separately, but are contained in the Acta
Eruditorum, the Giornale de' Letterati d’Italia, and the
Commercium Philosophicum.
VII. Bernoulli, grandson of the celebrated John
Bernoulli, and son of the second of that name, was born
at Basel on the 4th December 1744. He studied at Basel
and at Neufchatel, and when thirteen years of age he
took the degree of doctor in philosophy. His Thesis, De
Variolarum Insitione, is still preserved in Haller’s Let¬
ters. It gives a short history of inoculation, as well as
the method of operation and manner of treatment which
had recently and successfully been practised on himself.
The kindred studies of mathematics and astronomy were
his early pursuits. When only nineteen years of age he was
appointed astronomer royal of Berlin. Some years after,
obtaining leave to travel, he visited Germany, France, and Bernoulli.
England ; and subsequently Italy, Russia, and Poland. On r^-/
his return to Berlin he was appointed director of the mathe¬
matical department of the academy of that city. Here he
died on the 10th July 1807, being, at the time of his death,
a member of several of the learned academies of Europe.
He is a very voluminous and varied writer. His writ¬
ings consist of several volumes of travels, besides astrono¬
mical, geographical, and mathematical works. In 1774 he
published a French translation of Euler’s Elements of Al¬
gebra at Lyons, in 2 vols. 8vo. He was a conductor of
some of the periodical works of Berlin, and in the acade¬
mical memoirs of that city are several of his papers on
astronomical subjects. Those for the years 1803 and 1804
contain his observations and experiments on the cultiva¬
tion of zea mays or Indian corn in Switzerland and Ger¬
many, and on its advantageous application to various eco¬
nomical purposes.
VIII. Bernoulli, James, younger brother of the pre¬
ceding, and the second of this name, was born at Basel on
the 17th October 1759. He displayed early talents, which
were cultivated with the greatest care. Having finished
his literary studies, he was, according to custom, sent to
Neufchatel to acquire the French language. On his return
to his native city he studied law and took a degree.
The study of law, however, had neither alienated nor
checked his hereditary taste for geometrical pursuits. The
early mathematical lessons which he had received from
his father were continued by his uncle Daniel, so as to give
new vigour to his native predilection for the exact sciences.
Such, indeed, was his progress in these studies, that at
the age of twenty-one the directors of the university of
Basel committed to him the duties of the chair of experi¬
mental physics, which his uncle’s advanced years rendered
him unable to discharge. But although he filled this impor¬
tant office with satisfaction, both to the directors and to
his auditors, he did not succeed on his relative’s death.
The lot was capricious, and the voice of public opinion (by
which almost all the important appointments at Basel were
then decided) unfavourable. Fie had been formerly, too, an
unsuccessful candidate for the chair of eloquence ; so that,
with perhaps a conscious feeling of unmerited neglect, he
published on the present occasion a thesis De Sublimi.
This repeated disappointment, combined with the de¬
sire of travelling, so natural and so powerful in youth, in¬
duced him to accept the situation of secretary to Count
de Brenner, which afforded him an opportunity of seeing
a great part of Germany and Italy. In Italy he foimed
a friendship with Lorgna, professor of mathematics at Ve¬
rona, and one of the founders of the Italian society for the
encouragement of the sciences; He was also made cor¬
responding member of the Royal Society of I urin; and,
while residing at Venice, he was, through the friendly re¬
presentation of Fuss, admitted into the academy of Peters¬
burg, with the promise of promotion in the course of a
year. In 1788 he was accordingly made one of the ma¬
thematical professors of that flourishing seminary, and in
the following year he married a daughter of Albert Euler,
son of the illustrious Euler. This marriage, which united
names equally dear to science, and, from congeniality of sen¬
timent, promised much happiness, was almost tragically dis¬
solved in the space of two short months. Residence in
country, and the opportunity of bathing in the Neva, had
given him a taste for that healthful but sometimes fatal ex¬
ercise. Being an excellent swimmer, he was fearlessly enjoy¬
ing this recreation, when at once he sunk without any ap¬
pearance of danger or expression of pain. He was instantly
1 Com. Phil. ep. 199.
B E It
Beroe taken out by his brother-in-law, and every means of resusci-
II tation applied, but without success. The opinion of the phy-
Berthollet. sic;ans was that his death had been occasioned by a shock of
apoplexy. Hisconstitutionindeed was naturally delicate, and
two years before he had suffered much from a nervous fever.
His premature death at the age of twenty-nine was a source
of deep regret, not only to his relatives, but to many whom
he had attached to him by a character open, obliging, gentle,
and modest.
Several of his papers are contained in the first six volumes
of Nova Acta Acad. Scien. Imper. Petropol., in the Acta
Helvetica, in the Memoirs of the Academies of Berlin and
Turin, and in his brother John’s publications. He also
published separately some juridical and physical theses,
and a German translation of Memoires du Philosophe de
Merian. (t. a.)
BERNSTADT, a town of Prussian Silesia, twenty-two
miles east of Breslau. It has a ducal castle, and manufac¬
tures of woollen and linen stuffs. Pop. 3600.
BEROE, a genus of ciligrade acalephous animals. See
Mollusca.
BERGiA, an ancient city of Macedonia, S.W. of Pella,
on the river Astraeus, a tributary of the Haliacmon. It is
now known by the name of Boor. The Beroeans are com¬
mended in Scripture for their reception of the Gospel.
There was another Beroea in Syria, called also Beroe, and
by the inhabitants Beroea. It is supposed to be identical
with the modern Aleppo, or Haleh, so called from Chalep,
the name given to Bercea by the Byzantine writers. There
was a third town of this name in Thrace, between Philippo-
polis and Nicopolis.
BEROSUS, a priest of the temple of Belus at Babylon
in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and author of the
History of Chaldaea, a work often cited by the ancients, and
of which Josephus gives some curious fragments. The best
editions of these fragments are by Richter, Lipz. 1825, and in
Didot’s Fragm. Historicorum Grcccorum, vol.ii. Paris, 1848.
BERRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Bouches-du-Rhone, and on a lake of the same name. It is
remarkable for the quantity and excellence of the salt made
there. Long. 5. 9. E. Lat. 43. 22. N. Pop. 1871.
BERRETINI da Cortona, Pietro, historical and land¬
scape painter, was born at Cortona in 1596, and, according
to some writers, was a disciple of Andrea Commodi, though
others affirm that he was the disciple of Baccio Ciarpi. This
distinguished artist died in 1669. Some of his best works
are in the Barberini Palace at Rome, and the Palazzo Pitti
at Florence.
BERRETONI, Nicolo, historical painter, born at Mon-
tefeltro in 1637, was a disciple of Carlo Maratti, under whom
he studied design and colouring, and attained such excel¬
lence that he excited the jealousy of his master. He died
in 1682. (Lanzi.)
BERSARII (from bersare, to shoot with a bow, or from
bersa, a fence), in writers of the middle ages, a term for
hunters or sportsmen.
BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, one of the most dis¬
tinguished chemists of the French school, was not a native of
France, but born at Talloire, near Annecy, in Savoy, in 1748.
He received his education first at Chambery, and subse¬
quently in the provincial college at Turin, where he took
His degree as a physician. On arriving at Paris, he soon
became the medical attendant of Philip Duke of Orleans;
and by the publication of a volume of chemical essays, which
gained him such reputation that he was admitted, in 1781,
into the Academic des Sciences. Through the interest of
his royal patron he was appointed government superintendent
of the establishment for the improvement of dyeing ; and
the result was the production of his very valuable essay Sur
la Teincture, a work that first systematized and chemically
explained the principles of the art of dyeing. This work
BEE 677
has been well translated into English by Dr Wm. Hamilton, Berthol-
in two vols., 1791. letia-
Berthollet early adopted the chemical views of Lavoisier,
which he illustrated with great ingenuity, and contrasted
with the phlogistic hypothesis of Stahl; and to the two for¬
mer, assisted by Morveau and Fourcroy, we owe that beau¬
tiful system of chemical nomenclature to which subsequent
philosophers have been so much indebted. Berthollet con¬
firmed and extended the discoveries of Priestley on am¬
monia ; discovered, among other curious substances, ful¬
minating silver; and greatly extended our knowledge of
that important substance the dephlogisticated marine acid
of Scheele, for which the name of oxymuriatic acid was then
proposed, and which is now termed chlorine. It was he
who first proposed to apply it to bleaching—in 1785. Dur¬
ing these researches he discovered the remarkable salt now
called chlorate of potassa; and we owe to him also an ex¬
cellent essay on the chemical constitution of soaps. But we
cannot here attempt an enumeration of all the contributions
to chemistry by this estimable philosopher: they are scat¬
tered through between eighty and ninety memoirs in the
Journal de Physique, Annales de Chimie, Memoires de Vln-
stitut, and Memoires dArceuil, from which they have been
copied into all the philosophical journals of Europe.
At the commencement of the French Revolution the
scarcity of saltpetre for the manufacture of gunpowder was
much felt; and Berthollet was placed at the head of a com¬
mission for improving the processes for obtaining this impor¬
tant product within the territory of France. In this vocation
he visited almost all France, and greatly improved and sim¬
plified the modes of obtaining and purifying saltpetre. Soon
afterwards we find him one of a commission for improving
the processes in the smelting of iron, and converting it into
steel. The government fully appreciated his merits ; and
in 1792 he was appointed a director of the mint, in which he
introduced several important improvements. In 1794 he was
an active member of the committee on agriculture and the
arts; while he filled the office of teacher of chemistry in the
Polytechnic and Norman Schools of Paris, and was an active
member in the remodelling of the National Institute in 1795.
When the victories of Buonaparte prostrated Italy, Ber¬
thollet and Monge were appointed by the convention as the
heads of a commission to select from the spoils of Italy the
choicest specimens of ancient and modern art, for the na¬
tional galleries of Paris. This circumstance introduced
Berthollet to the victorious general; and, in after years, led
to his accompanying Buonaparte in the expedition to Egypt,
where he was one of the most distinguished members of
the Institute of Cairo. On the overthrow of the executive
directory, Berthollet was made a senator, and a grand officer
of the Legion of Honour. Under the empire he was created
a count, and sat as a peer on the restoration of the Bourbons.
His last work was his curious essay on Chemical Statistics,
in which he endeavoured to show that other causes than the
mere force of elective attractions, as explained by Bergman,
aided in producing chemical combinations ; and he particu¬
larly showed how certain decompositions could be explained
without the supposition of what was termed predisposing
affinities, by the influence of insolubility, of aggregation, and
of the mass of one of the ingredients. This ingenious theory
was never generally adopted by chemists, the theory of de¬
finite proportions, and of opposite electric states, being sup¬
posed sufficient to explain chemical phenomena.
Berthollet was a man of great modesty and unostenta¬
tious manners. For some years he lived rather retired at Ar-
ceuil, especially after his grief for the misconduct and suicide
of his only son. In 1822 he was attacked with a painful and
lingering malady, which he bore with manly fortitude, and
which ended in an enormous gangrene that put a period to
his sufferings on the 6th of November of that year. (t. s. t.)
BERTHOLLETIA, agenus of plants of the nat. ord. of
678 B E R
Berthoud Lecythidese. The lofty tree that produces the Brazil or Para
Jl nut is a Bertholletia. The kernels are contained in a sphe-
Bertinoro. ro;ja| gPgp or case as large as a man’s head, with four cells,
in each of which are six or eight kernels. See lylant(B jpqui-
noxiales of Humboldt and Bonpland.
BERTHOUD, Ferdinand, chronometer-maker to the
French admiralty, member of the Institute of I ranee and
of the Legion of Honour, was born near Neufchatel in 172/.
His father was an architect, and the son was intended to
be bred to the church ; but, having shown a taste for clock¬
work, an experienced workman was engaged to instruct him
in its principles, and young Berthoud was afterwards sent
to Paris to improve himself in the knowledge and practice
of the art. He settled in Paris in 1745, and applied himself
to the making of chronometers, an art which was then in
its infancy. A chronometer is an accurately-made watch,
whose chief peculiarity consists in a piece of mechanism in¬
tended to render the number of vibrations ol the balance
equal in equal times, at all the degrees of temperature to
which the instrument is exposed; and the chronometer being
a portable instrument, which can be used on ship-board, is
by this mechanism made to move at a constant rate say
at the rate of mean solar time—so that it shows what hour
it is at the meridian of Greenwich, if the chronometer, at the
commencement of the voyage, was set to Greenwich time ;
whilst the observation of the height of the sun or of a star
gives the hour, angle, and the hour at the place where the
ship is ; and the difference between these two times is the
longitude of the ship. Heurieu and Borda, by order of the
French government, made a voyage from La Rochelle to the
West Indies and Newfoundland for the purpose of trying
the chronometers of Berthoud, and found that they gave
the longitude with only a quarter of a degree of error, after
a cruise of six weeks. Satisfactory results were also obtained
in the expedition of Verdun, Borda, and Pingre, which was
appointed to try his chronometers and those of Le Roy. An
account of this expedition is published.
Sully, an English watch-maker established in Paris, was
the first who in that city attempted the construction of
chronometers for finding the longitude ; and this he did in
1724. In 1736 the chronometers of the English artist Har¬
rison were tried at sea. In France there were no chrono¬
meter-makers of note, from the first attempts of Sully, till
Pierre le Roy and Ferdinand Berthoud, between whom there
was some discussion about the priority of their discoveries
and improvements. Ferdinand Berthoud’s chronometers
were long the most esteemed of any in France. Louis Ber¬
thoud, his nephew and successor, improved upon the ma¬
chines of his uncle, and made them generally of a smaller
size, so as to become more portable. Many further im¬
provements have been made by the English chronometer-
makers.
Berthoud was regular in his habits, and retained the use
of his faculties to the last. He died of hydrothorax, at his
country house, in the Valley of Montmorency, in 1807, at
the age of eighty. The principal of his published works
are Essai sur FHorlogerie, 1786, 2 vols. 4to; two Tracts
on Chronometers, 1773; De la Mesure du Temps, 1787,
4to; Les Longitudes par la Mesure du Temps, 1775, 4to; a
Tract on Chronometers, 1782, 4to; Histoire de la Mesure
du Temps par les Horloges, 1802, 2 vols. 4to; EArt de
conduire et de regler les Pendules et les Montres 1760,
12mo. This tract contains directions suited to general readers
for regulating clocks and watches: it has gone through seve¬
ral editions. (w. A. c.)
BERTINORO, a city in the delegation of Forli in Italy,
in the papal dominions, the seat of the bishop of the united
dioceses of Forlempopoli and Bertinoro. It stands on a hill,
below which the river Ronco flows, and is celebrated for the
excellence of its wine. It contains about 4000 inhabitants.
Long. 12. 2. 30. E. Lat. 44. 8. 34. N.
B E R
BERWICK, the Duke of, was a natural son of James Berwick
II. by Arabella Churchill, sister to the great Duke of Marl- II
borough. “Theyouth, named James Fitzjames (Macaulay’s
Hist, of Eng., vol. ii. p. 326), had as yet given no promise of v ^ ire’
the eminence which he afterwards attained; but his man- r**
ners were so gentle and inoffensive that he had no enemy ex¬
cept Mary of Modena, who had long hated the child of the
concubine with the bitter hatred of a childless wife. A small
part of the Jesuitical faction had, before the pregnancy of
the Queen was announced, seriously thought of setting him
up as a competitor of the Princess of Orange. It does not
appear that this absurd design was ever countenanced by
the king. The boy, however, was acknowledged; and what¬
ever distinction a subject not of the royal blood could hope
to attain were bestowed on him. He had been created Duke
of Berwick; and he was now loaded with honourable and
lucrative employments, taken from those noblemen who had
refused to comply with the royal commands.” At the revo¬
lution of 1688, he became an exile with his father in France,
where he was recommended to the court by his superior
merit. He was created marshal of France, knight of the
Holy Ghost, duke and peer of France, grandee of Spain,
and commander-in-chief of the French armies; nor were
these honours and employments greater than his services
merited. He lived in an age when the Prince of Orange
and many other great generals commanded against him; yet
his reputation as a warrior suffered no eclipse by the com¬
parison ; while the victory of Almanza, which secured Spain
to the Bourbon dynasty, stamped his character as a great
and successful commander. His courage was cool and steady;
and he was eminently remarkable for entire self-possession in
all circumstances, even the most critical;—watchful, cautious,
and persevering; ever ready to take advantage of a fault or
an oversight committed by an antagonist, yet, throughout his
whole career, frugal of the blood of his soldiers, and anxious
that it should not on any occasion be wantonly or unne¬
cessarily shed. The system of discipline he maintained was
rigid; and although the wants of the soldier were scrupu¬
lously attended to, no commander ever punished excesses
with greater severity.
The Duke of Berwick was much blamed by the more
zealous and violent adherents of the Stuart family for not
being sufficiently attached to the Jacobite party, which was
that of his own family. But on a cool examination of his
actions it will appear that his behaviour in this particular
was, like the rest of his conduct, equally sensible and just.
When he accepted of employments, received honours and
dignities, and became naturalized in France, he considered
it his duty to become a Frenchman in reality, and to be re¬
gulated in regard to the cause of the Stuarts according to
the will and pleasure of the sovereign whom he served. But
when commanded by his king to promote the views of the
Stuart family, he acted with the greatest sincerity, and took
the most sensible and effectual methods to serve his unhappy
house. In a word, the Duke of Berwick was a man of high
principle and honour ; and he showed by his life and actions
that moral integrity is compatible and consistent with the
life of a statesman and a great general. He was killed by
a cannon-ball at the siege of Philipsburg on the Rhine, in
1734, in the sixty-fourth year of his age.
BERWICKSHIRE, a county situated at the S.E. extre¬
mity of Scotland, is bounded by the German Ocean on the
E.; by East Lothian on the N.; by a part of Mid-Lothian,
but chiefly by Roxburghshire, on the W.; by the river Tweed,
and that part of Roxburghshire which lies to the N. of the
same river, on the S.; and by the township of Berwick on
the S.E. On the S., the Tweed, in a winding course of
about 35 miles, divides it, first, from the part of Roxburgh¬
shire which lies south of the river; secondly, from Northum¬
berland ; and thirdly, from North Durham. Its northern
extremity is situated in N. Lat. 55. 58.30.; and its southern
B E R W I C
Berwick- point upon the Tweed is in 55.36.30. Dunse, its principal
shire, town, is situated nearly in the centre of the county. The
^ ■— v ~ ^ extreme length of the county is 31 ^ miles, and its extreme
breadth 19£ miles. Its superficies is 446 square miles, or
285,440 acres, of which more than one-half is supposed to
be arable, the remainder consisting of upland pasture and un¬
reclaimed moor.
The county consists of two divisions distinguished from
each other by well-marked natural features. The first com¬
prises the Lammermuirs, a portion of that range of gray-
wacke hills which, commencing with the bold promontory of
St Abb’s Head in this county, stretches quite across to the
opposite coast of Scotland. The second consists of the
level district which fills up the space between the base of the
Lammermuir hills and the river Tweed. This compara¬
tively level tract is called the Merse, a name which in various
printed accounts is said to be derived from its ancient name
the March or Border district. There is, however no deri¬
vation in the case, as Merse (mepjrc) is simply the old Saxon
spelling of Marsh, a term which, however inapplicable to
the district as we now see it, must have been singularly ap¬
propriate to it in its natural state. 4 he valley of the Leader,
called Lauderdale, forms a subdivision of the Lammermuir
district.
The Lammermuirs present the well-known aspect of gray-
wacke hills, viz., a succession of round-backed ridges with
long unbroken slopes covered for the most part with a stra¬
tum of peat of varying thickness, bearing a rough herbage
of heather, bents, and mosses. Their general aspect is un¬
inviting, and the whole range is bleak and unfertile. The
summit level is about 1000 feet above the sea, and rises at
one point, Criblaw, to 1615 feet. Along the base of these
hills, and in the numerous hollows which run into them, a
red soil prevails, overlying the old red sandstone, which
in general is fertile and admits of profitable cultivation. The
higher grounds are fit only for sheep-walks, and are with
slight exceptions entirely devoted to that purpose. It is
strange, however, to notice how large a portion of these
elevated grounds has at some remote period been subjected
to the plough. Some of these furrows obviously bear date
from the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the pre¬
sent century, when the exorbitant price of grain tempted
many of the hill farmers to cultivate an increased breadth
of their lands. But these comparatively modern plough-
ings can at once be recognised by the straightness and uni¬
form width of the ridges, whereas the really ancient ones
are invariably serpentine and irregular. The present occu¬
piers of these hills are in general fully alive to their unfit¬
ness for arable husbandry, and accordingly confine them¬
selves to pastoral pursuits. These elevated grounds have
been much improved for this purpose by judiciously dis¬
posed fir plantations, and other artificial means of shelter from
the snow storms to which the district is much exposed, and
still more by a wholesale system of surface draining. By
these simple and inexpensive means, the health and well¬
doing of the flocks has been very greatly enhanced. These
consist of Cheviot and blackfaced sheep; both of which
mountain breeds are here cultivated with eminent success.
To a spectator looking from the summit of any of the
front-lying eminences of the Lammermuirs, the whole of
the lower valley of the Tweed, with the Merse in the fore¬
ground, is seen spreading out in an apparently unbroken
plain, from the base of the hill on which he stands to that
of the opposite Cheviot range. And hardly anywhere can
a lovelier landscape of the kind be met with, presenting as
it does a wide expanse of richly wooded and highly culti¬
vated country, surrounded by a natural barrier of picturesque
hills which inclose it on all sides, except at the narrow open¬
ing through which the Tweed empties itself into the German
Ocean. This apparently level plain has in reality a very
undulating surface; the whole valley being traversed length-
K S H I R E. 679
wise by a succession of parallel wave-like ridges. It has this Berwick-
peculiarity in addition, that the land has a considerable slope shire,
from the coast inwards. An obvious proof of this latter fact
is presented by the rivers Till on the Northumberland side,
and Leet in Berwickshire, which fall into the Tweed near
Coldstream after a course from the coast inland. The tra¬
veller finds also that the roads which traverse the Merse from
east to west are comparatively level, whereas on those which
run from south to north he is harassed by a perpetual rise
and fall. The streams which drain the district flow through
these hollows, for the most part in deep and narrow ravines,
where they make little show in the general landscape, al¬
though rich in secluded nooks of exquisite beauty. The
ancient marshiness of the district was not therefore owing
to its flatness, but to the prevalence of land-locked hollows
in which water stagnated. That very undulation of surface
which occasioned its swampiness has in fact afforded pecu¬
liar facilities for its artificial drainage. This has been so
effectually accomplished, that the county is now as remark¬
able for the absence of water as it once was for its presence.
The salubrity of the district, as well as its fertility, has been
greatly enhanced by this wholesale drainage. Ague, once
the scourge of its inhabitants, has absolutely disappeared;
and its flocks are now exempt from the rot.
Berwickshire is strictly an agricultural county, as—with
the exception of its fisheries, a gingham factory (at Earl-
ston), some small woollen mills, and two considerable paper
mills—there are no branches of industry pursued but such
as are either directly connected with or subservient to the
culture of the soil. * Its agriculture, however, is of the first
order. For this it is chiefly indebted to natural advantages
of soil and climate, but in no small degree also to its proxi¬
mity to England. To the latter circumstance it owes the
early introduction of improved varieties of grain and other
crops, of improved modes of cultivation, of valuable breeds
of live stock, and of good markets in which to dispose of its
produce. In common with the neighbouring county of
Roxburgh, it bears a striking resemblance in the style of its
agriculture to several of the midland counties of England.
The most marked features in its husbandry are the great
extent and excellence of the turnip crops, and of the flocks
and herds by which they are consumed. Until a compara¬
tively recent date the cattle and sheep reared in this county
were, after being brought to a fair state of flesh, transferred
to England, where the fattening process was completed;
but now, owing to the increased cultivation of turnips, the
tide has completely turned, and immense herds of growing^
cattle are annually brought from the northern counties of
England into the valley of the Tweed, where they are fully
fattened and then returned to the butcher markets of the
south. This great increase in the extent and weight per acre
of the turnip crops is due in part to tile-draining, but still
more so to the liberal use of extraneous manures, such as
guano and bones. These improvements in the cultivation
of the arable parts of the county have led to corresponding
ones in the pastoral district. Formerly the sheep farmers
brought their stock to market as full-grown wedders; but
now their grounds are stocked almost entirely with ewes,
the lambs from which are sold at weaning-time to the low-
country farmers, and by them are sent to the butcher mar¬
kets when from sixteen to twenty-four months old. I he most
of these lambs are a cross breed between Cheviot or black-
faced ewes and Leicester rams. These yield a larger price
to the breeders than they could obtain from the pure moun¬
tain stock, while the increased size and propensity to fatten
which they derive from the mixture of Leicester blood, adapts
them to the purposes of their low-country purchasers.
The agriculture of the county has recently derived con¬
siderable advantages from the railways by which it is now
intersected and skirted. This at once led to the establish¬
ment of a weekly grain market at Dunse, in the centre of
680
bekwickshire.
Berwick- the county, and of a fortnightly cattle market at Berwick¬
shire. on-Tweed. Nearly the whole produce of the county is now
sent to market by this rapid and economical mode of con¬
veyance. The facilities which it affords for obtaining drain¬
ing and building materials, lime, extraneous manures, and
fuel, have greatly furthered the agricultural improvement of
the whole county, but especially of its more inland pai ts.
The arable farms usually contain from 300 to 500 acres,
lying compactly together, and divided by well-kept thorn
hedges into fields of from 20 to 40 acres each. Each farm
has its substantial homestead, placed as near its centre as
possible. They invariably possess thrashing machinery,
which, when water is not available, is propelled by a steam-
engine. Another feature of these homesteads is that they
always comprise as many cottages as are required to accom¬
modate the whole of the labourers statedly employed on the
farm, which is at the rate of about one family for every oO
acres of arable land. Until a very recent period, these cot¬
tages were for the most part of the very rudest construction
—mere hovels, in fact, with low unplastered walls, earthen
floors, a single small window, the interior open to the rafters,
and unpartitioned except by the box-beds of the occupants.
A thorough reformation has, however, been in rapid pro¬
gress during the past ten years. These cottages, are now
made higher in the walls, have good slated roofs, brick floors,
partitions dividing them into two or more apartments below,
and a deal floor and chambers above. The windows are large
and made to open, and conveniences conducing to cleanli¬
ness and external neatness are usually provided. The esta¬
blishment on a 400 acre farm of good land usually consists
of a steward, a shepherd, five ploughmen, a man of all work,
and perhaps a female cottar. These labourers are engaged
for a year from Whitsunday to Whitsunday, and are paid
for the most part in stipulated quantities of farm produce.
The wages of an ordinary ploughman, or hind, as he is here
called, consists of the following items: 54 bushels of oats,
21 do. of barley, 9 do. of peas, the keep of a cow (viz.,
grass in summer, turnips and straw in winter), L.4 in money,
food for himself and wife in harvest, and some gratuities when
sent to market with grain. This constitutes the hind’s own
wages ; but, as he engages to provide at all seasons a young
woman or lad for the lighter work of the farm, he receives
at the rate of lOd. a-day for the actual time that this young
person is employed; and to compensate him for her board,
he gets one-third of an imperial acre of land on which to
plant potatoes. The farmer furnishes manure and horse-
labour for this crop, and the hind supplies the sets and un¬
dertakes the hoeing and digging. The farmer also provides
a cottage and small garden for each hind, and the cartage
of what fuel he requires; for which the latter pays rent by
giving the labour of a female reaper (usually his wife or
daughter) to assist in cutting down the crop of the farm.
The money value of a hind’s wages varies, of course, with
the price of grain ; but it usually keeps very near the rate
currently paid in the district to day-labourers employed at
job-work. The hind has this important advantage, how¬
ever, that, being engaged for the year, his pay is not inter¬
rupted by occasional sickness or by bad weather. Farm-
stewards and shepherds receive the same quantities of grain,
&c., as the ploughmen ; but the money wages of the former
are greater by from L.6 to L.8, and the latter have the graz¬
ing of from eight to twelve sheep in lieu of the money wage.
This had, indeed, formerly been the case with the plough¬
men also, as they still speak of the money part of their wages
as their “ sheep siller” This hind system has undoubtedly
wrought well for all concerned. The payments in produce
guard the labourer from the injurious effects of excessive
fluctuations in prices; they tend to encourage habits of
thriftiness and sobriety ; and the possession of a cow, a pig,
and plenishing for a cottage, constitutes the hind a little
capitalist, and furnishes at once a motive and guarantee.
for his good behaviour. The farmer and his labourers, from Berwick-
living together as a distinct community, take an interest in shire,
eachother’s family affairs, and interchange a variety of good
offices which exercise a most wholesome influence on all.
The plan of engagingrather than individuals, and
giving them a cottage on the farm, has the effect of preserv¬
ing intact that blessed relationship, and of retaining the
young under its hallowing influences to a later period than
would otherwise obtain. The most plausible objection urged
against the system has reference to that feature in it that the
fund is taken bound to keep a young person (hence called a
bondager) for the lighter work of the farm. When a hind
has no grown children of his own it is said to be a hardship
to him to have to hire in a stranger for this purpose, and
that the young person so hired suffers by removal from un¬
der parental superintendence, and by being usually necessi¬
tated to sleep in the same apartment with the hind and his
wife. It must, however, be remembered that these young
persons are just the children of other hinds, and that they
live in all respects as they would do in their parents , houses,
and are usually treated as if they were members of the fa¬
mily. What is an inconvenience to individuals thus becomes
a benefit to the class, and the manner in which they are too
often lodged is an argument rather for improving the cot¬
tages than for interfering with the system. The admirable
conduct, intelligence, and general good condition of the
peasantry of this county affords the best possible proof that
the hind system is a wise and beneficial one.
The rivers of the county are, the Tweed, which skirts it
for about 27 miles, and falls into the sea at Berwick; the
Whitadder and the Blackadder, both taking their rise in
different parts of the Lammermuir hills, and aftei uniting
falling into the Tweed; the Eye, running into the sea at
Eyemouth; the Leader, which gives its name to Lauder¬
dale ; of smaller note, the Dye, the Leet, and (for a short
part of its course, before it enters Roxburghshire) the Eden.
The most of these rivers flow with a rapid current, and so
afford an abundant water-power, which is extensively em¬
ployed in propelling corn and other mills. The value of this
power has, however, been seriously impaired by the re£ent
extensive drainage of the district. The rapidity with which
rain-water is now discharged gives rise on the one hand to
floods of unwonted vehemence, and, on the other, to such a
diminished stream in fair weather, that scarcely a season now
occurs in which many mills are not occasionally idle for lack
of water. , . ...
The salmon-fishery of the river Tweed is very valuable,
and has been the subject of many royal grants. For a number
of years past a steady decrease has occurred in the quantity
of these fish sent to market. This is due, perhaps, in some
measure to the contamination of the waters by the influx of
refuse from an ever-increasing number of woollen, paper, aud
other mills on the higher streams, but chiefly to an excessive
capture of the fish by the proprietors, and to the enormous
destruction of breeding fish by poachers during the annual
close-time. Several attempts are at present in progress tor
multiplying these fish by the use of artificial spawning be s
and rearing ponds. It is a curious fact, that dining the past
thirty years the sea or bull trout has increased greatly in
numbers in the Tweed, as compared with the salmon proper,
and has even taken possession of some of its tributaries, to the
entire exclusion of the more valuable species. A similar and
contemporaneous phenomenon in the natural history ot the
county has occurred in the Lammermuirs, where the com¬
mon brown grouse have to a considerable extent been sup¬
planted by the black game. , ~
The sea-fishings at Eyemouth, Burnmouth, and Colding-
ham, are now of great and rapidly-increasing va ue. or a
long time the inhabitants of these villages were much demo¬
ralized by being constantly engaged in a contraband traae in
foreign spirits. The establishment ot an efficient coast-
B E R
Berwick- guard entirely suppressed this pernicious traffic, and com-
shire. pelled the fishermen to apply themselves steadily to their
legitimate calling. They are now an exceedingly indus¬
trious and prosperous class of people. No branch of industry
in the county has benefited so much as theirs has done by
the introduction of railways. Formerly they sold their fish,
either to hawkers, who disposed of them in the neighbour¬
ing district; or to curers, who, by a process of salting and
drying, prepared them for more distant markets. Now a
large proportion of the fish is bought up by the agents of fish¬
mongers in the great towns of England, to whom they are
despatched by railway as soon as they are brought to shore.
Although Bei-wickshire has benefited in many ways by
its proximity to England, there are other respects in which
its Border position exposes its inhabitants to serious evils.
The higher duty levied on Scotch whisky on its passage into
England tends to encourage smuggling. The vigilance of
the excise-officers, however, is such as to render this traffic
extremely hazardous to those who engage in it: it is now
almost totally discontinued. Another and more serious evil
has grown out of a difference in the marriage law of the two
countries. In Scotland a simple declaration, before witnesses,
by the parties, that they are husband and wife, constitutes a
valid marriage. Out of this has arisen the practice of couples
from England crossing the Border, and being married by un¬
authorized persons who make this their trade. To impart
something of formality to their proceedings, these men are in
the habit (often M’hen in liquor) of profanely making use of
a form of prayer borrowed from the liturgy of the Church
of England, and of filling up, with dates to suit the parties, a
printed certificate of marriage, of which they have blank
copies in readiness. Gretna Green has long possessed an
unenviable notoriety for such proceedings; but the same
irregular practice goes on at all the toll-bars and similar
places situated on the borders betwixt Berwickshire and
Northumberland. Nor is it confined to parties from Eng¬
land ; for a very large proportion of the marriages among
the working classes in Berwickshire take place at these tolls.
The facilities thus presented for taking the most important
step in life in a clandestine manner, necessarily tend to fos¬
ter innumerable evils.
The county is not rich in the more valuable minerals.
Thin seams of coal are known to exist in the S.E. corner
of it. On the sea-coast at Lamberton several attempts
have recently been made to work these, but hitherto without
success. Beds of clay suitable for the manufacture of bricks
and draining tiles are scattered over the county, and are in
numerous instances used for this purpose. Good building
materials are obtained from numerous quarries in the rocks,
both of the old red sandstone formation, and of the coal
measures. At Ordweel on the Whitadder, and some other
places, copper ore has been found, and attempts made to
work it, but hitherto without any encouraging success.
The antiquities of Berwickshire consist in the remains of
military works, tumuli, and cairns; and in the ruins of many
peel-houses and castles, the memorials of those incessant
feuds and forays of which in the olden time this Border
district wras the scene. Until the beginning of the present
century, there lingered among its inhabitants many tradi¬
tionary reminiscences of the exciting events, fierce manners,
and precarious tenure of life and property with which the
Border clans were once so familiar. These popular tradi¬
tions have disappeared with the progress of modern civili¬
zation, even more thoroughly than the physical memorials
have done under the effects of time and agricultural im¬
provement. Of the religious houses once so numerous, few
now remain. Coldingham Priory, the most famous of them,
was burned by the Earl of Hertford in his barbarous inroad
into Scotland in the year 1545. The abbey of Dryburgh
shared the same fate by the same hands, but its ruins yet
remain to delight the eye of the traveller. The deep glen
VOL. IV.
BEE 681
of the Pease Burn, in the N.E. angle of the county, is nota- North
ble in history as one of the natural defences of Scotland. Berwick
The bridge of four arches by which it is spanned, used to Be.^. k
be, from its great height and romantic situation, an object of on!rr'weC<i
some curiosity; but the stupendous railway works, with which v
the public eye is now familiar, have quite eclipsed the honours
of such objects as the Pease Bridge.
Among the principal family seats in Berwickshire are
the following: Thirlstane Castle (Earl of Lauderdale); the
Hirsel (Earl of Home); Lennel House (Earl of Hadding¬
ton) ; Dryburgh Abbey (Earl of Buchan); the Retreat (Earl
of Wemyss); Mertoun House (Lord Polwarth) ; Nisbet
(Lord Sinclair) ; Dunse Castle (Hay) ; Bemerside (Haig) ;
Jerviswood (Baillie); Wedderburn (Home).
Berwickshire is divided into thirty-two parishes. The
population, which in 1801 was 30,621, had increased in 1841
to 34,345, and in 1851 to 36,287. The parliamentary con¬
stituency in 1850 was 1062. It returns one member to
parliament.
Its towns and villages are few and inconsiderable. Ber¬
wick, from which the county takes its name, forms no part
of it, but yet is virtually its chief market-town. The other
towns are Dunse, Lauder, Eyemouth, Coldstream, and
Greenlaw. The latter is the county town, but from its incon¬
venient position, the sheriff-court business has, by a recent
act of parliament, been transferred to Dunse. The valued
rent of Berwickshire is L. 178,366 Scots. The annual value
of real property, as assessed in 1815, was L.245,379, and
in 1842, L.252,945. In 1849 the number of enrolled pau¬
pers was 1315, and the assessment for relief of the poor
L.9403, 9s. lid. (j- w—n.)
Berwick, North, a parliamentary burgh and parish of
Scotland, county of Haddington, situated on the coast of the
Firth of Forth, with a small harbour, but little or no trade.
The town was constituted a royal burgh by James VI.
Pop. of parish (1851) 1643, of whom 498 resided in the town.
Distance from Haddington 9 miles, east from Edinburgh,
by railway, 22f miles. It unites with Haddington, Dunbar,
Jedburgh, and Lauder, in sending a member to parliament.
It is governed by a chief magistrate, two bailies, and twelve
councillors. The people are chiefly engaged in agriculture.
Fishing and quarrying afford employment to a limited num¬
ber. The town consists of one principal street, and con¬
tains a parish church, Free church, and a United Presby¬
terian place of worship. North Berwick is frequented in the
bathing season. The surrounding scenery is interesting.
About 2}2 miles to the east of the town stand the ruins
of Tantallon Castle, so graphically described in Marmion.
The parish of North Berwick contains about 4000 acres,
mostly arable. The geological formation is red sandstone
and trap. North-Berwick Law, a conical hill, 940 feet high,
stands close to the town.
Berwick-on-Tweed, a seaport town of England, situ¬
ated at the mouth of the river Tweed, on its northern
bank. Pop. (1851) 16,008. The townships of Tweed-
mouth and Spittal, on the opposite bank, are included in
the borough of Berwick, and, with Berwick itself, are de¬
scribed in all law documents as “ in the county of the borough
and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed.” By 2d and 3d Will.
IV., cap. 64, sec. 29, it was appointed one of the polling
stations for the county of Northumberland. It now consti¬
tutes an integral portion of that county, and is under Eng¬
lish law. The borough and its liberties (commonly known
as “ Berwick Bounds,”) forming one parish, occupy an area
of nearly 8 square miles, and extend about 3^ miles north¬
ward along the coast, and about the same distance west¬
ward. The point on the north road at which they terminate
is the village of Lamberton (in Berwickshire), a place of
some celebrity as another Gretna Green. A toll-house ad¬
joining the village of Paxton marks the western boundary;
and to this place a similar interest attaches. By 7th and
4 R
682
B E H
Berwick- 8th Viet., cap. 61, that small detached portion of the county
on-Tweed. palatine of Durham called Islandshire, which lay on the
south side of the river, reaching to the centre of the stream.
was, on account of the inconvenience resulting from the old
division, included in the district of Berwick.
The town is encircled by fortified walls, bastions, and a
ditch, constructed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
These ramparts, which are under the custody of the corpo¬
ration, form a delightful promenade, and might, if required,
be put into a state of defence. Of the five old gates,
namely, the Scotch gate, the Cow-port, the Shore-gate, the
Pier-gate, and the English gate, the last has been removed.
About half a mile to the north of the existing walls, the re¬
mains of the ancient fortifications are to be seen, including
the Bell Tower, and a portion of Lord Soulis’ 1 ower. 1 he
castle was situated at the W.N.W. extremity of these walls,
and a portion of it still remains, including the barbican (in
good preservation), which faces the west, and extends to the
margin of the Tweed. The old courtyard of the castle is
now occupied by the station of the North British railway.
A viaduct of 28 arches, 2000 feet in length, and 120 in
height, crosses the Tweed here, forming a striking featme
in the landscape. This bridge was opened by Queen
Victoria in person in 1850. ihe old bridge of Berwick,
which stands about a quarter of a mile farther dowm the river,
has 15 arches: it was completed in 1634. The internal ap¬
pearance of the town is pleasing, and when viewed from
the high ground on the south side of the river is exceedingly
striking. It has scarcely any suburbs outside the fortifica¬
tions, the river and the sea inclosing it on the south and east.
The entrances to the town are on the W.N.W. by the Scotch
gate leading into the High Street, and on the S. by the old
bridge. Among the principal public buildings is the town-
hall,°a massive three-storied structure, with a portico sup¬
ported by four Tuscan columns, and surmounted by a spire
of 150 feet, with a chime of eight bells. The ground floor
contains the exchange, which is used as a market-place for
dairy produce. In the second story the quarter-sessions,
county-court, and corporation meetings are held. The upper
story, formerly used as a jail, is occupied by the superintend¬
ent of police. The new jail, opened in 1849, stands on the
east side of Wallace’s Green. The church of the Holy Tri¬
nity, at the N.E. angle of the town, w'as rebuilt in 1648.
Like other structures of the Puritan period, it has no pre¬
tension to architectural elegance. The benefice is a vicarage
in the patronage of the dean and chapter of Durham. T he
annual value of the tithes is L.2300. There are two places
of worship in connection with the Established Church of Scot¬
land ; four United Presbyterian, and Independent, Baptist,
Methodist, and Roman Catholic chapels. At Tweedmouth
there is a curacy, a Scotch Established, and a Free church.
The barracks stand opposite the church, and between them
and the churchyard wall is the military parade.
The educational institutions are the following:—The cor¬
poration’s academy for the gratuitous education of burgesses’
children, averaging 300 pupils; the grammar-school, which
is also free to the children of burgesses; a charity school; a
Lancasterian school; a school of industry for girls ; an infant
school, See. Sec. Berwick possesses a public subscription
library (6000 volumes), a reading-room, a mechanics’ insti¬
tute, a natural history society, a dispensary, a workhouse,
and assembly rooms. There are two banks, branches of the
Northumberland and Durham, and of the Union Bank ; and
also a savings-bank. Two weekly newspapers are pub¬
lished here, the Berrvick Warder and Berwick Advertiser.
Berwick, since the time of Henry VIII., has returned
two members to parliament. Constituency 676, 380 of
whom are burgesses. The burgh, including Tweedmouth
and Spittal, is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and seven¬
teen councillors, a recorder, sheriff, Sec. The only article of
manufacture is iron : there are several foundries and boiler
BEE
manufactories at Tweedmouth and Spittal. The chief ex- Beryl,
ports are corn, wool, game, and salmon. Most of the fisheries
between the sea and Norham belong to, or are rented by, the
Berwick Shipping Company. The average number of boxes
of red fish exported during the season (15th Feb. to 15th
Oct.) is 4000. Most of the fish goes to the London market.
The entrance to the harbour is rocky, and has a bar, within
which there is good anchorage. It is protected by a pier,
with a lighthouse and two fixed lights, in Lat. 55. 46. N.
Long. 2. 0. W. Distance from London by railway, 369
miles, from Edinburgh 58, and from Newcastle 64. Corn-
market every Saturday ; cattle-market every alternate Mon¬
day. The fair is held on the last Friday of May ; there
are also four hiring-markets annually.
Of the early history of Berwick, the Scottish chartularies
supply the only records. It belonged to Scotland, as part of
the Lothians, in the reign of Kenneth II.; and about 870
was in possession of the Danes, from whom it was wrested
by Gregory. It thereafter remained in the custody of Scot¬
land until towards the close of the eleventh century, when
Edgar in pious gratitude bestowed it on the see of Durham ;
but5again resuming it, it became a portion of the appanage
of David; after whose accession in 1124 it was constituted
one of the four royal burghs, and was long the chief seaport
of Scotland. On the threshold of the two kingdoms, it suf¬
fered greatly during their wars. It was acquired in 1174 by
Henry II., and for a pecuniary consideration was restored to
the Scots by Richard Cceur de Lion in 1189. During the
reign of Alexander III. the customs of the port amounted
to L.2197, 8s.—about one-fourth that of all England. In
1292 Edward I. sat in Berwick Castle as umpire of the dis¬
puted claim to the crown of Scotland, declaring in favour of
John Baliol. In 1296, having obtained a victory oyer the
Scots and captured Berwick, Edward I. held a parliament
there to arrange the future government of Scotland, and to
receive homage. The heroic defence of the Red Hall
a strong building in the town—by thirty Flemish merchants
who had received it from Alexander II. on condition of their
never yielding it to the English, forms a well-known feature
in the history of this siege. In 129/, M allace -who had
routed the English near Stirling—made his way into Ber¬
wick ; but the castle having held out until succoured by Ed¬
ward, the Scots were forced to retire. It was retaken by
Bruce in 1318. Subsequently changing masters several
times, it was, in 1551, made independent of both countries.
In 1648 it was taken and garrisoned by Cromwell’s forces.
The lands held by the burgesses, and other privileges, are
by charter of King James VI. (See Tytier’s History of
Scotland, and Redpath’s Border History.)
BERYL; aqua-marine; emeraude limpide; benl. Ihis
mineral, as was originally conjectured by Pliny, is a variety
of the emerald, being distinguished from the latter only by
its colour. The term emerald is consequently confined to
that variety which presents its own peculiar colour, namely,
the rich deep emerald green; while that of beryl is given
to all the other varieties, as the sea-green, pale-blue, golden-
yellow, and colourless. r
Of the emerald we shall treat under the proper bead ; for
although it is identically the same mineral, it sometimes
leads to confusion to treat beryl and emerald under the same
denomination. For instance, Haiiy, speaking of emerald in
the first edition of his Trade, says that the argest crystal
he ever saw measured six inches in length and two in thick¬
ness, and that it came from Peru. In his second edition le
mentions, as the largest he had ever met with, a crystal of
   r»amp from Santa Fg$ and iroms-
IlieilUUIlS, clS LUC xiv, —  y.
the same dimensions which came from Santa Fe; and imme¬
diately passes on to a description of the Siberian emeralds.
He considered them as the same mineral species. 1 he Hrge
crystal which he mentions is in the royal collection at Mad¬
rid, and is the true emerald. J his points out the propriety
of confining the name of emerald to the beautiful deep green
Berzelius
II
Berzelius.
BEE
gem, while that of beryl may be bestowed on all the other
varieties. These are by no means uncommon. 1 hey occur
in veins and drusy cavities in granite, and are found in France,
at Nantes, and at Limoges; in Ireland, in the mountains of
Wicklow and the county of Down; in Scotland, in the distiict
of Cairngorm; at Schlaggenwald in Bohemia; at Swezel
in Bavaria; at Brodbo in Sweden; and in the Altai and
Oural Mountains in Siberia, where they seem to exist in
greater abundance and in larger groups and crystals than in
any other quarter of the world, always excepting the varieties
from Limoges. In Peru and Brazil, there are localities well
known as producing beryls. In the northern states of America
many of these have been indicated by the American mineralo¬
gists. Some very fine pale green-coloured beryls have been
imported from the district of Ghellan, in Hindustan, 300
miles S.W. of Madras. This mineral, therefore, is not un¬
sparingly distributed over the globe; and it affords one of
the greatest embellishments to the cabinet of the mineralo¬
gist, while it yields an abundant supply to the jeweller for the
exercise of his taste in producing a variety of ornaments.
Although Pliny was the first who suggested the identity
of the emerald and the beryl, it was left to Rome de Lisle
to put this conjecture to the proof. Pallas, who first disco¬
vered the beryl in Siberia, sent some specimens for exami¬
nation to that crystallographer, who immediately observed
the perfect similarity of form between some of these and
certain crystals of emerald then in his possession; which cir¬
cumstance, joined to the hardness and specific gravity of the
two objects, soon satisfied him that they were of the same
species. This was one of the first triumphs of crystallography;
and it was soon after confirmed by the labours of the chemist.
The analysis of this mineral is peculiarly interesting, as will
be seen by the following comparative table:—
B E R
683
Silex 
Alumina..
Glucine...
Lime 
Ox. Chrom
Iron 
Loss 
Emerald.
64-50
1600
13-00
1-60
3-25
1-15
68-50
15-75
12-50
0-25
0-30
10
Beryl.
Silex 
Alumina.
Glueine..
Lime 
Chrom. ..
Iron 
= 5
cSM
>
tu
■&
66-45
16-75
15-50
0-6
68-35
17-60
1313
0-72
C/3 p
66-5
16-75
15-00
To'
0-75
The largest mass of precious beryl known to mineralogists
is an aqua-marine belonging to the late Don Pedro: it is
nearly as large as the head of a calf, and weighs 225 ounces
Trov, or 18 lb. 9 oz. On one side there are slight indica¬
tions of the plane of a crystal; but it is otherwise entirely
water-worn. Its surface is consequently dull; but beneath
it the mass is perfectly clear and transparent, and, large as
it is, without a flaw. It presents a beautiful pale bottle-green
colour. The largest crystals known are those from Limoges
in France, and Brodbo in Sweden. At the foimer place
they occur in a vein of quartz in granite, sometimes \ery
perfect, and a foot in diameter; and there is a crystal from
the latter place in the museum of Stockholm which weighs
upwards of eighty pounds. These large crystalline masses
are generally very coarse in their texture, and present an
earthv aspect, somewhat like decomposed felspar.
BERZELINE, a mineral found in minute dendritic crusts
on calc-spar. It is a seleniuret of copper. It occurs in Sweden
and the Hartz.
BERZELITE, a honey-yellow mineral of a resinous
lustre, found in Sweden. It is an anhydrous arseniate of
lime and magnesia.
BERZELIUS, Baron Jan Jacob, knight commander
of the Swedish order of Vasa, member of the French Le¬
gion of Honour, and of the Austrian order of Leopold, Berzelius.
M.D., &c., &c. The honourable titles here enumerated can ^
scarcely be said to add lustre to the name of this distin¬
guished philosopher, but are creditable to the sovereigns
and bodies who testified in this manner their appreciation
of labours inseparably connected with the progress of phy¬
sical science in the present century.
Berzelius was born August 29th 1779, at the village
of Vasefunda, near Linkoping in Ostrogothland, where his
father filled the humble, but in Sweden not unappreciated,
office of government schoolmaster. His early acquirements
and useful habits of study were formed under the care of
an intelligent father. In 1796 he commenced his medical
studies in the University of Upsala, where the chemical
chair was then filled by Afzelius, with Ekeberg for his as¬
sistant. The account which Berzelius gave of the mode of
teaching chemistry in that celebrated seminary shows how
little he owed to his instructors; and contrasts very unfa¬
vourably with the practice then long established in the che¬
mical schools of this country, when Cullen and Black had
for about half a century illustrated their prelections by nu¬
merous and well-devised experiments. Berzelius stated that
at Upsala the lectures were read without any experimental
illustrations, and the instruction in the laboratory was of the
most meagre and unsatisfactory kind.
In 1798 Berzelius quitted the university, after passing his
examinations in philosophy, and became assistant to a me-^
dical practitioner at Medvi, where he soon made himself
known by a masterly chemical analysis of the mineral waters
of that place, which was, however, not published until he
took his degree of physician, in 1804, at Upsala, where it
appeared under the joint names of Berzelius and Ekeberg.
Soon afterwards he gave to the world his Physical Re¬
searches on the Effect of Galvanism on Organized Bodies;
a work which established his reputation as an experimental
philosopher. He was now appointed the assistant and suc¬
cessor of Sparman as professor of medicine, botany, and
chemical pharmacy; and succeeded to that chair in 1807.
Berzelius at first followed the mode of teaching which he
had seen at Upsala; but it appears that, on the suggestion
of the late Dr Marcet, who at that time visited Stockholm,
he adopted the method of illustrating his lectures by expe¬
riments, and speedily found that this change gave great
satisfaction to his pupils, and made him a most popular
teacher of chemical science.
It was in 1806 that, in conjunction with Hissurger, he
commenced the Memoirs relative to Physics, Chemistry ^and
Mineralogy, his numerous contributions to these sciences
exhibit that marvellous ingenuity, perseverance, and accu¬
racy in analysis, which have placed his name among the
most illustrious experimental philosophers of the age. Ber¬
zelius may also be considered as the principal founder of the
highly important “Medical Society of Sweden. In 1808
he became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy, and
was chosen its president in 1810.
In the intervals of his public duties he paid several visits
to Paris; and in 1812 was some time in London, of which
visit he always spoke with much satisfaction.
In tracing his personal career, we may briefly state that
in 1815 the sovereign of Sweden enrolled his name among
the knights of the Order of Vasa; and in 1818 he was de¬
clared perpetual secretary of the Stockholm Academy of
Sciences. In the same year, on the coronation of King
Charles-John, he was ennobled; and, as a special mark of
distinction, was permitted, contrary to the custom of Sweden,
to retain his own name; and the title of Baron Berzelius
dignified the lists of Swedish nobility. In 1821 his sove¬
reign made him “Commander of the Order of Vasa;” and
foreign princes imitated the example, by nominating Ber¬
zelius a member of “ the Legion of Honour” of France, and
a chevalier of “ the Order of Leopold” of Austria.
684
B E II
B E S
Berzelius. During all that time his very important experimental rc-
searches were never intermitted; and he devoted his vigo¬
rous mind, and uninterrupted bodily health, to the cause
of science with untiring ardour. When he resigned his pro¬
fessorship in 1832 in favour of Mosander, he continued most
ardently to pursue his refined investigations.
In 1833 Berzelius took a wife; and; on that event the king
of Sweden wrote him a letter, in which, among other lauda¬
tory remarks, he observed, that “ Sweden and the whole
wmrld were debtors to the man whose entire life had been
devoted to pursuits as useful to all as they were glorious to
his native country.” He also about the same time received
a gratifying and valuable testimony to his important services
to the arts of his country from the directors of the Swedish
iron works, who, in grateful acknowledgment of the light his
researches had thrown on their art, conferred on him a pen¬
sion for life. Among the honours conferred on him we may
likewise mention, that, at a dinner given by the Academy
of Sciences, of which he had been secretary for twenty-five
years, the health of Berzelius was proposed by the crown
prince, the chairman, who in the most complimentary terms
expressed his own personal gratitude to him as the scientific
instructor of his youth.
The admiration of Europe and the gratitude of his country
attended him to the latest period of his life. In the midst
of his fame and of his unwearied labours, Berzelius was at¬
tacked with paraplegia. He saw with calm resignation his
mortal career closing, and strove to complete those investi¬
gations which he had commenced while his powers were yet
equal to the task. His decay was gradual, without acute
suffering; and he died on the 1st of August 1848, in the
sixty-ninth year of his age.
The writer of this article considers it as one of the most,
fortunate events of his life that he had the pleasure of a per¬
sonal acquaintance with this illustrious philosopher, and bears
a willing testimony to the noble frankness and manly sim¬
plicity of his character. Berzelius was ever ready to impart,
without ostentation, to others his vast stores of knowledge,
—to assist the researches of those engaged in kindred pur¬
suits, by his advice, by the unreserved communication of his
beautiful methods of accurate investigation, the use of his
laboratory, and by a kindness of manner that irresistibly won
the attachment of all who approached him. His well-earned
reputation elevated him above all jealousy of others; and,
as has been well observed in the Eloge of Louyet in the
Academy of Brussels, “ Berzelius wras jealous only for the
cause of chemistry.” Hence the occasional freedom of his
strictures in his Comptes Rendus Annuels, which occasion¬
ally excited the displeasure of authors whose inaccuracies
he detected or whose hypothetical views he opposed. But a
man more willing to give due praise to the useful labours of
others, or more free from a shadow of envy of contemporary
genius, the author of this notice never yet had opportunity
of knowing.
To attempt a detailed notice of his investigations and dis¬
coveries would be to review nearly the entire field of che¬
mical science, for there are few parts of it which he has not
illustrated; and we can here only notice his principal labours.
1. The volumes of the Physical Memoirs, during twelve
years, containing forty-seven original papers by him of great
importance.
2. His treatise on Chemistry, written with great clearness
and precision, went through five large editions, and was on
each occasion almost wholly rewritten. It will remain a
monument of his industry and skill ; for the researches
there detailed are not copied from the writings of others,
but are all either repeated or devised by himself. It is
best known in the edition in eight volumes, translated into
French, under his own inspection, by Eslangeo, and pub¬
lished at Bruxelles in 1835. The last volume contains an
excellent dissertation on chemical apparatus, with essays
on qualitative and quantitative analyses, and the use of the Besanfon.
blow-pipe.
3. In 1822, at the request of the Academy of Sciences,
he undertook those admirable Annual Reports on the Pro¬
gress of Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy, which have
proved of the utmost value to the scientific world; and the
want of his free but candid and judicious criticisms is felt by
all engaged in such researches.
4. His mineralogical system bears the impress of his pe¬
netrating mind. Convinced that an arrangement founded
on the chemical constituents of inorganic matter was the
most useful and the most interesting, he considered mineral
species as depending on the atomic proportions of their prin¬
cipal ingredients. He arranged and designated individual
minerals from this circumstance, regarding the ingredients
not in atomic proportions as mechanical mixtures, that might
vary in their proportions without materially changing the
mineral.
5. In 1807, while the beautiful atomic theory of Dalton
was scarcely well known in Britain, Berzelius began his ac¬
curate researches on “ Definite Proportions;” in which, ex¬
tending and systematizing the experiments of Wenzel and
Bichter, he applied them not only to salts, earths, and me¬
tals, but to gases and to organic compounds, and thus may
be said to have been most instrumental in establishing the
truth of the theory of definite proportions,—for the discoverer
of which he ever expressed the profoundest respect. His de¬
termination of the atomic weights of various substances has
obtained the highest praise; and, among other discoveries,
we owe to him the proof of the remarkable fact, that the pro¬
portion of oxygen is constant in all the neutral salts of the
same acid. It was his researches that gave the first impulse
to modern organic chemistry, which of late years has made
remarkable progress. We also owe to him a greater number
of accurate analyses than to any other chemist of our day.
6. The last work of this celebrated man which we shall
mention is his Essay on the Use of the Bloiv-pipe,—the
most complete account of that instrument, of which he
well knew the value. It has been translated into French
by Fresnel, and from that language into English by Children
in 1823. (t. s. t.)
BESANCON, a city of France, capital of the depart¬
ment of Doubs, 45 miles east of Dijon, on the river Doubs,
which flows round it on three sides. It is well protected by
strong fortifications and a citadel on an almost impregnable
rock. The town is in general well built; but the houses
are old, and the streets narrow and gloomy. The principal
buildings are, a Gothic cathedral, court-house, town-hall,
royal college, arsenal, hospital with 500 beds, barracks,
theatre, library of 50,000 volumes, museum, and several
handsome fountains. It contains many Roman antiquities,
including a triumphal arch, and the remains of an aqueduct
and an amphitheatre. Besan^on is the see of an archbishop,
has tribunals of primary jurisdiction and commerce, and is
the head court for the departments of Doubs, Jura, and
Haute Saone. It possesses also a university-academy, a dio¬
cesan seminary, a royal academy of science and belle-lettres,
a lyceum, an antiquarian museum, a society of agriculture
and arts, and schools of medicine, artillery, and design, be¬
sides two deaf and dumb institutions. The chief branch of
industry is the manufacture of watches and jewellery. There
are also some considerable breweries, and manufactories of
carpets, porcelain, hardware, Seltzer-water, &c. Besan^on
enjoys a central position for the commerce between France
and Switzerland. Pop. (1851) 33,788. Long. 5.56. 26. E.
Lat.47. 14. 12. N.
Besanqon is a place of great antiquity. Under the name
of Vesentio, it wTas held by the Romans as a fortified place
in the time of Caesar. It was destroyed by Attila, and since
that period has suffered many vicissitudes. Area of the
arrondissement of this name, 539 square miles; pop. 109,136.
Besant
II
Betchuana.
BET
BESANT, or Bezant, a coin of pure gold, struck at By¬
zantium in the time of the Christian emperors ; and hence
the gold offered by the king at the altar is called besant or
bisant. It seems to have been current in England from the
tenth century till the time of Edward III. Its value is not
precisely ascertained, but it is generally estimated at 9s. 4|d.
sterling.
BESOZZI, or Bezozzi, Ambrogio, an architectural
painter of some eminence, born at Milan in 1648. He
worked for a time under Dunedi, called Montalti; and after¬
wards studied at. Rome. He died at Milan in 1706.
BESSARABIA, the most S.W. province of Russia in
Europe. See Russia.
BESSA RION, John, titular patriarch of Constantinople,
archbishop of Nice, and one of those illustrious persons who
contributed to the revival of letters in the fifteenth century,
was born at Trebizond in 1389, or, according to Bandini,
in 1395. He was very zealous to reunite the Greek with
the Latin church, and induced the Emperor John Palaeolo-
gus to interest himself in bringing about this great work. He
passed into Italy, appeared at the council of Florence, ha¬
rangued the fathers, and made himself admired as well by his
modesty as by his uncommon abilities. The Greek schis¬
matics conceived so great an aversion for him, that he was
obliged to remain in Italy, where Pope Eugenius IV. hon¬
oured him with the purple in 1439. He fixed his abode at
Rome, and would have been raised to the papal chair if Car¬
dinal Alain had not represented it as injurious to the Latin
church to choose a Greek, however illustrious. He was em¬
ployed in several embassies ; but that to France proved fatal
to him. When legate at this court, he happened to visit
the Duke of Burgundy before he saw Louis XL, which so
displeased the capricious and tyrannical monarch, that he
gave the cardinal a very ungracious reception, and even took
him by his magnificent beard, saying, in his Latin patois,
Barbara Grceca genus retinent quod habere solebant; an
affront which so chagrined the cardinal, as, according to
Matthieu, to occasion his death at Ravenna upon his return,
in 1472. Bessarion loved literary men and protected them.
Argyropylus, Theodorus Gaza, Poggio, Laurentius Valla,
and others, formed in his house a kind of academy, and pur¬
sued their studies in some measure under his direction. He
left some works, as Defensio Doctrince Platomcce, transla¬
tions of some pieces of Aristotle, orations, epistles, &c.; and
he bequeathed his valuable collection of books to the Vene¬
tian senate. He laid the foundation of the celebrated library
of St Mark.
BESSEL, Friedrich Wilhelm, a distinguished Prus¬
sian astronomer, was born at Minden in 1 784, and died
March 17.1846. For an account of his valuable contributions
to science, the reader is referred to the article Astronomy.
BESSI, an ancient people of Thrace, who dwelt along
the southern slope of Mount Hsemus. They were a fierce
and powerful race, and were probably never subdued till
conquered by the Romans, after the subjection of Mace¬
donia. Their chief town was Uscadama.
BESTAIL, or Bestial, in ancient statutes, all kinds of
beasts or cattle.
BESTIARII (drjpLOjidxoL), those who fought with wild
beasts in the Roman circus, or who were exposed to them
by a sentence of the law. The bestiarii multiplied greatly
under the empire, were regularly trained, and fought for
pay. They are always distinguished from the gladiators, who
fought with each other.
BETCHUANA, a considerable negro nation, consisting
of many tribes that inhabit Southern Africa, to the north of
the Gariep, or great Orange river, from about 28. to 23. S. Lat.
An extensive desert is the western boundary between them
and the Hottentots on the western coast; and a chain of
mountains running parallel to the eastern coast, at the dis¬
tance of 70 or 80 miles, divides them from Kaffirland. They
BET
have been described by Burchell, and by Campbell and
other missionaries. The Betchuana are dexterous workers ^
in copper and iron, which they fabricate into ornaments,
arms, and agricultural implements, as spades and hoes. Their
capital is Litakun or Lattakoo. Each tribe is under an
hereditary chief. The most civilized are the Vankeets and
Mointzee tribes. The latter cultivate millet, sugar-cane,
and tobacco : they build with stone, are dexterous smiths,
and know how to draw copper wire, and to twist it into va¬
rious neat ornaments. Of all the tribes the chief riches are
cattle, and they deal in ivory to a considerable extent. Their
dress consists of a covering round the loins, and cloaks of skins
very neatly sewed together. (Burch ell’s Travels; Campbells
Journeys; Geographical Journal; Cummings S. Africa?)
BETEL, a substance compounded of different ingre¬
dients, which is chewed in the East in the same way as to¬
bacco is used in other parts of the world, but to a much greater
extent. All individuals, without exception of age or sex,
begin at an early age to accustom themselves to betel, and it
gradually becomes an article of such necessity, that those ac¬
quainted with the usages of the Eastern nations affirm they
would more readily dispense with their ordinary quantity of
food than with betel. Europeans also, who have resided long
in Ceylon or India, contract the same habit, and enjoy
chewing of betel equally with the natives. Betel, or pawn
as it is denominated in Bengal, consists of part of the fruit
of the areca palm, wrapped in the leaves of a kind of pepper
plant called betel, smeared with a little shell lime •, whence
its name betel-nut is derived. The areca palm is a tree
growing to forty or fifty feet in height, with a straight round
stem six or eight inches in diameter, covered with a smooth
ash-coloured bark, marked with parallel rings. All the leaves,
which are only six or seven in number, spring from the top,
and are six feet in length, declining downwards from a stalk
of considerable length. The fruit or nut is covered with a
green shell or skin, thin, brittle, and of the consistence of
paper; it is of an oval shape, about the size of a small egg,
and resembles a nutmeg despoiled of its husk. W hen ripe,
it appears in clusters of a reddish colour, forming a beautiful
contrast with the vivid green of its leaves, and then falls
off to sow itself in the ground. The betel pknt is a spe¬
cies of vine, bearing a leaf somewhat resembling ivy. It
is called piper betel by botanists, and is of the same genus
as the piper nigrum of Linnaeus. Its culture, which is care¬
fully attended to, is managed in the same manner. Poles
are planted in the earth, around which the betel twines it¬
self, and as it runs up, the poles require to be heightened.
It is a creeping plant, seeking support from stronger vege¬
tables, but it is said not to be destructive of them, like some
other plants of a similar nature. Particular regard is paid
to the cultivation of areca and betel throughout the coun¬
tries of which they are natives. Several years ago it was
found, on enumeration, that the number of trees, probably
meaning the areca only, in Prince of Wales’s Island, amount¬
ed to 342,110. The lime used with the nut is called chunam,
and is obtained from the calcination of shells, which pro¬
duces the finest kind. But the fresh nut must be avoided ;
it then contains a white viscous matter, insipid to the taste,
and occasioning delirium, like ebriety from wine, but losing
this property when dried ; and it is employed either boiled
or raw. The latter undergoes no change; the former is
cut in slices, boiled with a small quantity of terra japonica,
and then dried. Betel is compounded, therefore, of these
three substances, with some additions or variations, accor¬
ding to the customs of the place where consumed ; such as
cardamums, and coarse pounded tobacco, by persons of more
depraved taste. The union of the three ingredients is sup¬
posed to correct the effects which each would produce singly;
the nut improves the bitterness of the leaf, and the lime pre¬
vents any injury to the stomach. When combined, the first
consequences are, reddening the saliva, giving a bright hue
685
Betel.
686
BET
Betel.
to the lips, and, in progress of time, rendering the teeth quite
black. The saliva, however, will not be tinged if the chu-
nam be omitted ; and its pernicious operation on the enamel
of the teeth may be averted by rubbing them with a pre¬
paration whereby they are coated with a black substance
that does not readily yield to any dentifrice, and preserves
them from corrosion. Its medicinal effects are the dispelling
of nausea, exciting an appetite, and strengthening the sto¬
mach. It possesses nutritious and enlivening qualitms, which
render it particularly acceptable to its consumers. T he terra
japonica, above alluded to, is not a universal ingredient; it
is used only in certain countries, and is generally supposed
to be a preparation from the areca nut itself. It consists o
two varieties, the one very astringent, the other less so, and
rather sweet, which is preferred by the betel-eaters. o
obtain the former, the nuts are taken from the tree, and
boiled some hours in an iron vessel; they are then removed,
and the water remaining is inspissated by continual boiling.
The nuts being dried, undergo a second boiling, and, having
been taken out, the water is also inspissated, whereby the
best terra japonica is obtained. I he nuts are then dned,
cut in two equal parts, and sold. Or it is obtained by in¬
spissated decoctions of the wood of the keira tree, or mimosa
catechu. A great quantity of this substance is made in the
Mysore, and some of inferior quality in Bengal. Probably
it is something of this same kind that is prepared in Sumatra,
under the name of catacamber, and chewed along with betel
to give it an additional flavour.
Betel is not only used as an article of luxury, but as a kind
of ceremonial which regulates the intercourse of the more
polished classes of the East. When any person of considera¬
tion waits on another, after the first salutation, betel is pi e-
sented as a token of politeness : to omit it on the one part
would be considered neglect, and its rejection would be judged
an affront on the other. No one of inferior rank addresses
a dignified individual without the previous precaution of
chewing betel; two people seldom meet without exchang¬
ing it; and it is always offered on the ceremonious inter¬
views of public missionaries. In some countries it is not
uncommon for the guest who receives the betel fiom his
host, to pass it between his thumb and fore-finger, and apply
his own chunam, which never gives offence, and is thought
to haveorginated in guarding a stranger against the insidious
conveyance of poison, formerly too frequently practised in
destroying persons who were obnoxious. Philtres or ama¬
tory charms are still conveyed along with the chunam, and
are conceived to consist of some powerful stimulants. Ma¬
hometans abstain from this indulgence during the fast of
Ramadan, though possibly not in every country, as it would
be too great a privation; and the use of it is so interwoven
with the existence of the natives of the warmer climates, that
females of the higher ranks are said to pass their lives in
doing little else than chewing betel. When the Cingalese
retire to rest at night, they fill their mouths with it, and re¬
tain it there until they awake. According to Knox, who
passed many years in captivity on the island of Ceylon, most
people going abroad carry a small box of gold or silver, con¬
taining the ingredients for compounding betel; and the poor
keep a constant supply about them in purses of coloured
straw, securely lodged in a fold of their garments. .The stand
or box containing it is often of elegant workmanship ; it con¬
sists of silver, gold, or tortoise-shell, and forms a piece of or¬
namental furniture in the houses of the wealthy. It is suffi¬
ciently valuable to constitute a present between sovereigns.
Extensive gardens for cultivating betel are formed in dif¬
ferent parts of India. The soil most favourable for the palm
is a black mould on a substratum of limestone, or inter¬
mixed with calcareous nodules. Here it is planted in rows,
and carefully manured and watered during several years.
It begins to bear from the eighth or tenth to the fifteenth
year, and remains in perfection for thirty years, soon after
BET
which it either dies or is cut down. Some, however, con- Bethabara
tinue producing fruit from the fiftieth to the seventieth, or ||
even the hundredth year; but the produce gradually declines JSethesda-
both in quantity and quality. It appears that a very fertile
tree produces at an average 857 nuts, and an ordinary one
600; but this does not hold everywhere, as there are trees
affording no more than 200. The betel-leaf is either culti¬
vated in separate gardens, where a red stony soil on the side
of a rising ground is preferred, and plantains or bamboos
planted along with the vines, which are arranged in trenches
to support them as they grow ; or when an areca planta¬
tion is formed, and the palms are fifteen years old, cuttings
of the vine are planted near the roots, and trained up to
the trees. In twelve or eighteen months the leaves of the
vine are fit for sale, and in three years they are full-sized;
but in another year they die, when all must be removed,
and young plants immediately substituted for them. We
do not know whether their duration is ever longer; but in the
southern parts of Canara in India, the gardens require re¬
newal every four years, and in eighteen or twenty the soil
is considered to be exhausted. These gardens are always
surrounded by ahedge; sometimes the cultivators are annoyed
with the depredations of squirrels and elephants. The crop
of areca is produced during three months; and the nuts being
pulled, are cut into seven or eight pieces each, and piled up
in a heap; then equal quantities of it and terra japonica,
with a hundred leaves of betel-leaf, are beat together with
water, and the juice strained into a pot. This is mixed with
a decoction of the bark of the mimosa indica and wrater,
and the nuts from the v hole heap are successively boiled in
it. They are then exposed to be dried in the sun.
Betel is a very considerable article of traffic in India and
China, and, indeed, throughout Asia. In the British settle¬
ments of Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, the value of the im¬
ports amounted in a single year to L.138,836; and if the
quantities consumed throughout the East are taken into view,
it will appear surprising how they can be obtained. But,
owing to the constant and extensive demand, the plants af¬
fording the necessary ingredients are carefully cultivated;
and multitudes are employed and subsisted in the produc¬
tion of this Eastern luxury. (j- G* i>-)
BETHABARA, or Bethea rah, i.e. place of the ford,
where the Israelites passed over the Jordan, mentioned in
John i. 28. The best manuscripts, however have Bethany:
the other reading appears to have arisen from the conjecture
of Origen, who found no such place on the Jordan as Bethany,
but knew a town called Bethabara, where John was said to
have baptized, and therefore took the unwarrantable liberty
of changing the reading. (Orig. Opp. ii. p. 130, ed. Huet.)
BETHANY, a village nearly two miles E.S.E. from Jeru¬
salem, beyond the Mount of Olives. It was the residence of
Lazarus and his sisters Mary and Martha, and Jesus often went
out from Jerusalem to lodge there. It is now a poor village
of about twenty families. The only marks of antiquity are
some hewn stones from more ancient buildings, found in the
walls of some of the houses. The monks, indeed, show the
house of Mary and Martha, and of Simon the leper, and also
the sepulchre of Lazarus ; but there is no reason to believe
that this is the real tomb.
BETHEL, originally called Luz, an ancient city on the
borders of the tribe of Benjamin, twelve Roman miles north
of Jerusalem. It was the place of Jacob’s vision, and its name
was consequently changed to Bethel, which signifies the
“ house or place of God.” It is identified with the ruins at
Beitin.
BETHESDA, called in the Greek KoXvfxfSrjOpa TrpofJa-
TtKYj, and thence in the Vulgate piscina, probatica, was the
Hebrew name for a pool or public bath, which had five
porticos, piazzas, or covered walks, around it. I his bath
was called Bethesda, rHDH ITl- <>r Beth-Chesda, the
“ House of Mercy,” probably because the erection of baths
Beth-
horon.
BET
BET
6s7
ii
Beth¬
lehem.
was a kindness to the poor. Some, however, will have the
word Bethesda to be mm Beth-asda, the “ sink-
house,” or “ drain,” because the waters which came from
the temple, and the place where the victims were washed
flowed thither. From the use of the word KoX.vfxf3rj6pa
by Josephus, to denote the baths at Jericho, Dr Mac-
knight, in his Harmony of the Gospels, concludes against
such an opinion ; and, moreover, he considers it inconsistent
with the situation of Bethesda, which was near the sheep-
gate or market in the S.E. wall of the city. That which
is now and has long been pointed out as the pool of Beth¬
esda, is a great dry basin or reservoir outside the northern
wall of the inclosure around the Temple Mount; but there
appears much reason to suppose that this was not the pool
so called. (See Robinson’s Biblical Researches, vol. i.)
With regard to the precise nature of the miracle performed
here there has been much diversity of opinion. Dr Mill
contends that the text of the evangelist has been interpo¬
lated, and proposes to omit a verse not to be found in the
Cambridge manuscript, which originally belonged to Beza.
Dr Macknight strenuously opposes this method of interpre¬
tation ; and while he maintains the integrity of the text,
shows that Dr Mill’s expedient leaves the difficulty exactly
where it was. Grotius thinks that the angel is said to have
descended, not because he was ever seen to do so, but be¬
cause the Jews were persuaded that God brought such
things to pass by the ministration of angels. And Dr Ham¬
mond supposes that the waters became medicinal by being
impregnated with a healing warmth from the blood and en¬
trails of tbe beasts offered in sacrifice that were washed
there; and that the ayyeXos, “ angel,” or “ messenger,” men¬
tioned in the text, was a common messenger or servant of
the priest, who at a proper season was sent by him to trouble
the pool.
BETH-HORON, two places in Scripture distinguished
as the Upper and Nether Beth-horon. Dr E. D. Clarke
recognised the former in the village of Beit-Ur, which lies
twelve Roman miles N.W. of Jerusalem. The Lower Beit-
Ur is separated by a narrow valley from the foot of the moun¬
tain upon which the Upper Beit-Ur stands. Both these
villages are inhabited, and exhibit traces of ancient walls and
foundations. They are still distinguished as the Upper and
Lower Beit-Ur. (Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. part ii. p. 628.)
BETH-LEHEM (DflS rV3> house ox place of bread;
Sept. B7]6X.d[ji), a city of Judah, six miles southward from
Jerusalem, on the road to Hebron. It was generally called
Bethlehem-Judah, to distinguish it from another Bethlehem
in Zebulun. Bethlehem is celebrated as the birth-place of
David and of our Saviour, and as the scene of the Book of
Ruth.
It has always been an inhabited place, and, from its
sacred associations, has been visited by an unbroken series
of pilgrims and travellers. It is now a large straggling vil¬
lage, and is beautifully situated on the brow of a high hill,
which rises in parterres of vineyards, almond-groves, and
fig plantations, watered by gentle rivulets that murmur
through the terraces. At the farthest extremity of the
town is the Latin convent, connected with which is the
Church of the Nativity, said to have been built by the Em¬
press Helena, and alleged to be the most chaste architec¬
tural building now remaining in Palestine. It is a spacious
and handsome hall, consisting of a central nave amid aisles
separated from each other by rows of tall Corinthian pillars
of grey marble. Two spiral staircases lead to the cave
called the “ Grotto of the Nativity,” which is about 20 feet
below the level of the church, and is lined with Italian mar¬
bles, and lighted by numerous lamps. Here a star inlaid
in the marble is said to mark the exact spot where the Sa¬
viour was born, and in a kind of recess, a little below the
level of the rest of the floor, is a block of white marble,
hollowed out in the form of a manger, to mark the place of
the one in which the infant Jesus was laid. Although tra-Bethlehem-
dition is in favour of this being the place of the Nativity, ltes
there are many probabilities against it. The convent was j, ^ lug
long the abode of the learned and celebrated Jerome, and v [ )
most of his w orks were composed here. Besides the Grotto
of the Nativity, and the Tomb of Rachel, Bethlehem pos¬
sesses three remarkable cisterns, which are supplied with
water from a pool above the town : the largest is 582 feet
by 207 feet at one end, and 148 feet at the other, with a
depth of 50 feet; the central one is 423 feet by 250 feet
and 160 feet, and has a depth of 39 feet.
The inhabitants are said to be 3000, and were all native
Christians at the time of the most recent visits. Their chief
trade is in beads, crosses, and other relics. The people are
remarkable for their ferocity and rudeness, which is indeed
the common character of the inhabitants of most of the
places accounted holy in the East.
The best accounts of modern Bethlehem are those of
Clarke, Wittman, Richardson, Buckingham, Hardy, Elliot,
Wilde, Robinson, Paxton, Olin, Prokesch, Richter, Schu¬
bert. See also Raumer’s Palastina, pp. 307-313.
BETHLEHEMITES, or Bethlemites, in Ecclesiasti¬
cal History, a sort of monks introduced into England in the
year 1257, habited like the Dominicans, except that on
their breast they wore a star with five rays, in memory of
the star or comet which appeared over Bethlehem at the
nativity of our Saviour. They were celled at Cambridge,
and had only one house in England.
BETHPHAGE, a place between Jericho and Bethany,
but of which the exact site is unknown.
BETHSAIDA, a town in Galilee, on the western side
of the sea of Tiberias, not far from Capernaum. It was the
native place of Peter, Andrew, and Philip, and the frequent
residence of Jesus : the precise site, however, is utterly un¬
known, and the very name has long eluded the search of
travellers, though Pococke and others have attempted to
identify it with different places.
On the north-eastern border of the sea of Tiberias w^as
another Bethsaida, near which Christ fed the five thousand,
and probably also the one where the blind man w as restored
to sight. This and not the western was the Bethsaida of
Gaulonitis, which was rebuilt and enlarged by Philip the
Tetrarch, and received the name of Julias, in honour of
Julia the daughter of Augustus.
BETHSHAN, a town of Samaria, in the half-tribe of
Manasseb, on the borders of Galilee, about tw^o miles from
Jordan, and eighteen from the southern end of lake Gen-
nesareth. It was also called Scythopolis, and by Josephus
is said to be the largest city of the Decapolis. Its site is
occupied by the small village of Beisan.
BETHULIA, a place which appears to have lain near the
plain of Esdraelon on the south, not far from Dothaim, and
to have guarded one of the passes towards Jerusalem. Mo¬
dern ecclesiastical tradition identifies Bethulia with Safed,
near the lake of Gennesareth, but Dr Robinson regards the
site of Bethulia as still undetermined.
BETHUNE, Maximilien de. See Sully.
Bethune, a strongly fortified town of France, department
of Pas de Calais, situated on a rock above the river Brette,
16 miles N.N.W. of Arras. Its castle was fortified by Vau-
ban. It has a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, a communal
college, a Gothic church, tw’o hospitals, and manufacturers
of linen, cloth, beer, &c. The trade, chiefly in grain,
cheese, linen, and oil, is facilitated by the canal which
unites the Lawe with the Lys. It was taken by the allied
forces in 1710, and restored to France by the treaty of
Utrecht. Pop. (1851) 7150. Area of the arrondissement
of this name, 360 square miles ; pop. 136,078.
BETFIYLUS, one of Cuvier’s genera of the family of
Laniadae, or shrikes, and also a genus of hymenopterous
bisects.
68S
BET
Betlis BETLIS, or Bitlis, a town of Turkish Armenia, in Kur¬
il distan, situated on the west shore of Lake Van in a highly-
Betterton. cultivated valley. Here the Armenians have four churches
and as many monasteries, and they enjoy more courteous
treatment than usually falls to their lot in Mahommedan
countries. The houses are scattered over the valley,
through which runs an extremely narrow road. I he ca,stle
is situated on an eminence, so steep on all sides that it is
only accessible by a road winding round it. Betlis is an an¬
cient city, founded, according to the Armenians, by Alex-
ander the Great. It is the centre of a considerable tiade.
The population of the town and neighbourhood is com¬
puted at about 10,000, Kurds, Turks, Armenians, and
Syi’ians. Long. 42. 31. E. Lat. 37. 45. N.
BETROTHMENT, a mutual promise or compact be¬
tween two parties for a future marriage between the persons
betrothed. Betrothment amounts to what is called by civi¬
lians and canonists sponsalia or espousals.
BETTERTON, Thomas, a celebrated actor, was the
son of Mr Betterton, under-cook to King Charles I., and
was born in Tothill Street, Westminster, in 1635. Having
received some education, his fondness for reading induced
his parents to accede to his desire to be apprenticed to a
bookseller ; and Mr Rhodes, near Charing Cross, was fixed
on for his master. Rhodes, who had formerly been ward¬
robe-keeper to the theatre in Blackfriars, obtained in 1659
a license to set up a company of players at the Cockpit in
Drury Lane ; and there Betterton made his first appearance
on the stage.
Soon after the Restoration, two different theatres were
established by royal authority; the one in Drury Lane, in
consequence of a patent granted to Henry Killigrew, Esq.,
which was called the “ King’s Company and the other in
Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, the company of which styled them¬
selves the “ Duke of York’s Servants.” The patentee of the
latter was Sir William Davenant, who engaged Betterton,
and all Rhodes’s company, and opened the theatre in 1662
with a new play of his own, called the Siege of Rhodes.
Betterton became so great a favourite with the king, that by
his Majesty’s special command he went over to Paris to exa¬
mine the French stage with a view to the improvement of our
own; and it was after his return, as is generally supposed,
that shifting scenes were first used in the English theatre in¬
stead of tapestry.
fn 1670 Betterton married Mrs Sanderson, a performer
on the same stage ; and his union with this accomplished
and excellent woman was productive of the greatest do¬
mestic felicity. When the duke’s company removed to
Dorset Gardens, Betterton and his wife continued with
them; as also on the coalition of the two companies in
1684.
In 1693 Betterton was enabled to erect a new playhouse
within the walls of the Tennis Court in Lincoln’s-Tnn-Fields.
It was opened in 1695 with Congreve’s Love for Love, which
was very successful. Yet, in a few years the profits arising
from this theatre, opposed as it was by all the strength of
Cibber’s and Vanbrugh’s writings at the other house, were
insignificant; and Betterton, infirm through age, and labour¬
ing under violent attacks of the gout, gladly quitted the fa¬
tigues of management and the bustle of the stage.
On his retirement, the public, in order to testify their re¬
spect for this theatrical veteran, gave him a benefit-night,
when the comedy of Love for Love v/as, performed, in which
Betterton himself, though upwards of seventy years of age,
sustained the youthful part of Valentine. Some months
afterwards he acted that of Hamlet, his performance of
which is particularly mentioned in the Tatler. The pro¬
fits of the night are said to have amounted to upwards of
L.500, the prices having been raised on the occasion.
The next winter Betterton was prevailed on by Mr Owen
M‘Swinney, then manager of the opera-house in the Hay-
B E T
market, to lend his occasional aid; and in consequence of Bettinelli.
this arrangement, in the spring of 1710, there was given out
for his benefit The Maid's Tragedy, of Beaumont and
Fletcher, in which he performed his celebrated part of Me-
lanthus. This, however, was his last appearance on the stage:
his rash attempt to reduce the swelling of his limbs by ex¬
ternal applications, threw the gout into his head, and termi¬
nated his life on the 28th of April. On the second of May
his body was interred with much ceremony in the cloister of
Westminster. Betterton was the author of several dramatic
works, which were popular in their day. An estimate of
his character and abilities may be seen in the Apology for
my men Life, &c\, of Betterton’s friend and rival Colley
Cibber.
BETTINELIJ, Xayier, one of the most celebrated
Italian literati of the eighteenth century, was bom at Man¬
tua on the 18th of July 1718. After studying under die
Jesuits in his native city and at Bologna, he entered in 1736
upon the noviciate of this society. He then undertook a
new course of study ; and afterwards taught the belles-let¬
tres, from the year 1739 to 1744, at Brescia, where the Car¬
dinal Quirini, Count Mazzuchelli, Count Duranti, and other
scholars, formed an illustrious academy. He there began
to distinguish himself by some pieces of poetry, composed
as scholastic exercises. Being sent to Bologna to pursue
the study of divinity, he continued to cultivate his poetical
talent, and wrote also, for the theatre of the college, his
tragedy of Jonathan. The number of learned and lite¬
rary persons collected in this city exceeded by far what he
had met with at Brescia. The Institute, recently founded
by the Count Marsigli, the Clementine Academy of Design,
the school of the astronomical poet Manfredi, the growing
reputation of his ingenious and learned pupils Zanottf Al-
garotti, and others, at this time fixed the attention of the
literary world on Bologna. It was in the midst of this so¬
ciety to which he was admitted, that Bettinelli completed
his education, and attained the age of thirty. He went in
1748 to Venice, where he became professor of rhetoric. He
left it for various missions, and returned to it often. We
may see by his epistles in free verse, or sciolti, that he was
connected on friendly terms with all that this city and state
could boast as most illustrious. He was destined by the
superiors of his order for the oratorical department; but the
weakness of his chest compelled him to relinquish it. The
superintendence of the college of nobles at Parma rvas in¬
trusted to him in 1751 ; and he principally directed the
studies of poetry and history, and the entertainments of the
theatre. He remained here eight years, but not without
visiting, at intervals, different cities of Italy, either on the
affairs of his order, for pleasure, or for health. In 1,55 he
undertook a longer journey, traversed part of Germany,
proceeded as far as Strasburg and Nancy, and returned by
way of Germany into Italy, taking with him two young
princes, sons or nephews of the prince of Hohenlohe, who
had requested him to take charge of their education. He
made, the year following, another journey into France, along
with the eldest of these two young princes, and lodged
while in Paris at the College of Louis le Grand. It was
during this, excursion that he wrote the famous Letters oj
Virgil, which were published at Venice with his sciolti verses,
and those of Frugoni and Algarotti. The opinions, and we
may add without much hesitation the literary heresies, main¬
tained in these letters against the two great luminaries o
Italian poetry, and particularly against Dante, created him
many enemies, and, what was still more unpleasant to him,
embroiled him with Algarotti. Willing to know something
more of France than Paris, he made several excursions into
Normandy and other provinces : he went also into Lorraine,
to the court of King Stanislaus, and thence proceeded to
Lyons, and afterwards to Geneva. Soon after hisarriva e
went to visit Voltaire. This celebrated writer sent to his
B E U
Betula inn an edition of his works, upon which was inscribed this
II stanza, in allusion to Bettinelli’s Letters of Virgil:—
teudant. Compatriote de Virgile,
—^ " Et son s6cretaire aujourd’hui,
C’est a vous d’6crire sous lui;
Vous avez son ame et son style.
From Geneva he proceeded to Marseilles, from thence to
Nismes, and returned by Genoa to Italy and Parma, where
he arrived in 1759. The same year he took a journey to
Venice, and afterwards to Verona, where he resided till
1767. Having resumed the occupations of preaching and
teaching, he, according to the Chevalier Pindemonti, con¬
verted the youth to God in the church, and to good taste
in his own house. He afterwards lived for some years at
Modena, and he had just been appointed professor of rhe¬
toric there, when, in 1773, the order of Jesuits was abolished
in Italy.
He then returned into his own country, where he resumed
his literary labours with new ardour, and published in suc¬
cession his Correspondence between tivo Ladies, his Letters
to Lesbia on Epigrams, his Letters on the Fine Arts, and his
Twenty-four Letters on Love. The siege laid by the French
to Mantua had compelled him to leave it, and he retired to
Verona, where he formed the most intimate friendship with
the Chevalier Hippolito Pindemonti, notwithstanding the
disproportion of their age. In 1797, after Mantua had sur¬
rendered, he returned thither. Though nearly eighty years
old, he resumed his labours and his customary manner of life.
He began in 1799 a complete edition of his works, which
was finished at Venice in 24 volumes 12mo. Arrived at
the age of ninety years, he still retained the gaiety and viva¬
city of his mind, and died on the 13th of September 1808.
The following is a list of his works :—
1. Ragionamenti Filosofici, con Annotazioni. 2. Dell’
Entusiasmo delle Belle Arti. 3. Dialoghi d’Amore. 4.
Risorgimento negli Study, nelle Arti e ne' Costumi dopo il
Mille. 5. Belle Lettere e delle Arti Mantouane : Lettere
ed Arti Modenesi. 6. Lettere died ei Virgilio agli Ar-
cadi. 7. Itahan Letters from a Lady to her Friend on the
Fine Arts, and Letters from a Friend. 8. Poetry, 3 vols.
9. Tragedies, 2 vols. 10. I^ettere a Lesbia Cidonia sopra
gli Epigrammi. 11. An Essay on Eloquence, to which are
added, some letters, discourses, and other miscellanies. (See
Biographic Universelle, tome iv.) (w. h—z—t.)
BETULA, the genus of plants to which our birch and
its congeners belong. It gives its name to the Betulacece,
one division of Amentacece. See Botany.
BETULEIUS, Sixtus, a grammarian, Latin poet, and
philosopher, born at Memmingen, a.d. 1500. His real name
was Birck. He taught the belles-lettres and philosophy
with reputation, and became principal of the college of Augs¬
burg, where he died in 1554. He published various works
in prose ; and several dramatic pieces. See Betuleii Vita,
per Jo. Nyseum Scripta ; and Adam’s Vital Eruditorum.
BET W AH, a river of Hindustan, which rises in the na¬
tive state of Bhopal in Malwa, and pursuing a course of 360
miles, for the most part in a north-easterly direction, falls into
the Jumna at Humeerpoor, in Lat. 25. 57. Long. 80. 17.
BEUDANT, Fran^ois-Sulpice. This eminent philo¬
sopher, born at Paris in 1789, was early distinguished for
his skill in mineralogy, and his valuable labours in general
physics and in geology. The work by which he established
a European reputation was his Voyage Mineralogique et
Ceologique en Hongrie. It appeared in 1822, in 4 vols.
to, the last of which consisted of geological maps, designs,
an sections, that attest the care with which he examined
t lat interesting country. This great work is divided into
wo parts. After an introduction on the geography, popu-
ation, government, natural productions of Hungary, tables
ot latitudes and longitudes, of barometric determinations of
e eights of its mountains, &c., the first two volumes
vou. iv.
B E V 689
contain what he terms Relation Histonque, giving an ad- Beutels-
mirable account of his various journeys, including the best PacJl
extant description of its mines, mineralogy, and geology. II,
The general disquisitions on these, however, are reserved ®everidge-
for the second part; which he has judiciously thus sepa-
rated from the thread of his narrative, and discussed with
remarkable fairness and candour. He appears to have at
first adopted the Wernerian classification of rocks, but those
of Hungary he divides into primitive, intermediate, second¬
ary, tertiary, and independent,—meaning by the last the for¬
mations, or, as he styles them, the terrains of trachytes and
basalts ; which form so conspicuous a feature in the geology
of Hungary, and which he has distinctly proved to have an
igneous origin ; but his deductions are stated with consider¬
able impartiality and modesty, qualities not always found in
geological works.
Beudant was advantageously known also as a mechanical
philosopher, as the sixth edition of his Traite Elementaire
de Physique of 1838 sufficiently shows. His excellent ele¬
mentary work on mineralogy went through two editions
before it was enlarged in his Cours Elementaire de Mine-
ralogie et de Geologic, 18mo, in 1841. The same year
exhibits him also as a philologist in his Nouveaux Elernens
de Grammaire Frangaise, 12mo.
Besides these works, he enriched several periodicals by
his numerous communications, as Annales de Chimie, vols.
iv., viii., xiv., xvi., xxxi., xxxviii; Annales du Museum
d’Histoire Naturelle, vols. xv., xvi.; Annales des Mines, vols.
hi., xii.; and Memoires de VAcademic des Sciences, vol.
viii. Beudant died at Paris in 1852, in the sixty-fifth year
of his age. (t.s.t.)
BEUTELSPACH, a town in the circle of Jaxt, kingdom
of Wirtemburg. It stands on the river Beutel, and is remark¬
able as containing the ancient monastery and church in w hich
is the cemetery of the ducal house of Wirtemburg. It con¬
tains 1900 inhabitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture
of wine, which is of excellent quality.
BEUTHEN, twro small towns in the Prussian province
of Silesia. The one is capital of a circle of the same name
in the government of Oppeln, and contains 6106 inhabitants,
engaged in the manufacture of linen and woollen goods, and
earthenware ; the other is in the government of Liegnitz and
circle of Freistadt, on the Oder, and has a population of3824.
BEVEL, an instrument used by artificers for drawing
angles. It consists of two limbs resembling those of a
square, but which are moveable on a pivot at the joint in
order to adjust it to any angle. The edge of the blade is
sometimes curved, to suit the sweep of an arch or vault.
BEVEL-Angle, any angle except a right angle, whether
it be acute or obtuse.
BEVEL AND, North and South, the name of two
Zealand islands, formed by the divided branches of the
Scheldt. North Beveland is about six miles in length by four
in breadth. It lies to the east of the island of Walcheren,
and between it and South Beveland is the island of Wol-
fersdyke. The inundation of 1532 completely ruined it
For many years it remained immersed in water, and was
only again formed into an island by the gradual deposits of
the sea. South Beveland is twenty-four miles long by from
five to eight broad. It contains the town of Goes, and several
forts and villages. An active trade in corn is carried on
here, and the place is considered one of the most agreeable
of the Zealand islands.
BEVERAGE, any liquor for drinking. In the middle
ages, beverage, beveragium, or biberagium, was money for
drink given to an artificer or other person over and above
his hire or wages.
BEVERIDGE, William, a very learned English bishop,
was born at Barrow in Leicestershire, a.d. 1638, and edu¬
cated at St John’s College, Cambridge, where he distin¬
guished himself very early by his extensive learning, and
4 s
690
B E V
Bevin.
Beverley particularly by his knowledge of the Oriental languages.
11 Upon the deprivation of Dr Thomas Ken, bishop ot Bath
and Wells, for not taking the oaths to the government in
1691, he refused the offer of that see, although he was then
chaplain to King William and Queen Mary. In 1 - 01 !Cj
was consecrated to the bishopric of St Asaph, and dischargee
the duties of that office in an exemplary manner. De (hec
at his apartments in the cloisters of Westminster i ®y
in 1707, aged sixty-nine. His whole life was spent in
acts of piety and charity, and he gave remarkable instances
of both at his death, leaving the bulk ot his estatefor t
propagation of the gospel and the promotion of Uhmtian
knowledge at home as well as abroad. His Private Thoughts
upon a Christian Life is a very popular book. He was the
author of several valuable works, particularly on the OnenE
t0IBEV*ERLEY, a market and borough town in the East
Riding of Yorkshire, about a mile from the river Hull, with
which it communicates by means of a canal called the Be¬
verley Beck. It is a very neat and handsome town, consist¬
ing principally of one long wide street upwards of a mile in
length, and terminated by an ancient gateway. The mag¬
nificent collegiate church of St John is in size and splen our
superior to many cathedrals. Having been erected at (li ¬
ferent times it exhibits various styles of Gothic architec
ture. The west front is said by Rickman to be the finest ot
its kind in England. It is 334 feet in length from east to
west; the breadth of the nave and side aisles is 64 teet,
the transept is 167 feet long; and the two towers at the
west end are 200 feet in height. St Mary s church is also an
exceedingly handsome and spacious Gothic building. 1 ne
market-place, which comprises an area of nearly four acres,
is ornamented with an octangular market-cross. I he gram¬
mar-school is of great antiquity, and has two fellowships, six
scholarships, and three exhibitions at St Johns College,
Cambridge. There are several national and two infant
schools, Blue-coat school, mechanics’ institute, newsroom,
four banks, savings bank, dispensary, theatre, jail, &c. Its
trade is chiefly confined to tanned leather, oatmeal, malt,
corn, and coal. Market-days, Wednesday and Saturday. It
is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen council¬
lors ; and returns two members to parliament. Pop. (. 1 So 1)
of parliamentary borough, 10,058 ; of municipality, 8915.
Beverley, a sea-port of Massachusetts in North Amei ica,
connected with Salem by a bridge. It is sixteen miles N .E.
of Boston. Pop. 4689.
Beyerley, John of {Joannes Beverlacius), archbishop ot
York in the eighth century, was descended of a noble family
at Harpham in Northumberland, and was one of the most
learned men of his time. He was abbot of the monasteiy
of St Hilda, when his merit recommended him to the favour
of Alfred king of Northumberland, who in 685 advanced
him to the see of Hagustald or Hexham, and in 687 trans¬
lated him to the archbishopric of York. This prelate was
tutor to the famous Bede, and lived in the strictest friend¬
ship with Acca and other Anglo-Saxon doctors, several of
whom he engaged to write comments on the Holy Scrip¬
tures. In 704 he founded a college at Beverley for secular
priests ; and after he had governed the see of Y ork thirty-
four years he divested himself of his episcopal character, and
retired to Beverley, where he died four years after, on the
7th of May 721. Bede and other monkish writers ascribe
several miracles to him. Pie wrote, \.Pro Luce exponenda ;
2. Homilice in Evangelica ; 3. Epistolce ad Hildam Abha-
tissam ; Epistolce ad Herebaldum, Andenum, et Bertinum.
BEVILE, in Heraldry, a thing broken, or opening like
a carpenter’s rule.
BEVIN, Elway, a musician eminently skilled in the art
of composition, who flourished towards the end of Queen
Elizabeth’s reign. Pie was of Welsh extraction, and had
been educated under Tallis, upon whose recommendation he
BEY
was in 1589 sworn in gentleman extraordinary of the chapel; Bewdley
but from this situation, as well as from that of organist ot Beyk!Ineei.
Bristol cathedral, he was expelled in 1637, for his adherence v  ,
to the Romish communion. He composed several services
and anthems, and wrote a treatise on composition entitled
the Art of Musicke. .
BEWDLEY, a market and borough town in the pansti
of Ribbesford, in the county of Worcester, 129 miles from
London. It is a well-built town, and is situated on an
eminence near the river Severn, over which there is an ele¬
gant bridge. It has a modern town-hall, a free grammai-
school, and several charities ; with manufactures of combs,
leather, and malt. It is governed by a mayor, four aider-
men, and twelve councillors, and returns one member to
parliament. Pop. in 1831, 3908; in 1851, 312 . ns e
crease is attributed to the decline of its transit tiade by
means of the river, which was formerly considerable.
BEWICK, Thomas, a celebrated engraver on wood,
born at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in 1753. He
may be considered as the reviver of wood-engraving in Bri¬
tain, and obtained a premium for a work in 1775 from the
Society of Arts. He is well known for his illustration ot
Select Fables, which appeared in 1784; his Quadrupeds,
published in 1790; and his British Birds, which appeared
from 1797 to 1804. This last is his masterpiece, and ex¬
hibits him as a naturalist as well as an engraver. Our best
artists on wood are Bewick’s pupils. He died in 1828. A
good memoir of him may be found in the Gentlemans
Magazine for 1829. See Wood-Engraving.
BEWITS, in Falconry, pieces of leather to which a
hawk’s bells are fastened, and buttoned to his legs.
BEY, the Turkish governor of a town or district.
BEYAH, a river of Northern India, rising in the Hima¬
layan province of Lahoul, in Lat. 32. 24. Long, i 7. LL, at
an elevation of 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. Por
the first 80 miles of its course the river takes a southerly
direction to Mundi, whence turning westward it flows tor
the distance of 50 miles to Nadaun. From this point it
makes a wide sweep of 80 miles to the NA\ ., and, enter¬
ing the plains of the Punjaub, proceeds in a southerly c i-
rection to its confluence with the Sutlej ; the whole length
of its course being 290 miles. The Beyah is identical wit i
the Hyphasis, which formed the limit ot Alexander s expe¬
dition. Below its junction with the Sutlej the united streams
bear the name of the Ghara. ^E‘ ^'4
BEYKANEER, or Bicanere, one of the native states
of Raipootana in the N.W. of Hindustan, bounded on the
north by the British district of Butteeana; on the E. and
S.E. by the native state of Shekawuttee; on the south by
Joudpore ; and on the west by Jessulmere and Bahawu -
pore. It extends from Lat. 27. 30. to 29. 55. and from
I ons 72.30. to 75. 40. and contains an area of 17,676 square
miles,’ with a population of about half a million consisting ot
Rajpoots and Jauts ; the former being the rulers, the latter
constituting the mass of the people. , rrpn
A vast proportion of the soil of Beykaneer is a barre
sandy desert, or a hard flat clay, sounding like a board unde
horses’ feet, and entirely destitute of inhabitants, water, a
vegetation. Hills and valleys of loose and heavy sand extend
for many miles ; the former, from twenty to a hundred feet in
height, shifting their position and altering their shape accoi -
ing to the influence of the wind. During the heat of summe>,
clouds of moving sand threaten to overwhelm he r^efler^
and this desert sometimes exhibits the decei
’'^Vegetation is exceedingly scanty throughout except m
in a few patches, which are skilfully and m us n y
tivated; and the whole country seems to depend on exter
naf supplies of grain. Nevertheless, in the mtdst of and
tracts, the water-melon, a juicy fruit, grows in pro usio^^^
taining the remarkable size of three or fou
BEY
BEY
691
ference, from a stock no larger than thatof the common melon.
The seeds are sown by the natives, and also grow wild; but
it is difficult to account for such an enlargement of size with
so little moisture. There are no permanently running
streams in Beykaneer. Water seems to be obtained only
at an immense depth. The wells are often from 300 to 345
feet in depth, yet not above three in diameter ; they are all
lined with masonry ; and one of the most curious objects in
the city of Beykaneer is considered to be a well 300 feet
deep, and fifteen or twenty in diameter, worked by four pair
of oxen drawing as many buckets of water. The water is
always brackish, scanty, and unwholesome; and this, com¬
bined with the nature of the soil, principally occasions the
prevalent sterility of the country.
The wild ass, remarkable for its speed and its shyness, is
found here, sometimes solitary, but oftener in herds. At a
kind of shuffling trot peculiar to itself, it will leave the best
horses behind. Antelopes are seen in some parts ; also
foxes, but smaller than those of Britain ; and the desert rat
is found in great numbers, occasioning serious inconvenience
to equestrians, from the holes it makes where the ground is
sufficiently solid. Of domesticated animals, horses, bul¬
locks, and camels, are abundant; the last being kept in great
herds for various purposes. The horses brought from the
vicinity of the Johur jungle, an adjoining district, where they
are reared on excellent pasture and with the strictest at¬
tention, are much prized.
The only towns of importance are Beykaneer the capital
of the province, and Churoo on the eastern frontier. Churoo,
independent of the suburbs, is above a mile and a half in
circuit, and although situate among sandhills has a handsome
appearance. All the houses have terraces, and are built of
a pure white limestone. Beykaneer is situate in a remark¬
ably desolate tract. It is surrounded by lofty white walls,
strengthened with numerous round towers crowned by battle¬
ments, and presents the imposing picture of a great and mag¬
nificent city in the midst of a wilderness. But on entering
the gates the illusion vanishes; and it is found to consist,
for the most part, of huts built of mud, and painted red.
Nevertheless there are some high houses, several temples,
and at one corner a lofty and fine-looking fortress, a quarter
of a mile square, environed by a wall thirty feet high, and a
good dry ditch. The interior is a confused assemblage of
towers and battlements, overtopped by houses; and it con¬
tains the royal palace, a curious old edifice.
Beykaneer is governed by a rajah, who acknowledges the
supremacy of the British government. His dominions were
wrested chiefly from the Battles about the middle of the
fifteenth century by a younger son of the rajah of Joud-
pore, who founded the principality. In the following cen¬
tury his successors appear among the feudatories of the Mo¬
gul emperors of Delhi, in which relative position they seem
to have continued until the decay of the empire, when they
recovered their independence. In 1799 George Thomas,
a celebrated adventurer, who raised himself to the govern¬
ment of a neighbouring territory, invaded Beykaneer, and
compelled the rajah to purchase peace with a tribute of
L.2o,000. He also aided the Batties in expelling him from
their country. More recently, a war having commenced
between the rajahs of Joudpore and Jeypore, who were
contending for the hand of an eastern princess, the inter¬
ference of Soorut Sing of Beykaneer excited the wrath of
some of the competitors against himself. Five different
armies invaded Beykaneer in 1808, when the rajah filled
yp all the wells within ten miles of the walls of his capital.
The contest was protracted for a considerable time, but the
rajah succeeded in maintaining himself as an independent
prince. His independence was finally secured to him by his
being admitted, in 1818, within the line of British protec
tion. The rajah maintains a military force of 3500 men, ir¬
respective of the quotas furnished by his feudal chiefs, amount¬
ing to 1500 horse. His revenues are returned at L.65,000 Beyra
per annum. Distance of Beykaneer N.W. from Calcutta II
1175 miles. Lat. 28. N.; Long. 73. 22. E. (j. g.d.) (e.t.) Beyrout-
BEYRA or Beira, a province of Portugal, bounded on
the north by the provinces of Traz-os-Montes andMinho ;
east by Spain ; south by Alentejo and Portuguese Estre-
madura; and west by the Atlantic. Area about 5900 square
miles. Pop. (1850) 631,416. The surface is very moun¬
tainous ; its highest point, in the Sierra de Estrella, being
7524 feet. It is divided into Beira Alta and Beira Baixa;
the former comprising the district between the Douro and
the Sierra de Estrella, and the latter the remaining portion
of the province between these mountains and the Tagus.
The principal river is the Douro, which receives the waters
of numerous smaller streams. The other chief rivers are the
Aguada, the Mondego, the Vouga, and the Zezere. Agri¬
culture is in a neglected state, and before the general in¬
troduction of the potato an annual importation of foreign
corn was necessary for the support of the inhabitants. On
the mountains and in the valleys, however, sheep are pastured
in great numbers, and the olive is extensively cultivated ;
olive-oil and fruit forming the principal exports of the pro¬
vince. Good wine also is produced, and the cheese of the
Sierra de Estrella district is famed. Silver and lead ores
exist in some of the mountains, but the mines have not been
wrought since a remote period. Iron, coal, and marble, are
worked to some extent. There are few manufactures, the
chief employment being the cultivation of the vine, the olive,
the chestnut, the orange, &c.
The province comprehends 7 bishoprics, 22 judicial dis¬
tricts, 85 communes, and 860 parishes. The chief towns
are Coimbra, Viseu, Aveiro, Ovar, and Lamego. The heir-
apparent to the throne of Portugal has the title of Prince of
Beira.
BEYRAMICH, a city of Asia Minor, the capital of the
district called Troas, which belongs to the pasha of the Dar¬
danelles. It is an extensive town, and the houses are better
built and more regularly disposed than in Constantinople.
Many antiquities are to be seen in this place and the vicinity ;
amongst which are several sarcophagi, consisting of entire
blocks of granite, converted to ordinary purposes in the street.
It is distant about sixty miles from the Dardanelles.
BEYROUT, Beirout, or Bairut, anciently Berytus
(BrjpvTos), a seaport-town of Syria, in the pashalic of Saide
or Acre. A tongue of land, which presents a conspicuous
headland when viewed from the north, extends itself in a
plain about five or six miles from the mountains towards the
sea; and on the northern edge of this plain the town is situ¬
ated, on a rising ground, which contributes both to its
cleanliness and salubrity. To the north the projection of
the land forms a fine bay, the head of which is five or six
miles E.S.E. of the town ; and there is thus a roadstead to
the N.E., secured from the S.W. wind, which is the prevailing
one. The harbour is now choked up with sand and rub¬
bish ; and all that remains of the ancient structure is a pier,
to which boats can approach sufficiently for discharging goods.
All along its front are ranged fine shafts of gray granite pil¬
lars, which are used for mooring small vessels. Merchant
vessels and ships of war anchor at a distance in the road¬
stead. The town itself is an irregular square, open towards
the sea, and surrounded on the three sides which face the
land with a wall built by Djezzar Pasha, defended by a few
round towers of little strength, and far too feeble to resist
an attack of artillery. Near the sea is an old castle, on which
are six pieces of artillery ; and at the common landing place
is a ruined towei*, built on a rock in the sea. The town is
in general better built, and the situation is more salubrious
than any along the coast; the streets are wider, and are paved
with large stones. The dwelling-houses are spacious, lofty,
and well built; the bazaars are amply furnished with pro¬
visions, as well as with Oriental and European manufactures;
B E Z
and the magazines near the sea-shore are large and con¬
venient. The town contains three mosques, with their courts,
fountains, and minarets; and four Christian churches. Water
is abundantly supplied at all seasons from several fountains,
constructed by Djezzar Pasha. The suburbs are nearly as
large as the town ; consisting of houses interspersed wit i
gardens, which are planted with fruit-trees, and are extremely
beautiful. “The situation,” says Mr Carne, “ is the most
beautiful of all the Syrian towns: the environs are laid out
in plantations of mulberry trees, and a quantity of silk is pro¬
duced and exported.” Indeed, the commerce of Bey rout is
greater than that of any other port in Syria; and it is in¬
creasing-. It is the maritime emporium of Damascus, and
of the surrounding country. British manufactures, such as
cottons, muslins, cloths, &c., with bar-iron, lead, coffee, spices,
indigo, &c., are imported. The returns are made in cotton,
corn, raw silk (which is the staple commodity of the country),
sometimes in wine and oil, and occasionally in specie. I he
population, amounting to about 12,000, is composed of Druses,
Maronites, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Arabs, Africans. A Greek
and a Maronite bishop reside here. Beyrout still boasts
some relics of the ancient magnificence of Berytus, that
celebrated “ nurse of tranquil life ” (Brjpvrbs (3i6tolo yaX-q-
vaioio TiO-nrn), as Nonus has called it (Dionysiaca, lib. xh.
p. 708. ed. Falk. Antv. 1569). The school of jurisprudence,
founded here in the third century, long maintained a high
reputation. During the reign of Justinian, the two imperial
cities and Berytus were the only places within the limits of
the empire where law was permitted to be publicly taught;
and of the three, the Syrian school (of which Theophilus
and Dorotheus, the associates of I ribonian in the compilation
of the Institutions and the Digest were antecessores or
teachers) appears to have stood highest in general estima¬
tion. But the prosperity of Berytus wras first interrupted,
and finally subverted, by some of the great convulsions of
nature. In the year 384 the town was greatly injured by
an earthquake, and in 554 it was visited by another which
left it a heap of ruins. After this last catastrophe the pro¬
fessors transferred their school to Sidon, and the surviving
inhabitants made an effort to raise a new city from the ruins
of the old; but another calamity awaited them, and this
famous seat of jurisprudence was totally consumed by fire.
After a long interval, the modern town of Beyrout was
founded by the Druses near the ancient site, and was pos¬
sessed by the emirs as their capital and only seaport, until
they were expelled by Djezzar Pasha of Acre. Beyrout
an important possession in connection with the power of
Turkey in the East. In 1840 it was bombarded by the com¬
bined fleets of England and Turkey, and wrested from the
hands of the pasha of Egypt. Long. 35. 29. E. Eat. 33.50.
N. (Buckingham’s Travels among the Arab Tribes ; Vol-
ney’s Travels; Game’s Letters from the East; Jowett’s
Christian Researches in Syria, &c.; Lamartine’s Travels
in the East.)
BEYS, Giles, acelebrated printer atParisin thesixteenth
century, who first made a distinction in printing between
i and j, u and v.
BEZA, or Besze, Theodore, one of the principal pillars
of the reformed church, was born at Vezelai in Burgundy,
June 24. 1519. He was sent early to Paris to his uncle
Nicholas Beza, who was counsellor to the parliament; and
at nine years of age he became a student at Orleans. He
afterwards went to Bourges, where, under the care of Mel¬
chior Wolmar, he made extraordinary progress in learning,
and imbibed the principles of Calvinism. His uncle in¬
tended him for the bar; but the law not suiting his dispo¬
sition, he spent most of his time in reading the Greek and
Latin authors, and in composing verses. In 1539 he took
his licentiate’s degree, and went to Paris, where he yielded
to the allurements of pleasure, and wrote some poems of a
licentious cast. But sickness awakened him to a sense of
B E Z
his error, and he determined to perform a vow he had for- Bezant
merly made of entering into the reformed church. With B Jierg
this resolution he went to Geneva and made a public pro- _ ^ ^
fession of the reformed religion. In 1549 he accepted the
Greek professorship at Lausanne, where he also read lectures
in French on the New Testament. Having settled at Ge¬
neva, he adhered to Calvin in the strictest manner, and be¬
came his colleague in the church and in the university. At
the solicitation of some great men of the kingdom he was
sent to Nerac to confer with the king of Navarre upon af¬
fairs of importance. At this time the Guises had gained
authority, under the reign of Francis IL, to the prejudice
of the princes of the blood. The king of Navarre having
testified both by letters and deputies that he desired Beza
might assist at the conference of Poissy, the senate of Ge¬
neva consented. The assembly listened attentively to his
harangue, till, speaking of the real presence, he said, that
the body of Jesus Christ was as distant from the bread and
wine, as the highest heaven is from the earth. This pro¬
duced a murmur : some cried out, “ Blasphemavitand
others rose up to go away. Cardinal de Fournon, who sat
in the first place, desired the king and queen either to silence
Beza, or to permit him and his company to withdraw. The
king did not stir, nor did any of the princes ; and leave was
given him to proceed. Throughout the whole conference
he acquitted himself with great ability. He often preached
before the queen of Navarre, the prince of Conde, and in
the suburbs of Paris. After the massacre of Vassy, he was
deputed to the king to complain of this violence. The
civil war followed soon after, during which the prince of
Conde kept Beza with him; and while the prince was im¬
prisoned he lived with Admiral de Goligni, and did not re¬
turn to Geneva till after the peace of 1563. In 1571 he
was chosen moderator of the national synod of Rochelle,
and assisted the year after at that of Nismes; after which
he was present at the conferences of Montheliard, and
at those of Berne. The infirmities of age beginning to
fall heavily upon him, he seldom spoke in public, and in the
beginning of 1600 ceased to do so entirely. In 1597, how¬
ever, he wrote some animated verses against the Jesuits,
on the occasion of a report that was circulated of his death,
and of his having embraced on his deathbed the Romish
faith. He died on the 13th October 1605. Beza was a
man of extraordinary merit, and did great service to the
Protestant cause. This, however, exposed him to innumer¬
able calumnies ; but his adversaries, both Catholic
Lutheran, found that he was well able to defend himself.
Beza wrote, 1. A Translation of the New Testament; 2. A
Version of the Psalms into Latin verse ; 3. A treatise on the
Sacraments; 4. Some Sermons on the Passion of Jesus Christ
and on Solomon’s Song ; 5. A version of the Canticles, in lyric
verse ; 6. A French tragi-comedy, entitled I he Sacnhce ot
Abraham ; and many other works.
BEZIERS, a city of France, in the department of Herault,
and capital of an arrondissement of the same name. It is
beautifully situated on a hill, on the left bank of the river
Orbe, where it is joined by the canal of Languedoc, 38 miles
S.W. of Montpelier. It is surrounded by old walls flanked
with towers, round which is a recently planted piomena c,
and has a fine old Gothic cathedral, several churches, an old
episcopal palace now used for the government offices, ^ C01?’
munal college, agricultural society, theatre, and public li¬
brary. It manufactures silk stockings, starch, gloves, brandy,
confectionary, paper, leather, glass, &c.; and has a consi er-
able trade. Beziers is of great antiquity, and has remains
of an amphitheatre and other Roman works. ie omans
established a colony here in 636 ; and afterwards it became
the head-quarters of the seventh legion, under the title ot
terra Septwnanorum. It was completely destroyed in
by the forces of Simon de Montfort in the crusade against
the Albigenses, on which occasion 60,000 persons were
Bezoar
Bheels.
B H E
B H U
693
barbarously massacred. Beziers was rebuilt in 1289, and
again suffered severely in the civil and religious wars of the
sixteenth century. Pop. (1851) 17,376.
BEZOAR. This name, which is derived from a Persian
word implying an antidote to poison, was given to a concre¬
tion found in the stomach of an animal of the goat kind, and
once very highly valued for this imaginary quality; and hence
it has been extended to all concretions found in the intestines
of animals. Of these there are several kinds ; first, super¬
phosphate of lime, which forms concretions in the intestines
of many mammalia; secondly, phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia, a concretion of a gray or brown colour, composed
of radiations from a centre, and found in the intestines of
herbivorous animals, such as the elephant, the horse, &c.;
thirdly, biliary concretions, of a reddish brown colour, and
frequently met with in the intestines and gall bladders of
oxen. This kind is composed of inspissated bile, and is used
by painters as an orange-yellow pigment. Such concretions
also occur hairy, resinous, and ligniform.
BHADRINATH, a town and celebrated temple in Hin¬
dustan, in the British district of Gurwhal, situate on the right
bank of theVishungunga, a tributary of the Alcanunda river,
in the middle of a valley nearly four miles in length and one
in breadth. The town is small, containing only twenty or
thirty huts, in which reside the Brahmins and the attend¬
ants on the temple. The building, however, which is con¬
sidered a place of high sancity, by no means corresponds to
its great celebrity. It is about 40 or 50 feet in height, built
in the form of a cone, with a small cupola, on the top of which
is a gilt ball and spire, and contains the shrine of Bhadrinath,
dedicated to an incarnation of Vishnu. The principal idol
is of black stone and about three feet in height. Bhadrinath
is the favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of India. In
ordinary years the number varies from 7000 to 10,000 ; but
every twelfth year, when the festival of Kumbh Mela is
celebrated, the concourse of persons is said to be 50,000.
In addition to the gifts of votaries, the temple enjoys a further
source of revenue from the rents of villages assigned by
former rajahs. Some years since the temple was shattered
by an earthquake, and has only been partially restored. It
is situate among mountains rising 23,000 feet above the
level of the sea. Elevation of site of the temple 10,294 feet.
Eat. 30. 44. Long. 79. 32. (e. t.)
BHATGAN, or Bhatgong, a town of Northern Hin¬
dustan, in the valley of Nepaul, and a celebrated place of
Hindu superstition. It is the favourite residence of the Brah¬
mins of Nepavd, and contains many more families of that order
than either Catmandoo or Patu. It contains 12,000 houses,
and its palace and the buildings in general are of a more
striking appearance than those of the other Nepaulese towns.
The town is said to contain many valuable Sanscrit libraries.
Eat. 27- 37. N. Long. 85. 22. E.
BHEELS, one of the rude tribes of Hindustan, inhabit¬
ing chiefly the rocky ranges of the Vyndhia and Sautpoora
mountains, and the banks of the Nerbudda and Taptee.
In common with the hill tribes designated Coolies and
Ghoonds, the Bheels are supposed to have been the abori¬
gines of India, and to have been driven to their present
fastnesses at the period of the Hindu invasion. They are
of dark complexion and diminutive stature, but active, and
capable of enduring great fatigue. Efforts have been made
by the British government to reclaim the Bheels from lawless
practices; and these have been rendered successful,partly by
raising a local military corps into which the wild and un¬
ruly spirits were drafted, and partly by settling throughout
the districts of Candeish and Ahmednuggur small agricul¬
tural communities composed of those more peaceably dis¬
posed. High commendation has been bestowed by com¬
petent military authority upon the discipline and skill dis¬
played by the Bheel corps ; while with regard to the agri¬
cultural settlements, the happy results cannot be better de¬
scribed than in the words of the British superintendent Mr . ur P°r^
Candeish, who says: “ These districts, formerly the scene v
of every outrage, where neither life nor property were se¬
cure, now enjoy tranquillity ; the roads, formerly hazardous
for an armed party, are traversed at all hours by single pas¬
sengers ; the formidable list of crimes has dwindled down
to the reports of a few petty thefts, and the Bheels from out¬
casts have become members of a society daily rising in re¬
spectability and appearance, and becoming useful and obe¬
dient servants of the state.” (e.t.)
BHURTPORE, a town of Hindustan, and the capital
of a native state of the same name. It is a place of great
extent, the site occupied by the town and fort measuring
upwards of eight miles in circumference. It had also in
former times the reputation of considerable strength ; being
surrounded by a mud wall of great height and thickness,
with a very wide and deep ditch. The fort stands at the
eastern extremity of the town; its situation is more ele¬
vated, its walls are higher, and its ditch is of greater width
and depth. It is of a square figure ; one of its sides origin¬
ally overlooked the country, while the other three were
within the town, but since the enlargement of the city,
which took place after the siege of 1805, the fortress has
been brought entirely within the city walls. The ditch,
from the nature of the ground, may be easily filled from an
adjoining lake, and being thus rendered unfordable, pre¬
sents a formidable obstacle to a besieging army. The rajah
of Bhurtpore and most of his people are Jauts. It was in
1700 that this tribe first attracted notice in Hindustan.
They migrated from the right bank of the Indus into the
province of Mooltan, and were allowed to settle in several
parts of the country between the Ganges and the Jumna.
They are, according to Bishop Heber, the finest people in
point of bodily advantages and martial spirit that he had
seen in India ; and their country is one of the most fertile
and best cultivated. Chooraman, their elected leader, is
said to have erected the fortress of Bhurtpore at the com¬
mencement of the eighteenth century, by means of the
plunder which he had carried off from Aurungzebe’s army
during its retreat from the Mahrattas towards Ahmednuggur.
He transmitted this stronghold to his successors, by one of
whom it was held at the time the British advanced into
Central India. In 1803 a treaty of perpetual friendship was
concluded between him and General Lake ; but, notwith¬
standing this, he espoused the declining cause of Holkar in
1804, and admitted his routed army into the fortress. Lord
Lake reached Bhurtpore on the 3d January 1805, and forth¬
with commenced a series of operations against the fort. A
breaching battery of six eighteen-pounders, and one of four
eight-inch, and four five-inch mortars, were the means of
attack. The British army, from its limited numbers com¬
pared with the extent of the place, acted under every dis¬
advantage. Their operations were confined to one point,
and the besieged consequently could easily procure sup¬
plies from the surrounding country. Undismayed by these
obstacles, Lord Lake made four successive attempts to storm
the fortress, in all of which he was repulsed with great
slaughter ; his loss amounting, in killed and wounded, to
about 3000. The rajah, notwithstanding his success, fear¬
ing that British courage and skill would ultimately prevail,
sent his son to Lord Lake’s camp with the keys of the for¬
tress, and agreed to compel Holkar to quit Bhurtpore. A
second treaty was then concluded with the rajah, and several
additional precautions adopted to secure his fidelity. This
signal overthrow of the British by the Jauts, the defenders
of Bhurtpore, was celebrated all over India, and was by
many regarded as the forerunner of their expulsion from
Hindustan. But in the lapse of twenty years an oppor¬
tunity occurred for a new trial of strength, which terminated
in the complete triumph of the British arms. A dispute
occurred in the family of the rajah respecting the succession;
694
BIB
Bible.
Biafra the cousin having usurped the inheritance of the son. Sii
David Ochterlony prepared to expel the usurper, but was
restrained by orders from the governor-general. After¬
wards, however, it was determined to attack this great strong¬
hold ; and on the 10th December 1825 Lord Combermexe
assxxmed the command of the British army before Bhurt-
pore. As it was vain to batter in breach, on account or the
extraordinary thickness of the wall, the besiegers proceeded
by mining; and on the 18th January 1826, a mine of con¬
siderable dimensions having been first spi’ung, the signa
was given for the assault. In the course of two hours evex y
gateway and bastion, and the whole rampart surrounding
the town, with the gates of the citadel, were in possession
of the besiegers, and thus was effaced the transient stain
which the former failure at Bhurtpore had cast on the g Y
of the British arms. On the 4th February the rightful
raiahwas reinstated in his inheritance; and some years after,
on attaining his majority, was admitted to the exercise ox
independent authority. It was at the same time determined
to dismantle the fortress ; and the principal bastions, and
parts of several curtains, were accordingly blown up, and
left in a state of ruin. The territory of which Bhurtpore
is the principal place has an area of 1978 square miles, and
contains a population of 600,000. Its revenue is computed
at L.l 70,000 per annum, and its ruler maintains a.mihtary
force of 200 artillery, 1500 cavalry, and 3700 infantry.
Bhurtpore is thirty-four miles N.W. from Agra. Lat.
27. 13. Long. 77. 33. w’T‘
BIAFRA, a tract of country on the coast of VVestern
Africa, on a bay or bight of the same name, situated at the
easternmost extremity of the Gulf of Guinea. It has long
been known that a number of broad estuaries open into this
bight from the north ; but, owing to a strange want of enter¬
prise, or some other cause, European vessels trading on
this coast have not hitherto ascended any of these beyond
fifty or sixty miles from its embouchure. Lander the tra¬
veller, however, in descending the Niger, arrived by one of
these channels in the Bight of Biafra; thus solving the great
problem of African geography, and leaving no doubt that
the system of inter-ramified river-channels, extending from
Benin to Biafra, constitutes the delta of the Niger, through
which, by a number of outlets, it discharges itself into the
sea. For the details of this important and interesting dis¬
covery, see the article Niger.
Biaera, Bight of, the most eastern part of the Gulf of
Guinea, on the western coast of Africa, between Capes For¬
mosa and Lopez, and containing the islands of Fernando Po,
Prince, and St Thomas.
BIALYSTOCK, a fortified town of European Russia,
capital of a province of the same name, which formerly
formed part of the kingdom of Poland. It is situated on
the Bialy, an affluent of the Narew, and is neat and well
built, having a castle, four churches, a gymnasium, and a
Bible.
BIB
considerable trade. Pop. 9217. It is 45 miles S.W. of Bianchi
Grodno, in Lat. 53. 7. 35. N. Long. 23. 20. E.
BIANCHI, Francesco, called II Frari, an eminent
painter, born at Modena in 1447 ; died in 1510. He had
the honour of being the instructor of Coreggio.
BIANCHINI, Francis, a very learned Italian astro¬
nomer and philosopher, born at Verona in 1662, of a noble
and ancient family. His taste for natural philosophy and
mathematics induced him to establish the academy of Ale-
tofili, at Verona. He went to Rome in 1684, and was
made librarian to Cardinal Ottoboni, afterwards Pope Alex¬
ander VIII. He also became canon of Sta Maria de la Ro-
tonda, and at length of St° Lorenzo in Damaso. He was
the author of numerous works, and died in 1729.
BIAR, a town of the province of Alicante, in Spain,
containing about 3000 inhabitants, who are employed in
making woollen goods. The vicinity is celebrated for its
honey, which has a peculiar flavour, extracted from the
rosemary, which grows wild there in great abundance.
BIARCHUS 03iapX°s), in the court of the emperors of
Constantinople, an officer who superintended the provi¬
sions of the soldiery.
BIAS (Bias), of Priene in Ionia, one of the Seven Sages
of Greece, flourished about 550 years before Christ. He
was accustomed to say, that it was a sickness of the mind
to wish for impossible things. Being asked, when his native
city was besieged, why he alone had retired from the place
without carrying anything with him, he replied, that he
carried his all with him; meaning, that knowledge and
virtue were the only blessings peculiarly his own, since they
could not be taken from him. He lived to a very advanced
age, and expired immediately after pleading successfully the
cause of one of his friends. Diogenes Laertius and others
have recorded many of his sayings.
Bias, the inclination or bent of the mind to a particular
object. It is also applied to the weight inserted in the side of
a bowl, which causes it to incline, when rolling, to that parti-
culctr side.
BIBERACH, a town of Wiirtemberg, in the circle of
the Danube, and capital of a bailiwick of the same name,
23 miles S.S.W. of Ulm. It is situated on the small river
Riss, and has 5000 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in bleach¬
ing, weaving, and tanning. 1 he bailiwick contains one
city, four market-towns, 36 villages, and 26,224 inhabitants.
BIBIENA, Ferdinando Galli, a painter and archi¬
tect, was born at Bologna in 1657, and surnamed Bibiena
from a territory of that name in Tuscany, in which his father
was born. He acquired such reputation by his skill in.
architecture, that he was invited to the court of the Duke of
Parma, and made his first painter and architect. Bibiena after¬
wards went to the emperor’s court, where he had the same
honours conferred upon him. He wrote two books on archi¬
tecture ; and died at Bologna in 1745. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt?)
B I B
In Greek, /3i/3A.os, or g fiifiXos, the book,—a name applied
by Christians since the fifth century to denote the collec¬
tive volume of the Sacred Writings, which are designated also
by various other appellations, as the Holy Scriptures, In¬
spired Writings, Holy Writ, &c. The names Scripture or
Writing (2 Pet. i. 20), Scriptures (Matt. xxii. 29; Acts viii.
24), Holy Scriptures (2 Tim. hi. 15), are those generally em¬
ployed in the New Testament to denote the writings of the
Old, which was styled by the Jews mikra, i.e. lesson, lec¬
ture, or reading.
Division of The Bible is divided into the Old and New Testaments,
the Bible, so termed because they contain the history of the revela¬
tions which Jehovah has made to mankind, and of his deal¬
ings with them, under two dispensations or covenants. The
L E,
former was written in Hebrew, with the exception of a small
portion, which is Chaldee, and refers to Babylon, where that
language was spoken, and where the Jews were held in cap¬
tivity for seventy years. The Old Festamentis divided into
the Law, the Prophets, and Writings. This division, which
is referred to in the New Testament (Luke xxiv. 44) under
the terms, the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, is be¬
lieved to be as ancient as the formation of the canon. It is
mentioned in the prologue of Jesus the son of Sirach, and in
Philo, and in the Talmud, as well as in the New Testament.
The prophets were divided by the ancient Jews into the
early prophets, containing Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and
Kings ; and the later prophets, which were again subdivided
into the greater, including Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
BIBLE.
695
Bible.
Order in
which the
books are
arranged.
Division of
the text.
the lesser, comprehending the remaining twelve. The third
division, called by the Greeks “ Hagiographa, ’ or “ Holy
Writings,” contains all the other canonical books not in¬
cluded in the preceding parts. The Talmud and the mo¬
dern Jews divide the sacred books into eight prophets and
nine hagiographa.
Josephus enumerates twenty-two books, five of Moses,
thirteen prophets, and four books of morality.1 This num¬
ber is also mentioned by Origen and Jerome, but it does
not seem to have been employed by the Jews themselves.
According to the oldest catalogue extant in the Christian
church, the Old Testament consists of the five books of
Moses, viz., Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu¬
teronomy; Joshua, Judges, and Ruth ; four books of Kings
and two of Chronicles ; the Psalms of David ; the Proverbs
of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, and Job ; the prophets
Isaiah and Jeremiah; the twelve prophets; the books of
Daniel, Ezekiel, and Ezra, under which head Nehemiah and
Ezra seem to be included.2
With regard to the order in which the different books
were arranged, the Jews not only differed from the Chris¬
tians, but they were not agreed among themselves. The
Talmudists arranged the prophets thus: Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the twelve
minor prophets. The hagiographa they placed in this man¬
ner : Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles,
Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, Chronicles. The Ma-
soretic arrangement which is adopted in our modern Hebrew
Bibles is as follows: The five books of Moses, Joshua,
Judges, two books of Samuel, two books of Kings, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, the twelve minor prophets, Psalms,
Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra,
Nehemiah, and First and Second Chronicles. Luther’s ar¬
rangement, which is made entirely according to his own
judgment, has been adopted by our English translators, and
is generally followed by Protestants.
The Hebrew text is divided into smaller and larger sec¬
tions, which have descended from a very remote antiquity.
The sections called “ parashes,” or paragraphs, of which the
Pentateuch contains 669, are of earlier origin than the Tal¬
mud, and probably belong to the time when the sacred
books were first read in public. These divisions are of two
kinds, called by the Jews “open,” and “closed.” The former
are so called because they commenced a new line: the
latter are called “ shut” or “ closed,” because they were se¬
parated within the line by a space or break. It is supposed
that the original purpose of the open sections was to denote
the introduction of a new object, while the close sections
were intended to point out the most natural and prominent
paragraphs in the open ones, such as the change of speakers,
the members of a genealogy, &c. The larger or ecclesias¬
tical sections are believed to be of later origin than the
smaller sections. They originated in the custom of reading
every Sabbath in the synagogue a portion of the law. Ac¬
cording to Maimonides, it was the received usage among
the Jews to complete in this way the reading of the law in
the space of one year, beginning with the Sabbath following
the Feast of Tabernacles. Hence there are fifty-four of
these divisions in the Pentateuch, corresponding to the Sab¬
baths in a Jewish intercalary year. At a later period, cer¬
tain portions of the prophets were selected for public read¬
ing in the synagogue; they were termed, “ Haphtaroth,” and
were written on separate rolls from the Pentateuch sections.
The division of the Old Testament into chapters, as they
still stand in the English version, is of Christian origin, and
has been ascribed by Bale, bishop of Ossory, the celebrated
antiquarian, to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury,
who died in a.d. 1227, and by others to Cardinal Hugo de
Sancto Caro, who flourished about the middle of the same Bible,
century. This arrangement was made for convenience of
reference, in a concordance for the Latin Bible which was
constructed at this time. But the subdivision of the chap¬
ters into verses had not yet been introduced, and for the
purpose of referring more easily to a particular sentence,
Hugo placed the first seven letters of the alphabet along
the margin of each page. From the Christians this capi¬
tular division was borrowed by the Jews, and transferred to
the Hebrew Bible. Rabbi Isaac Nathan made use of it in
the preparation of a Hebrew concordance in 1438; and it
was first inserted in the printed Hebrew text by Daniel
Bomberg in his edition of 1525. The numbering of the
verses was first employed in the Hebrew Psalter printed by
Henry Stephens in 1509. In the Latin translation of the
Bible made by Sanctus Pagninus of Lucca, and published
at Lyons in 1528, there is a division throughout into verses,
marked with Arabic numerals on the margin. The system
of Pagninus was adopted by Robert Stephens in the New
Testament in 1551, and in the whole Bible in 1555; after this
time the practice of numbering the verses became general.
The sacred books of the Old Testament have come History of
down to our times in MSS., the oldest of which date from the text,
the twelfth century. Nothing is known of the history of the
text previous to that period after the return of the J ews from
their captivity, when the canon was closed, and the separate
books were formed into a completed whole. It is probable
that the other sacred books, as well as the law, were pre¬
served in or by the side of the ark of the covenant, and the
well-known veneration of the Jews for their holy writings
would lead them to watch carefully over the integrity of the
text, although it has been exposed to the ordinary causes
which deteriorate writings, and various errors have crept into
it through the mistakes of transcribers. The existence of
the Samaritan Pentateuch, however, whatever value may be Samaritan
attached to its peculiar readings, proves that the copy which ^en1f*
we now possess of the five books of Moses is substantially euc
identical with the original manuscript of the Jewish law¬
giver. Various conflicting opinions have been entertained
respecting the antiquity of the Samaritan copy of the Pen-
tateuch, and the source from which it was derived. Usher
maintained that it was the production of an impostor named
Dositheus, who compiled this copy from the Hebrew and
the Septuagint, a hypothesis which is manifestly untenable.
Le Clerc and others have conjectured that the Israelitish
priest who was sent by the king of Assyria to instruct the
new inhabitants in the religion of the country,3 took with
him a copy of the law, which became thenceforward the
Samaritan Pentateuch. But this opinion is not supported by
any historical testimony. It has been supposed by Hottinger,
Prideaux, and others, that the origin of the Samaritan Pen-
tateuch is contemporary w ith the erection of the Samaritan
temple on Mount Gerizim, in the time of Ezra, and that
Manasseh, the Jewish priest who went over to the Samari¬
tans, took with him a copy of the law. Dr Davidson con¬
tends that the Israelites obtained a copy of the Pentateuch
in the reign of Josiah, who carried his reforms not only
throughout Judah, but Israel also; for we are informed that
he broke down the altars and high places, and the images in
Samaria, in the cities of Manasseh, Ephraim, Simeon, and
Naphtali. In consequence of these vigorous measures, the
Israelites, i.e. the Samaritans, served the Lord, and even
sent money for the repair of the temple at Jerusalem.4 And
when Josiah proclaimed a solemn passover at Jerusalem,
the Israelites attended as well as the people of Judah, and
heard the king read in the ears of his assembled people the
words of the book of the covenant.5 This conduct, however,
indicates a previous knowledge of the law on the part of
Contra Apion, i. 7, 8.
2 Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iv. 26.
4 2 Kings xxiii. 15-20; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 9.
3 2 Kings xvii. 28.
6 Ibid. v. 32; chap. xxxv. 1-18.
696
Bible.'
Formation
of the Old
Testament
canon.
BIBLE.
the Israelites, otherwise the urgent appeal of Josiah could
scarcely have produced so powerful and wide an impres¬
sion. Some are therefore of opinion with Morin, Kenmcot,
Michaelis, Stuart, and other eminent commentators, that
copies of the Pentateuch must have been in the hands ot
the ten tribes from the time of Rehoboam. “ The prophets,
who frequently inveigh against the Israelites for their ic o-
latry and their crimes, never accuse them of being desti¬
tute of the law or ignorant of its contents. It is wholly im¬
probable, too, that the people when carried captive into As¬
syria took with them all the copies of the law.
are brought to the conclusion that the Samaritan as well as
the Jewish copy originally flowed from the autograph of
Moses. The two constitute, in fact, different recensions o
the same work, and coalesce in point of antiquity.
With regard to the formation and completion of theUl t
Testament canon, a very steadfast tradition of the Jews affirms
that the collection of the sacred writings began with Moses, was
carried on by the prophets, and was completed in the time
of Ezra and Nehemiah, under the auspices of those writers
and of the men of the Great Synagogue,— a number of
elders, amounting to one hundred and twenty, who, succeed¬
ing to others in a continued series from the return of the
Jews again into Judaea, after the Babylonish captivity, to the
time of Simon the Just, laboured in the restoring of the
Jewish church and state in that country. In order thereto,
the Holy Scriptures being the rule they were to go by, their
chief care was to make a true collection of those Scriptures
and publish them to the people.”2 The first part of this
tradition is confirmed by the testimony of the Holy crip-
tures themselves. We are told (Deut. xxxi. 9) that when
Moses had finished the writing of the law, ‘ he delivered it
to the priests the sons of Levi,3 and unto the elders of Israel.
And the king was enjoined to “ wTrite him a copy of tins
law in a book, out of that which is before the priests the
Levites” (xvii. 18). From Deut. xxxi. 26, we still further
learn that this copy of the law was deposited in the side of t le
ark of the covenant. We are informed that Joshua, fol ow¬
ing the example of Moses, wrote in the book of the law of
the Lord the history which bears his name (Josh. xxiv. 2b);
and this, as Havernick remarks, evidently refers to the pas¬
sage in Deuteronomy, and hence must be understood as in¬
timating that this document also found a place in the side
of the ark of the covenant. Le Cl ere conjectures with great
probability that the membrane on which the words of Joshua
were written was agglutinated to the volume of Moses, which
had been deposited in the side of the ark. In later times
also we find traces of this same custom. I bus Samuel,
when he had told the people the manner (law, jus publi¬
cum) of the kingdom, “ wrote it in the and laid it up
before the Lord,”—language which plainly intimates that the
documents of Samuel were appended to some particular
well-known book. At a later period, in the reign of Josiah,
Hilkiah the high priest is said “ to have found the book of
the law in the"house of the Lord” (2 Kings xxii. 8), doubt¬
less in its appointed place of deposit—the side of the ark.
Isaiah, in calling attention to his own prophecies, says, “ Seek
ye out of the book of the Lord and read, no one of these
shall fail” (xxxiv. 16); a passage on which Gesenius remarks,
“ the poet seems to contemplate the placing of his oracle in
a collection of oracles and holy writings, from which pos¬
terity might judge of the correctness ot his prediction.
From these statements we are warranted to conclude that
the books of the Old Testament which were successively
sanctioned by Moses and the prophets, were acknowledged
by the Jews before the exile as of divine authority; and that
Bible.
an authentic copy of each book, as soon as it was concluded,
was laid up in the sanctuary, and placed under the care of
the priests. As Abarbanel justly remarks on Deut. xxxi. 26,
“ God deposited there (in the side of the ark), the book of
the law, to remain there as a true and abiding witness; and
that no one might have the power of falsifying or disfigur¬
ing it. None could injure writings deposited among the
genealogies and with the priests.” This opinion respecting
the formation of the canon is corroborated by the unvarying
tradition of the Jewish rabbins from the earliest period.
Thus, in one of the oldest portions of the Talmud, it is said,
“ Moses received the law at Sinai, and transmitted it to
Joshua; Joshua to the elders; the elders to the prophets;
the prophets to the men of the Great Synagogue. Again,
in the Babylonian Gemara the rabbins enlarge at consider¬
able length on the canon. “ The wise men,” they state, “ have
left to us the law, the prophets, and the hagiographa, com¬
bined into one whole.” “ Who,” they go on to say, “has writ¬
ten these books?” To this it is replied, Moses wrote the
Pentateuch and Job; Joshua, the book which bears his name,
and eight verses of Deuteronomy ; Samuel, the books o
Samuel, Judges, and Ruth ; David, the Psalms, assisted by
ten men ; Jeremiah, his book, Lamentations, and the books
of Kings; Hezekiah and his College, Isaiah, Proverbs, Can¬
ticles, Ecclesiastes; the men of the Great Synagogue, Eze¬
kiel, Daniel, and Esther; Ezra, his book and the genealogies
in the Chronicles; and Nehemiah finished the Chronicles,—-a
passage which, as Havernick has shown, refers, not to the
composition of these books, but to their insertion in the
canon. , ^ ,
With regard to the time when the sacred canon was com- Comple-
pleted, Hengs ten berg, Havernick and Stuart are of opinion tarn of the
that this event took place under Ezra, Nehemiah, and the
Great Synagogue. In support of this view, they adduce the
testimony of the son of Sirach, who cites the three divisions
of the canon, and refers to it as a completed whole ; and ot
Josephus who divides the Old Testament into twenty-two
books “ which were justly esteemed divine, and affirms that
from the time of Artaxerxes down to his own day, no one
had dared either to add to, or to take from, or to alter anything
in the sacred books. It was not every one, he says, who
was permitted among the Jews to write therein ; only the
prophets were competent, in virtue of their divine inspiration.
The thirteen prophets wrote their history from the death ot
Moses to the reign of Artaxerxes. From Artaxerxes to our
day, everything also has been recorded in books, but these
have not been regarded as deserving equal credit with the
former, because of the failure of the exact succession of the
prophets.”6 It is also contended by these writers that the time
of Ezra and Nehemiah was the most suitable period for such
an undertaking: that, moreover, it was the latest period at
which the canon could be fixed. “ As the duty to be performed
was not merely that of determining the gen uineness of certain
books, but of pointing out those which had been divinely or¬
dained as a rule of faith and morals to the church, it was
one which none but a prophet could discharge. Now, in the
days of Nehemiah and Ezra there were several prophets
living, among whom we know the names of Haggai, Zecha-
riah, and Malachi; but with that age expired the line o
prophets whom God had appointed “ to comfort Jacob and
deliver them by assured hope.” As the men of the Great
Synagogue were thus the last of the prophets, if the canon
wL Sot fixed by them the time was past when it couU
be fixed at all. Lastly, it is urged, that we find in the
time of Ezra and Nehemiah the canon treated as a whole,
and regarded with the utmost veneration ; that all subse-
i Kitto’s Bihlic. Cyclop., vol. ii. p. 672. 2 Prideaux’s Connection ’ See Intro-
3 Havernick has shown that it was a general custom of antiquity to intrus^t t e sacr^ . Gegeniug,g Comment.t i. 921.
duction to the Old Testament, p. 18. * ’ 6 Josephus, Contra Apion, i. 8.
6 Havernick’s Introduction to the Old Testament, p. o7. *
BIBLE.
697
Bible, quent references to the sacred writings presuppose the ex-
istence of the complete canon ; and that of no one among
the apocryphal books is it so much as hinted, either by the
author or by any other Jewish writer, that it was worthy of
a place among the sacred books, though of some of them
the pretensions are in other respects sufficiently high.1 On
the other hand, Dr Davidson adduces the opinion of the later
Jews, who affirm that the canon was closed by Simon the
Just, who died 202 b.c. He contends that some books were
received into the Jewish canon after the time of Ezra and
Nehemiah ; and therefore concludes that the important work
begun by these eminent reformers was continued after them
by the most competent authority, till the entire collection
was declared complete, about 200 b.c.2
Canonical The Old Testament canon, as established in the time of
books of the ]?.zra) has remained unaltered to the present day. Thefol-
raentTeSta" ^()w'nS are die canonical books of the ancient economy, ar¬
ranged in the order in which they are supposed to have been
published, with the number of chapters in each :—
Number of
Chapters.
Genesis  50
Exodus   40
Leviticus  27
Numbers     36
Deuteronomy    34
Joshua      24
Judges  21
Ruth     4
1 Samuel   31
2 Samuel   24
1 Kings   22
2 Kings   25
1 Chronicles   29
2 Chronicles    36
Ezra    10
Nehemiah   13
Esther  10
Job (date uncertain) . 42
Psalms   150
Proverbs  31
Number of
Chapters.
Ecclesiastes   12
Song of Solomon   8
Isaiah     66
Jeremiah    52
Lamentations    5
Ezekiel   48
Daniel    12
Hosea  14
Joel  3
Amos   9
Obadiah  1
Jonah  4
Micah  7
Nahum   3
Habakkuk  3
Zephaniah  3
Haggai      2
Zechariah    14
Malachi   4
The Old Testament contains in all, 39 books, 929 chap¬
ters, 23,214 verses, and 592,439 words.
Great care was taken by the Jews to preserve the accuracy
of the sacred text, and from an early period they were in
the habit of numbering the verses and words, and even let¬
ters, marking the sum-total at the end of each separate book
and section,—a practice which, though in itself laborious and
trifling, had a good effect on the purity of the text. Ihe
watchful care of Almighty God over the sacred books con¬
taining His revealed will, is strikingly manifested in the man¬
ner in which they have been preserved through the instru¬
mentality of the Jews. “ The reverent attention which this
people gave to the Hebrew text, and the jealousy with
which they guarded it from corruption, must have belonged
to the wise arrangements of the Highest, who puts it into
the heart of men to engage in works tending to promote
Editions of jjjg own glory.” Very soon after its invention the Jews took
BibleebreW advantage of that new and beautiful art which in the middle
of the fifteenth century superseded the labours of the calli-
graphists; and copies of the Hebrew Scriptures were among
the earliest printed books. So early as 1477 the Psalter
was printed, probably at Bologna, with the commentary of
Kimehi interspersed among the text. The Pentateuch was
printed at the same place in 1482, with the Targumof Onkelos,
and the commentary of Solomon Jarchi. Ruth, Lamenta¬
tions, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, appeared the same year. A
few years later appeared the former prophets, viz., Joshua,
Judges, Samuel, and Kings, with Kimchi’s commentary ; and
these were soon after followed by the later prophets, viz.,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets. Bible.
The Hagiographa first appeared at Naples in 1487. The
entire Hebrew Bible was first printed at Soncino in 1488;
another edition, which has neither date nor place, is also
supposed to have appeared at Soncino. The third complete
edition is that of Brescia in 1494 ; it was edited by Rabbi
Gerson, and was the edition which Luther used in making
his German version. The first edition of the Hebrew Scrip¬
tures published under the auspices of Christians was the
Complutensian Polyglot, prepared at the expense of Cardi¬
nal Ximenes. It was completed in the year 1517, but did
not appear till 1522, at Alcala, in Spain. Daniel Bomberg’s
first edition of his Rabbinical Bible, in four vols. folio, was
published at Venice in 1518. His second edition, which
was followed by several others, is the parent of our present
Hebrew Bibles. The Antwerp Polyglot (1569), in eight
vols. folio, contains the Complutensian text, collated with
Bomberg’s; and Hutter’s edition (1587), presents a mixed
text taken from the Antwerp, Paris, and Venetian editions.
Other accurate editions were published by Buxtorf (1611 and
1618), by Moses Ben Simeon of Frankfort (the Amsterdam
edition 1724), and by Athias (1661 and 1667), with a pre¬
face by Leusden. The second edition of Athias formed
the basis of Van der Hooght’s, published in 1705, and which
may be regarded as the textus receptus. The elaborate edi¬
tions of Kennicot, and De Rossi, contain an immense collec¬
tion of various readings, as do also the editions of Munster,
Michaelis, Houbigant, Jahn, and the polyglots.
The New Testament.
The New Testament is written in what has been called
Hellenistic or Hebraizing Greek, which is strongly tinged
with a Hebrew colouring, derived partly from the country
of the writers, partly from the original and peculiar ideas
which they sought to convey to their readers. The language,
idioms, and style of the sacred volume are all in accordance
with the hypothesis that its authors were of Jewish extrac¬
tion, and living at the commencement of the Christian era.
There is abundant evidence in favour of the inspiration of Formation
the various books of the New Testament, but it is difficult
to point out the precise period at which they were collected, cam)an™en
and included in the sacred canon. The weight of authority
is decidedly in favour of the opinion, that each of the original
churches made a complete collection for itself of those writ¬
ings which could be proved by sufficient evidence to be the
production of inspired men, and that the general accordance
of these various collections as to the books admitted, fur¬
nishes conclusive proof of the accuracy of the existing canon.
The earliest reference to a collection of the New Testament
Scriptures occurs in 2 Peter iii. 16, where the writer speaks
of the epistles of Paul in such a way as to indicate that all,
or the greater part of them, had been collected together at
that time, and were regarded by the churches generally as
entitled to equal reverence with the other Scriptures,—viz.,
the sacred writings of the Old and the New Testament.
Mention is made of the law, the prophets, the gospel, and
the apostles, in the epistle to Diognetus—one of the earliest
of the uninspired Christian writings. Ignatius classes the
gospels and the apostles along with the prophets. Theo-
philus of Antioch frequently applies to the New Testa¬
ment Scriptures the appellation of “the Holy Writings,”and
speaks of the law, the prophets, and the gospel, as alike
divinely inspired; and Clement of Alexandria distinguishes
them into the “ gospels and apostolic discourses.” About
the beginning of the third century these two collections,
viz., the gospels and the apostolic epistles had been put to¬
gether under one name—the New Testament. Thus, Ter-
tullian, in his treatise against Marcion, applies this desig-
1 Havernick’s Introduction, pp. 26—45; Hengstenberg, vol. i. p. 237 se<j.; Stuarts Critical History and Defence of the Old Testa¬
ment Canon, p. 226; Biblic. Cyclop., vol. i. p. 379. " 2 Davidson’s Biblical Criticism, vol. i. p. 106.
VOL. IT. 4 T
698
BIBLE.
Bible, nation to the whole collection, which he distinguishes from
  , ' the “ancient Scriptures;” and Irenaeus repeatedly calls the
books of the New Testament “ the Holy Scriptures the
oracles of God,” and puts them on a level with the law and
the prophets. These and other similar statements warrant
the conclusion that before the middle of the third century
the New Testament Scriptures were formed mto one collec¬
tion, designated by one general title, and regarded by Chris¬
tians as possessed of divine authority. This cone us!
corroborated by the testimony of Origen and Eusebius, who
made careful inquiry respecting this subject, and have le t
an accurate record "of the books which were recewed as
canonical by the church in their day. 01 the few an
cient catalogues of the New Testament books still extant,
six accord exactly with our present canon, whde °f the rest
three omit only the Apocalypse, and one omits with this
the Epistle to the Hebrews. The identity of these boo v
with the present canonical Scriptures is proved by the co¬
pious quotations from them contained in the writings of he
early fathers. It is evident from these observations that
the formation of the New Testament canon was gradual;
the collection was not made by one man, one council, at one
time, or in one place. The adherents of the Christian reli¬
gion in different lands came to agree m the same conclu¬
sion 'progressively, by tacit consent. 1 hey did so indepen¬
dently to a great extent, and in countries remote from one
another. They judged by internal evidence, by tradition,
by the fact of the writers being apostles or apostolic men.
.... Slowly and surely did they arrive at the entire sepa¬
ration of the sacred Scriptures from the spurious imitations
which were then current. And in the result ox their judg¬
ment modern scholars commonly acquiesce.
Canonical The following are the canonical books of the New 1 esta-
books of ment, arranged in the order in which they are given in our
the New authorized version, with the number of chapters in each,
Testament. and the time at which they are supposed to have been
written:—
Nuniber of Date,
chapters,
Matthew  28
Mark 16
Luke 24
John 21
Acts 28
Romans  16
1 Corinthians ... 16
2 Corinthians ... 13
Galatians  6
Ephesians   6
Philippians  4:
Colossians   4:
1 Thessalonians 5
2 Thessalonians 3
A.D.
38
65
63
97
64:
58
56
57
52
61
62
62
52
52
Number of
chapters.
1 Timothy   6
2 Timothy   4:
Titus   3
Philemon  1
Hebrews  13
James   5
1 Peter  5
2 Peter  3
1 John  5
2 John  1
3 John  1
Jude....  1
Revelation  22
Date.
A.D.
64:
65
64:
62
63
61
64:
65
69
69
69
70
96
Editions of The first part of the Greek Testament that was printed
the Greek consisted of the hymn of Zacharias and Mary, published at
Testament. yenice in 1486, and the first six chapters of St Johns
Gospel, which appeared in 1504. The first printed edition
of the Testament was that of the Complutensian Polyglot,
which was published at the expense of the celebrated Cai-
dinal Ximenes. The printing of the New Testament in
this edition was commenced in 1502, and was completed in
1514, but the work was not published till 1522. Before
this edition saw the light, Erasmus published his edition at
Basle in 1516; and four other editions followed successively
between 1519 and 1535. Several editions were published
by Robert Stephens, the third of which is called the Regia
or royal edition, and is elegantly printed. The fourth edi¬
tion is remarkable as being the first into which the division
obverses was introduced. The first Elzevir edition, so called
from the name of the printer, appeared at Leyden in 1624.
The second, which issued from the same press in 1633, is
the best of all the Elzevir editions, and has long formed the Bible.
“ received text.” Other celebrated editions are those of
Beza; the London Polyglot, edited by the learned Walton ;
Mill’s critical edition (1707), which was the labour of thirty
years ; the splendid edition of John James Wetstein, which
appeared in 1751; that of Griesbach, published in 1775-77,
which has been said to have ushered in the “ golden age”
of criticism ; the antagonistic edition of Professor Scholz, an
eminent Roman Catholic critic, which appeared in 1830-35;
and the recent editions of Tischendorf and Lachmann.
The text of the New Testament has of course suffered State of the
from the mistakes of translators and from other obvious causes,text-
but it is confessedly free from “ gross and palpable errors.”
The researches of modern critics have conclusively shown
that it has been preserved with great care, and does not ma¬
terially differ from what it was 1700 years ago. The various
readings which have arisen from the commutation of letters,
the transposition of words, abbreviations, seeing and hearing
incorrectly, and other causes, amounted in Mill’s edition to
30,000, and have now increased to upwards of 100,000.
This circumstance was at one time eagerly laid hold of by
infidels, and excited no small alarm among religious men.
But all apprehension on this point has long ago been re¬
moved, and it is now generally admitted that the greater
part of these variations in the text of the Scriptures are not
of the slightest importance as regards either the history or
the doctrines of our religion. “ Of the various readings of Various
the New Testament,” says Mr Norton, “ nineteen out of readings,
twenty, at least, are to be dismissed at once from considera¬
tion, not on account of their intrinsic unimportance that
is a separate consideration—but because they are found in
so few authorities, and their origin is so easily explained, that
no critic would regard them as having any claim to be in¬
serted in the text. Of those which remain, a very great
majority are entirely unimportant. They consist in different
modes of spelling; in different tenses of the same verb, or
different cases of the same noun, not affecting the essential
meaning; in the use of the singular for the plural, or the plural
for the singular, where one or the other expression is equally
suitable ; in the insertion or omission of particles such as ar
and Se, not affecting the sense, or of the article in cases equally
unimportant; in the introduction of a proper name where,
if not inserted, the personal pronoun is to be understood, or
of some other word or words expressive of a sense which
would be distinctly implied without them; in the addition of
‘ Jesus’to Christ, or ‘ Christ’to Jesus; in the substitution
of one synonymous or equivalent term for another; in the
transposition of words, leaving their signification the same ;
in the use of an uncompounded verb, or of the same verb
compounded with a preposition—the latter differing from the
former only in a shade of meaning. Such various readings,
and others equally unimportant, compose far the greater part
of all, concerning which there may be or has been a question
whether they are to be admitted into the text or not, and it
is therefore obviously of no consequencejn which way the
question has been or may be determined.”2
The oldest version of the Old Testament in any language The Sep-
is the Greek translation, commonly called the Septtiagint tuagint.
either because it was approved and sanctioned by the Jewish
sanhedrim, which consisted of seventy or seventy-two per¬
sons, or more probably from the Jewish fable that so many
individuals were employed in the work. The history of this
version is exceedingly obscure, and it xs difficult to dr c
minate the genuine from the spurious traditions which are
current respecting its origin. The earliest historical not ce
of the Septuagint is to be found in the writings ot ns o-
bulus, a Jew, who lived about the commencement of the
second century before Christ. He states that “the en ire
interpretation of the law was made in the time of a ki g
Davidson’s Bibl. Crit., vol. ii. p. 37.
2 Norton’s Genuineness of the Gospels, vol. i. additional notes, pp. 38, 39.
BIBLE.
699
Bible, surnamed Philadelphus, .... Demetrius Phalereus being
—actively employed about it.” To this statement it has been
objected, that Demetrius Phalereus is represented as living
in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, whereas he lived
under his predecessor Ptolemy Lagus, and died soon after
his death. This was undoubtedly the case; but it does not
follow that the account of Aristobulus is therefore to be re¬
jected as wholly undeserving of credit. Havernick contends
that Aristobulus intended merely to say that Demetrius was
the person who took an active part in the translation, or
caused it to be undertaken, the whole being finished in the
time of Philadelphus. Others are of opinion that Aristo¬
bulus made a mistake in the name of the king. Hody har¬
monizes the discrepancy by placing the translation of the
Pentateuch in the two years during which father and son
reigned conjointly, 286 and 285 b.c. An equivocal state¬
ment in the prologue of Jesus the son of Sirach has been
supposed to intimate that “ the law and the prophets and
the rest of the books” were translated into Greek at the
time he wrote; but it cannot be proved that the passage
has any reference to the Septuagint. A minute account of
the origin of this version has been given by Aristeas, an
author who pretends to be a Gentile and a favourite at the
court of Ptolemy Philadelpus, king of Egypt. In a letter
addressed to his brother Philocrates, he relates that Phila¬
delphus, when founding a public library at Alexandria at a
great expense, was advised by Demetrius Phalereus to apply
to the Jewish high priest Eleazar for a copy of the book
containing the Jewish laws. As a preliminary step, he pur¬
chased the freedom of all the Jews in his dominions who
had been taken captive by his father or himself. He then
sent Aristeas and Andreas with costly presents and a letter
to Eleazar, requesting him to send to Alexandria seventy-
two interpreters. They were accordingly despatched with
a copy of the law, “ consisting of different parchments, in
which the law was written in gold in the Jewish letters;”
and were received and entertained by the king for several
days with great respect and liberality. Demetrius then
conducted them to an island, which appears to have been
Pharos, where they were lodged together in a splendid house
near the shore. The translation was completed in seventy-
two days, having been written down piece by piece by De¬
metrius, as agreed upon after mutual consultation. It was
then publicly read by him to a number of the principal Jews
whom he had summoned together for that purpose. They
approved of the translation, and imprecations were pro¬
nounced against any one who should presume to alter it.
The Jews requested permission to take a copy for their own
use; and the work was carefully preserved by command of
the king, who sent home the interpreters loaded with pre¬
sents. The substance of this narrative is repeated by Jo¬
sephus; but the greater part of it is undoubtedly fabulous,
and many glaring falsehoods were afterwards added to it in
the days of Justin Martyr and Epiphanius, which were re¬
ceived by these credulous men without hesitation. The in¬
terpreters were said to have been shut up in separate cells,
where, without any communication with one another, they
composed seventy-two distinct versions, miraculously agree¬
ing in every particular. Hence it was concluded that they
were inspired, and their version was received as infallibly
correct. This absurd story was believed both by the early
Jewish rabbins and by most of the Fathers, and its credi¬
bility was not called in question till the latter half of the
seventeenth century. It has now been proved to contain
particulars improbable, incredible, and contrary to history.
But there is good reason to believe that it is not wholly fic¬
titious. Dr Davidson has shown that truth lies at the basis
of the story contained in the narrative of Aristeas1, and that
in all probability the version was really made at the com¬
mand of an Egyptian king; but that king was Ptolemy
Lagus, not Philadelphus,—whether from a religious, a po- v
litical, or a literary motive, it is impossible to say. When
the version was made by royal authority, it is quite probable
that the translators may have thought of the ecclesiastical
purpose which it would serve, and that it fell in with their
religious desires and wants, though they would not have
undertaken it without an external impulse.
There can be no doubt that the version of the Septuagint
was made by degrees, and that the Pentateuch was trans¬
lated first. The precise time at which the separate portions
of the version were made cannot now be ascertained ; but
it is probable that the interval between the translating
of the law and the prophets was very short, and that the
entire work was completed before the thirty-eighth year of
Ptolemy Physcon. The version itself affords internal evi¬
dence that various hands were employed upon it; but no¬
thing certain can be known respecting the number of trans¬
lators. The tradition that there were seventy-two must be
rejected as fabulous; but there must have been at least
five or six individuals engaged on the entire work, which
is consequently of unequal value. The translator of the
Pentateuch was unquestionably the most skilful of all the
interpreters; and that portion of the work far sjirpasses the
others in fidelity and accuracy. Next to it in point of ex¬
cellence is the version of the Proverbs. The Psalms and
prophets have been but indifferently executed. The trans¬
lation of Isaiah is exceedingly defective, and that of Daniel
is the worst of the whole. It was probably on this account
that the version of Theodotion was very early substituted for
it by the Greek Church.
The well-known fact that the Septuagint harmonizes with
the Samaritan Pentateuch in more than a thousand places
where they differ from the Hebrew text, has given rise to
various hypotheses to account for the agreement. Selden,
Hottinger, Hassenchamp, and Eichorn have supposed that
the version of the Pentateuch was made from the Samaritan
text rather than the Hebrew; others, that the one was in¬
terpolated from the other; but the irreconcileable enmity
which subsisted between the Jews and the Samaritans, both
in Egypt and Palestine, renders both of these conjectures
in the highest degree improbable. Dr S. Lee accounts for
the agreement by supposing that the early Christians inter¬
spersed their copies with Samaritan glosses, which ignorant
transcribers afterwards inserted in the text.2 But, to say
nothing of the reverence with which the early Christians
regarded their sacred books, there is no evidence that they
were acquainted with the Samaritan Pentateuch and its
glosses. A much more plausible hypothesis has been pro¬
posed by Gesenius, viz., that the Samaritan Pentateuch and
Septuagint version both flowed from a common recension
of the Hebrew Scriptures, one older than either, and dif¬
ferent in many places from the recension of the Masorites
now in common use. Professor Stuart, by whom this sup¬
position has been adopted, thinks that it will account both
for the differences and for the agreements of the Septuagint
and Samaritan versions; but other writers are of opinion
that no satisfactory solution of the problem has yet been
offered.
The Septuagint version is free rather than literal; and
the translators have frequently mistaken the meaning of the
original, and have indulged in many liberties with regard
to the text. Its merits, however, are unquestionably great,
and it has rendered important service not only in the criti¬
cism but also in the exposition of the Old Testament. It
speedily acquired a high reputation among the Hellenistic
Jews; and it was read publicly in the synagogues, not only
of Egypt, but, sometimes at least, of Palestine itself. Jo¬
sephus, though he was acquainted with Elebrew, made more
Bible.
Biblical Grit., vol. i. pp. 169-174.
2 See Prolegomena to Bagster’a Polyglot.
700
BIBLE.
Bible.
Other
Greek
versions.
use of the Greek version than of the original itself, and it
was universally received by the early Christians. But the
feelings of the Jews speedily underwent a change. In the
controversies between them and the Christians, the latter
were in the habit of appealing to the prophecies which this
version contained respecting the Messiah, and which weie
fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth. The Jews, now worsted in
argument, began to deny that the Septuagint agreed with
the Hebrew original; and ultimately this version became
so odious to them, that, according to the Talmud, a fast was
appointed on the 8th day of the month Thebet, the day on
which the law was translated into Greek, to perpetuate the
remembrance of this inauspicious event. It was owing o
this feeling that the Jews had recourse to the version ot
Aquila, who is supposed to have undertaken a new transla¬
tion from the Hebrew for the express purpose of supplanting
theAQUii'A was'a Jewish proselyte, a native of Pontus, who
undertook a translation of the Old Testament into Greek,
probably about the middle of the second century ot the Chris¬
tian era. It appears from Jerome that there were two ec i-
tions of this version, the second of which was more literal
than the first; but it is impossible to determine whether it
embraced the whole of the Old Testament or not. The
version of Aquila was highly prized by the Jews, who called
it the Hebrew verity, and probably this very circumstance
tended to excite a prejudice against it among the bathers,
who accused him of perverting some prophecies relating to
the Messiah. The translation adheres so closely to the ori¬
ginal as to be in some cases unintelligible.
The second who composed a Greek version of the Scrip¬
tures was Theodotion, who, according to Irenaeus, was a
native of Ephesus, and a Jewish proselyte. Jerome and
Eusebius call him an Ebionite, or semi-Christian. He must
have lived before a.d. 176. Only a few fragments of the work
remain, but, according to the testimony of those who had the
opportunity of examining it, the translation followed the
Septuagint so closely, that it has been supposed that his in¬
tention was to make a revision of its text, rather than a new
version. The numerous errors into which he has fallen,
show that his knowledge of the original was not extensive
or accurate, ....
The third Greekversion wasmadeby Symmachus, who like
Theodotion, appears to have been an Ebionite, and is said
to have been a Samaritan by birth. T he remaining frag¬
ments of the work show that the style is good, and the dic¬
tion perspicuous and intelligible. The ancient writers w io
speak of this version remark that the author translated freely,
and gave the sense of the original rather than the words.
As this translation was not known to Irenaeus, it is believed
to be of later date than those of Aquila and Theodotion.
Three other Greek versions of the Scriptures were dis¬
covered by Origen when he travelled into Eastern countries
for the purpose of collecting materials for his polyglot.
They did not extend to the entire Old Testament, but only
to several books, and are usually denominated the fifth, sixth,
and seventh, from the position which they occupied in t e
columns of Origen’s work entitled the Ilexaplci- Their
authors were unknown to Origen himself, but they are sup¬
posed to have been Jewish Christians. These anonymous
translations must have been made subsequently to those of
Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus ; and judging from the
scanty fragments of them which remain, their rendering of
the original must have been somewhat free and paraphrastic.
Another ancient Greek version of several books of the
Old Testament, which is deposited in St Mark’s library at
Venice, is supposed to have been made at Byzantium for
private use, not earlier than the ninth century. It has been
translated directly from the original, and is more literal
than any other ancient version. It cannot be certainly
known whether the author was a Jew or a Christian.
There is a version of the five books of Moses in the Sa- Bible,
maritan dialect, made from the Samaritan copy of the Pen-
tateuch, which it follows word for word. rIhe author and Samaritan
the date of this translation are alike unknown, but Dr David- version,
son is of opinion that it was probably made either in the second
or the third century.
One of the oldest translations of the Bible made by Chris- Old Syriac
tians is the version commonly called the Old Syrian or Pe- version.
shito, i-c. the simple, because it adheres to the literal meaning,
in opposition to the allegorical translations and expositions.
It was undoubtedly made at a very early period, but its precise
a^e is involved in obscurity, dhe traditions of the Syrians
themselves claim for the Peshito a very high antiquity ,
some of them even allege that it was made in the time of
Solomon and Hiram, but no credit can be attached to such
fabulous assumptions. Jacob of Edessa adopts the tradition
that this version was made in the days of lhaddeus the
Apostle, and the Edessenic king Abgarus ; and Hayernick
is inclined to regard this account as entitled to credit. Mi¬
chael is assigns ittothe first century of our era, while Dr David¬
son is of opinion that it probably belongs to the second.
The first author who mentions it is Ephraem byrus, who
died a.d. 376. In his time it had met with a general re¬
ception among the Syrian churches, and was employed by
him as the basis of his commentaries on the Bible. Tim
Peshito originally embraced only the canonical books of
the Old Testament, but the Apocrypha must also have
been translated into Syriac at a very early period since
they are cited by Ephraem Syrus, who, however, did not
regard them as canonical books. With regard to the author
of this version, some have contended that he was a Jew,
but the weight of evidence decidedly preponderates in
favour of a Christian origin. It has been made directly fnim
the Hebrew, and adheres more faithfully to the original than
any other of the ancient versions. The Old Syrian version
of the New Testament wants the second and third Epistles
of John, the second of Peter, that of Jude, and the Apoca¬
lypse. Some have accounted for this circumstance by sup¬
posing that the translator must have made his version either
before these books were written, or at least before they were
acknowledged in Syria as of divine authority ; while others
think the fact may be explained by the non-reception ot
these books in the district where the version was made.
Several versions of the Scriptures were made in the ARA- Arabic and
big language, but all of these are supposed to be later than Persian
the Mahometan era. Three of these translations were made
directly from the Hebrew, others were derived from the
Peshito, while several have proceeded from the beptuagint.
A version of the Old Testament in the Persian language
seems to have existed at an early period, and is mentioned
both by Chrysostom and Theodoret. But the Persian trans¬
lation of the Pentateuch, printed in the London Polyglot,
and which was made by a Jew, Rabbi Jacob, the son o
Joseph Tawus, is undoubtedly of later origin than the eighth
century. It was first printed at Constantinople in 154b.
A version of the Bible in Persian was made a few years ago
by the late Rev. Dr Glen, who was sent to Persia for that
purpose by the Scottish United Presbyterian Church.
The Memphitic or Coptic translation of the Bible ’ ^ ^ versions,
ten in the dialect of Lower Egypt, was taken from the bep¬
tuagint, and belongs to the third century. The Thebaic
or Sahidic version, in the dialect of Upper Egypt, was also
made from the Greek, probably about the same period. c
Chrysostom alludes to a version of the Scriptures whc
was in use among the Ethiopians in his day, a”d aPPe* s
to have been -ade in AefourthtCe„tury. d.uuig
writtenTrTthe old sacred language called the Ge^ and al-
though made by Christians is likewise used by the Ethiopian
Jews! It was unquestionably derived from the Septuapnt,
and embraces not only the whole of the canonical books of
Armenian,
Georgian,
Slavonic,
ind Gothic
versions.
Latin
versions.
The Vul¬
gate.
BIBLE.
701
Scripture, but also the Apocrypha. The entire work is ex¬
tant in Europe, but only detached portions of it have been
printed.
The Armenian version of the Bible was made by Miesrob,
the inventor of the Armenian alphabet, assisted'by two of
his pupils. It was taken from the Greek, and was com¬
pleted in a.d. 410. The Georgian version, which belongs
to the sixth century; the Slavonic, which was made by Cyril
of Thessalonica, and his brother Methodius who invented
the Slavic alphabet; and the Gothic, which was translated
by Ulphilas in the fourth century,—were all derived from
the same source.
There has been a Latin version of the Bible from the
first ages of the Christian Church ; but it is now impossible
to discover when and by whom it was made. In opposition
to Jahn, Hug, and Van Ess, Eichorn is of opinion that there
was only one distinct Latin translation, and that it was made
in Africa in the course of the first century ; but the first
certain traces of this version, called the Vetus or old Latin,
are found at the close of the second century. Some frag¬
ments of it still exist, which show it to have adhered literally
to the Kow-t], or the text of the Septuagint which existed be¬
fore Origen’s Hexapla, whose defects it preserves. In the
year 382, Jerome, at the request of Pope Damasus, under¬
took to revise and correct this version, which had become
exceedingly corrupt. He first corrected the Psalms, pro¬
ducing what is called the Roman Psalter, because it is used
in the church of the Vatican. Subsequently, he undertook
a second version of this part of the Scriptures, which bears
the name of theGallican Psalter,became itwas subsequently
adopted in the churches of Gaul. He afterwards revised
in the same way the rest of the Old Testament, but the
only portions of the work which have descended to our day
are the two Psalters and the book of Job.
Jerome next, at the request of his friends, and for the pur¬
pose of assisting the Christians in their controversies with
the Jews, undertook a new version from the Hebrew, be¬
tween the years 385 and 405. Although not free from de¬
fects, principally caused by the haste with which some parts
of the work were executed, it is undoubtedly the best trans¬
lation of which antiquity can boast. But in spite of its
great merits, it met with a very unfavourable reception in
the Latin Church. The learned and laborious translator
was denounced as a heretic, and the new version was de¬
clared to be a falsification of the Word of God. Its value,
however, was recognised from the first by a few discriminat¬
ing scholars, and it gradually won its way to public favour
till it became the only received version, and this by tacit
consent, in consequence of its intrinsic merits, for it obtained
no official sanction until the Council of Trent.
In the course of time Jerome’s version became exceed¬
ingly corrupt, both by a mixture of the old version, and by
interpolations from liturgical books. In the ninth century
(a.d. 802) a version of the text was undertaken by com¬
mand of Charlemagne, who intrusted the task to the celebrated
Alcuin. In the eleventh century a new version was under¬
taken by Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, and another
in the following century by Cardinal Nicolaus. After the
twelfth century were begun what were termed correctoria
biblica, in which the Latin text was furnished with marginal
glosses from other MSS., the fathers, and other venerated
teachers of the church. The Vulgate was the first book ever
printed, and it issued from the press many times without
date or place. The first that had a date was published at
Mentz in 1462, and other editions quickly followed. The
corruption of the text now became more apparent than ever,
and the necessity of an attempt to correct its errors was ac¬
knowledged by the publication of the Complutensian Poly¬
glot, and the critical editions of Isidore Clarius, Robert
Stephens, Benoist, and others.
In the year 1546, the Council of Trent passed its famous
decree respecting the Vulgate, ordaining that it u shall be Bible,
used in public readings, disputations, sermons, and exposi-
tions, as authentic, and that none is to presume to reject it
under any pretence whatever.” The text of the Vulgate
having become exceedingly corrupt, various attempts were
made to revise and correct it. Two editions were issued under
the sanction of the papal chair, termed respectively the Six-
tine and Clementine Bibles, the variations between which
amounted to above two thousand : the latter is the basis of
all subsequent editions of the Vulgate, from those of Plantin,
which appeared in 1599 and 1650, to that of Leander Van
Ess, published by authority of Leo XII. in 1826.
After the downfall of the Roman empire and the gradual
disuse of the Latin tongue, the Holy Scriptures were trans¬
lated into all the languages of modern Europe.
The oldest French Bible is the version of Peter de Vaux, French
the leader of the Waldenses, who lived about the year 1160. versions.
Raoul de Presle also translated the Bible into French about
theyear 1380; and besides these there are several old French
translations of particular portions of the Holy Scriptures. The
doctors of Louvain published an edition of the Bible in French
at Louvain, by order of the Emperor Charles V., in 1550.
The version of De Sacy, which was published in 1692, with
explanations of the literal and spiritual meaning of the text,
was received with great applause, and has often been re¬
printed. With respect to the versions of the New Testa¬
ment in French, one of the best known is that which F.
Amelotte of the Oratory executed by the direction of some
French prelates, and printed with annotations in 1666, 1667,
and 1670. The Mons New Testament, printed in the year
1665, with the permission of the Archbishop of Cambrayand
the license of the king of Spain, was condemned by Pope Cle¬
ment IX. in 1668, and by Pope Innocent XL in 1679, and in
several bishoprics of France at different times. The New
Testament published at Trevoux in 1702 by M. Simon, with
literal and critical annotations upon difficult passages, was con¬
demned by the bishops of Paris and Meaux in 1702. Another
translation of the New Testament was published in 1697
by Bouhours a Jesuit, with the assistance of Michael Tellier
and Peter Bernier, who were likewise Jesuits. This version,
however, follows so closely the Latin text from which it is
translated that it is for the most part harsh and obscure.
The most approved French translations of the Scriptures are
those of Descarrieres and De Vence. There are also several
French versions of the Bible published by Protqstants. The
version of Olivetan, printed at Neufchatel in 1535, has been
frequently reprinted with the corrections of Calvin and others.
A somewhat paraphrastic version was published at Geneva
in 1644 by John Diodati. A translation of the New Testa¬
ment executed by J. Faber Stapulensis was revised and ac¬
commodated to the use of the Reformed churches in Pied¬
mont in 1534. Lastly, a version of the New Testament in
French was published at Amsterdam in 1703 by Le Clerc,
with annotations taken chiefly from Grotius and Hanamond ;
but this version was prohibited in Holland by order of the
States-General, as tending to revive the errors of Sabellius
and Socinus.
The earliest Italian Bible published by the Roman Catho- Italian
lies is the version of Nicolas Malermi, a Benedictine monk, versions,
printed at Venice in 1471. It was made from the Vulgate.
The translation of Anthony Braccioli, published at Venice in
1532, was prohibited by the Council of Trent. Martini’s trans¬
lation is now commonly used in Italy. The Protestants also
have their Italian Bibles. There is the version of Maximus
Theophilus, published in 1551; and another of John Diodati,
published in 1607 and 1641. The Jews in Italy have no
entire version of the Bible in Italian; the inquisition having
constantly refused to allow them the liberty to print one.
The earliest Spanish Bible of which we have any notice Spanish
is one printed at Valencia in 1478. The Gospels and versions.
Epistles were published in that language by Ambrose de
702
BIBLE.
Bible.
German
versions.
Belgian or
Flemish
versions.
Danish
versions.
Swedish
version.
Bohemian,
Polish,
Russian,
and Scla-
vonian ver
sions.
Fjnglish
versions
Montesin in 1512; the whole Bible by Cassiodore de Reyna,
a Calvinist, in 1569; and the New Testament by Francis
Enzinas or Driander in 1543. An ancient version ot the
Bible for the use of the Spanish Jews was printed in Gothic
characters at Ferrara in 1553.
The most ancient translation of the Bible in the German
language is that of Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths, about the
year 360. This version did not contain the books of Kings,
which the bishop omitted, lest the wars mentioned therein
should encourage the martial spirit of the people. An im-
perfect manuscript of this translation was found in the abbey
of Verden, near Cologne, written in letters of silver, for
which reason it is called Codex Argenteus. It was pub¬
lished by Francis Junius in 1665. The oldest German
Bible extant is that of Nuremberg (1446), which was trans¬
lated from the Vulgate by an unknown author. A tianslation
of the Bible into German by John Eckius, was published in
1537, along with the version of the New Testament by
Emzer, chaplain to George, Duke of Saxony. Another
version by Ulembergius of Westphalia, procured by Fer¬
dinand, Duke of Bavaria, was printed in 1630. But by far
the most important version of the Scriptures in the German
language was made by the great reformer Martin Luther,
who spent eleven years in completing it. The New Tes¬
tament was published in 1522, the Pentateuch in lo23, the
historical books and the Psalms in 1524, the books of Solo¬
mon in 1527, Isaiah in 1529, the prophets in 1531, and the
other books in 1530. This celebrated translation is clear
and accurate, and the language pure and idiomatic. It has
exercised a powerful influence on the language and litera¬
ture of Germany.
The Flemish Bibles of the Romanists are very numerous.
For the most part they have no author’s name prefixed to
them, till the version of Nicolas Vinck, which was printed
at Louvain in 1548. Till the year 1637 the Flemish ver¬
sions used by the Protestants were taken principally from
the translation of Luther. In 1618 the synod ot Dort ap¬
pointed a new translation to be made of the Bible into
Flemish, but the work was not finished till 1631.
The first Danish Bible was published in 1550 by Peter
Palladius, Olaus Chrysostom, John Syningius, and John
Maccabaeus, who followed the first German version of Luther.
Another translation was made by John Paul Resenius,
bishop of Zealand, in 1605; and a version of the New Tes¬
tament by John Michel, in 1524.
In 1534 Olaus and Laurence published a Swedish Bible
from the version of Luther ; it was revised in 1617 by order
of King Gustavus Adolphus, and was afterwards almost
universally adopted.
The Bible was printed in the Bohemian language at
Prague in 1488, and another version made by eight Bohe¬
mian doctors, who were sent to the schools of Wirtemburg
and Basle to study the original languages, was printed in
' Moravia in the year 1539. The first Polish version of the
Bible, it is said, was that composed by Hadewich, wife of
Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania, who embraced Christanity in
1390. A Polish translation of the Bible made by several
Roman Catholic divines, and especially by James Wieck, a
Jesuit, was published at Cracow in 1561. A translation
made by the Polish Protestants from Luther’s version, was
published in 1596 and dedicated to Uladislaus IV., king of
Poland. A version in the Russian language, made from
the Greek by St Cyril, the apostle of the Sclavonians, was
published in 1581 ; but, in consequence of its obscurity,
Ernest Gluck, who had been carried prisoner to Moscow
after the taking of Narva, undertook a new translation of the
Bible into modern Russian, which was printed at Amsterdam
in 1698.
Various portions of the Bible were rendered into Saxon
between a.d. 706 and 995 by Adelm, bishop of Sherbourn,
Egbert, bishop of Lindisferne, the Venerable Bede, and
Bible.
other translators. The first English version of the Bible
known to be extant is that mentioned by Usher as sup-
posed to have been made in 1290. Three MS. copies of it
are still in existence. The next translation of the sacred
Scriptures into English was made by the celebrated reformer
Wickliffe about the year 1380. A complete copy of this
work has recently been published for the first time.
The first printed Bible in our language was translated by Tyndale
William Tyndale. His version of the New Testament was Bible,
printed at Antwerp in 1526, but the edition was bought up
and burned by the Romanists in 1529. Other editions were
brought out by him, however, in rapid succession, and in
1536, the year in which he suffered martyrdom at Vilvorde,
thei-e were no fewer than ten or twelve editions issued from
the press. He also published at different times the five
books of Moses, with Jonah and Nehemiah. During the
reign of Henry VIII. the possession of a copy of Tyndale’s
translation of the New Testament was sufficient to condemn
a person to the flames, but the desire of the people to pos-1
sess it was irrepressible. “ It was wonderful,” says an old
writer, “ to see with what joy the book of God was received,
not only among the learned sort, and those who were noted
for lovers of the Reformation, but generally all England
over, among all the vulgar and common people ; and with
what greediness God’s word was read, and what resort to
places where the reading of it was; everybody that could,
bought the book, or busily read it, or got others to read it
to them if they could not themselves, and divers moie elderly
people learned on purpose, and even little boys flocked
among the rest to hear portions of the Holy Scriptures read.”
Tyndale’s translation forms the basis of all subsequent Eng¬
lish versions of the Bible, and in spite of the unfavourable
circumstances in which it was made, its high excellence
has been acknowledged by the most competent judges.
“ The language is pure, appropriate, and perspicuous, and
the work forms altogether an astonishing monument of the
indomitable zeal and great learning of the author. i
An English version of the entire Bible was made by Coverddel
Myles Coverdale, and was published in 1535. It owed its e-
origin to the patronage of Lord Cromwell. As a whole, it
must undoubtedly be reckoned inferior to the translation of
Tyndale.
After the death of Tyndale, a new edition of his trans- Matthews
lation was undertaken by his intimate friend John Rogers, Bible,
superintendent of an English church in Germany, and
the first martyr in the reign of Queen Mary. He re¬
vised the whole work, and completed the translation of the
Old Testament, probably with the assistance of Coverdale’s
sheets. The whole was completed in 1537, and dedicated^
to Henry VIII. by the editor, under the assumed name of
Thomas Matthews. A license was obtained for publishing
the work in England, through the influence of Archbishop
Cranmer. A revised edition of this translation was pub¬
lished in London, April 1539, under the superintendence
of Richard Taverner, a learned layman.
The first Bible printed by authority in England was a oamner’
revised edition of Matthews’ or Tyndale’s version, with a Bible,
preface by Archbishop Cranmer, and hence it has been
called Cranmer’s Bible. In 1540 a copy of this Bible was
required by royal proclamation to be placed in every parish
church. Two'years later, the Popish bishops succeeded in
obtaining its suppression by authority of the king. It was
restored under Edward VI., suppressed again under Queen
Mary, restored again in the first year of Queen Elizabeth,
and a new edition of it issued in 1562.
A revision of Tyndale’s version of the New Testament, Geneva
by William Whittingham, was printed at Geneva m 15o 7; Bxble. \
and three years later a new translation of the entire Bible
was published by Whittingham, Coverdale, Goodman John
Knox, and other exiles. This was the first English Bible
printed in Roman letter and divided into verses.
BIBLE.
703
Bible Archbishop Parker's, or the Bishops’ Bible, was published
Societies, at London in 1568, and was so named because it was super-
The
Bishops’
Bible.
Douay
Bible.
King
James’s
Bible.
intended by Archbishop Parker, and eight out of the fifteen
translators were bishops.
An English translation of the New Testament, made from
the Latin Vulgate, and accompanied by annotations, was
published at Rheims in 1582. In 1609—10 a translation of
the Old Testament from the Vulgate was published at
Douay, also with notes. This, which is commonly called
the Douay Bible, is the standard version of the Roman
Catholics.
The proposal to undertake a new translation of the Bible
originated with Dr John Reynolds of Corpus Christi Col¬
lege, Oxford, in 1603, and was favourably entertained by
King James VI., who appointed fifty-four learned men to
perform the work. Only forty-seven, however, were actu¬
ally engaged in the labour. They were divided into six com¬
panies, who met at different places, having their respective
tasks assigned them. They entered upon their task in 1607,
and for three years they were closely engaged in the work.
“ The translators in King James’s time,” says Selden, “ took
an excellent way. That part of the Bible was given to him
who was most excellent in such a tongue, and then they met
together and one read the translation, the rest holding in
their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or
French, Spanish, or Italian. If they found any fault they
spoke, and if not they read on.” When the work was com¬
pleted, the whole was revised by twelve of the translators,
two having been chosen out of each of the six companies.
The copy thus revised was again examined by Dr Myles
Smith (who wrote the preface), and Dr Bilson, bishop of
Winchester. It was first published in 1611, in a folio
volume. As the translators were enjoined to follow “ the
ordinary Bible read in the church, commonly called the
Bishops’ Bible,” and not to make alterations unless the
meaning of the original could be more accurately conveyed,
the authorized version may be regarded as a revision of the
Bishops’ Bible, rather than a new and independent work.
It is unnecessary to pronounce any eulogium on this trans¬
lation, which, it has been justly said, “far surpasses every
other English version of the entire Bible, in the character¬
istic qualities of simplicity, energy, and purity of style, as
also in uniform fidelity to the original.” Selden, Lowth,
Horsley, Walton, Middleton, Geddes, Doddridge, Beattie,
Scott, Clarke, Stuart, and a host of other eminent divines ot
different communions, have borne testimony to its general
accuracy and high excellence. “ A revision of it, however,
is now wanted, or rather a new translation from the Hebrew
and Greek, based upon it. Since it was made, criticism has
brought to light a great mass of materials, and elevated itself
in the esteem of theologians as an important science. Her-
meneutics, too, have been cultivated, so as to assume a sys¬
tematic, scientific form. We require, in consequence, a new
English version suited to the present state of sacred litera¬
ture. It need scarcely be stated, that King James’s transla¬
tors have failed to apprehend the true meaning in many pas¬
sages. Of the merit attaching to their version, a considerable
share belongs to Tyndale. Parker’s Bible was the professed
basis, and that was a version of Cranmer’s. Cranmer’s Bible
was chiefly a correction of Matthews’, or, in other words,
of Tyndale’s, so far as Tyndale had translated. Thus King
James’s translation resolves itself at last in no small measure
into Tyndale’s; and when we consider the adverse circum¬
stances continually pressing upon that noble-minded man,
with the little assistance he could obtain, the work which he
produced assumes a pre-eminent position amid the immortal
monuments of human learning and skill.” (Biblic. Cyclop..
vol. ii., p. 919.)
See Davidson’s Biblical Criticism, 2 vols.; Havernick’s
Introduction to the Old Testament ; Hengstenberg’s con¬
tributions for the Introduction to the Old Testament, 3
vols.; Moses Stuart’s Critical History and Defence of the
Old Testament Canon; Bishop Marsh’s History of the
Translations which have been made of the Scriptures from
the earliest to the present age ; Anderson’s Annals of the
English Bible, 2 vols. (j. t.)
Bible Societies, associations for extending the know¬
ledge of the Holy Scriptures. For a long period this ob¬
ject has been pursued to a considerable extent by several
religious institutions, such as the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel in Wales, formed by the Rev. Thomas Gouge,
one of the two thousand ministers ejected by the Act of
Uniformity in 1662 ; the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, founded in 1698, and which has continued to
the present time as the chief Bible Society of the Church
of England ; the Society for sending Missionaries to India,
established in the year 1705 by Frederick IV., king of
Denmark, and which has numbered among its agents the
celebrated missionary, Christian Frederic Schwartz ; the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in the High¬
lands and Islands of Scotland, formed in Edinburgh in
1709 ; the Moravian Missionary Society, founded in 1732 ;
and the Book Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge
among the Poor, which was formed in London in 1750, and
numbered among its earliest friends Dr Doddridge and
the Rev. James Hervey. But the first British association
which had in view the single purpose of disseminating the
Scriptures was the Naval and Military Bible Society,
established in the year 1780, which has done immense service
to the army and navy of Great Britain. The sphere of its
operations, however, was comparatively limited, and it was
not till 1804 that the British and Foreign Bible Society,
the great institution for the diffusion of the Word of God,
was founded. The proposal to institute this association ori¬
ginated with the Rev. Mr Charles of Bala, whose labours in
Wales were greatly impeded by the scarcity of the Scrip¬
tures in the principality, and it was carried out mainly by
the members of the committee of the Religious Tract So¬
ciety. The exclusive object of the British and Foreign
Bible Society is to promote the circulation of the Scriptures,
without note or comment, both at home and abroad, and its
constitution admits the co-operation of all persons disposed
to concur in its support. The committee of management
consists of thirty-six laymen, six of them being foreigners
resident in or near the metropolis, and of the remaining
thirty, one-half are members of the Church of England, and
the other half members of other Christian denominations.
Every clergyman or dissenting minister who is a member
of the society is entitled to attend and vote at all meet¬
ings of the committee. Among the early friends of the so¬
ciety were Lord Teignmouth, its first president, Dr Porteus,
bishop of London, Admiral Gambier, Charles Grant, now
Lord Glenelg, Zachary Macaulay, William Wilberforce,
Granville Sharp, and Henry Thornton the first treasurer,
and the Rev. Joseph Hughes and John Owen the first
secretaries.
The proceedings of the British and Foreign Bible So¬
ciety have given rise to several controversies, one of which
related to the fundamental law of the society to circulate
the Bible alone without notes or comments. On this
ground it was vehemently attacked by Bishop Marsh, and
other divines of the Church of England, who insisted that
the Prayer-Book ought to be given along with the Bible.
Another controversy, in which the late Dr Andrew Thom¬
son of St George’s church, Edinburgh, took a prominent
part, related to the circulation on the Continent, by the so¬
ciety, of the Apocrypha along with the canonical books of
Scripture. In 1826 it was resolved by the committee that the
704 B IB LIO
Bibliogra- fundamental law of the society, which limits its operation to
phy. the circulation of the Scriptures, be fully and distinctly recog-
nised as excluding the circulation of the Apocrypha. This
step, however, failed to satisfy many of the supporters of
the society, particularly in Scotland ; and they therefore
proceeded to form themselves into independent associations.
A third serious controversy by which the society has been
agitated, was occasioned by the alleged inaccuracy of some
of the translations executed under its authority; and a fourth
referred to the admissibility of anti-Trinitarians to the pri¬
vilege of membership. The refusal of the society in 1831
to alter its constitution so as to exclude such persons, led to
the formation of the Trinitarian Bible Society.
The British and Foreign Bible Society soon became
the parent of many other associations for the circulation of
the Holy Scriptures, and at the present time (1854) there
are in Great Britain 445 auxiliaries, 365 branch societies,
and 2460 associations; in the colonies, 69 auxiliaries, 280
branches, and 200 associations; in Ireland there are ^^5
in foreign countries there are about 4000 societies^ with
branches, making a total of 8219 Auxiliary Bible Societies.
In the last report of the British and Foreign Bible Society
for 1853, it is stated that the society had promoted the dis¬
tribution, printing, and translation of the Scriptures in 110
languages, not less than 100 of which had never before
been reduced to print, while 25 had previously no written
language at all; and that it had been the means of circu-^
lating not less than 45,000,000 copies of the Bible ; of
which number 18,000,000 had been distributed in Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland, 17,000,000 in Europe, 8,000,000 in Ame¬
rica, and 2,000,000 among Jews, Mahometans, and heathens
in other parts of the world. 1 he total sum expended by
the society since its formation has been L.3,950,953. The
most active of the Continental associations are those of
Berlin, Basle, Paris, Wirtemburg, Dresden, Sweden, and the
Netherlands. The Central Prussian Society has issued
since its commencement upwards of a million and a half
copies of the Scriptures ; a million copies have been ciicu-
lated in Sweden during the last thirty-two years ; the
French and Foreign Bible Society distributed last year
28,000 copies. The Russian Society at St Petersburg,
instituted in 1813, before its suspension by an imperial
ukase in 1826, had 289 auxiliaries and branches, and had
printed 861,105 Bibles and Testaments in various languages
and dialects.
The Edinburgh Bible Society originated in the con¬
troversy respecting the circulation of the Apocrypha along
with the canonical books, and is composed of Protestants
professing their belief in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity,
and disposed to co-operate in promoting the dissemination
of the Scriptures. Its funds arise from subscriptions, col¬
lections, and the contributions of about fifty branch societies
in different parts of Scotland. The average annual revenue of
the society for the last three years has been about L.2900,
and it distributes annually about 3500 Bibles, a large portion
of which are Gaelic copies of the Scriptures circulated in the
Highlands and Islands of Scotland, and in the colonies.
The Scottish Bible Society was instituted upwards of
forty years ago. At the time of its establishment, the other
Bible Societies in Scotland employed their funds chiefly
in circulating the Scriptures in foreign countries. This
G R A P H Y.
association was intended exclusively for the distribution of Bibliande:
the Bible at home, and its funds were at first derived from ||
collections made in the parish churches within the synod Bibhogra-
of Lothian and Tweeddale, but they have since been aug- v p ;
mented by various legacies. The annual revenue, derived
chiefly from capital, is nearly L.300. This is employed in
furnishing to the poor at a reduced price, and in some cases
gratuitously, copies of the word of God in English and
Gaelic. The distribution is almost wholly made through the
Scottish parochial ministers.
The first Bible Society in America is believed to have
been established by a few Baptists in New York in 1804;
its object was to purchase and lend Bibles for a month at a
time. The Philadelphia Bible Society, which was in¬
stituted December 12. 1808, was for some years the only
association in the country for the gratuitous distribution of
the Sacred Scriptures.
The American Bible Society was formed at New York
May 8. 1817. It has numerous auxiliaries throughout the
several states of the Union. In 1853, its income amounted
to 308,744 dollars, besides large sums for its new premises
—an immense Bible-house in New York. Its issues during
that year were 666,015 Bibles and Testaments.
The exclusive privilege of printing the Scriptures in
Scotland belonged to the queen’s printers, and some years
ago they instituted a law-suit against the various Scottish
Bible Societies, and succeeded in obtaining an interdict pre¬
venting the importation into Scotland of Bibles printed
beyond the bounds of that country. On the expiry of the
monopoly however, in 1839, the House of Commons, mainly
through the exertions of the Rev. Dr Adam Thomson of
Coldstream, refused to renew the patent, and appointed a
Bible Board for Scotland, with power to grant licenses to
print the authorized version of the Scriptures. A great
reduction immediately took place in the price of the sacred
volume, the circulation of which has been in consequence
immensely increased. The monopoly of the right to print
the Bible in England is still possessed by the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, and Her Majesty’s printer for
England. But after a controversy which was carried on for
some time with great warmth (1840-1), intelligence and
justice prevailed, and the prices of the common Bibles and
Testaments were reduced, in some instances more than one-
half, to their present remarkable cheapness.
See Owen’s History of the First Ten Years of the British
and Foreign Bible Society; Bible Triumphs, a Jubilee
Memorial for the British and Foreign Bible Society, (j.t.)
BIBLIANDER, or more properly Theodore Buch-
mann, a learned Swiss Protestant divine, born at Bischoff-
zell in 1504. On the death of Zwingle he was appointed
professor of theology at Zurich in 1532. Having adopted
more liberal sentiments on the subject of predestination and
free-will than were agreeable to his party, he was deprived
of his professorship after having long discharged its duties
with high reputation. He was a learned Oriental scholar,
and published an edition of the Koran, to which he prefixed
lives of Mahomet and his successors ; together with an
apologetical preface, which, in the words of Bayle, raised
a great outcry.” Besides this, he published numerous
works, chiefly on theology and ecclesiastical history. He
died of the plague at Zurich in 1564.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
That branch of knowledge to which the term Biblio- ancient manuscripts ; but it is now appropriated to the
graphy is generally applied would be more correctly de- knowledge of books with reference to then constituent
signated by the word Bibliology. It was originally em- parts, their different editions and degrees of raieness,
ployed to denote skill in the perusing and judging of their subjects, and classes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Bibliogra- This species of knowledge has been most successfully
phy- cultivated in France, Germany, and Italy; for though it will
be seen in the sequel, that Britain has produced some
valuable works in this department, it will also appear that
our bibliographical labours have been greatly surpassed
by the continental nations. It is to France, in particular,
that we are indebted for the most popular and useful
treatises in bibliography; but whilst we make this ac¬
knowledgement, in which all who have had any experience
of their utility will concur, we must add, that some of her
bibliographers have spoken in very extravagant terms of
the nature and rank of this branch of learning. They re¬
present it as a universal science, in whose ample range all
other sciences, and all other kinds of knowledge, are com¬
prehended. “ La bibliographic etant la plus etendue de
toutes les sciences, semble devoir les renfermer toutes,”
is the language of one “ la bibliographic est la plus vaste
et la plus universelle de toutes les connoissances humaines,”
is the language of another.2 Nothing surely can be more
preposterous than to view it in this light, merely because
it is conversant about books, and because books are the
vehicles of all sorts of knowledge. Yet this is the only
foundation that we can discover for these extravagant
representations; which tend, as in all other cases of ex¬
aggerated pretension, to bring ridicule upon a subject
which, were its nature and objects simply and correctly
defined, could not fail to appear both useful and important.
We have already stated generally what kind of knowledge
it is to which the appellation of bibliographical knowledge
is applied ; but, in order more fully to illustrate its nature,
and to point out its limits and utility, we shall endeavour
to detail somewhat more particularly the chief objects of
inquiry which it embraces.
It is the business of the bibliographer, then, to trace
the history of books in regard to their forms and all other
constituents, and, consequently, to trace the beginnings
and progress of typography. It belongs to him, in a par¬
ticular manner, to mark the differences of editions, and to
point out that edition of every book which is esteemed
the most correct and valuable. In the case of books pub¬
lished anonymously, or under feigned names, it is his bu¬
siness to indicate the names of their real authors, in as
far as the discoveries of literary history may furnish the
means of doing so. All remarkable facts attaching to the
history of books, such as the number of their editions,
their rareness, their having been condemned to the flames,
or suppressed, belong to the province of bibliographical
inquiry. Further, every one who engages in any parti¬
cular line of study must of course wish to know what
books have been published in regard to it, or in regard to
any particular point that interests his curiosity; and it is
the business of the bibliographer to furnish this most use¬
ful species of information; in other words, the compila¬
tion of catalogues of those books which have appeared in
the various branches of knowledge constitutes another
department of bibliography. It is by means of such cata¬
logues that “ the student comes to know what has been
written on every part of learning; that he avoids the ha¬
zards of encountering difficulties which have already been
cleared ; of discussing questions which have already been
decided ; and of digging in mines of literature which have
already been exhausted.” (Dr Johnson’s Preface to the
Catalogus Bibliothecce Harleiance.')
Such are the principal objects and pursuits of the biblio¬
grapher ; and while it must appear abundantly evident
that his science has no pretensions to those lofty epithets
upon which we have animadverted, it must, we think, be
705
allowed by every one that it comprises many curious as Bibliogra-
well as interesting subjects of inquiry; and that it is cal- phy*
culated to afford very useful aids to every other species
of intellectual occupation. This view of it will be fully
confirmed by the details which we are to offer in the
course of this article; in which we propose to point out
the progress and best sources of information, in all those
departments of knowledge to which we have alluded. In
doing so, we shall divide the subject into such heads as
shall appear best suited to the purposes intended.
I. Of the Constituent Parts of Books, and the Differences
of Editions.
The history of the materials employed in the formation
of books, of the art of writing and printing upon these
materials, and of the forms and sizes in which they have
appeared, all belong to this head of inquiry. Almost the
whole of these particulars have furnished topics for much
elaborate research, and some of them for speculations and
disputes not yet brought to any satisfactory conclusion;
but as our main object at present is to indicate the inqui¬
ries which belong to the different departments of biblio¬
graphy, together with the best guides to information in
each, our notices of the subjects in question must be li¬
mited to what is necessary for that purpose. Most of
them, indeed, necessarily form the subjects of separate
articles in an Encyclopaedia.
Much curious learning has been exercised in describing
the various substances used for writings, previously to the
important discovery of the art of making paper from linen
rags. The precise era of this discovery is not known, nor
are authors agreed as to the country in which it was
made; but it seems to be ascertained that this kind of
paper was in general use in Europe before the end of the
fourteenth century. Cotton paper had been in general
use more than a century before; and though of greatly
inferior quality, its introduction wras one of the most for¬
tunate circumstances in the history of the arts ; for parch¬
ment had become so scarce, that old writings were often
erased, in order to apply the parchment to modern pur¬
poses ; and thus, by a metamorphosis of a singular and
fatal kind, a classic was sometimes transformed into a
vapid homily or monkish legend. In this way it is sup¬
posed that many valuable works of antiquity have pe¬
rished; and, indeed, there c£n be little doubt of this,
when we consider the number of manuscripts that have
been discovered, evidently written upon erased parch¬
ments. Parchments of this kind have been called 'palimp¬
sests, from a Greek word signifying twice rubbed ; that is,
prepared for writing. {Edinburgh Review, No.xcvi. p. 367.)
Dr Barret of Trinity College, Dublin, discovered a palimp¬
sest, while examining some books in the library of that col¬
lege. “ When thus employed, he accidentally met with a
very ancient Greek manuscript, on certain leaves of which
he observed a twofold writing, one ancient, and the other,
comparatively recent, transcribed over the former. The
original writing had been greatly defaced; but, on close
examination, he found that it consisted of the three fol¬
lowing fragments:—The Prophet Isaiah, the Evangelist
St Matthew, and certain Orations of Gregory Nazianzen.
The fragment containing St Matthew’s Gospel Dr Barret
carefully transcribed, and it has been accurately engraved
in fac-simile, and published by the order and at the ex¬
pense of the university. The original writing, or Codex
Vetus, Dr Barret, with great probability, assigns to the
sixth century; the Codex Recens, or later writing, he at¬
tributes to the thirteenth.” (Horne’s Introduction to Bib-
1 Cours Elementaire de Bibliographie, par Achard.
■yoL. iv.
* Dktionnaire de BiUiologie, par PeignoU
4 U
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
706
Bibliogra- liography, i. p. 115.) But the most interesting discove-
PV' ries in this line are those of Angelo Maio, librarian of the
Vatican library, to whom we are indebted for a consider-
able fragment of Cicero de Republica, and fragments of
three of his lost orations. The reader will find a curious
account of these discoveries, and of the history of palimp¬
sests, in the above-cited article of the Edinburgh Review.
That part of the history of books which regards the va¬
rious substances upon which they have been written, is
compendiously but learnedly treated in the first volume
of that very valuable work, the Nouveau Traite de Diplo¬
matique, compiled by two Benedictines of the celebrated
society of St Maur. This work was published at Paris in
1750, in six volumes quarto. M. Peignot gives a com¬
plete list of separate works on this subject in the intro¬
duction to his Essai sur VHistoire du Parchemin et du
Velin, published at Paris in 1812.
The inquiry as to the origin of writing is a purely
philosophical speculation; but the knowledge of the dif¬
ferent kinds of writing peculiar to different ages is a
branch of the history of books which belongs to the pro¬
vince of bibliography, and upon which much information
will be found in the above-mentioned work of the Bene¬
dictines of St Maur. One of the best books on this sub¬
ject is Mr Astle’s Origin and Progress of Writing, the
first edition of which was published in 1784, and the se¬
cond, with some additions, in 1803, each in one volume
quarto. The chapters on transcribers and illuminators,
and the instruments, inks, and other matters which they
made use of in their operations, will be found peculiarly
interesting to the bibliographer.
We are now so familiar with the wonders and glorious
results of printing, that it is only when we look back into
the history of the darker ages that we are made fully sen¬
sible of all the various advantages which it has conferred
upon mankind. The mention of the transcribers, that is,
the class employed to copy books before the discovery of
printing, naturally gives rise to reflections of this kind.
Their ignorance and carelessness occasioned much trouble
and mortification to living authors, and irreparable errors
in the works of the dead. Petrarch, who flourished in
the fourteenth century, has expressed himself in very
moving terms in regard to this evil. “ How shall we find
out a remedy,” says he, “ for those mischiefs which the
ignorance and inattention of the copyists inflict upon us ?
It is wholly owing to these causes that many men of ge¬
nius keep their most valuable pieces unpublished, so that
they never see the light. Were Cicero, Livy, or Pliny,
to rise from the dead, they would scarcely be able to
recognise their own writings. In every page they would
have occasion to exclaim against the ignorance and the
corruptions of those barbarous transcribers.”1 Upon the
invention of printing, the class of copyists immediately
took alarm, and exerted every means to extinguish an
art which, whatever benefits it promised the rest of man¬
kind, held out nothing but prospects of loss to them.
They endeavoured, and their example is still steadily fol¬
lowed by other crafts, to set up their own petty interests
in opposition to the general good, and called loudly upon
the different governments to invest them with exclusive
privileges, which all the great interests of society requir¬
ed to be abolished. Thus, when printing was introduced
at Paris, the copyists complained of the innovation to the
parliament, and that body forthwith caused the books be¬
longing to the printers to be seized and confiscated ; but
Louis XL had the good sense to restore their property to
these ingenious artists, and to authorize them to proceed Bibliogra-
in their laudable vocation. phy-
The question as to the origin of printing is of a com-
plexion wholly different from that regarding the origin of
writing, as it turns entirely upon matters of fact; but it
is not the less true, that it is a subject upon which opi¬
nions widely opposite are still entertained; for though
this art, we mean the art of printing with movable types,
was spread all over Europe within twenty years of the
first discovery, it has unfortunately failed to record, in de¬
cisive terms, the name of the individual to whom the ho¬
nour of the invention is due. The place where the dis¬
covery was made remains also a subject of doubt and con¬
tention. In Mallinkrot’s work, De Ortu et Progressu Artis
Typographies, published in 1640, he enumerates a hun¬
dred and nine testimonies in favour of Mentz as the birth¬
place of the art, and since that time the number has been
greatly augmented; yet one of the latest of those who
have engaged in this controversy declares decidedly in fa¬
vour of Haerlem, which, in Mallinkrot’s day, ranked only
thirteen advocates ; and further, assigns the wreath which
the supporters of Mentz had variously placed on the brow
of Guttenberg, of Faust, and of Schoiffer, to Lawrence
Coster, as its rightful owner.2 All that we can do in this
place is to point out some of the works which have been
published upon the origin and history of printing, and
which it may be necessary for the bibliographer to exa¬
mine, in order to enable him to judge of early editions;
recommending those who wish to see a clear and compen¬
dious view of the various opinions which have been ad¬
vanced upon this subject, to peruse M. Daunou’s analy¬
sis of these opinions, published in the fourth volume of the
Memoirs of the Moral and Political Class of the French
Institute.
The Monumenta Typographica of Wolfius, published
in two octavo volumes, at Hamburg, in 1740, contains a
valuable and curious collection of treatises by various au¬
thors, and also of extracts illustrative of the origin and
early history of the art. Some of these pieces are in
verse. Among several other elaborate tables, it contains
one of all the authors who, up to that time, had either
directly or indirectly treated of the history or of the me¬
chanical part of printing. Meerman’s Origines Typogra¬
phies is one of the most instructive works as to the pro¬
gress of the art. It is illustrated with various specimens
of early printing, and fac-similes of the books called
Block-Books, printed by means of wooden blocks. Meer-
man, who was a lawyer, and author of many elaborate
treatises in the civil and canon law, was born at Leyden
in 1722, and died in 1771, six years after the publication
of his Origines ; in which he supports, with great ardour
and learning, the pretensions of Haerlem as the birth¬
place of the art, and of Lawrence Coster as its inventor.
Another work of curious research on the origin and first
progress of printing is that of Prosper Marchand, origi¬
nally a bookseller at Paris, but whom the repeal of the
edict of Nantz drove to Holland, where he employed him¬
self till his death in 1756, in composing various works in
literary history and bibliography. He makes Guttenberg
the inventor of the art, and Mentz the place where he
completed the invention; the first idea of it, however,
having been formed whilst he resided in Strasburg. This
work, entitled Histoire de V Origine et des premiers Progres
de FImprimerie, was published in 1740. A valuable sup¬
plement, in which some errors of Marchand are corrected,
was published by M. Mercier, abbe de Saint Leger, in
1 Lambinet, Origine de VImprimerie, tome i. p. 38, 39.
* See Ottle v’s Inquiry into the Origin and early History of Engraving, chap. iii.
BIBLIOGR APH Y.
Bibliogra- 1773, and republished in 1775. The author of the origi-
( y nal work was not at all pleased with this supplement, and
_ir—^ he accordingly criticised it with great severity in a long
letter addressed to, and published by the editors of the
Journal des Savans. The opinion that Guttenberg con¬
ceived the first idea of the invention at Strasburg, and
afterwards completed it at Mentz, is also supported by
Lambinet, in his Recherches historiques, litteraires, et cri¬
tiques sur I' Origine de VImprimerie, first published at Brus¬
sels in 1799, and republished in two volumes octavo at
Paris in 1810, with the addition of M. D. Daunou’s treatise
already mentioned. Besides the main subject of inquiry,
M. Lambinet’s work includes various other topics,—such
as the history of the substances employed for books, of
inks, of engraving in relief, of block-printing, and of ste-
reotype printing. Upon the history of printing, we shall
only mention further, M. de la Serna Santander’s Essay
prefixed to his Dictionnaire Bibliographique, and the India
Typographica of Professor Lichtenberger, published at
Strasburg in 1811; in both of which the claims set up for
Coster are treated as fabulous,—Guttenberg being repre¬
sented as the inventor of the art, and Mentz the place
where it was perfected; and in both of which, also, there
are ample details as to its progress in other cities and
countries.
Besides the information afforded by these general his¬
tories as to the diffusion of printing throughout Europe,
there are various treatises on its establishment in particu¬
lar countries and places, which it will often be necessary
for the bibliographer to consult. One of the most valu¬
able, particularly to the English bibliographer, is Ames’s
Typographical Antiquities, which contains memoirs of
our early printers, and a register of their publications,
from 1471 to 1600. The first edition, published in 1749,
consisted of one volume quarto. Another edition, en¬
larged by Mr Herbert to three volumes quarto, was com¬
pleted in 1790; and a third, illustrated with many em¬
bellishments, and containing some valuable additions, has
been published by the Rev. Dr Dibdin. The French,
Germans, and Italians, particularly the latter, are rich in
typographical histories of this description; but for ac¬
counts of them we must refer our readers to Peignot’s
Repertoire Bibliographique Universel, where they are enu¬
merated and described.
A knowledge of the different classes and forms of the
letters used in printing is necessary to the accurate de¬
scription of books, and discrimination of editions. The bib¬
liographer must also be acquainted with the correspond-
ing appellations assigned to the different forms by foreign
printers. Thus the form named pica by English print¬
ers, is called Cicero by those of France and Germany, be¬
cause Cicero’s Epistles were printed in that type. The
form called paragon is the only one which retains the
same name among the printers of all countries. Upon
all these points, Stower s Printers' Grammar, and Four¬
nier’s Manuel Typographique, may be consulted with
advantage. The latter is rich in specimens very neatly
executed.
The books of the ancients were generally in the form
of cylinders, made by rolling the joined sheets upon a
stick, to the ends of which nobs or balls were affixed, often
lichly ornamented. In the infancy of printing the sizes were
generally folio and quarto; and some have supposed that
no books were printed in the smaller forms till after 1480;
707
but M. Peignot instances many editions in the smallest Bibliogra-
forms, of an earlier date; as may be seen in the article Ph7-
Format of the Supplement to his Dictionnaire de Biblio-
logie. An accurate knowledge of the different forms of
books is necessary to the bibliographer, as without it no
book can be correctly described; and however easy of ac¬
quisition this knowledge may appear, it is yet certain that
errors in this respect are sometimes committed even by
experienced bibliographers; and that doubts have been
entertained as to the existence of editions, owing to their
forms having been inaccurately described.1 These mis¬
takes generally proceed from this, that there are different
sizes of paper comprehended under the same name. But
the water-lines in the sheets afford a test; as they are uni¬
formly perpendicular in the folio and octavo, and horizon¬
tal in the quarto and duodecimo sizes.
When books have gone through more than one edition,
various minute inquiries must often be made, in order to
determine the respective merits of those editions. It is a
principal object of the bibliographical dictionaries, to be af¬
terwards mentioned, to point out those editions of impor¬
tant works which such inquiries have ascertained to be the
best. There are many particulars in which one edition
may differ from, or excel another. There may be differ¬
ences and grounds of preference in size, in paper, and in
printing. The text of one edition may be more correct
than that either of a preceding or a subsequent one. An
author sometimes corrects errors, makes alterations, or
introduces new matter when his work comes to be re¬
printed, thereby giving the edition so altered a decided
superiority over its predecessor. One edition may differ
from another by having notes, an index, or table of contents,
which that other wants; or these accompaniments may
themselves furnish grounds of preference by being supe¬
rior in their kind in particular editions. Plates make great
differences in the value of editions, and even in the value
of copies of the same edition. In the beautifully engraved
edition of Horace by Pine, there is, in the copies first
thrown off, a small error, which serves as a test by which
bibliographers immediately judge whether any copy has
the best impressions of those elegant vignettes which il¬
lustrate that edition. The medal of Augustus, on page
108 of the second volume, has, in the copies first thrown
off, the incorrect reading Post Estfor Potest; this was rec¬
tified in the after impressions; but as the plates had pre¬
viously sustained some injury, the copies which show the
incorrect reading are, of course, esteemed the best. Dr
Dibdin, in his work on the Bibliomania, points out this as an
instance of preference founded on a defect; whereas the
ground of preference is the superiority of the impressions,
ascertained, without the necessity of any comparison, by
the presence of this trifling defect. There are sometimes
differences between copies of the same edition of a work ;2
and which, therefore, stand to each other in the same rela¬
tion as if there had been another edition with some varia¬
tions. Walton’s Polyglot Bible is a celebrated instance.
The printing of that great work, for which Cromwell libe¬
rally allowed paper to be imported free of duty, was begun
in 1653, and completed in 1657; and the preface to it, in
some copies, contains a respectful acknowledgement of
this piece of patronage on the part of the protector; but
in other copies the compliment is expunged, and replaced
by some invectives against the republicans; Dr Walton
having, on the restoration, printed another preface to the
^ See Boulard, Traite Elementaire de Bibliographic, p. 38, 39.
i H'e Voyage to Cadiz is sometimes wanting in Hakluyt’s Collection. A reprint is often inserted to suoulv this want- v
kT„nnfr6.tesx. ski tlrat ii has in r ^ wTt ^
708
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Biblngra- copies which had not by that time been disposed of.1 The
phy. copies with the original preface are much rarer, and of
course more prized, than those with the loyal one, which
latter seems to have helped the author to the bishopric he
afterwards obtained.
» II. Of Early Printed Books.
The productions of the press, in the different countries
of Europe, during the century in which printing was in¬
vented, have engaged much of the attention of bibliogi a-
phers, and have been described in various works compil¬
ed for that purpose. The first of those productions to
which the name of Books has been applied, were printed,
not with movable types, but with solid wooden blocks ;
and consisted of a few leaves only, on which were impress¬
ed images of saints, and other historical pictures, with ap¬
propriate texts or descriptions. Ihese leaves were print¬
ed only on one side, and the blank sides were generally,
though not always, pasted together, so as to look like
single leaves. The ink used was of a brownish hue, and
glutinous quality, to prevent it from spreading. These
curious specimens of the infant art are called Image Books
or Block Books. They have often been largely described,
every particular concerning them having been fondly can¬
vassed by bibliographers. Their number is fixed by some
at seven, by others carried to ten ; but there have been
numerous editions of most of them ; for they maintained
their popularity long after the invention of the art of print¬
ing properly so called. One of the most celebrated is the
Biblia Pauperum, consisting of forty leaves printed on
one side, so as to make twenty when pasted together; upon
which, certain historical passages of the Old and New
Testament are represented by means of figures, with in¬
scriptions. It was originally intended, as its name imports,
for the use of those poor persons who could not afford to
purchase complete copies of the Bible. There is a copi¬
ous account of all the Block Books, in Baron Heinecken s
learned work, Idee generale d une Collection complette d Bs-
tampes, published in 1771, in one volume octavo. Dr
Dibdin’s Bibliotheca Spenceriana contains fac-similes of
the figures in several of them, as does Mr Ottley s His¬
tory of Engraving.
The first book of any considerable magnitude printed
with movable metallic types was the celebrated editio
princeps of the Bible, printed at Mentz, between the years
1450 and 1455. It is printed in large but handsome
Gothic characters, to resemble manuscript, having two
columns in the page, and consisting in whole of 637 leaves,
divided into two, three, or four volumes, according to the
taste of the binder. The advance from the rude Block
Books, of a few leaves, to this noble monument of early
typography, is great indeed; and it is impossible not to
regret that there should be still so much uncertainty as
to the person whose ingenuity furnished the means of at
once raising almost to perfection an art destined ever after
to exercise so vast and so beneficial an influence on the
affairs of the world. The Psalter, printed at Mentz by
Faust and Schoiffer, in 1457, is the first book which bears
the printer’s name, with the date and place of printing.
In general, in the very early printed books, the name
of the printer, the date,2 and the place of printing, are
either wholly omitted, or placed at the end of the book,
with some quaint ejaculation or doxology. The pages
have no running title, or number, or catch-word, or signa¬
ture letters,3 to mark the order of the sheets. The cha- Bibliogra-
racter is uniformly Gothic till 1467, when the Roman
type was first introduced. There were no capitals to be-
gin sentences; the only points used were the colon and
full stop ; and in almost every sentence there were abbre¬
viations or contractions. In regard to these and other pe¬
culiarities of early printed books, the reader may consult
the following works: The General History of Printing,
by Palmer (supposed, however, to have been chiefly writ¬
ten by the celebrated George Psalmanazar) ; Jungendres,
De NotischaracteristicisLibroruma Typographice incunabu-
lis ad an. 1500 impressorum ; and, Becker dies sur /’ Origine
des Signatures, et des Chiffres de Page, par Marolles.
Many of the early printers had peculiar marks or vig¬
nettes, which they sometimes placed on the title-page,
sometimes at the end of the books printed by them ; and
most of them also made use of monograms or ciphers,
compounded of the initial or other letters of their names.
These furnish a clue to the discovery of the printer, where
they occur on books without any printer’s name. An ac¬
quaintance with them, therefore, is necessary to the bib¬
liographer, because questions occur as to early editions
which can only be decided by ascertaining the printer’s
name. For explanations of these marks, the following
works may be consulted : Orlandi’s Origine e Progressi
della Stampa, published at Bologna in one volume 4to, in
1722; and Scholtzius’s Thesaurus Symbolorum ac Emble-
matum, in one volume folio, published at Nuremberg in
1730. The monograms of the early English printers are
explained in Ames’s Typographical Antiquities.
The following works may be mentioned as among the
best of those that have been devoted to the description of
early printed books : 1. Index Librorum ab inventa Typo-
graphia ad annum 1500, cum notis; 2 vols. 8yo, 1791.
This work, by Laire, is one of the most useful ot its kind.
The descriptions are clear, the notes brief and instructive ;
and there are four indexes, which furnish the means of
ready reference to all the names, titles, places, and biblio¬
graphical notices contained in the work. 2. Dictionnaire
Bibliographique choisi du quinzieme siecle ; par M. de la
Serna Santander; 3 vols. 8vo, 1805. This is a very learned
and exact work; and, like the preceding one, embraces only
the rarest and most interesting publications of the fifteenth
century. 3. Bibliotheca Spenceriana, or a descriptive ca¬
talogue of the books published in the fifteenth century, in
the library of Earl Spencer; by the Rev. I. F. Dibdin;
4 vols. 8vo, 1814. The abundance and beauty of the fac¬
similes and other embellishments, as well as the fineness
of the paper and printing, render this one of the most
splendid bibliographical works ever published in any coun¬
try. It contains some curious information, enveloped,
however, in a much greater proportion of tasteless and
irrelevant matter. 4. Annates Typographic ab artis in¬
venta: origine, by Michael Maittaire, published in 4to, as
follows : In 1719, volume first, which embraces the period
from the origin of printing to 1500; volume second, pub¬
lished in 1722, extends the annals to 1536; and volume
third, published in 1726, brings them down, according to
the title-page, to 1557; but there is an appendix which
affords a partial continuation to 1664. In 1/33 the fiist
volume was republished, with corrections and large addi¬
tions, and is commonly called the fourth volume. The
fifth and last volume, containing indexes, was published
in 1741. As four of the volumes consist each of two
1 See vol. i. of Dr Clarke’s Bibliographical Dictionary, for some curious details on this point. ^
2 Early printed books are often found with erroneous or falsified dates. (Middleton, vol. iii. p.
puted by Olympiads. (Ibid. p. 241.)
236.) Dates are sometimes com-
2 Signatures are letters of the alphabet placed at the bottom of the page, to show the order of the sheets and leaves. “ They were
used at Cologne an. 1475 ; at Paris 1476; by Caxton, not before 1480.” (Middleton’s Works, \q\ in. p. 238.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
709
Bibliogra-
phy.
parts, the work is sometimes bound in five, sometimes in
nine volumes. Several supplements to this elaborate
work have been published; the most valuable of them,
that by Denis, in two volumes 4to, was published at Vi¬
enna in 1789, and contains 6311 articles omitted by Mait-
taire. The latter has enriched his annals with many
learned dissertations; and the work is allowed to be the
most important that has yet been compiled in England, in
any department of bibliography; but though written in
this country, the last was the only volume published in it,
the others having been given to the world in Holland.
5. Annales Typographici ab artis invented origine, ad an¬
num 1500, post Maittairii, Denisii, aliorumque doctissi-
morum virorum curas in ordinem redacti, em,endati, et aucti,
tutes excessive rarity, or rarity in the highest degree. This Bibliogra-
classification of the degrees of rareness is copied from Cle- phy.
ment by all subsequent bibliographical writers in this de- v—
partment. It is abundantly obvious, that the justness of
the application of these terms to particular books must en¬
tirely depend on the accuracy and precision of the know¬
ledge with which they are used.
We cannot in this department, anymore than in others,
indicate any but the most prominent and useful books be¬
longing to it. The following, in this view, are particularly
worthy of attention :—1. Beyeri Memorice. historico-critica
Librarian variorum, 1734,8vo. 2. Vogt, Catalogus historico-
criticus Librorum variorum, 1732, 8vo. The last and best
edition was published in 1793. In this work the epithet
opera S. TV. Panzer ; 11 volumes 4to, published at Nu- rare is applied with more judgment and knowledge than
remberg, the first in 1793, the last in 1803. This work, in most others of the same class. 3. Gerdesii Florilegium
though very defective in point of arrangement, is un- historico-criticum Librorum rarionan; first published in
questionably the most complete of its kind that has yet 1740, and again in 1763, in 8vo. It was partly intended
appeared. It comes down to the year 1536, though the as a supplement to the above work by Vogt, and there-
title-page of the first volume limits it to the fifteenth fore notices only those books which are not included in
century. his catalogue. 4. Bibliotheque curieuse, ou Catalogue rai-
The works just described are quite indispensable to sonne des Livres rares, par D. Clement, 1750-60. This
every bibliographical collection; but they have a value, work, to which we have just alluded, is compiled upon
we think, independent of the assistance which they afford
the bibliographer in his examination of the early produc¬
tions of the press : they are also calculated to interest
the philosopher as curious registers of the extent and
objects of intellectual industry, during a period when the
human mind began to be acted upon by many new im¬
pulses, and to receive the seeds of revolutions destined
to change the whole aspect of the intellectual world.
III. Of Rare Books.
Rareness is a circumstance which must, generally speak¬
ing, confer some degree of value upon books; and it is
therefore one of the objects of bibliography to indicate
those books which, in a greater or less degree, come under -
this category. A passion for collecting books, merely be- of its class. It contains only the titles of books, without
cause they are rare, without inquiry as to any literary any further notices; and it must, therefore, be evident,
purpose they may be calculated to serve, is no doubt a that seven volumes could not be occupied with the titles
very foolish habitude ; but it is just as foolish, on the other only of books justly called rare,
hand, to ridicule all solicitude about books of this descrip¬
tion ; for this implies that every valuable book is com-
a more extensive plan than any of the preceding; for,
though consisting of nine volumes quarto, it comes down
no farther than to the letter H in the alphabetical arrange¬
ment of names; terminating here in consequence of the
death of the author. Clement is generally blamed, and
with justice, for a very profuse and inaccurate application
of his own nomenclature ; his notes, too, are crammed with
citations, and tediously minute; but, on the other hand,
it must be allowed that they contain many curious morsels
of literary history; and it has, upon the whole, been mat¬
ter of regret to bibliographers, that the work, voluminous
as it must have proved, was not completed. 5. Bibliotheca
Librorum, rqriorum universalis. Auctore Jo. Jac. Bauer,
7 vols. 8vo, 1770-91. This is one of the latest publications
mon,—a notion which no one can entertain who ever has
had occasion to follow out any particular line of literary
research, to decide upon any fact involved in doubt or
controversy, or to speculate upon the progress of know¬
ledge either in the sciences or the arts. With regard to
IV. Of the Classics.
It is remarked by Mr Roscoe, “ that the coincidence of
the discovery of the art of printing with the spirit of the
times in which it had birth was highly fortunate. Had it
been made known at a much earlier period, it would have
been disregarded or forgotten, from the mere want of ma-
the bibliographical compilations appropriated to the de- terials on which to exeicise it; and had it been farther
scription of books of this class, it may be observed of postponed, it is probable that many works would have been
most, if not all of them, that they have applied the epi- totally lost which are now justly regarded as the noblest
thet rare much too vaguely and lavishly. It must, indeed, monuments of the human intellect.” (Lorenzo de Medici,
in a multitude of cases, be exceedingly difficult to speak chap, i.) The rapid diffusion of the art, and the speedy
with precision on this point; so difficult as to render it appearance of the Classics in an imperishable form, afford
impossible, we apprehend, to compile a work of this kind sufficient proofs of the bent of the age, and the oppoitune-
which shall not frequently mislead those who consult it. ness of this great discovery. Gabriel Naude observes,
David Clement, the author of a very learned work of that almost all the good as well as bad books then in Du-
this class, which we shall immediately notice, assigns the rope had passed through the press before the year 1474 J
following as the different degrees in which books may be
said to be rare. A book which it is difficult to find in the
country where it is sought, ought to be called, simply,
rare ; a book which it is difficult to find in any country,
may be called very rare ; a book of which there are only
fifty or sixty copies existing, or which appears as seldom
as if there never had been more at any time than that
number of copies, ranks as extremely rare ; and when the
whole number of copies does not exceed ten, this consti-
that is, within twenty years of the earliest date to which
the use of movable types can be carried. Within this
period editions had been printed of nearly all the Latin
classics. The whole works of some of them, of Cicero,
for example, had not yet appeared in one uniform edition ;
but several of his treatises, the whole of Pliny the elder,
of Livy, Sallust, Caesar, Tacitus, Suetonius, Justin, Lucan,
Virgil, and Horace, had been published before the end
of 1470. Most of the early editions of the classics were
Addition a V Tlistoire de Louis XI. Par G. A uude.
I
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
710
Bibliogra- published in Italy. England remained greatly behind her
phy- j continental neighbours in the naturalization of these pre-
cious remains of ancient learning. Of all the classics,
only Terence, and Cicero’s Offices, had, in 1540, been
published in this country in their original tongue. Caxton
and others made use only of French translations in the
early versions and abridgements published in England.
Gawin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, so well known for his
poetical version of Virgil, has, in his preface to that work,
commemorated his indignation at the injustice done to
“ the divine poet” by Caxton’s second-hand translation, in
the following curious and emphatic lines :
Thoch Wylliame Caxtoun had no compatioun
Of Virgill in that buk he preyt in prois,
Clepand it Virgill in Eneados,
Quhilk that he sayis of Frensche he did translait,
It has nathing ado therwith, God wate,
Nor na mare like than the Deuil and sanct Austin.
Haue he na thank tharfore, bot lois his pyne ;
So schamefully the storie did peruerte,
I reid his work with harmes at my hert,
That sic ane buk, but sentence or ingyne,
Suld be intitulit eftir the poete diuine.
His ornate goldin versis mare than gylt;
I spitte for disspite to se thame spylt
With sic ane wicht, quhilk treuly be myne entent
Knew nevir thre wordis at all quhat Virgill ment.
Almost all the Latin classics had appeared in print be¬
fore the art was employed upon any Greek author. But
the desire to possess printed editions of the latter became
general and urgent towards the end of the fifteenth cen¬
tury; and Aldus had the glory of ministering to that de¬
sire, by publishing in rapid succession, and with singular
beauty and correctness, almost all the principal authors
in that tongue. Beginning in 1494 with Musseus’s Hero
and Leander, he printed before 1515, the year of his death,
upwards of sixty considerable works in Grecian literature,
frequently superadding the learning and cares of the edi¬
tor to those of the printer. “ Yet his glory,” to use the
words of Mr Gibbon, “ must not tempt us to forget that
the first Greek book, the Grammar of Constantine Las-
caris, was printed at Milan in 1476; and that the Flor¬
ence Homer of 1488 displays all the luxury of the typo¬
graphical art.” (i/wfor?/, chap. 66.) Besides these works,
there had been published before 1494, some Greek Psal¬
ters, the Batrachomyomachia of Homer, and the Orations
of Isocrates; during that year, the Anthologia Greeca was
published at Florence; and the works of Callimachus, of
Apollonius Rhodius, and of Lucian, were published at the
same place within two years after the first essays of Aldus
in Greek printing. Thus, though we have no sort of wish
to detract from the just fame of this learned and beautiful
printer, we cannot admit the propriety of those eulogies
of his biographer M. Renouard, in which he is represent¬
ed as having given an entirely new direction to the art of
printing, and indeed to the literary taste of Europe.1 It
is as incorrect in point of fact, as it is unphilosophical, to
ascribe to Aldus the production of that taste for Grecian
literature which he himself imbibed from the spirit of his
age. He saw that there was a great and growing want
of Greek books; and his peculiar praise lies in this, that
he applied himself to supply it, with much more constancy
and skill, and with much more learning, than any other
printer of that period. All that we have said on this point
is fully corroborated by the account which he has himself Bibliogra-
given, in his preface to Aristotle’s Organon, published in Phy-
1495, of the circumstances which induced him to under¬
take the publication of the Greek classics. The passage
is thus translated by Mr Roscoe {Life of Leo the Tenth,
vol. i. p. 110) : “ The necessity of Greek literature is now
universally acknowledged; insomuch that not only our
youth endeavour to acquire it, but it is studied even by
those advanced in years. We read but of one Cato among
the Romans who studied Greek in his old age, but in our
times we have many Catos ; and the number of our youth
who apply themselves to the study of Greek is almost as
great as of those who study the Latin tongue; so that
Greek books, of which there are but few in existence, are
now eagerly sought after. But by the assistance of Jesus
Christ I hope ere long to supply this deficiency, although
it can only be accomplished by great labour, inconveni¬
ence, and loss of time. Those who cultivate letters must
be supplied with books necessary for their purpose, and
till this supply be obtained I shall not be at rest.”
The Editiones Principes of the classics have always
formed capital objects in bibliography, and are sometimes
spoken of with a degree of rapture in bibliographical works,
which is apt to appear inappropriate and unreasonable to
those who value books solely as they are calculated to
afford delight or information. The lover of first editions
has, however, some plausible reasons to assign in justifica¬
tion of this expensive, and, as some think, factitious pas¬
sion. These editions are valuable, in the first place, as
curious monuments of early typography, and, in the next
place, as more faithful representatives of the best ancient
manuscripts than any other editions. Earum editionum
authoritatem, says Maittaire, aliis omnibus esseprceferendam,
quippe quce sola MSS. fide nitatur. This ground of pre¬
ference, however, has some learned oppugners. Schelhorn,
in his Amcenitates Literarice, speaks of those to whom we
are indebted for the first editions of the classics, as, in
general, very ignorant men ; quite incapable to collate
manuscripts themselves, and seldom taking assistance from
those who were. The first manuscript that could be pro¬
cured, it has been said by others, and not that which,
after a careful collation, appeared entitled to a preference,
was hastily committed to the press, in order to take ad¬
vantage of the recent discovery. Thus Graevius, in the
preface to his edition of Cicero De Officiis, states, that
the celebrated editio princeps of that work, by Faust, was
printed from a very inaccurate manuscript.2 On the other
hand, there are many who view those editions in the same
light with Maittaire. M. La Grange assures us, in the
preface to his French translation of Seneca’s works, that
he never, in any case of difficulty, consulted the editio
princeps of 1475, without finding there a solution of his
doubts ; adding generally, que ceux qui studient les au¬
teurs anciens, soit pour en donner des editions correctes, soil
pour les traduire dans une autre langue, doivent avoir sans
cesse sous les yeux les premiers editions de ces auteurs. 4 o
the same purpose, M. Santander observes, that the editio
princeps of Pliny the elder, printed at Venice by Spira
in 1469, is in many places more accurate than the cele¬
brated edition of Father. Flardouin. The truth seems to
be, that though many first editions have a real literary
value, for such purposes as are specified by M. La Grange,
there are others which have no value save what their ex-
1 Annalcs de Vlmprimerie des Alde, ou Histoire des trois Manege, et deleurs Editions. Par A. G. Itenouard. Seconde Edition,
3 tom. 8vo, Paris, 1825.
2 See a curious chapter on First Editions in Marchand’s Histoire de VImprimerie. He mentions, as a piece of extreme folly, that
one hundred guineas had been paid for a copy of the first edition of Boccaccio; but if that price deserved such a censure, what epithet
shall we bestow on the purchase of a copy at the enormous sum of L.2260 ?
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Bibliogra- treme rareness gives them ; that, therefore, they who scoff
phy. at, and they who laud indiscriminately, these literary rari-
ties, are equally in the wrong: in a word, that we must
apply a different rule of estimation to the first editions of
an Aldus, and those of such printers as Sweynheim and
Pannartz.1
The classics have often been published in sets more or
less complete, and more or less estimable for beauty, cor¬
rectness, commentaries, and so forth. Lists of all these
sets, with remarks on their relative extent and merits, will
be found in the bibliographical works to be immediately
mentioned. As the origin of the Delphin collection forms
an interesting piece of literary history, it may not be im¬
proper to notice it more particularly. This celebrated
body of Latin classics was originally destined for the use
of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV.; and was projected by
his governor the Duke of Montansier. This nobleman,
who, though a courtier and soldier, was both a philosopher
and a scholar, had been in the habit of carrying some of
the classics along with him in all his campaigns ; and had
often experienced impediments to their satisfactory peru¬
sal, from the recurrence of difficulties and allusions which
could not be removed or explained without books of re¬
ference too bulky for transport on such occasions. It was
in these circumstances that the idea first occurred to him
of the great utility of a uniform edition of the principal
classics, in which the text of each should be accompanied
with explanatory notes and illustrative comments; and
when he became governor to the dauphin, he thought that
a fit opportunity to set on foot an undertaking calculated
to prove so useful to the studies of the young prince.
Huet, bishop of Avranches, then one of the dauphin’s
preceptors, was accordingly commissioned to employ a
sufficient number of learned men for this purpose, and to
direct and animate the undertaking. Once every fortnight
they came to him on a stated day, each with the portion
of his work which he had finished in the interval, to un¬
dergo his inspection and judgment. The copious verbal
indexes, which constitute so valuable a portion of these
editions, were added at his suggestion ; but not without
considerable opposition on the part of his assistants, who
were appalled by the prospect of so much irksome labour
as would be necessary to do justice to this part of the plan.
(Memoirs of Huet's Life, book v.) The collection, includ¬
ing Danet’s Dictionary of Antiquities, extended to sixty-
four volumes quarto. “ It is remarkable,” says Dr Aikin,
in one of the notes to his excellent translation of Huet's
Memoirs, “ that Lucan is not among the number. He
was too much the poet of liberty to suit the age of Louis
The following may be noticed as among the most use¬
ful bibliographical accounts of the classics: 1. A View of
the various Editions of the Greek and Roman Classics,
with Remarks, by Dr Harwood. This work, first publish¬
ed in 1775, has gone through several editions; the larger
works of the same kind, to which it gave rise, not having
superseded it as a convenient manual in this department
of bibliography. 2. Degli Autori Classici, sacri e profani,
Greci e Latini, Biblioteca portatile; 2 vols. 12mo, Venice,
1793. This work was compiled by the Abbe Boni and
Bartholomew Gamba, and contains a translation of the
preceding, with corrections and large additions, besides
criticisms on the works of bibliographers, and a view of
the origin and history of printing. 3. Aji Introduction
711
to the Knowledge of Rare and Valuable Editions of the Bibliogra.
Classics, by T. F. Dibdin, D. D. The first edition was phy.
published in 12mo in 1803; but it has since been greatly v—
enlarged in the subsequent editions, the last of which ap¬
peared in 2 vols. in 1827. The utility of this work is con¬
siderably enhanced by the full account which it contains of
Polyglot Bibles, of the Greek and Latin editions of the
Septuagint and New Testament, and of lexicons and gram¬
mars. 4. A Manual of Classical Bibliography, by J. W.
Moss, B. A. in 2 vols. 8vo, published in 1825. This useful
work contains a full account of the translations of the clas¬
sics, published in the different languages of Europe, with
notices of critical and illustrative comments on the various
classical authors. The prices obtained for the rarer edi¬
tions at public sales are also specified.
The improved editions, by Harles and Ernesti, of the
Bibliotheca Grceca and Bibliotheca Latina of Fabricius,
are well known to the learned as immense magazines of
information in regard to the classics and classical litera¬
ture ; but as they extend over a much wider field of in¬
quiry than is embraced by bibliography, it does not belong
to our present subject to give a more particular account of
them.
V. Of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Boohs.
The great number of books published anonymously, as
well as under false or feigned names, early directed the
attention of the learned to this branch of bibliographical
inquiry. In 1669 Frederic Geisler, professor of public
law at Leipsic, published a dissertation De Nominum Mu-
tatione, which he reprinted in 1671, with a short catalogue
of anonymous and pseudonymous authors. About the
same period a similar but more extensive work had been
undertaken by Vincent Placcius, professor of morals and
eloquence at Hamburg, and which was published in 4to in
1674, with this title, De Scriptis et Scriptoribus, anonymis
atque pseudonymis. Syntagma. Four years thereafter,
John Decker, a learned German lawyer, published Con¬
jecture de Scriptis adespotis, pseudepigraphis, et supposi-
titiis, which was republished in 1686, with the addition of
two letters upon the same subjects, one by Paul Vindin-
gius, a professor at Copenhagen, and the other by the
celebrated Peter Bayle. In 1689 John Mayer, a clergy¬
man of Hamburg, published a letter to Placcius under
this title, Dissertatio Epistolica ad Placcium, qua anony-
morum et pseudonymorum farrago exhibitur. Placcius,
meanwhile, had continued his inquiries; and after his
death the fruits both of his first researches and addi¬
tional discoveries were embodied in one work, and publish¬
ed in a folio volume, at Hamburg, in 1708, by Mathew
Dreyer, a lawyer of that city. The work was now entitled
Theatrum Anonym,orum et Pseudonymorum ; and, besides
an Introduction by Dreyer, and a Life of Placcius by
John Albert Fabricius, it contains, in an appendix, the
before-noticed treatises of Geisler and Decker, with the
relative Letters of Vindingius and Bayle, as well as Mayer’s
Dissertatio Epistolica addressed to Placcius. This very
elaborate work contains notices of six thousand books or
authors; but it is ill arranged, often inaccurate, and three
fourths of it are made up of citations and extracts, equally
useless and fatiguing.2
A part of this subject, that relating to books published
under false or fanciful names, had been undertaken in
trance by Adrian Baillet, nearly about the same period
and Sm'n-t1? ^lbdin tells us’ Introduction to the Classics, v. Aulus Gellius, “ that all the first editions printed by Sweynheym
their great ^y,^ ^ ^ CUri°US " bibliograP^” b* should have added, chiefly on accoun/of
See the copious article on Placcius, in Chaufepid’s Nouveau Dictionnaire Historique ct Critique, tom. iii.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
712
Bibliogra- that Placcius commenced his inquiries. In 1690 this au-
phj* thor published his Auteurs Deguises; but this is little
more than the introduction to an intended catalogue of
such authors, which Baillet never completed; being de¬
terred, as Niceron says, by the apprehension that the ex¬
posing of concealed authors might some way or other in¬
volve him in trouble. In this piece, which was reprinted
in the sixth volume of De la Monnoye’s edition of Bail-
let’s Jugemens des Savans, there are some curious literary
anecdotes, particularly those illustrative of the rage which
prevailed after the revival of letters for the assumption of
classical names. In Italy these names were so generally
introduced into families, that the names of the saints,
hitherto the common appellatives, almost disappeared from
that country.
The taste for this species of research, which the work
of Placcius had diffused in Germany, produced several
supplements to it in that country. In one published at
Jena in 1711, under the name of Christopher Augustus
Neumann, there is, besides the list of authors, a disserta¬
tion upon the question, Whether it is lawful for an author
either to withhold or disguise his name ? which question
he decides in the affirmative. This work is entitled De
Libris anonymis et pseudonymis Schediasma, complectens
observationes generales, et Spicilegium ad Placcii Thea-
trum. But the most considerable of these supplements
was that published by John Christopher Mylius, at Ham¬
burg, in 1740. It contains a reprint of the Schediasma of
Neumann, with remarks, and a list of three thousand two
hundred authors, in addition to those noticed by Placcius.
The notices of Mylius, however, are limited to books in
the Latin, German, and French languages.
About the middle of the last century the Abbe Bo-
nardi, librarian to the Sorbonne, undertook a dictionary
of anonymous and pseudonymous works; but he died with¬
out publishing it. The manuscript is said to have been
carried to Lyons, and, it is supposed, was destroyed there
during the disorders that followed the revolution. In the
third volume of Cailleau’s Dictionnaire Bibliographique,
published in 1790, there is a separate alphabet for anony¬
mous books, which occupies about half the volume. It
comprises books in all languages, but those only which the
compiler thought rare or curious. The last, and by far
the best work in this department, is the Dictionnaire des
Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes, by M. Barbier, libra¬
rian to the late emperor of France. A second edition,
greatly enlarged, was published in four vols.Svo in 1822-27.
It comprises a vast number of articles; but the plan does
not extend to any English, German, or Italian works, ex¬
cept those which have been translated into the French
language. Works of this class are more particularly use¬
ful in regard to the literary productions of periods and
countries which have been greatly restricted in the liber¬
ty of the press.
VI. Of Condemned and Prohibited Books.
Books supposed hurtful to the interests of government,
religion, or morality, have sometimes been condemned to
the flames, sometimes censured by particular tribunals,
and sometimes suppressed. Such methods of destruction
have been followed in various countries, both with respect
to their own productions and those of their neighbours.
In some countries, lists of the books prohibited within them
have from time to time been published; and in these lists
are often found the most highly-prized productions of the
literature of other nations. This constitutes, indeed, a
melancholy portion of the history of books; for though
the facts which it collects sometimes amuse by their folly Bibliogra.
they oftener excite indignation and pity at the oppressions Pty-,
of power, and the sufferings of learning.
The practice of condemning obnoxious books to the
flames is of very ancient date. The works of Protagoras
of Abdera, a disciple of Democritus, were prohibited at
Athens, and all the copies that could be collected were
ordered to be burnt by the public crier. Livy mentions,
that the writings of Numa, found in his grave, were con¬
demned to the flames, as being contrary to the religion
which he had himself established. Augustus caused two
thousand books of an astrological cast to be burnt at one
time; and he subjected to the same doom some satirical
pieces of Labienus. Tacitus mentions a work which the
senate, under Tiberius, condemned to the fire for having
designated Cassius as the last of the Romans.1 This prac¬
tice was early introduced in the Christian world. “ After
the spreading of the Christian religion,” says Professor
Beckmann, “ the clergy exercised against books that were
either unfavourable or disagreeable to them the same
severity which they had censured in the heathens as fool¬
ish and prejudicial to their own cause. Thus were the
writings of Arius condemned to the flames at the council
of Nice; and Constantine threatened with the punishment
of death those who should conceal them. The clergy as¬
sembled at the council of Ephesus requested Theodosius
II. to cause the works of Nestorius to be burnt, and this
desire was complied with. The writings of Eutyches
shared the like fate at the council of Chalcedon; and it
wxndd not be difficult to collect examples of the same kind
from each of the following centuries.”
When the Popes prevailed upon the nations of Christen¬
dom to acknowledge their infallibility in all matters ap¬
pertaining to religion, they also took upon themselves the
care and the right of pointing out what books should or
should not be read; and hence originated those famous
Expurgatory Indexes which furnish such ample materials
for the bibliography of prohibited books. There is a co¬
pious list of these Indexes in the work of Peignot, to be
immediately noticed. The next step in the progress of
usurpation was the licensing of books. By the council of
Lateran, held at Rome in 1515, it was ordered that all
books should, previously to publication, be submitted to the
judgment of clerical censors. “ To fill up the measure of
encroachment,” says Milton, “ their last invention was to
ordain that no book should be printed, as if St Peter had
bequeathed them the keys of the press also as well as of
paradise, unless it were approved and licensed under the
hands of two or three gluttonous friars. Jill then books
were ever as freely admitted into the world as any other
birth ; the issue of the brain was no more stifled than the
issue of the womb; no envious Juno sat cross-legged over
the nativity of any man’s intellectual offspring.” (Liberty
of unlicensed Printing.')
The following works contain accounts of condemned
and prohibited books, and of the Indices Expurgatorii.
1. Dissertatio histori co-liter aria de Libris Combustis, in the
seventh volume of Schelhorn’s Amcenitates Literarice. The
same subject is resumed in the eighth and ninth volumes.
2. Index generalis Librorum prohibitorum aPontificis auc-
toritate; in usum Eibliothecxc Bodleiance; by I ho. James,
1627. 3. Francus De Papistarum Indicibus Librorum
prohibitorum, published at Leipsic in 1684. 4. Thesaurus
Bibliographicus ex Indicibus Librorum prohibitorum coriges-
tus, published at Dresden in 1743. 5. Dictionnaire Cri¬
tique et Bibliographique des principaux Livres condam-
nes au feu, supprimes ou censures, par G. Peignot, 2 vols.
1 See the chapter on Booh Censors in Professor Beckmann’s History of Inventions.
B IB LIO G R A PII Y.
Bibliogra'
phy.
8yo, Paris, 1806. This book is amusing, and gives a co¬
pious list of Indices Expurgatorii, as well as of authors
who have treated of the subject of condemned books in
general; but it cannot be allowed that it contains any
thing approaching to a complete enumeration of the prin¬
cipal works which come within the scope of the title-page.
I here are very few English books noticed, either those
condemned in this country or those prohibited in others;
though in this latter class the most valuable of our philo¬
sophical and literary works would be found. One of the
most preposterous sentences of prohibition incurred by an
English author is that mentioned in a letter from Sir John
Macpherson, while in Spain, to Mr Gibbon; namely, that
Smith’s Wealth of Nations was prohibited there, “ on ac¬
count of the lowness of its style and the looseness of its
morals.” (Gibbon’s Posthumous Works, vol. iii.)
We should like to see an accurate .account of works
which have been condemned to the flames, or suppressed,
in Britain. In former times we should find some as abo¬
minable instances of oppression in this particular as ever
disgraced the worst governments of continental Europe.
The proceedings against Prynne, on account of his His-
triomastix or Player s Scourge, furnish a noted example.
We wish we could add, that these proceedings have al¬
ways been mentioned by our historians in the terms which
their singular atrocity is calculated to call forth from
every heart that has one chord in unison with the rights
of humanity. Prynne, who was by profession a lawyer, is
characterized by Mr Hume as being “ a great hero among
the puritans.” He was in truth a very fanatical person ;
but his learning was immense, his courage unconquerable,
and his honesty certainly as great as that of any of his
opponents or oppressors. His Histriomastix, a quarto of
upwards of a thousand closely printed pages, with all its
margins studded with authorities, came out in 1633, and
was intended to decry all dramatic amusements and all
jovial recreations, and to censure the lax discipline and
the popish ceremonies of prelacy. In the alphabetical
table at the end of the volume there is a reference in
these words—“ Women actors, notorious whores;' and as
the queen sometimes took a part in the dramas played at
court, it was alleged that Prynne pointed at her majesty
in this reference, and that the book was in fact intended
as a satire upon the government. He was accordingly
prosecuted in the star-chamber for a libel. The book
(which the judges described as a huge misshapen monster,
in the begetting of which the devil must have assisted)
was condemned to be burned; and, after the example of
foreign countries, this was ordered to be done, for the
first time in England, by the hands of the hangman. It
was ordered that Mr Prynne should be expelled from Ox¬
ford, he being a graduate of that university; and also from
the bar. He was further sentenced to pay a fine of L.5000,
and to endure perpetual imprisonment: but this was not
all; he was condemned to stand in the pillory on two suc¬
cessive days, in Westminster and Cheapside, there, on
each day, to have an ear cut off. One of the judges, who
represented the queen’s virtues as such that neither ora¬
tory nor poetry could do any thing like justice to them,
was for making the fine L.10,000; stating that he knew it
was much more than Mr Prynne was worth, yet far less than
he deserved to pay; and expressed a further wish, that his
nose should be slit, and his forehead burned, in addition to
the loss of his ears, because he might buy himself a periwig,
and so hide that loss.1 The book, which involved its au¬
thor in such unprecedented calamities, had actually been
licensed, according to the regulations which then obtain¬
ed ; but it was stated that the licenser had not read the
whole of it. Well might Sir Simonds D’Ewes speak of
this as a terrifying trial. ' “ Most men,” says he, “ were
affrighted to see that neither Mr Prynne’s academical nor
barrister’s gown could free him from the infamous loss of
his ears ; and all good men conceived this would have been
remitted; many asserted it was, till the sad execution of
it. I went to see him a while after,” continues Sir Simonds,
“ in the Fleet, to comfort him ; and found in him the rare
effects of an upright heart, by his serenity of spirit and
chearful patience.”2 The account which Mr Hume gives
of this nefarious trial and sentence, dwelling chiefly on
the acrimonious and ridiculous parts of Prynne’s cha¬
racter and book, wholly passing over the sycophancy of
his judges, and but gently censuring their appalling and
ruthless cruelty, is characteristic enough of his general
principles and manners; and well calculated to show that,
with all his penetration and philosophic spirit, and charms
of style, he wras still deficient in some qualities of an histo¬
rian, without which, history cannot be rendered profitable
either to rulers or their subjects.
VII. Of Bibliographical Dictionaries and Catalogues.
I he works which fall to be considered under this sec¬
tion, sometimes called Dictionaries, sometimes Catalogues,
and sometimes Bibliotheca}, constitute the most generally
useful and interesting class of bibliographical publications.
By showing what has been written in all the various
branches of human knowledge in every age and country,
they act as useful guides to the inquiries of every class of
the learned ; while, by pointing out the differences of edi¬
tions, they constitute manuals of ready information to the
professed bibliographer.
W orks of this class are called general or particular, ac¬
cording as their object is to indicate books in all, or in one
only, of the departments of science and literature. The
former only aspire to point out rare or remarkable books;
for no attempt has yet been made, or probably ever will
be made, to compile a universal Bibliographical Dictio¬
nary. On the other hand, it is the object of particular dic¬
tionaries to notice all, or the greater part, of those books
which have been published on the subjects which they
embrace; and hence their superior utility to such as are
engaged in the study of any particular science or subject.
The works of the former class which chiefly demand
our notice are the following ;—l. Bibliographic Instruc¬
tive,^ ou Praite de la Connoissance des Livres rares des sin-
guliers, par G. F. de Bure; in seven volumes octavo, pub¬
lished at Paris between 1763 and 1768. The books de-
sciibed in this work are arranged, in appropriate subdivi¬
sions, under the five grand classes of Theology, Jurispru¬
dence, Sciences and Arts, Belles Lettres, and History ; and
the classification which it exemplifies is that generally
followed^ by foreign bibliographers. The names of the
authors in all these classes are arranged alphabetically in
the last volume; but it has no index to anonymous works,
a want, however, which was afterwards supplied by an¬
other hand, in a thin octavo volume published in 1782,
entitled Bibliographic Instructive, tome dixieme. This is
called the tenth volume, because De Bure had himself
published a supplement of two volumes in 1769. Its title
is, Supplement a la Bibliographie Instructive, ou Cataloaue
des Livres de Louis Jean Gaignat. De Bure was a book¬
seller at Paris, of great eminence in his profession, but
still more distinguished for extensive information in all
713
Bibliogra¬
phy.
* See Prynne’s Trial, in the Collection of State Trials.
V0Te ^xtractri from a manuscript Journal of'D’Ewes’s Life, published in Nichols’s Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica, No. XV.
YOL.XV. ^
714
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Bibliogra- matters appertaining to bibliography and literary history;
phy- and, accordingly, his work is still the delight of bibliogra-
phers? though it has been followed by others which indicate
a much greater number of books, and which also in some
particulars excel it in accuracy. 2. Dictionnaire Typo-
graphique, Historique, et Critique, des Livres rares, estimes
et recherches en tons genres, par J. B. L. Osmont; 2 vols.
8vo, Paris, 1768. This work is more ample in notices of
Italian books than that of De Bure. 3. Dictionnaire J3ib-
liographique, 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1790. I his work, gene¬
rally known under the name of Cailleau’s Dictionary, was
compiled, according to M. Barbier and others, by the
Abbe du Clos. It was republished in 1800, with a sup¬
plementary volume, by M. Brunet. It has been already
mentioned that the third volume has a sepaiate alpha¬
bet for anonymous books. 4. Manuel du Libraire et de
VAmateur de Livres; contenant, \o. Tin nouveaux Dic¬
tionnaire Bibliographiqite; 2o, Une Table en forme de
Catalogue Raisonne ; par J. C. Brunet. This work was
first published in three volumes octavo in 1810. A third
edition, much enlarged, appeared in 1820, in 4 vols. 8vo.
It contains a much greater proportion, both of English and
of German books, than any of the preceding compilations;
and its plan is such as to afford all the advantages both
of a dictionary and a classed catalogue; three of the vo¬
lumes being employed to indicate books under their names
in alphabetical order, and the fourth to class them, di¬
vested of all bibliographical details, according to the sys¬
tem generally followed. The prices of the rarer editions
are given from the principal sales that have taken place in
France and other countries; so that, upon the whole, this
work, though it has less literary interest than that of De
Bure, is probably the best bibliographical dictionary extant
for the purposes of the professed bibliographer.
In the class of general bibliographical dictionaries we
must also place the following work, though its limitation
to books in the learned and eastern languages renders it
much less general in its plan than those we have describ¬
ed. It is entitled A Bibliographical Dictionary, contain¬
ing a Chronological Account, alphabetically arranged, of
the most curious and useful Boohs in all departments of
Learning, published in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and
other eastern Languages. It was published in 1803, by Dr
Adam Clarke, in six volumes duodecimo. To the princi¬
pal works noticed in this dictionary, there are added bio¬
graphical notices and criticisms ; but tbe author would
have judged more wisely had he included books in the
modern languages, instead of deviating so largely, and with
but small pretensions to novelty, into the provinces of
biography and general criticism. The supplement, which
he published in two duodecimo volumes in 1806, under
the title of The Bibliographical Miscellany, contains, among
other matters, an account of English translations of the
classics, and theological writers; a list of the cities and
towns where printing was established in the fifteenth cen¬
tury ; and a list of authors on literary history and biblio-
graphy.
Some writers have complained, particularly M. Camus,
that these bibliographical dictionaries have been too ex¬
clusively devoted to the indication of rare and curious
books; and that they notice but few comparatively of
those whose value consists only in their utility. “ Je
voudrois,” says he, “ qu’on suppleat a ce defaut; et que,
dans une bibliographic formee sur un non nouveau plan,
on indiquat quels sont, relativement a chaque genre de
connoissance, les livres les plus instructifs.”1 The Manuel Bibliogra.
of M. Brunet, we may observe, which was published sub-
sequently to the period of this remark, contains the titles
of a much greater number of useful books than are to be
found noticed in any of the other general bibliographical
dictionaries ; but it certainly does not, and indeed was
not intended, to realize the idea of such a dictionary as
was wished for by M. Camus.
It has sometimes also been alleged that these dictio¬
naries, by pointing out so many curious books and rare edi¬
tions, have contributed greatly to the diffusion of the bib¬
liomania. We do not doubt that they may have helped
to do so; but the truth is, that this disease has a much
deeper root in the vanities of human nature, and is of
much more ancient date, than some persons seem to ima“
gine. It gave great offence to Socrates and to Lucian ;2
and its prevalence among his countrymen had called forth
the animadversions of Bruyere, long before the popular
work of De Bure gave such an acknowledged zest and
pungency to the taste for amassing literary curiosities.
The number of dictionaries and catalogues applicable
to particular departments or provinces of learning, is much
too great to permit us to do any thing more than to point
out a few of them. Lipenius, a learned German divine
and professor, born in 1630, and who died in 1692, worn
out, as Niceron says, by labour and chagrin, compiled a
Bibliotheca Theologica, a Bibliotheca Juridica, a Bibliothe¬
ca Philosophica, and a Bibliotheca Medica, making in all
six volumes folio. Ihe Bibliotheca Juridica has been
several times reprinted, and two supplements have been
added to it; one by Scbott, published at Leipsic in 17/5,
and the other by Senkenberg, also published there in
1789, making in all four volumes folio. An immense num¬
ber of books are indicated in each of these Bibliothecce of
Lipenius; of all of which the plan is to arrange the books
alphabetically according to their subjects; each Bibliothe¬
ca having also an alphabetical table of the names of the
authors whose works are arranged under the alphabet of
subjects. The Bibliotheca Juridica, owing to the correc¬
tions and additions which it has received, forms by much
the most valuable part of this series. In regard to
prudence, we may further mention Bridgman s Legal Bib¬
liography ; and the valuable work of M. Camus, entitled
Lettres sur la profession d'Avocat, et Bibliotheque choisi des
Livres de Droit There are some truly excellent cata¬
logues of works in the sciences and in natural histoiy.
Such are Dr Young’s Catalogue of Works relating to Na¬
tural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts, annexed to
his Lectures on Natural Philosophy; the Bibliotheca
Mathematica of Murhard; the Bibliographic Astrono-
mique of La Lande ; and the Catalogus BibliotheccB His¬
tories Naturalis Joseph/ Banks, by Dr Dryander, which,
though the title seems to promise only the catalogue ot a
private library, is allowed to furnish the most complete
and best-arranged view of books in natural history ever
published in any country. In the great department ot
history there have been published various Bibliotheca,
some of them embracing the historical works of all ages
and nations ; others, those only which relate to particular
countries. The Bibliotheca Historica of Meusel, an im¬
mense work, is of the former class. It includes voyages
and travels ; but of books of this class there is an ex¬
cellent separate catalogue in six volumes octavo, by •
Boucher de la Richarderie, published at Paris in 1808.
We must observe, however, that this work would have
1 Mlntoires de FInAltut National; Clause, Litt. et Beaux Arts, tom. ii.
2 liUcian’s piece, called in Francklin’s translation of his works The Illiterate Book-Hunter, is perhaps the bitterest satire ever printed
upon book-collectors who are not book-readers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Bibliogra- been better suited to the legitimate ends of such a com-
^ j pilation had the author confined himself to bibliogra-
phical notices, and wholly refrained from those long ex¬
tracts by which his book has been so much enlarged. Of
the class of Bibliothecae applicable to the history of parti¬
cular countries, the Bibliotheque Historique de la France,
originally published in 1719, in one volume folio, but in
the last edition, published between 1768 and 1778, extend¬
ed to five volumes, is by far the most splendid and per¬
fect example. It contains nearly fifty thousand articles,
as well manuscript as printed, methodically arranged un¬
der the different heads of French history to which they
relate, and accompanied with a complete set of indexes to
authors and subjects.
We must refer such of our readers as are desirous of
seeing a fuller list of catalogues of books in the different
branches of knowledge, to the Repertoire Bibliographique
Universel of M. Peignot, a useful but ill-arranged work.
VIII. Of the Classification of Books.
The classing of books in a catalogue, so as to furnish a
systematic view of the contents of an extensive library, is
a task of much difficulty and importance. In order to this,
it is necessary to refer every book to its proper place in
the general system of human knowledge; and to do so
with precision, it is necessary to have clear and exact
ideas of the scope and objects of all the departments and
branches of which that system consists. The utility of
catalogues so classed is very great, and consists obviously
in this, that the books upon any subject are found at once
by referring to the proper head, whereas in alphabetical
catalogues the whole must be perused before we can as¬
certain what books they contain upon the subject which
immediately interests us. All who duly consider the mat¬
ter, therefore, must concur in Dr Middleton’s brief and
emphatic description of such an undertaking, as res sane
magni momenti, multique sudoris.1
715
practicable in both. Now, we must remark, that where Bibliogra-
there is a classed catalogue, the grand objects of a syste- phy-
matic arrangement are sufficiently provided for, indepen-
dently of the location of the books; and if there should
not be a classed catalogue, it seems very clear that the
bulk of those who frequent a public library could de¬
rive little if any benefit from an accurate classification of
books on the shelves, even supposing it practicable to ef¬
fect and maintain it. The chief end of any arrangement
to be effected on the shelves ought to be to aid the me¬
mories and abridge the labour of the librarians; and all
that is useful in this respect may be accomplished by
means of a much ruder plan than could be tolerated in
any catalogue pretending to classification.
The system generally followed, as we have already
mentioned, is that of Martin, which divides books into the
five great classes of theology, jurisprudence, sciences and
arts, belles lettres, and history. Each of these classes has
divisions and subdivisions more or less numerous, accord¬
ing to the number of the branches to be distinguished;
and it is in the distribution of these that the chief differ¬
ences are found in foreign catalogues; though the divisions
and subdivisions of De Bure, as exemplified in his Biblio¬
graphic Instructive, are those commonly followed. Some
bibliographers, however, have proposed to alter the order,
others to diminish, and some to increase the number of
the primitive classes ; whilst a few have proposed systems
altogether different, and greatly more refined in their
principles of classification. M. Ameilhon, in a paper pub¬
lished in the Memoirs of the French Institute, proposes
the following leading divisions: grammar, logic, morals,
jurisprudence, metaphysics, physics, arts, belles lettres,
and history.2 In this arrangement theology, to which he
has great objections as a separate class, is transferred,
with evident impropriety, to the class of metaphysics. M.
Camus has also investigated the principles according to
which books ought to be classed, in another paper in these
Whether classed catalogues were in use among the an- Memoirs, already quoted; but as he has not reduced his
cients, is a piece of information which has not descended
to us. The first who is known to have written upon the
subject was a German, named Florian Treffer, who, in
1560, published, at Augsburg, a method of classing books.
Cardona in 1587, and Scholt in 1608, published treatises
upon this subject; and, in 1627, Gabriel Naude, a writer
of no small celebrity in his day, published his Avis pour
dresser une Bibliotheque, in which he treats of the prin¬
ciples of classification. The catalogue which he compiled
of the library of the Canon de Cordes, afterwards pur¬
chased by Mazarin, was published in 1643, and is esteem-
method, which proceeds on views much too fanciful for the
purpose, to specific heads, we can only refer our readers
to his paper. Equally remote from the proper objects of a
classed catalogue are the systems proposed by M. Peignot
and by M. Thiebaut.3 The former takes the well-known
speculations of Bacon and D’Alembert, as to the genealogy
of knowledge, for the basis of his system, and thus fixes
upon three principal heads or classes, under the names of
history, philosophy, and imagination, with the addition of
bibliography as an introductory class. In the system of
the latter, there are, in like manner, only three principal
ed a curiosity among bibliographers. In the early part of heads, founded upon a division of knowledge, into instru-
the eighteenth century, Gabriel Martin, a learned Parisian mental, essential, and suitable.
bookseller, who seems to have been much employed in Germany also has produced a variety of bibliographical
compiling catalogues, chalked out a system of arrange- systems, some of them as absurdly refined as those just
ment, which, in a great degree, superseded all others, and, mentioned; whilst others, as, for example,that of Leibnitz,
in its leading divisions, is still generally followed on the are better adapted to practical purposes. The classes
Continent. Various other systems have, however, been proposed by this eminent philosopher are as follows:
proposed by the bibliographers of France and Germany; theology, jurisprudence, medicine, intellectual philosophy*
but, before proceeding to any particular notice, either of mathematics, natural philosophy, philology, history, and
the system of Martin or of those which differ from it, we miscellanies.4 Another system, not very remote from
must observe, that all who have written upon the subject
seem to have confounded two things, as we think, per¬
fectly distinct,—the arrangement to be followed in the
catalogue of a library, and that to be followed in placing
its books. They all suppose the same nicety and exact¬
ness of classification to be equally necessary and equally
this, is that of M. Denis, formerly keeper of the Imperial
Library at Vienna, in which books are divided into the
classes of theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine,
mathematics, history, and philology. This system is de¬
veloped in his Introduction to the Knowledge of Books, to
be afterwards described.
1 See his very judicious tract, entitled Bibliotheca: Cantabrigiensis ordinandce Methodus, in the fourth volume of his works.
2 Memoires de VInstitut National; Classe, Litt. et Beaux Arts, tom. ii.
* See Dictionnaire de Bibliologie, par G. Peignot, art. Systeme.
* Idea Leibnitiana Bibliothecae Publioce secundum Classes Scientiarum ordinandce, fusior et contractior. Works, vol. v.
716
Bibliogra¬
phy-
BIBLIO GRAPH Y.
Dr Middleton is the only British author of name who
has written any separate tract on the classification of
books. The classes proposed by him are these: theology,
history, jurisprudence, philosophy, mathematics, natural
history, medicine, belles lettres (jiterce humaniores), and
miscellanies. His object in the tract referred to was to
recommend the adoption of this arrangement tor a cata¬
logue of the university library of Cambridge ; and, what¬
ever may be its defects, it cannot be questioned that a
printed catalogue of an extensive collection, so classed,
would have proved of eminent utility.
Naude mentions a writer who proposed to class all sorts
of books under the three heads of morals, sciences, and
devotion; and who assigned, as the grounds of this ar¬
rangement, these words of the psalmist, Disciplinani,Boni-
tatem, et Scientiam doce me. All such systems as those ot
M. Peignot and M. Thiebaut, when applied to the forma¬
tion of catalogues, appear to us quite as absurd as this sys¬
tem deduced from the psalmist. The remark which Naude
applied to it, that it seemed intended “ to crucify and
torture the memory by its subtilties,” is just as applicable
to the former. That system, he adds, “ is the best which
is most facile, the least intricate, and the most practised;
and which follows the faculties of theology, physic, ju¬
risprudence, mathematics, humanity, and others. 1 2 M.
Ameilhon also objects strongly to all over-refined biblio¬
graphical systems, and particularly to those which aspire
to follow the genesis and remote affinities of the different
branches of knowledge. “ L’execution,” says he, “ en se-
roit impossible; ou si elle ne 1’etoit pas au moins entrai-
neroit-elle des difficultes, qui ne pourroient etre surmon-
tees que par des hommes profondement refleches et exer-
ces aux meditations metaphysiques.”^ The truth is, that
when bibliographers speculate in this field with a view
to catalogue-making, they entirely forget their proper
province and objects. They have nothing whatever to do „ .
with genealogical trees of knowledge, or with any mode of phique, ou Essai sur la connoissance des livies, des formats,
with those which must arise from placing Encyclopaedias Bibhogra.
and general collections under any of the common divisions,
can only be remedied by a Miscellaneous Class; and, while
this class ought to indicate, in one of its divisions, the col¬
lective editions of an author’s works, his separate treatises
ought to be entered under the subjects to which they be¬
long ; as without this, the classed catalogue will not fully
answer its purpose,—that of showing what has been writ¬
ten by the authors specified in it, on the different branches
of knowledge. Thus, a catalogue compiled upon this plan
would not only be rendered more consistent in its ar¬
rangement, but much more complete as an index to the
materials of study.
IX. Of Bibliography in general.
It was our object in this article to institute such a di¬
vision of the subject as should enable us to point out the
best sources of information in regard to all its branches;
and in order to complete our view, we have still to notice
some of those works which treat generally of all matters
appertaining to bibliography. We do not know any book
that presents a well-written, judicious, and comprehensive
digest of these matters ; but there are several which contain
much curious and useful information in regard to them.
1. The Introduction to the Knowledge of Books (Einleitung
in Bucherhunde), by M. Denis, whose supplement to Mait-
taire, and bibliographical system, we have already men¬
tioned, is of this description. The last edition, published
at Vienna in 1796, consists of two volumes quarto. It
has never been translated from the original German; and
it is to be observed, that though it treats of the substances,
forms, and classification of books, it cannot be considered
as a merely bibliographical work, a large portion of it
being devoted to the general history of learning. The
author, who was long principal librarian of the Imperial
Library at Vienna, died in 1808. 2. Manuel Bibliogra-
classing books which is founded upon remote and subtile
abstractions. The whole use and end of a classed cata¬
logue is to furnish a ready index to books, arranged ac¬
cording to their subjects; and that arrangement is there¬
fore to be preferred which is founded upon the most ob¬
viously marked and generally recognised divisions of those
subjects. We may add, that to compile a good catalogue
of an extensive library, even on this humbler plan, would
require more learning and more correctness of knowledge
and thinking, than are likely to be often employed in such
an undertaking.
Though we are not altogether satisfied with the division
and order of the classes in the system commonly followed,
we have no doubt that, by means of an additional class,
and a correct arrangement of the subdivisions, a catalogue
might be formed perfectly adequate to every useful pur¬
pose. We al{ude to a class, such as is partly indicated in
the schemes both of Leibnitz and Middleton, for the recep¬
tion of works and collections which cannot with propriety
be limited to any one division of knowledge. M. Camus
thinks that works of this kind may be properly enough en¬
tered in the class in which their authors most excelled;
those of Cicero, for example, among the Orators :3 but, not
to mention the evident incongruity of placing a collection
so multifarious as Cicero’s works under Oratory, there may
sometimes be room for uncertainty as to the division under
which, according to this rule, an author’s works ought to be
sought. These incongruities and inconveniences, together
des editions, de la maniere de composer une Bibliotheque,
etc.; par G. Peignot. Published in 1800. 3. Dictionnaire
raisonne de Bibliologie, nontenant 1’explication des princi-
paux termes relatifs a la Bibliographie ; des notices sur les
plus celebres Bibliographes; et 1’exposition des dilferens
Systemes Bibliogi’aphiques; 3 vols. 8vo; by the. same
author. Bibliography is certainly indebted to this indus¬
trious compiler; but his vague notions ot its objects and
rank have too often led him into confusion and extrava¬
gance. 4. Cours de Bibliographie, ou la science du Bib-
Uothecaire, par C. F. Achard; 3 vols. 8vo ; published at
Marseilles in 1807. The chief value of this compilation
consists in its details of the different systems which have
been proposed for classifying books. We learn from the
introduction, that M. Francis de Neufchateau, when mi¬
nister of the interior, orders the librarians of all the de¬
partments to deliver lectures on bibliography ; but that
the plan, which indeed savours somewhat of bibliomania,
entirely failed, these librarians having been found quite
incapable of prelecting upon their vocation. 5. Intro¬
duction to the Study of Bibliography ; to which is pre¬
fixed a Memoir on the public Libraries of the Ancients, by
Thomas Hartwell Horne; 2 volumes 8vo, published at
London in 1814. This is chiefly translated and compiled
from the French bibliographical works, and will be found
useful to those who have not access to them. It contains
full lists of writers on bibliograjihy and literary history,
and the fullest account we have seen of catalogues of libra-
1 Evelyn’s Translation of Naude’s Avis pour dresser uiie Bibliothlque.
2 Mbnoires de Vlnstitut; Classe, Litterat. et Beaux Arts, tom. i. p. 483.
3 Ibid. tom. i.
B X C
B X C
717
Biblio-
mancy
II
Bichat.
ries both British and foreign. The specimens of early typo¬
graphy, and of the vignettes and monograms of the early
printers, are neatly executed.
Bibliography certainly presents a pretty wide field of in¬
quiry, and in which there is yet room for useful works ; but
it must appear evident, from the details contained in the Bichat,
present article, that this field has in almost every part been
long cultivated; if not always with perfect taste and judg¬
ment, yet with great industry, and so as to yield very pro¬
fitable returns to the commonwealth of learning, (m. n.)
BIBLIOMA N CY ((3l/3\o<; and /mvraa), a kind of divina¬
tion performed by means of the Bible ; otherwise called
sortes biblicce or sortes sanctorum. It consisted in selecting
passages of Scripture at hazard, and thence drawing indica¬
tions concerning the futui’e. It was much used at the con¬
secration of bishops.
BIBLIOTHECA (/SifikLoOrjiaf), a library or place for
books. It is also applied to a treatise giving an account of
all the works on a particular subject.
BICE, or Bise, among painters, a blue colour prepared
from the lapis Armenus, or calcareous salt of copper. It
bears the best body of all bright blues used in common work,
but is the palest in colour.
BICESTER, or Bisseter, a very neat town, in the county
of Oxford, fifty-five miles from London, containing several
handsome residences. The church is a large structure
with a lofty tower. A small stream here runs into the
Cherwell at Islip. The market is held on Friday. It has
no other trade than the supply of the agricultural district
which surrounds it. Pop. in 1851, 2763.
BICHAT, Marie-Fran^ois-Xayier, a celebrated
French anatomist and physiologist, was born at Thoirette in
the department of Ain, in 1771. His father, who was him¬
self a physician, initiated him at an early age in those studies
which were to prepare him more particularly for the profes¬
sion to which he had destined him. He studied first at the
college of Nantua, and afterwards at Lyons ; and was early
distinguished for his activity of mind and facility in acquir¬
ing knowledge. In mathematics, and the physical sciences
more especially dependent on abstract reasoning, he made
rapid progress. He afterwards became passionately fond of
natural -history, and devoted all his time to this new study ;
but his ardour was suddenly checked by the reflection that
he was engaged in pursuits that were boundless in their ob¬
ject, and might lead him too far from his future profession,
through which alone he aspired to celebrity. Bidding adieu,
therefore, to his favourite occupations, he devoted himself to
the study of anatomy and surgery, under the guidance of
Petit, chief surgeon to the Hotel Dieu at Lyons. Some
time after he had fully engaged in this course of instruction,
he was unable to resist his passion for mathematics, and he
resumed his early studies, restricting himself however
within such limits as did not interfere with his medical pur¬
suits. Petit soon discerned the superior talents of his pupil;
and, although the latter had scarcely attained the age of
twenty, employed him constantly as his assistant in his pro¬
fessional labours. The revolutionary disturbances compelled
Bichat to fly from Lyons and take refuge in Paris about the
end of the year 1793. He there resumed his studies, and
became a pupil of the celebrated Dessault; and after no
long time his companion and his friend. The merit of Bichat
was brought to the notice of Dessault by an accidental cir¬
cumstance. It was the custom in the school, that the sub¬
stance of the lecture of the preceding day should be reca¬
pitulated, as an exercise, before the whole class, by one of
the pupils selected for this purpose: and one day when
the pupil on whom this task devolved was absent, the
professor asked if any one among his auditory would supply
his place. Bichat volunteered his services, and acquitted
himself to the admiration of all his hearers. Dessault, in
particular, was strongly impressed with the superiority of his
genius ; and from that day Bichat became an inmate in his
house, and was treated as an adopted son. Between the
years 1793 and 1795 he actively participated in all the la¬
bours of Dessault. Notwithstanding these multiplied occu¬
pations, Bichat found means to prosecute his own researches
in anatomy and physiology, to which he devoted every in¬
terval of leisure he could seize. The sudden and untimely
death of Dessault was a severe blow to Bichat, but did not
eventually relax his efforts. His first care seems to have
been to acquit himself of the obligations he owed his bene¬
factor, by contributing to the support of his widow and her
son; and by conductingto a close the fourth volume of Des-
sault’s Journal de Chirurgie. To this volume he subjoined
a biographical memoir of its author, in which he pays a just
tribute to his merit. His next object was to re-unite and
digest in one body the different surgical doctrines which
Dessault had advanced in fugitive papers, published in va¬
rious periodical works. Of these he composed, in 1797, a
work in two vols. 8vo, entitled (Euvres Chirurgicales de
Dessault, ou Tableau de sa Doctrine, et de sa Pratique
dans le Traitement des Maladies Externes; a work in which,
although he professes only to explain the ideas of another,
he develops them with the clearness and copiousness of
one who is a perfect master of the subject. He was now at
liberty to pursue the full bent of his genius, and soon ar¬
rived at those comprehensive and masterly views of physi¬
ology, by which eventually he gained so much reputation.
Undisturbed by the storms which agitated the political world,
he pursued with steadiness the course he had meditated, and
directed his more immediate attention to surgery, which it
was then his design to practise. We meet with many proofs
of his industry and success at this period in the Recueil de
la Societe Medicale d'Emulation, an association of which
Bichat was one of the most zealous and active members.
Three memoirs which he communicated were published by
the society in 1796 ; the first describing an improvement in
the instrument for trepanning; the second a new process
for the ligature of polypi; and the third, the distinction to
be observed in fractures of the clavicle, between those cases
requiring the assistance of art, and those in which its inter¬
ference would be of no avail. In 1797 Bichat commenced
a course of anatomical demonstrations. He had hired a
small room for the purpose ; but his merit as a teacher soon
attracting a crowd of auditors, he was obliged to enlarge his
theatre, and was also encouraged to extend the plan of his
lectures, and to announce what had never hitherto been at¬
tempted by one so young and inexperienced, a course of
operative surgery. The boldness of the enterprise was
equalled only by its success. Bichat’s reputation was now
fully established, and he was ever after the favourite teacher
with the students who resorted to the capital. In the fol¬
lowing year, 1798, he gave, in addition to his course on ana¬
tomy and operative surgery, a separate course of physiology.
A dangerous attack of haemoptysis interrupted for a time
these heavy labours; but the danger was no sooner passed
than he plunged into new engagements with the same ar¬
dour as before. He had now scope in his physiological lec¬
tures for a fuller exposition of his original views in the animal
economy, which immediately excited much attention in the
medical schools at Paris; and he was induced to publish
them in a more authentic form. Sketches of these doctrines
were given by him in three papers contained in the Memoirs
of the Societe Medicale d’Emulation. The doctrines con¬
tained in these memoirs were afterwards more fully develop¬
ed in his Traite sur les Membranes, which appeared in 1800,
718
B I C
BID
Bichat.
and which immediately drew the attention of the medical
world both at home and abroad. Some time previous to
this he gave to the public a small work, in which he en¬
deavoured to give, in a condensed form, the lessons of Des-
sault relative to the diseases of the urinary passages. In the
notes to this volume we may perceive the germ of many of
those views which were peculiar to Bichat.
His next publication was the Recherches Physiologiques
sur la Vie et sur la Mart, in 1800, which consists of two
distinct dissertations. In the first, he explains, at greater
length than he had previously done, his classification of func¬
tions, and traces the distinction between the animal and or¬
ganic functions in all its bearings. In the second, he in¬
vestigates the connection between life and the actions of the
three central organs, the heart, lungs, and brain. But the
work on which he bestowed the most attention, and which
contained the fruits of his most profound and original re¬
searches, is the Anatomie Generale, which was published in
in four volumes octavo in 1801.
Before Bichat had attained the age of eight-and-twenty,
he was appointed physician to the Hotel Uieu, a situation
which opened an immense field to his ardent spirit of in¬
quiry. In the investigation of diseases, he pursued the same
method of diligent observation and scrupulous experiment
which had characterized his researches in physiology. He
learned their history, not from books, but by studying them
at the bedside of his patients, and by accurate dissection of
their bodies after death. He engaged in a long series of
examinations, with a view to ascertain the exact changes in¬
duced in the various organs by diseases, which he conceived,
in every instance, primarily to affect some one of their con¬
stituent textures, while the rest did not suffer any change,
unless by the supervention of some other disease. In the
prosecution of these inquiries he had, in less than six months,
opened above six hundred bodies. As intimately connected
with the practical exercise of the healing art, he wras anxious
also to determine, with more precision than had hitherto
been attempted, the effects of remedies on the body; and
eagerly availed himself of the opportunities which his new
appointment afforded him, of instituting a series of direct
experiments on a very extensive scale. He began by giving
singly different medicinal substances, and then watching at¬
tentively the phenomena that ensued. He then united them
in various ways, first joining two together, then three, and
so proceeding to more complicated combinations; and ob¬
served the particular changes in their mode of operating
which resulted from their being thus combined. So wide a
range of experiments, it is evident, could not have been
conducted without assistance ; and he selected forty of his
young pupils to aid him in collecting the requisite observa¬
tions. He had already, in this way, procured a vast store
of valuable materials for his course of lectures on the Ma¬
teria Medica, the completion of which was unfortunately
prevented by his untimely death ; but a great part of the
facts were subsequently published in the inaugural disser¬
tations of his pupils. Latterly, he had also occupied him¬
self with framing a new classification of diseases.
During these arduous vocations, he never lost sight of his
anatomical pursuits, and had commenced a new work on the
subject, in which the organs were arranged according to his
peculiar classification of their functions, under the title of
Anatomie Descriptive. He lived only to publish the first
two volumes of this work. It was, however, continued on
the same plan, and completed in three volumes more, by
MM. Buisson and Roux, who had been his most active
assistants, and who appear to have been perfect masters of
his ideas on the subject. His death was brought on by a
fall from a staircase at the Hotel Dieu; and although the
accident did not at first appear to be serious, it excited so
great a degree of fever, that his frame, already exhausted
by excessive labour, and enfeebled by constantly respiring
the tainted air of the dissecting-room, in which he had lat- Bidal
terly passed the greater part of his time, sunk under the II
attack. He died on the 22d July 1802, universally regret- ^ Blddle'
ted by bis pupils, and attended to the last by the widow of
his benefactor, from whom he had never been separated.
Every tribute of respect was paid to his memory; his funeral
was attended by above six hundred of his pupils, and by a
number of the physicians in Paris. His bust, together with
that of Dessault, was placed at the Hotel Dieu by order of
the first consul, in joint commemoration of the man under
whose fostering protection so bright a genius was first
brought before the public, and of the pupil who nobly emu¬
lated the fame of so great a master. (p. m. r.)
BIDAL, or Bidale {bid and ale\ in England, the invi¬
tation of friends to drink ale at some poor man’s house, and
there to contribute for his relief,—an ancient and still a local
custom.
BIDASOA, or Vidasoa, a small river which rises in the
Western Pyrenees, in the valley of Baztan, and flows to the
Atlantic near Cape Higues. On its left bank is the town of
Fuenterabia, where the army of Charlemagne was defeated
by the Gascons. On Oct. 7. 1813, Wellington, in his victo¬
rious career, crossed the Bidasoa at Irun, and the whole Bri¬
tish army was encamped in France by the 10th of November.
BIDDING Prayer. It was one part of the office of the
deacons in the primitive Christian church to act as monitors
and directors of the people in the exercise of their public
devotions in the church; to which end they made use of
certain known forms of words, to give notice when each part
of the service began. This was called by the Greeks Krjpvcr-
creiv, and by the Latins prcedicare, which therefore does not
ordinarily signify to “ preach,” as some mistake it, but to
perform the office of crier (Krjpvi;, or prceco) in the assembly;
and hence Synesius and others call the deacons UpoKVjpvKes,
the “ holy criers” of the church, appointed to bid or exhort
the congregation to pray and join in the several parts of the
service of the church. Analogous to this practice is the
form “ Let us pray,” repeated before several of the prayers
in the English liturgy, and used as a sort of proem in the
simpler invocations of the Presbyterian church.
BIDDLE, John, one of the most eminent English writers
among the Socinians, was born in 1615, at Wotton-under-
Edge, in Gloucestershire, and educated in the free school of
that place. Before he had completed his twentieth year, he
published a translation of Virgil’s Bucolics, and the first two
satires of Juvenal. In 1634 he was entered at Magdalen
Hall, Oxford, where he took his degree of M.A. In 1641
the magistrates of Gloucester elected him master of the free
school of that city; in which office he acquitted himself to
their entire satisfaction. But having expressed some pecu¬
liar opinions concerning the Trinity, he suffered various per¬
secutions and imprisonments in the time of the Common¬
wealth. During one of these confinements, which lasted for
several years, being reduced to great indigence, he was em¬
ployed by Roger Daniel of London to correct the impres¬
sion of the Septuagint Bible, which that printer was about to
publish, and wished to render as accurate as possible. The
general act of oblivion passed in 1651 restored him to liberty;
but he was afterwards imprisoned on account of his tenets;
and, at last, in October 1655, the protector banished him
for life to the castle at St Mary’s, one of the Scilly isles. In
1658 he was again set at liberty. But after the restoration
of Charles II. he was fined in L.100, each of his hearers
being amerced in L.20, and he was condemned to lie in
prison till the fine was paid. Here the severity of his con¬
finement brought on a disease, of which he died on the 22d
of September 1662, in the forty-seventh year of his age.
The Life of Biddle was published in Latin in 1682, by Mr
Farrington of the Inner Temple, who represents him as
possessed of extraordinary piety, charity, and humility. He
had so happy a memory, that he retained word for word the
B I D
Bid- whole New Testament, not only in English, but in Greek,
doomahs as far as the fourth chapter of the Revelation of St John.
J (See also Touhnin’s Life of Biddle?)
^ 0(^ j BIDDOOMAHS, a fierce and piratical tribe who inha-
v bit a cluster of large rugged islands in the eastern part of
the great African lake called the Tsad. They neither sow,
plant, nor rear cattle, but maintain themselves by plunder.
They own nearly a thousand barks, with which they have
made themselves complete masters of this water, and extend
their ravages round the whole circuit of its shores. Some
of these men, whom Major Denham saw at Bornou, ap¬
peared to him the wildest and rudest human beings he had
ever beheld. This tribe was lately visited by Dr Overweg,
as mentioned in the article Africa. He was well received
by them; but describes them as being constantly at war with
their neighbours of Bornou and Wadai, and as using boats
[ more than 40 feet in length, without sails, but propelled by
long poles.
BIDEFORD, a borough, market-town, and seaport, in
the county of Devon, 29 miles N.W. of Exeter. It is plea¬
santly situated on the slopes of two hills which rise on either
side of the river Torridge, near its confluence with the Taw,
and about four miles from the sea. The two portions of
the town are connected by a bridge of fourteen arches, said
to have been built early in the fourteenth century. This
bridge is endowed for its repair with lands which produce
an annual rent of from L.300 to L.400. It forms a favourite
promenade. Many of the houses are constructed after the
ancient fashion, with bricks and wooden framework, and the
streets are well paved and lighted. It contains an ancient
church with a tower and six bells, several dissenting places
of worship, a free grammar-school, and several other schools,
a literary and scientific institution, a reading-room, a town-
hall, a hospital for aged poor, and a dispensary.
Bideford was once a place of some commercial import¬
ance, and has still considerable shipping trade. It imports
timber from Canada and the Baltic, with fruits, wines, and
brandies from the south of Europe; and exports oak-bark, sails
and cordage, earthenware, and corn, to Ireland, Wales, Scot¬
land, the Channel Islands, &c. Vessels of 500 tons come
up at high tide to the quay. Manufactures—earthenware,
ropes, sails, and leather. There is also some ship-building.
Corporation—a mayor, three aldermen, twelve councillors.
Pop. (1851) 5775.
BIDENS, a botannical genus of the natural order of
Composite. See Botany.
BIDENTAL, in Roman Antiquity, a place blasted with
lightning, and where if a person were killed he was usually
buried. The spot was immediately consecrated with the
sacrifice of a bidens, i.e. a two-year old sheep, was sur¬
rounded with a ditch, wall, or other fence, and ever after¬
wards accounted sacred. The officiating priests were called
Bidentales.
BIDET, a nag or little horse formerly allowed to each
trooper and dragoon for carrying his baggage.
BIDIiEI (fiiSicuoi, fildeoi, /3l8vol), magistrates at Sparta
who inspected the gymnastic exercises. They were either
five or six in number, and, as Bockh has shown, were dis¬
tinct from the Nomophylaces, who appear to have exercised
a higher authority in the state.
BIDPAI, or Pilpay, the Hindu author of the celebrated
fables called in India Pancha, Tantra, or “ the five sections,”
which has been translated into Tamul, French, Latin,
Spanish, and part into English, by Sir Charles Williams
and by Sir William Jones. A good account of this work
is given in vol. i. of the Royal Asiatic Society’s Transac¬
tions, by H. H. Wilson, from which it appears that scarcely
any book but the Bible has been translated into so many
languages.
BIDLOO, Gottfried, a celebrated Dutch surgeon and
anatomist, born at Amsterdam, March 12. 1649. In 1688
BIG 719
he was chosen professor of anatomy at the Llague, and in Bidschow
1694 at Leyden, when he was appointed physician to Wil- !l
liam III. of England, who permitted him to retain his pro- Blgamy-
fessorship. He published in Latin, 1. The Anatomy of the
Human Body, demonstrated in 105 cuts, explained by the
discoveries of the ancient and modern writers. (Cowper,
the English anatomist, bought up 300 copies of the plates
of this work, and published them at Oxford in 1698 as
his own.) 2. An Oration upon the Antiquity of Anatomy;
3. A Letter to Anthony Leeuwenhoeck on the animalcules
sometimes found in the liver of sheep and other animals ;
4. Two Decades of Dissertations in Anatomy and Chirur-
gery ; and other pieces. Lie died at Leyden in April 1713.
BIDSCHOW, New, capital of a circle of the same
name in the Austrian kingdom of Bohemia, is situated on
the river Cydlina, 50 miles E.N.E. of Prague. It has some
trade in cattle, with manufactures of linen and cotton goods
and leather. Pop. 4000, of whom about 500 are Jews, who
have a synagogue here.
BIEDENCOPF, a city of Hesse-Darmstadt, province of
Upper Hessen, on the river Lahn. It is a town of much
industry, containing 3580 inhabitants, employed in making
cloth, baize, blankets, and various other kinds of goods.
BIELEFELD, a walled town in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, government of Minden, and capital of a circle
of the same name. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of
a hill on the river Lutter, on the line of the Minden and
Cologne railway, 26 miles S.W. of Minden. It was for¬
merly the capital of the county of Ravensberg, and is now
the centre of the Westphalian linen trade, with extensive
bleaching-fields, &c. It has a gymnasium, several schools,
and 10,308 inhabitants. The circle in 1849 contained
one city, six market-towns, thirty-one villages, and 47,739
inhabitants.
BIELITZ, a town of Austrian Silesia, in the circle of
Teschen, 16 miles N.E. of the town of that name, on the left
bank of the Biala. It has considerable manufactures of fine
cloths and cassimeres. The ducal palace and park adjoin¬
ing are very magnificent. Pop. 6000.
BIELLA, an Italian province of the kingdom of Sardinia.
It is a mountainous district, bounded on the N. by Sesia, on
the E. and S.E. by Vercelli, on the S.W. and W. by Ivrea,
and on the N.W. by Aosta. Area 264 square miles ; pop.
in 1848, 130,691. The capital, from which the province
derives its name, is on the banks of the rivers Cervo and
Aurena, 38 miles N.E. of Turin. Pop. between 8000 and
9000, employed chiefly in the manufacture of silk and linen
goods, and in the cultivation of vines. Long. 7. 50. E. Lat.
45. 55. N.
BIER, a wooden carriage or frame for carrying the
bodies of the dead to the place of interment.
BIFRONS, double-fronted, an epithet of the god Janus,
who was represented with two faces.
BIGA, or BiGAi, in Antiquity, a chariot with two horses
abreast. Races of chariots with two horses were introduced
into the Olympic games in the 93d Olympiad ; but the in¬
vention was much more ancient, as we learn that the heroes
of the Riad fought in chariots of that kind. The moon,
the night, and the morning, are by mythologists supposed
to be carried in bigce, but the sun in quadrigce. Statues in
bigce were at first only allowed to the gods, but were after¬
wards conceded to conquerors in the Grecian games. See
Chariot.
BIGAMY (compounded of the Latin bis, twice, and the
Greek yageu, I marry) literally signifies being twice married;
but with us the term is used as nearly synonymous with
polygamy. Wherever Christianity prevails, the' union with
more than one spouse is condemned by religion, public
opinion, and law; although in the polemical contests of the
Reformation there was some risk of the principle being re¬
laxed, in the zeal with which the spirit of celibacy attri-
720
BIG
B I G
Bigamy, buted to the Church of Rome was controverted. Most na-
tions of modern Europe have taken their law of bigamy in
some measure from the canon law; but England, with her
usual jealousy of the influence of that system, has dealt with
bigamy penally through the statute law. A second mar¬
riage while the former husband or wife is still living, is
simply null by ecclesiastical law. By the Act of 9th Geo. IV.
cap. 31. § 22, amending first of James I., cap. 10, the offence
is declared felony, and all concerned in it as principals ox
accessories are liable to transportation for seven, ox im¬
prisonment with hard labour for two years. By the act of
1853 this, with other offences incurring transportation, may
be punished with penal servitude. The statute law makes
an exception of cases where the second maiTiage is a ques¬
tion of foreign law, or where it has been contracted in in¬
nocent unconsciousness ; as for instance where the spouse
of the first marriage has been for seven years absent, and is
believed to be dead.
The offence is not incurred under the act where at the
time of the second marriage the party is “ divorced from the
bond of the first,” or where it has been declared “ void by
the sentence of any court of competent jurisdiction. But
here the rigid character of the English law comes in conflict
with those systems which, founded on the common princi¬
ples of canonical jurisprudence, are easily adjusted to each
other. The English courts, for instance, counting an Eng¬
lish marriage as indissoluble by law, have refused to admit
a Scottish divorce as having any effect on the condition of
the mari'ied persons ; and in the celebrated case of Lolley,
who had been divorced for adultery in Scotland and max-ried
again in England, on the understanding that he was safe
from penal consequences, sentence was passed on the ver¬
dict of a jury after solemn argument before the twelve
judges. (Russell and Ryan’s, cc. 237.) In the subsequent
case of Conway v. Beazeley (1831, Haggart’s Ecclesiastical
Cases, iii. 639), the sweeping character of this decision
seemed to create some uneasy doubts; but it was unneces¬
sary in Beazeley’s case to decide the ultimate question
whether the bond of the English marriage can ever in any
circumstances be legally dissolved, and it was held that a
Scottish maiTiage following a Scottish divorce was ineffec¬
tive against a previoxxs English marriage, the parties having
their domicile in England. The question how the law
would have stood had they been domiciled in Scotland was
left open.
In Scotland, at the date of the only statute respecting
bigamy, that of 1551, cap. 19, the offence seems to have been
chiefly considered in a religious point of view, as a sort of
perjury, or violation of the solemn vow or oath which was
then xxsed in contracting marriage ; and, accordingly, it was
ox-dained to be pxxnished with the proper pains of perjury.
But this injunction has not in every instance been complied
with ; and, from considei'ations of policy or expediency, the
court has long been in use to inflict an arbitrary punish¬
ment, suited, as nearly as may be, to the degree and mea¬
sure of guilt brought home to the prisoner. The most im¬
portant point concerning the description of bigamy which
is the contracting of a second marriage dxiring the subsist¬
ence of the first, relates to the quality of the two marriages,
and involves the nice and delicate inquiry whether both
must be marriages by formal celebi’ation, or whether the
charge will lie although both or one . of them be contracted
in that loose and unceremonious fashion which is sustained,
in single cases, by the law and custom of Scotland. And
here it may be observed, in the first place, that from the
general strain and language of the statute above referred to,
which passed at a time when there was no marriage without
formal celebration, the presumption appears to be in favour of
the mox*e lenient opinion; and this is further confirmed by the
circxxmstance that the application of the pains of perjury to
this offence seems plainly to presuppose the contempt of a
solemn oath or vow, and a gross abuse of the service of the
church. The most favourable case for the offender, there¬
fore, is that where both connections are of this loose and
ambiguous character, as by promise and copida, coxxrtship ^
and acknowledgments, or the like : for here it may be
urged that there has been no solemn entry into the holy
state of matrimony, and no prostitution of religious cere¬
monies or ecclesiastical ministrations ; and that circum¬
stances which may be held relevant in a civil question of
status, if consisting merely of probabilities and presumptions
of law, cannot afford that full and decisive proof of dole, or
of a settled purpose to marry and beti'ay, without which
there ought to be no conviction of the crime of bigamy.
Secondly, although this argument does not fxxlly apply to
the case of one who, after having duly solemnized a mar¬
riage, betakes himself to some clandestine and ii'regular con¬
nection ; yet it may still be argued, that, as he knew him¬
self to be already mai’ried, and consequently for the time
incapable of contracting a second marriage, so it ought to
be presumed in his favour as long as it reasonably can, and
until he take the decisive step of again xxndergoing die
ceremony, that he had no abusive or deceitful pxxrpose in
view, but merely intended an intercourse of a different sort,
highly immoral in itself, bxxt by no means tantamount to the
celebration of a second marriage. Thirdly, a more unfa¬
vourable case than either of the former is that of a regular
marriage subsequently to some clandestine connection ; yet
even here it is doubtful whether we have got the proper
materials of the crime of bigamy. For, in those anomalous
sitxiations where the female has not been in possession of
the repute and statxis of a married woman, bxxt is merely a
claimant or pretender to that character, it may be exceed¬
ingly doubtful whether, after all, the man intended to marry,
notwithstanding what the civil court may have found ; and,
while such a doubt exists, it may deserve consideration
whether the party can be reasonably and consistently held
to have committed the particxxlar crime contemplated by
the law. But this will scarcely apply to the case where,
instead of a secret and ambiguous intercourse, the woman
has been supposed and hfeld to have been in the full and
continued enjoyment, not only of that degree of repute
which a civil court might possibly sustain as sufficient to
entitle her to the legal character and privileges of a wife,
but of that public and invariable character which prevents
any doubt being raised as to the undei'stood relation of the
parties. So much for the form of the two marriages. The
other qualities which must unite in the first marriage to
bring it under the safeguard of the law ai’e, 1. I hat it must
be a lawful marriage, such as has not been contracted in
contempt of any injunctions of law x’elative to proximity of
kindred or previous conviction of adxxltery ; and, 2. That it
be not only a lawful, but a subsisting marriage, the pax ties
living together lawfully married and undivorced. In every
case the second marriage is null from being contracted dur¬
ing the subsistence of a previous one ; and it it be also an
incestuous, adulterous, or othei'wise forbidden marriage, t xis
additional aggravatioxx cannot alter the character or shelter
from the pains of the crime of bigamy. Further, it is ob¬
vious that, according to the circumstances of the case, the
guilt of this offence may either be chargeable exclusively
against one of the parties, in whose person there is a doub e
marriage ; or it may be the common guilt of both the pax-
ties to the second marriage, although to one of them it may
be a first marriage. (Flume’s Commentaries, vol. x. p» °
6t BIGBONE LICK, a district in Kentucky, so called frorn
the number of bones of the mastodon and elephas prinn-
genus there discovered in the. gravel resting on the clay of
a swampy soil. _ . ,
BIGGAR, a town and parish of Scotland, in the county
of Lanark. The town is small, but the main street, though
Bigbone
Lick
Biggar.
B I J
Biggies- irregular, is broad and spacious. The only building worthy
wade of notice is the church, which was collegiate, and founded in
Bijanagur. Malcolm Lord Fleming, who libei'ally endowed it.
|\ r -, j ^ parish contains vestiges of three Roman camps and a
large tumulus. The remains of Biggar Castle are situated
in a bog about a quarter of a mile south of the town. Biggar
is distant from Edinburgh twenty-seven miles S.W. Pop.
of town (1851) 1530.
BIGGLESWADE, a market-town in the county of Bed¬
ford, forty-five miles from London. It is agreeably situated
on the river Ivel, by which the town and neighbourhood
are supplied with abundance of coal, timber, and merchan¬
dise. The land near it is remarkably prolific; and being
cultivated chiefly as gardens, it yields abundant crops of
culinary vegetables, and a large supply of seeds for the
London seedsmen. Market-day Wednesday. Pop. (1851)
BIGHORN River, in North America, is said to rise in
the Rocky mountains, near the Yellow Stone river and the
sources of the Platte, and then to find its way through the
eastern range of the Rocky mountains. Taking a northerly
direction, it falls into the Yellow Stone river in about the
4/th degree of north latitude. In its long course it receives
two considerable rivers, one from the west and the other
from the south ; and being unobstructed by falls, it is na¬
vigable for canoes to a great distance, through a fine, rich,
open country, well supplied with timber.
BIGHT (Dutch bogt, participle of boogen, to bend), a
bend in the sea-coast, forming an open bay; also a round of
a rope or cable when coiled.
BIGNON, Jerome, a French writer, was born at Paris
in 1590. Under the care of his father he early acquired un¬
common knowledge in philosophy, mathematics, history, civil
law, and divinity; and had almost completed his studies at
an age when it is usual to send children to school. At ten
years of age he gave the public a specimen of his learning in
a Description of the Holy Land; and two years after'he
published a Discourse concerning the principal Antiquities
and Curiosities of Rome, and a Summary Treatise concern¬
ing the Election of Popes. Henry IV. desired to see him,
and appointed him page to the dauphin, who was afterwards
Louis XIII. At this time he wrote a treatise on the pre¬
cedency of the kings of France, which he dedicated to Henry
IV., by whom he was ordered to continue his researches on
the subject; but the death of that prince interrupted his de¬
sign. In 1613 he published the Formulce of Marculphus.-
In 1620 he was made advocate-general in the grand council,
and discharged that post with such reputation that the king
nominated him some time afterwards counsellor of state, and
at last advocate-general in the parliament. He resigned his
offices in 1641, and the year following was appointed prin¬
cipal keeper of the king’s library ; but he was obliged to re¬
sume his office of advocate-general, which he continued to
hold till his death in 1656.
BIGNONIA, a genus of magnificent shrubs. See Botany.
BIGOT, a person obstinately and perversely wedded to
some opinion or practice, particularly of a religious nature.
Camden has probably hit upon the true origin of the word.
He relates, that when Rollo, Duke of Normandy received
Gisla, the daughter of Charles the Simple, in marriage, to¬
gether with the investiture of that dukedom, he would not
submit to kiss Charles’s foot; and when his friends urged
im by all means to comply with that ceremony, he made
answer in his peculiar dialect, “ Ne se, by Gott upon
w ich the king and his courtiers, deriding him, and corruptly
repeating his answer, called him bigot: hence the Normans
were called bigods, or bigots.
' l^k^^AGUR’ an ancient city in the south of India,
H' a'aghaut ceded territories, once the capital of a great
uk u empire, though now in ruins. It is situated on the
an* the I oombuddra river, directly opposite to
B I L 721
Annagoondy. The city has been inclosed with strong stone Bilbao,
walls on the east side, and is bounded by the river on the v/'—-"
west, the circumference of the whole appearing to be about
eight miles. The streets of this city, from thirty to forty yards
wide, can be traced between the immense piles of rocks
crowned with pagodas; and one street yet remains perfect.
The building of this metropolis was begun in 1336. Be¬
tween the sovereigns of the principality of which it was the
capital, and the Mahommedan sovereigns of the Deccan, con¬
stant hostility was maintained ; and in 1564, Ram Rajah, the
sovereign of Bijanagur, was totally overthrown on the plains
of Tellicotta, by a combination of four Mahommedan so¬
vereigns of the Deccan, who immediately marched to the
metropolis, which they abandoned to pillage ; and since this
period it has lain in ruins. Travelling distance from Cal¬
cutta, 1120 miles. Lat. 15. 19. Long. 76. 32.
BILBAO («. e. “ the beautiful bay”), a city of Spain, capi¬
tal of the province of Viscaya (Biscay), is situated in a small
and fertile plain bounded on three sides by mountains, on
the banks of the 1’iver Nervion (or, as it is called in the
Basque language, Ibaizabal), six miles from its mouth. This
river, which divides the old town from the new, is crossed by
an ancient stone bridge of two arches, and also by a modern
suspension bridge. The houses in the principal streets are
built of hewn stone, several stories in height, with projecting
eaves, which throw a deep shadow. The streets have an air
of cleanliness and quiet, no waggons or carts being permitted
to enter the town. The transport of goods is carried on by
means of trucks. The principal public buildings are the
churches and monasteries, a spacious hospital with 600 beds,
town-hall, custom-house, charity-house, theatre, a new col¬
lege, and a fine abattoir of Tuscan architecture. Of the
educational institutions, the principal are, the Colegio Gene¬
ral de Vizcaya ; the schools supported by the board of trade
for affording gratuitous instruction in design, architecture,
languages, and mathematics; a nautical academy; besides
several other public schools, and twenty-four private acade¬
mies. Pop. about 15,000, chiefly engaged in agriculture,
, trade, and the iron manufacture. It may be mentioned that
the women of the humbler class are much employed in mas¬
culine occupations, such as carrying burdens, &c., for which
they are well fitted by their robust and vigorous frames.
The climate of Bilbao, though humid, is on the whole healthy,
though pulmonary diseases are somewhat frequent. The
A renal, which is a favourite promenade, extending along the
right bank of the Nervion, is ornamented with rows of fine
trees, and diversified with houses, gardens, warehouses, &c.
The other favourite walks are the Campo Volantin, to the
north of the Arenal; and the Paseo de los Canos, so called
from its forming the roof of the great aqueduct for convey¬
ing. the water of the river to the town.
Bilbao is the principal seat of foreign commerce in the
north of Spain. The tide ascends as high as the town, but
the river is only navigable for small vessels above the port
of Portugalete, at its mouth. The average value of the ex¬
ports, consisting chiefly of wool, iron, hardwares, fire-arms,
wheat, wine, oil, fruit, chestnuts, madder, &c., is estimated
by Madoz at about L.500,000, of which sum about one-
fourth is of native and colonial produce. The average value
of the imports—including cotton and woollen stuffs, hemp,
sheet-iron, steel, coffee, sugar, &c.—is, according to the same
authority, about L.156,000, of which about the half is foreign.
Principal manufactures, hardware, woollens, paper, hats,
leather, copper goods, &c. The iron-mines in the vicinity
are very productive; and Bilbao sword-blades have lon<^ been
celebrated. Lat. 43. 15. N. Long. 2. 56. W.
Bilbao was founded a.d. 1300, by Don Diego Lopez de
Haro. At the end of the fifteenth century it was considered
of sufficient importance to supersede Burgos as the seat of
the Consulado, or supreme tribunal of commerce. During
the Peninsular war Bilbao was sacked by the French, and
4 Y
722 B I L
Bilboes in the recent Carlist wars it twice sustained severe sieges.
II See Spain. (Madoz, Dicionario de Espaha ; Ford, Hand-
Bilfinger. Qj- gpain^
BILBOES, a punishment at sea, answering to that of the
stocks on land.
BILDERDYK, Willem, a Dutch poet and historian,
born at Amsterdam in 1756. His best known productions
are his poem on The Love of Fatherland, his translation of
the (Edipus Tyrannus of Sophocles, his Iluiten Lievcn, oi
Rural Life, and The Destruction of the First World. He
was pensioned by Louis, King of Holland; but neglected
by the succeeding government. His History of Holland
was edited by M. Tydemann after his death, which occurred
at Haarlem in 1831.
BILDULGERID. See Bled-el-Jereed.
BILFINGER, Georg Bernhard, was born on the 23d
of January 1693, at Canstadt in Wirtemburg. His father
was a Lutheran minister. By a singularity of constitution,
hereditary in his family, Bilfinger came into the world with
twelve fingers and twelve toes. An amputation happily
corrected this deformity. Bilfinger, from his earliest years,
discovered the greatest inclination to learning. He studied
in the schools of Blaubeuern and Bobenhausen, and after¬
wards entered into the theological seminary of Tubingen.
The works of Wolf, which he studied in order to learn ma¬
thematics, soon inspired him with a taste for the Wolfian
philosophy and that of Leibnitz ; a passion which made him
neglect for some time his other studies. Returning to theo¬
logy, he wished at least to try to connect it with his fa¬
vourite science of philosophy; and in this spirit he composed
a tract entitled De Deo, Anima, et Mundo. This work, filled
with new ideas, met with great success, and contributed to
the advancement of the author, who was appointed soon after
to the office of preacher at the castle of Tubingen, and of
reader in the school of theology ; but Tubingen was now
become too small a theatre for him. He obtained from his
friends in 1719 a supply of money, which enabled him to
spend some time at Llalle, in order to attend the lectures of
Wolf; and, after two years of study, he returned to Tubin¬
gen, where the Wolfian philosophy was not yet in favour.
He found his protectors there cooled, saw his lectures de¬
serted, and perceived himself shunned, from the dislike of
bis new doctrines : his ecclesiastical views also suffered from
the same cause. By the intervention of Wolf, he received
an invitation to Petersburg, where Peter I. wished to appoint
him professor of logic and metaphysics, and member of his
new academy. He was received in that city, where he arrived
in 1725, with the consideration due to his abilities. T he
Academy of Sciences of Paris having proposed about this
time the famous problem on the cause of gravity, Bilfinger
gained the prize, which was a thousand crowns. The repu¬
tation of this success was spread among the learned of Europe;
and the Duke Charles Edward of Wirtemburg, finding that
the author of this admired memoir was one of his subjects,
hastened to recal him into his dominions. The court of
Russia, after having made some useless attempts to detain
him, granted him a pension of four hundred florins, and a
present of two thousand, in reward of an invention relative
to the art of fortification. He quitted Petersburg in 1731.
Returned to Tubingen, Bilfinger soon excited considerable
attention in that quarter, both by his own lectures, and by
the changes which he introduced into the school of theology.
After his return to Tubingen, the Duke Charles Alexander
appointed him privy counsellor in 1735. This nomina¬
tion was not a simple honorary title. Bilfinger saw himself
raised at once to a power almost unlimited. He resisted
some time a promotion for which he did not think himself
qualified. In accepting office his first care was to acquire the
knowledge necessary to the discharge of its duties. He
employed almost two years in assiduous labour to instruct
himself thoroughly in the statistics of the country, its poli-
B 1 L
tical situation, its constitution, andits interests ; and became, Bilge
at the end of all this study, one of the most enlightened II
ministers that his country had yet produced. Bilfinger was v i in- |
placed in a situation too elevated not to excite jealousy and
hatred. He felt it, and wished to quit the ministry; but
the court refused to receive his resignation, soon after the
tender of which the duke died. Bilfinger received from
his successor all the consideration and all the friendship
which he had experienced in the beginning of his career.
Enjoying a confidence without bounds, he had the power
to realize, without obstacle, those plans of administration
with which the most enlightened patriotism hadinspiredhim;
and Wirtemburg still feels the happy influence of his ministry.
Commerce, public instruction, and agriculture, flourished
under his care. The culture of the vine, of so much impor¬
tance in that country, was one of the principal objects of his
attention. We ought not to forget that he was the origi¬
nal author of that strict union which has long united Wir¬
temburg and Prussia, and of the importance to which the
hereditary prince of Wirtemburg was raised at the court of
Berlin. He has been reproached with being irascible ; but,
in spite of some slight blemishes, the memory of Bilfinger
will be always dear to his countrymen, and honoured by all
Germans. Wirtemburg reckons him among the greatest
men which she has produced, and proposes him as a model
to her statesmen and her men of letters. He was never
married, and left no issue. He died at Stuttgardt on the
18th of February 1 750. His works, besides various papers
separately published in the Memoirs of the St Petersburg
and Paris Academies of Science, are numerous and valuable.
(See Biographie Universelle, tom. iv.) (w. h-z-t.)
BILGE of a ship, the bottom of her floor, or the breadth
of the part she rests on when a-ground. Bilge-water is
that which lodges on her floor below the level of the well
of the pump; and bilge-pumps, or burr-pumps, are those
that carry off the bilge-water. A ship is said to be bilged
when her bilge is broken in and she springs a leak.
Bilge, the greatest circumference of a cask.
BILL, an instrument of iron, with an incurvated edge,
and fitted with a handle. It is used by plumbers, basket-
makers, and gardeners. Its form varies according to its par¬
ticular use. When short it is called a hand-bill, and when
long a hedge-bill.
Bill, in Nautical Language, the point of the fluke of an
anchor.
Bill, in English Law, a declaration in writing, express-
in0- either some wrong the complainant has suffered fiom
the defendant, or a fault committedby the person complained
of against some law or statute. In Scottish law, every sum¬
mary application, by way of petition to the Court of Session,
is called a bill. . .
Bill, in commerce, has been usually defined a writing m
which one man is bound to another to pay a sum of money,
on a day that is future, or presently on demand, according
to the agreement of the parties at the time when it is drawn ;
and on which, in the event of failure, execution may be
summarily done to enforce payment.
Bill of Exchange. See Exchange; and Book-keeping.
Bill of Lading, a document by which the master of a
ship acknowledges to have received on board in good order
and condition certain specified goods laden by some par¬
ticular shipper, and binds himself to deliver them in like good
order and condition (the dangers and accidents of the seas,
fire, enemies, &c., excepted) to the assignees of the shipper
at the port of destination, on payment of a stipulated freight.
Bills of lading are usually drawn out in sets of two, three,
or four copies, “ one of which bills being accomplished the
others stand void.” Each of these copies must be written
on a sixpenny stamp.
A bill of lading is a negotiable document, and may, like a
bill of exchange, be transferred by indorsation, either blank,
B I L
Bill of or in favour ofany particular assignee. The shipmaster is bound
Mortality (0 deliver the goods to the holder of the bill of lading, who on
Billiards Pai'^ becomes responsible for the freight stipulated as
v | L'y payable on delivery. If the goods be lost or damaged by
any causes not falling within the exception of the “ dangers
and accident of the seas, &c.,” as for instance by improper
stowage, the holder of the bill of lading may recover the
damages from the master or owners of the ship.
Bills of lading should never be granted till the goods are
actually on board, otherwise the shipmaster will be personally
liable for their value, failing delivery, to any individual who
may have acquired the bill of lading for an onerous consider¬
ation. In a recent case of this nature it was decided that
the oivners of the ship could not be held liable for the value
of the goods, on the ground that the shipmaster, in granting
bills of lading for goods not on board, was acting beyond the
, scope of his authority as their agent. (j. w—k.)
Bill of Mortality, a periodical register of the numbers of
births and burials within a certain district. See Mortality,
Homan.
Bill in Parliament, a draft of a proposed act or statute,
public or private, containing the substance of a measure sub¬
mitted to parliament, and subject before passing to modi¬
fications in the way and manner to be afterwards described,
or to rejection. For the parliamentary procedure in bring¬
ing in bills, discussing them, and passing them into laws,
see Parliament ; Statutes ; Legislation.
BILLERICA Y, a market-town, parish of Burstead, hun¬
dred of Barstable, and county of Essex, 24 miles from Lon¬
don. It is situated on an elevated plain, commanding a fine
view of the rich vale of the Thames. Pop. (1851) 1533.
BILLET, in Heraldry, a bearing of an oblong form.
BILLETING, the quartering or lodging of soldiers in
private houses, by billets or tickets.
BILLET ON, an island of the East Indies, belonging to the
Dutch, situate between Sumatra and Borneo, in Lat. 3. S.
Long. 108. E. It is of a circular form, about 50 miles in
length by 45 in breadth ; and is rich in wood, iron ore, and
tin. It has a population of about 6000, and is much infested
by pirates.
BILLIARDS, a well-known game, played on a rectan¬
gular table with ivory balls, which are driven into hazards
or holes, according to certain rules. This game was in¬
vented by the French, and was originally played in a man¬
ner different from that which is at present practised, by having
a pass or iron .fixed on the table, through which the balls at
particular periods of the game used to be played ; but this
method is now quite disused.
The table on which the game is played is generally about
twelve feet long and six feet wide, in the exact form of an
oblong : it is covered with fine green cloth, and surrounded
with cushions to prevent the balls running off’, and to cause
them to rebound. There are six holes, nets, or pockets,
fixed at the four corners, and in the middle, opposite to each
other, to receive the balls, which when driven into them are
called hazards. The making of a hazard, that is, putting
the adversary’s ball in, at the usual game reckons for two in
favour of the player. The game is played either with maces
or with cues. The first is a long straight stick, with a head
at the end ; the second is a thick stick, diminishing gradu¬
ally to a point of about half an inch diameter or less ; and
this instrument is played over the left hand, and supported
by the fore-finger and thumb.
The rules generally observed at the common game are
these : 1. For the lead, the balls must be put at one end,
and the players must strike them against the farthermost
cushion, in order to see which will be nearest the cushion
that is next to them. 2. The nearest to the cushion is to
lead and choose the ball if he pleases. 3. The leader is to
place his ball at the nail, and not to pass the middle pocket;
and if he holes himself in leading he loses, the lead. 4. He
B I L 723
who follows the leader must stand within the corner of the Billiards,
table, and not place his ball beyond the nail. 5. He who v-»~'
plays upon the running ball loses one. 6. He who touches
the ball twice and moves it loses one. But these two rules
are seldom or never enforced, especially in England. 7. He
who does not hit his adversary’s ball loses one. 8. He who
touches both balls at the same time makes a foul stroke, in
which case, if he should hole his adversary, nothing is gained
by the stroke ; but if he put himself in he loses two. 9.
He who holes both balls loses two. 10. He who strikes
upon his adversary’s ball and holes himself loses two. 11.
He who plays at the ball without striking it, and holes him¬
self, loses three. 12. He who strikes both balls over the
table loses two. 13. He who strikes his ball over the table,
and does not hit his adversary’s ball, loses three. 14. Fie
who retains the end of his adversary’s stick when playing,
or endeavours to baulk his stroke, loses one. 15. He who
plays another’s ball or stroke, without leave, loses one. 16.
He who takes up his own ball, or his adversary’s, without
leave, loses one. 17. He who stops either ball, when run¬
ning, loses one ; and if it be near the hole, loses two. 18.
He who blows upon the ball when running, loses one ; and
if near the hole, loses two. 19. He who shakes the table
when the ball is running loses one. 20. He who strikes
the table with the stick, or plays before his turn, loses one.
21. He who strikes his stick upon the table, and hits the
ball, loses one. 22. If the ball stand upon the edge of the
hole, and, after being challenged, fall in, it is nothing, but
must be put up where it was before. 23. If any person,
not being one of the players, stop a ball, the ball must stand
in the place where it was stopped. 24. He who plays with¬
out a foot upon the floor, and holes his adversary’s ball, gets
nothing for it, but loses the lead. 25. He who leaves the
game before it is ended loses it. 26. Any person may
change his stick in play. 27. If any difference arise be¬
tween players, he who marks the game, or the majority of
the company, must decide it. 28. Those who do not play
must stand from the table, and make room for the players.
29. If any person lay any wager, and does not play, he shall
not give advice to the players upon the game.
Besides the common winning-game, which is twelve up,
there are several other kinds of games, viz., the losing-game,
the winning and losing, choice of balls, bricole, carambole,
Russian carambole, the bar-hole, the one-hole, the four-
game, and hazards.
The losing-game is the common game nearly reversed ;
that is to say, except hitting the balls, which is absolutely
necessary, the player gains by losing. By putting himself
in he wins two ; by putting his adversary in he loses two ;
but if he pockets both balls he gets four. The ivinning
and losing game is a combination of both games ; that is to
say, all balls that are put in by striking first the adversary’s
ball reckon towards game; and holing both balls reckons four.
Choice of the balls is choosing each time which ball the
player pleases. Bricole is being obliged to hit the cushion,
and cause the ball to rebound, or return to hit the adver¬
sary’s ball, otherwise the player loses a point. Carambole
is a game introduced from France. It is played with three
balls, one red, which is neutral, and is placed on a spot in
a line with the stringing nail, or that part of the table from
which the player strikes his ball at setting offj and which is
marked on the edge of the table with two brass nails. Each
antagonist, at the first stroke of a hazard, plays from a mark
which is upon a line with it at the other end of the table. The
chief object at this game is, for the player to hit with his own
ball the two other balls, which is called a carambole, and by
which the player wins two. If he puts in the red ball he
gets three ; and when he holes his adversary’s ball he
gets two ; so that seven may be made at one stroke, by ca-
ramboling and putting in both balls. Russian carambole is
played in the following manner : The red ball is placed as
724
Billon
I!
Bilson.
B I L
usual on the spot for that purpose ; but the player, when he
begins, or after having been holed, never places his ball on
any particular place or spot, being at liberty to put it where
he pleases. When he begins to play, instead of striking at
the red ball, he leads his own gently behind it, and his an¬
tagonist is to play at which he thinks proper. If he plays at
the red ball and holes it, he scores three as usual towards
the game, which is twenty-four instead of sixteen points ;
and the red ball is put upon the spot again, at which he may
strike a second time, or take his choice which of the two
balls to push at, always following his stroke till both balls
are off the table. He is entitled to two points each time that
he caramboles, the same as at the other game ; but it he
caramboles, and puts his own ball into any hole he loses as
many as he might have got had he not holed himself. n
other respects it is played like the common carambole game.
The bar-hole is so called from the hole being barred which
the ball should be played for, and the player striking for
another hole. The player at the one-hole, though it seems
to those who are not judges of the game to be a great dis¬
advantage, has in fact the best of it; for as all balls that go
into the one hole reckon, the player endeavours to lay his
ball constantly before the hole, and his antagonist frequently
finds it very difficult to keep one or other bal out, parti¬
cularly on the leads, when the one-hole player lays his ball
on the brink of the hole. The four-game consists of two
partners on each side, at the common winning game, who play
by succession after each hazard, or two points lost. Haz¬
ards are so called because they depend entirely upon the
making of hazards, there being no account kept of any game.
The only general rule here is not to lay any ball at hazard
for the next player. . . . ,
BILLON, in Numismatics, a composition of precious and
base metal, in which the latter predominates.
BILMA, a town situated in the heart of the African
desert, and the capital of the wandering tribe called the
Tibboos. The place is mean and poor, surrounded with a
mud wall. In its vicinity are a number of lakes, the waters
of which, on evaporation by the heat of the sun, yield a
quantity of very pure and fine salt. The largest of these
lakes is at Agram, situated about four miles to the westward.
This salt is the object of a very extensive and important
trade, which consists in conveying the commodity to the
countries in Central Africa. The T. ibboos, however, an un¬
warlike race, are unable to secure to themselves the enjoy¬
ment of these natural treasures, but have the chagrin of
seeing the Tuaricks, their neighbours, come and load their
camels with this valuable article, which they then convey
to the countries in the south. Near Bilma is a small cir¬
cular spot, in which several springs bubble up, and maintain
a brilliant verdure; but immediately to the south begins the
most dreary part of the African desert, over which the cara¬
vans travel for fifteen days without discovering the slightest
trace of vegetable life.
BILSAH, a town of Hindustan, in the territory of Owa-
lior or the possessions of Scindia, situated on the Betwah
river. It is inclosed with a stone wall, defended by square
towers and a ditch. 1 he suburbs without the walls are not
very extensive; but the streets are spacious, and contain
some good houses. The town and the surrounding country
are celebrated all over India for the excellent quality of the
tobacco, which is bought up with great eagerness and ex¬
ported. Pop. about 3000. Distance south from Gwalior
190 miles. Lat. 23. 30. Long. 77. 50.
BILSON, Thomas, bishop of Winchester, was born in
that city in 1536. He was successively fellow of New
College, Oxford, master of Winchester School, prebendary
of the cathedral, and warden of Winchester College. In
1596 he was consecrated bishop of Worcester; and next
year translated to the see of Winchester, and sworn of Queen
Elizabeth’s privy council. He was one of the principal ma-
Binary
Arith¬
metic.
BIN
nagers of the Hampton Court conference in 1604; and he Bilston
was the colleague of Dr Miles Smith, bishop of Gloucester, II
in the revision of the new edition of the Bible. He died in
1616, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Bishop Bil¬
son bore the character of a learned divine, an able civilian,
and an upright man.
His principal works are entitled, The true difference be¬
tween Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion, Oxf.
1585, 4to, Lond. 1586, 8vo ; The Perpetual Government of
Christ’s Church, Lond. 1593, 4to, black letter; The effect of
certain Sermons touching the full redemption of mankind
by the death and blood of Christ, dkc., Lond. 1599, 4to ; The
survey of Christ’s suffering for man’s redemption, and of
his descent to Hades or Hell, Lond. 1604, fob
BILSTON, a market-town of England, in the parish of
Wolverhampton, hundred of Leisdon, and county of Staf¬
ford ; 2-L miles S.E. of Wolverhampton. Bilston is chiefly
indebted for its importance to the iron trade, for which it
possesses many advantages. In the vicinity are very pro¬
ductive mines of coal and ironstone, as well as sand of the
finest quality for casting. Its productions also find a ready
exit by means of canals to London, Liverpool, Bristol, &c.;
and the Willenhall station of the London and Birmingham
railway is within 1^ miles of the town. It has numerous
furnaces, forges, rolling and slitting mills, for the prepara¬
tion of iron. The town itself is very irregularly built; but
has some handsome buildings, as St Leonard s and St Mary s
chapels, and the Roman Catholic chapel. Bilston suffered
severely from the cholera in 1832 and 1849. Pop. (1851)
23 527.
BIN (Saxon binn or binne), a chest for holding bread,
corn, or other provisions. The open subdivisions for bottles
in a wine-cellar are also called bins. i c ..v,
BINACLE, or Binnacle (formerly Bittacle, from the
French habitude), a wooden case or box in which the com¬
passes are kept on board a ship, with lights to show the
compass at night. ...... ^ .
BINARY ARITHMETIC, that kind of notation in
which unity or 1 and 0 only are used. This was the in¬
vention of Leibnitz, who shows it to be very expeditious in
discovering the properties of numbers and in constructing
tables; and M. Dangecourt, in the History of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, gives a specimen of it concerning
arithmetical progressionals, where he shows, that because m
binary arithmetic only two characters are used, therefore
the laws of progression may be more easily discovered by
it than by common arithmetic. All the characters used in
binary arithmetic are 0 and 1; and the cipher multiplies
every thing by two, as in the common anthmetic by 10.
S 1 is one; 10, two; 11, tee; 100, four; 101 five;
110, six; 111, seven; 1000, eight; 1001, nine; 1010, ten,
which is founded on the same principles with common arith¬
metic. Hence appears the reason of the celebrated pro¬
perty of the duplicate geometrical proportion in whole num¬
bers", namely, that one number of each degree being taken,
we may thence compose all the other whole numbers above
the double of the highest degree. For example, HI being
the sum of 4, 2, and 1, or, analytically, of 100-4, 10-2,
and 1 = 1, or 7 in all, this property may serve assayers to
weigh all kinds of masses with a little weight ; and may be
used in coins, to give several values with small pieces. The
binary method of expressing numbers once established, all
the operations will be easy; in multiplication, particularly,
there will be no need for a table, or getting anything by
heart. But the inventor does not recommend it for common
use, because of the great number of figures required to ex¬
press a number; adding, that if the common progression
were from 12 to 12, or from 16 to 16, it would be still moie
expeditious; and that its use consists chiefly m discovering
the properties of numbers, in constructing tables, and t
like. What makes the binary arithmetic the more remark-
B I 0
BIO
725
Binary able is, that it appears to have been the same with that used
Measure four thousand years ago among the Chinese, and left as an
H enigma by Fohi, the founder of their empire as well as of
Biography. their
sciences.
Binary Measure, in Music, is a measure which is beaten
equally, or where the time of rising is equal to that of fall¬
ing. This is usually called common time.
Binary Number is that which is composed of two units.
BINGEN, a town in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darm-
stadt, province of Rhenish Hesse, and fifteen miles west of
Mentz. It is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the
Rhine, where that river receives the Nahe. It has a consi¬
derable trade in wine, grain, and cattle, and manufactures
leather and tobacco. Pop. 4500.
BINGHAM, Joseph, a learned scholar and divine, born
at Wakefield in Yorkshire, in September 1668; educated at
University College, Oxford ; and afterwards, by John Rad-
eliffe, M.D., presented to the rectory of Headbournworthy,
near Winchester. In this country retirement he began his
laborious and valuable work entitled Origines Ecclesiasticce,
or Antiquities of the Christian Church, the first volume of
which appeared in 1708. It was completed by the publi¬
cation of the tenth volume in 1722. Notwithstanding his
learning and merit, Bingham received no higher preferment
than that of Headbourn worthy till the year 1712, when he
was collated to the rectory of Havant, near Portsmouth, by
Sir Jonathan Trelawney, bishop of Winchester. He died
August 17. 1723, in his fifty-fifth year.
Bingham, a market-town in the hundred of that name,
in the county of Nottingham, 123 miles from London, and
8^ from Nottingham. It is situated in the fertile vale of
Belvoir, and consists of two parallel well-paved streets,
with a fine Gothic church, and a good market-place, in
which a market is held on Thursday. Pop. of parish in
1851, 2054.
BINGLEY, a market-town in the west riding of York¬
shire, on the river Aire, 31 miles W.S.W. of York. The
inhabitants in 1851 amounted to 5019, principally engaged
in manufactures of worsted, cotton, and paper, which have
been much improved during the last ten years. The town
is well built and flourishing, and has a neat church, gram¬
mar-school, and several charities.
BINK, Jacob, a German engraver, who also designed
well; born about 1500. Bartsch describes 98 prints by
him. He seems to have died about 1550.
BINOMIAL, in Algebra, a root consisting of two factors
connected by the sign plus or minus. Thus a + 6 and
8 — 3 are binomials, consisting of the sums and differences
of these quantities. See Algebra.
BINTANG, one of the Dutch East India islands, S.E.
of Singapore, in Lat. 1. 5. N. Long. 104. 30. E. It is about
24 miles in length by 12 in breadth, and is surrounded by
numerous rocky islets, which render the navigation dan¬
gerous. Its principal exports are pepper, rice, and particu¬
larly gambier, from its chief town Rhio on the S.W. coast.
Pop. 15,000.
BIOGRAPHY (/?tos, life, and ypa^rj, a writing), the
history of a life. Of this species of literary composition
examples are preserved in the earliest records of antiquity.
In Sacred Scripture we have the history of the lives of Abra¬
ham, Joseph, David, &c. In the first rank in Grecian li¬
terature stand the Parallel Lives of Plutarch, which com¬
prise the biographies of forty-six of the most celebrated
Greeks and Romans who flourished prior to his own time.
The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius, the
Lives of Philosophers and Sophists by Eunapius, and the
Lives of the Sophists by Philostratus, are the other principal
works of this class in the Greek language. Among Roman
writers of biography the principal are Cornelius Nepos and
Suetonius. Besides these there are other writers whose
works, though in a certain degree biographical, more strictly
belong to the province of history; as, for example, Sallust’s Biography-
account of the conspiracy of Catiline, the Commentaries of ^
Julius Caesar, and Quintus Curtius’s account of the expedi¬
tion of Alexander.
In all civilized countries biography has always formed a
favourite subject of study. France has been especially pro¬
lific in biographical publications, and our own country can
show a goodly array of volumes in this department of litera¬
ture; and, indeed, the same may be said of Italy, Germany,
and Spain. To enumerate even the principal works of this
class, whether single lives or biographical collections and
dictionaries, in any of these languages, would far exceed
our limits. We shall therefore content ourselves with a few
general reflections on the uses and peculiarities of biogra¬
phical composition.
It is pleasant no less than instructive to be, as it were,
introduced to the companionship of men who have been
distinguished in the sphere which they occupied. If they
be great and good men, we love to be made acquainted with
the motives of their actions, to follow them in their wander¬
ings, to mark the difficulties and the opposition they had to
encounter in their honourable struggles through life, the
energy and skill by which these were overcome, and the
courage that animated them to persevere in their career of
usefulness and honour.
If the author honestly exhibit the failings as well as the
excellences of his subject, the reader will be warned of the
quicksands and dangers that beset the path of life; and
should he succeed in portraying aright the attractive linea¬
ments of a virtuous character, he will insensibly arouse in
the mind of the reader aspirations after the excellences
which , he is led to admire. The mind has a tendency to
assimilate to the character of those with whom we asso¬
ciate; and to peruse the memoirs of wise and good men is
living for the time in their company.
Every man, whatever be his sphere in life, has an influ¬
ence for good or for evil on the society around him; and
he who gives to the world the history of an exemplary life,
reproduces in a certain degree the influence which had been
extinguished by the hand of death. The biographer not
only revives the lost influence, but by the circulation of his
narrative he becomes the medium of more extended useful¬
ness, and in some degree a benefactor of mankind.
Where personal character and habits form the principal
subject of interest, a stranger stands at too great a distance
to give to his portrait a faithful outline or correct colouring:
a true picture can only be drawn by one whose friendly in¬
tercourse gave opportunity of marking the peculiar charac¬
teristics of his subject.
Autobiography, or memoirs of one’s self, is preferable to
biography only when the writer has something to commu¬
nicate, by way of confession or explanation, of which no
other person is cognisant. But it is almost impossible, nor
is it perhaps desirable, that an autobiographer should dis¬
close with unflinching impartiality the whole particulars of
his life, and unveil the real motives of his actions.
“ Thus conscience does make cowards of us all.”
Nevertheless, in autobiography concealment itself is a
species of disclosure. The moment a man begins to speak
of himself, however cautious his mode of expression, the
discerning reader will have little difficulty in appreciating
his real character and the quality of his actions. What
reader is blind to the bad temper, meanness, and impracti¬
cableness of Rousseau, notwithstanding his cunning attempts
to disguise them ? The autobiographer always betrays him¬
self when he least suspects it: he exhibits his greatest
weakness when he flatters himself that he is putting forth
his strength. The task of the autobiographer is not only
delicate but difficult. How frequently does the conscious¬
ness of sitting for one’s portrait to another alter at once the
726
B X R
B X E
whole demeanom'; but still more marked is the change when
a man becomes the limner of his own mental likeness. In
short, the obstacles to a successful execution of this experi¬
ment are almost insuperable.
Of autobiographies which interest principally as histories
of the mind, the examples are rare; but those which are
intended to amuse or instruct, as delineations of the times
in which the w'riter lived, are innumerable. Of biography
of all kinds the same may be said. The unparalleled in¬
crease of this department of literature in our own time may
be regarded as one of the most characteristic features of the
age; and, as must therefore be the case, the number of ob¬
scure or unimportant lives thus chronicled forms an enor¬
mous proportion to the histories that are truly deserving
of record.
BIOLOGY (/3to? and Adyos), a term introduced by Tre-
viranus of Bremen, in place of physiology, to signify the
science of life.
BION of Smyrna, a bucolic poet, who flourished about
the year b.c. 280. He was an admirable poet, according
to the accounts of his disciple Moschus; and the few pieces
of his which are extant tend to confirm that opinion. The
latter years of his life were spent in Sicily, where he died
by poison. The best editions of the poems of Bion, includ¬
ing those of Moschus, are by Fr. Jacobs, Gotha, 1795; Gil¬
bert Wakefield, London, 1795 ; and that of J. F. Manso,
Leipzig, 1807, which contains an elaborate dissertation on
his life and poetry, and a German translation.
Bion, surnamed Borysthenites, a Scythian philosopher,
born at Borystbenes. Lie flourished about b.c. 250, and
resided for some time at the court of Antigonus Gonatas,
king of Macedonia. He was the son of a freedman, and
while young w7as sold as a slave to a rhetorician, who
adopted him as his heir (Diog. Laert. iv.) Athenseus (xiii.
c. 293) states that his mother was a Lacedaemonian cour¬
tezan named Olympia. He studied at Athens, where he
became first an academic and a disciple of Crates, and then
a Cynic ; and after embracing the tenets of Theodoras the
atheist, he finally became a pupil of Theophrastus the peri¬
patetic. Bion was possessed of much natural acuteness;
but his habits of life were grossly profligate. The keenness
of his satire is alluded to by Horace, Epist. ii. 2. 60.
BIPES, a genus of reptiles, in which the hind feet alone
are visible. See Reptiles.
BIQUADRATE, or Biquadratic, is the next powrer
above the cube, or the square multiplied by itself.
BIQUADRATIC Equation, an equation raised to the
fourth powder, or where the unknown quantity of one of the
terms has four dimensions. Thusxi + a*3 + bo?■\-cx-\-d=0
is a biquadratic equation. See Algebra.
Biquadratic Parabola, in Geometry, a curve line of the
third order, having two infinite legs tending the same way.
Biquadratic Poiver of any number is the fourth power,
or squared square of that number. Thus 16 is the biqua¬
dratic pow7er of 2 ; for 2 x 2 = 4 and 4x4=16.
Biquadratic Boot of any number is the square root of the
square root of that number. Thus the biquadratic root of
81 is 3; for the square root of 81 is 9, and the square root
of 9 is 3.
BIR, or Beer, a towrn of Asiatic Turkey, in the govern¬
ment of Orfa. It occupies an elevated situation on the left
bank of the Euphrates, which is here about 130 yards broad,
deep and rapid, and is crossed by a bridge of boats. The
town consists of about 2000 houses, mostly in a decaying
state, and is protected by a citadel, which stands on a pre¬
cipitous eminence, and by a wTall in a dilapidated condition.
Bir is a considerable thoroughfare from Aleppo to Orfa, Diar-
bekr, and Persia, and a considerable trade was formerly car¬
ried on to Baghdad by vessels descending the river. It is
144 miles N.E. of Aleppo, and 115 S.W. of Diarbekr. Long.
38. 6. E. Lat. 36. 48. N. / ' ‘ " 
BIRBHOOM, a British district of Hindustan, in the Birbhoom
province of Bengal, situated between Lat. 23. 32. and 24. II
40. Long. 86. 25. and 88.30., and containing an area of4730 Birch,
square miles, with a population of 1,040,876. Along the
courses of the rivers Damooda and Hadjee, which traverse
the southern and western parts of the district, coal and iron
ore are found in large quantities. The district was acquired
by the East India Company in 1765, by virtue of the grant
of the emperor of Delhi. (e. t.)
BIRCH, Thomas, D.D., a laborious and voluminous his¬
torical and biographical writer, born in London in 1705.
His parents were Quakers; and his father w7as by trade a
coffee-mill maker. By his unremitting diligence in his
studies, though he had not the advantage of a university
education, he soon became qualified to take holy orders
in the Church of England. In 1728 he married the daugh¬
ter of the Rev. Mr Cox, to whom he was curate ; but
in less than a year this lady died in childbed. In 1732 he
was recommended to the friendship and favour of the Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke, then attorney-general, to whom, and
to the succeeding Earl of Hardwicke, he was indebted for
all his preferments. In 1732 he obtained the living of
Ulting in Essex ; and in 1734 was appointed one of the do¬
mestic chaplains to the unfortunate Earl of Kilmarnock, who
was beheaded in 1746. He became a member of the Royal
Society in February 1734-35, and of the Society of Anti¬
quaries in December 1735 ; and was afterwards director of
the latter, which office he held till his death. Previously,
the Marischal College of Aberdeen had conferred on him
the degree of master of arts. In 1743, through the interest
of Lord Hardwicke, he was presented by the crown to the
sinecure rectory of Landewy Welfrey, in Pembrokeshire ;
and in 1743-44 he w7as preferred to the rectory of Siding-
ton in St Peter’s, in the diocese of Gloucester; but he ap¬
pears to have quitted this charge almost immediately. On
the 24th of February 1743-44, he was appointed to the
united rectories of St Michael Woodstreet and St Mary
Staining; and in 1745-46 to the united rectories of St Mar¬
garet Patens and St Gabriel, Fenchurch Street. In January
1752 he was elected one of the secretaries of the Royal So¬
ciety. In 1753 the Marischal College of Aberdeen created
him doctor of divinity ; and in that year the same degree
was conferred on him by Archbishop Herring. He was
one of the trustees of the British Museum, for which honour
he was probably indebted to the Earl of Hardwicke, as he
also was for his last preferment, the rectory of Depden in
Essex, to which he was inducted in February 1761. In
the latter part of his life he was chaplain to the Princess
Amelia. In 1765 he resigned his office of secretary to the
Royal Society. His. death was caused by a fall from his
horse, or perhaps by a fit of apoplexy, on the road between
'London and Hampstead, in the sixty-first year of his age.
Dr Birch bequeathed his library of books and manuscripts,
and all his pictures and prints not otherwise disposed of by
his will, to the British Museum. He likewise left about
L.500, to be laid out in government securities, for the pur¬
pose of applying the interest to increase the salaries of the
three assistant librarians.
His principal publications were, 1. The General Dictionary,
Historical and Critical, including a new translation of Bayle,
and interspersed with several thousand new lives, in ten vo¬
lumes folio. 2. DrCudworth’s Intellectual System, improved
from the Latin edition of Mosheim ; his Discourse on the true
Notion of the Lord’s Supper; and two Sermons, with an ac¬
count of his Life and Writings, 2 vols. 4to, 1743. 3. The
Life of the Honourable Robert Boyle, 1744, prefixed to an
edition of that philosopher’s works. 4. The Lives of Illus¬
trious Persons of Great Britain, annexed to the engravings of
Houbraken and Yertue, 1747-1752. 5. An Inquiry into the
share which King Charles I. had in the Transactions of the
Earl of Glamorgan, 1747, 8vo. 6. An edition of Spenser’s
Faery Queen, 1751, 3 vols. 4to, with prints from designs by
4
B I R B I R 727
Birch Kent. 7. The Miscellaneous Works of Sir Walter Raleigh,
[| with his Life, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. 8. The Theological, Moral,
Bird’s- Dramatic, and Poetical Works of Mrs Catherine Cockburn,
Nests, with a Life, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. 9. The Life of Dr Tillotson,
Archbishop of Canterbury, compiled chiefly from his original
Papers and Letters; 1762, 8vo. 10. Milton’s Prose Works,
1753, 2 vols. 4to, with a Life. 11. Memoirs of the Reign of
Queen Elizabeth, from the year 1581 till her death; from the
original papers of his intimate friend Anthony Bacon, Esq., and
other MSS.; 1754, 2 vols. 4to. 12. The History of the Royal
Society of London, from its first rise ; 1756 and 1757,4 vols. 4to.
13. The Life of Henry Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I.,
compiled chiefly from his own papers and other MSS., 1760,
8vo. His numerous communications to the Royal Society may
be seen in the Philosophical Transactions.
Birch. See Planting and Index.
BIRD, William, an eminent English composer, and one
of the best organists of his time, was born about 1546, and
died at London, 4th July 1623. He was organist of Lincoln
cathedral in 1563; and in 1575 he and his master Tallis were
gentlemen of the chapel royal, and organists to Queen Eliza¬
beth. Bird was the earliest English composer of madrigals;
and among his numerous sacred compositions, some are still
much esteemed. His vocal canon Non nohis Domine is
well known, and often sung. In his compositions there is
a freedom and elegance rarely found in the music of that
period. (g. f. g.)
Bird. See Ornithology.
Bird’s-Eye View, a perspective representation of objects
as they appear when viewed from above.
BiRD-Ze'mc, a viscid substance used for snaring birds. It
is usually prepared by boiling holly bark ten or twelve hours;
and when the green coat is separated from the other, it is
covered up for a fortnight in a moist place ; then pounded
into a tough paste, and washed in a running stream till no
motes appear. It is next put up to ferment for four or five
days, and repeatedly skimmed. To prepare it for use, a
third part of nut-oil, or thin grease, must be incorporated
with it over the fire.
Birds, in Heraldry, according to their several kinds, re¬
present either the contemplative or active life. They are
the emblems of liberty, expedition, readiness, swiftness, and
the like, and are therefore more honourable bearings than
fishes. Birds must be borne in coat-armour, as is best fit¬
ting the propriety of their natural actions. Such as are
either whole-footed, or have their feet divided, and yet have
no talons, are said to be membered; but the cock, and all
birds of prey wdth sharp and hooked beaks and talons for
encounter or defence, are said to be armed. In the blazon¬
ing of birds, if their wings be not displayed, they are said
to be borne close.
Bird’s-Nests, Edible, the nests of a small Indian swrallow,
wdiich are eaten as a delicacy. These birds abound on the
sea-coasts of China and in Java at certain seasons of the year.
They build in the rocks, and fashion their nests out of a
gelatinous matter which they find on the shore. According
to Kempfer, this substance is molluscae or sea-worms ; M.
le Poivre supposes it to be fish-spawn; and according to
Linnaeus, it is a kind of medusa or jelly-fish. The nests are
hemispherical, of the size of a goose’s egg, and in substance
much resemble ichthyocolla or isinglass. They are sent to
all parts of the world, and are highly prized as a luxury.
They abound in Sumatra, particularly about Croe, near the
south end of the island. Four miles up the river of that
name is a large cave, where the birds build in vast numbers.
The nests are distinguished into white and black; but of
these the former are more scarce and valuable, being found
m the proportion of only one to twenty-five. According to
J arS(len s account, the white nests sell in China at the rate
o 1000 to 1500 Spanish dollars the pecul; the black are dis¬
posed of at Batavia for about twenty dollars the same weight,
an Manufactured into glue. The difference of colour is
said to be owing to the admixture of feathers. By steepino- Bh-en
for a short time in hot water, the black nests are said to II
become in a great degree white. The natives enter the Birken-
caves with torches, and by means of a ladder made of a head'
single bamboo notched, they take the nests, which adhere
in masses from the side anil top of the rock. The more
frequently and regularly the cave is stripped, the greater
proportion of white nests is found; for which reason they
destroy the old nests, in order that they may find their place
supplied by white nests the next season. (See also Craw-
furd’s Eastern Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 432 ; and Count
Hogendorp’s Coup d'CEil sur File de Java, p. 291.)
BIREN. See Anna Ivanovna, and Russia.
BIRGUS, a species of land crab, or crustaceous animal,
that can live either on land or under water, having respira¬
tory organs fitted for both modes of existence. The most
remarkable is B. latro, that climbs cocoa trees to prey on
the fruit, a native of Amboyna. This species is described
by Gumming as inhabiting the islands in the Pacific, and
we know that B. laticauda is found in Mauritius.
BIRKBECK, George, an English physician and philan¬
thropist, born in Yorkshire in 1776. He early evinced a
strong predilection for scientific pursuits ; and shortly after
graduating as doctor of medicine, he was appointed to the
chair of natural philosophy at the Andersonian Institution
of Glasgow. In 1804, with a view to the improvement of
the working-classes of that town, he delivered for their be¬
hoof a gratuitous course of scientific lectures. From Glas¬
gow he removed to London, where he endeavoured to pro¬
secute his philanthropic schemes, at first without obtaining
much encouragement, but ultimately with marked success.
In 1827 he contributed to found the Mechanics’ Institute.
His coadjutors in this undertaking were Bentham, Wilkie,
Cobbett, and other distinguished men. He was appointed
director of the Institute, which he had originally endowed
with the sum of L.3700. This office he held till his death,
which took place on the 1st December 1841.
BIRKENHEAD, Sir John, a political writer, born about
1615. He suffered imprisonment several times during the
Commonwealth, for writing in favour of the exiled king. He
was one of the earliest English journalists, having conducted
a kind of weekly gazette, entitled Mercurius Aulicus, in one
or more quarto leaves, from 1st January 1642 until the end
of 1645. At the Restoration he received various prefer¬
ments for his loyalty, and was elected member of parliament
for Wilton. He died in 1679.
Birkenhead, a seaport, market-town, and township in
the union and lower division of the hundred of Wirrall,
south division of Cheshire. It is situated on the river Mer-
sey, opposite to and about f of a mile west from Liverpool
by ferry, 16 miles from Chester, and 202 from London. It
comprises the ancient extra-parochial district or chapelry of
Birkenhead, the former township of Claughton in Bidstone,
and part of Oxton in Woodchurch. Birkenhead is of consi¬
derable antiquity. In 1150 a priory was founded in honour of
St Mary and St James, by Harris de Massey, third baron of
Durham-Massey, which had considerable endowments. The
priors sat in the parliaments of the Earls of Chester, and
enjoyed all the dignities and privileges of palatinate barons.
The revenues of the priory were valued at the Reformation
at L.90, 13s. according to Dugdale, but Speed makes it
L.102, 16s. lOd. Of the priory building nothing now re¬
mains but a portion of the ivy-covered gable and Gothic
window of the refectory. The priory-house—which was
garrisoned by the royalists and captured by the parliamentary
troops in 1644—was pulled down in 1843.
From an obscure fishing village, Birkenhead has become
a large and important town with a rapidity truly marvellous.
In 1818 the village consisted of the priory, the priory-house,
three other houses, and a few cottages, and its population
was not more than 50. In 1821 the population was 200,
BIRKENHEAD.
in 1831 it was 2569, in 1841 it was 8227, and in 1851 it
had risen to 24,175, with 3228 houses, and 503 buildings
in course of erection. In 1823 the annual value of the as¬
sessable property was L.3101, and in 1847 it amounted to
L.! 14,SOL , . .
The town of Birkenhead is built on a regular plan, tne
principal streets running nearly east and west (one of them,
Conway Street, being upwards of two miles long), and crossed
at right angles by shorter streets. The summit of the ground
next the Mersey is occupied by Hamilton Square, which
contains 6^ acres of ground. The houses are four stones
high, with stone fronts, and the centres and ends of eac i
side ornamented with Doric columns. The sides of the
square coincide with the directions of the streets. Birken¬
head in some respects may be considered a model town,
its projectors at the outset providing for its future wants by
sewering the streets at the time they were laid out. In 1833
an act was obtained for paving and improving the town, for
regulating its police, and establishing a market. I his was
amended by another act in 1838; and in 1841 an act was
obtained for lighting it with gas and supplying it with water.
The level of the pumping-station is 104 feet above the sea,
and the wells are sunk 294 feet deep in the red sand¬
stone. A supply of excellent water is thus obtained, pumped
to such a height that it will rise above the tops of the houses
in Hamilton Square. c *
The market is in the form of a parallelogram, 430 teet
long, and 131 feet wide, and is well supplied with all sorts
of produce. It was opened July 12. 1845, at a total cost of
nearly L.35,000. About 400 yards from the market, in Jack-
son Street, are situated the slaughter-houses, a massive struc¬
ture of freestone, standing in a sufficient extent of ground to
admit of extension to meet the exigencies of the town.
For about 1150 yards Conway Street is bounded on the
south by Clifton park, a piece of ground of 180 acres
beautifully laid out by Mr Panton with plantations, flower¬
beds, lakes, and drives, for public recreation and enjoyment.
The park was opened April 5.1847. Near St James s Church,
which forms a beautiful termination to Conway Street, it is
proposed to form a public cemetery on the site of an old
quarry on Bidston Hill.
Besides St James’s Church, which is not completed, there
are five other Episcopal churches, one in connection with
the Established Church of Scotland, a Free Presbyterian
church, a Roman Catholic, a Wesleyan, and an Indepen¬
dent chapel. Of Welsh churches and chapels, there are
an Established church, an Independent, a Wesleyan Me¬
thodist, and a Calvinistic Methodist chapel. St Aidan s
Theological College was established in 1846. Its patron
is the Archbishop of Canterbury. The students are con¬
nected with the Liverpool Parochial Assistant Association,
the object of which is to provide additional aid to meet tne
pastoral wants of Liverpool, Wallon, Birkenhead, and the
neighbourhood. The Birkenhead Mechanics’ Institution
was established in 1840. There are numerous free schools
in connection with the different churches and chapels. There
is also a lying-in hospital, an infirmary, and a dispensary.
The late Mr William Laird, whose name is so well known
in connection with iron ship-building, first conceived the
idea of turning to advantage the capabilities of Wallasey pool
for the formation of a dock. After a lapse of many years,
the commissioners of Birkenhead, alive to the advantages
which the project of Mr Laird wmuld confer upon the town,
employed Mr Rendel as their engineer, and applied to par¬
liament for powers to construct works embracing a sea wall
from Woodside to Seacombe, docks at Bridge-end, and a
tidal basin of 37 acres, accessible at all times of the tide, by
vessels of 12 feet draught; a basin of 16 acres for coasters,
and a dam to pen up the waters of Wallasey pool into a
float, like that at Bristol. The bill passed on the 15th
July 1844, and the foundation-stone of the new docks was
laid by Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, on Oct. 23.
1844. On the 5th of April 1847 the first dock was opened
by Lord Morpeth, and called the Morpeth Dock. Subse¬
quently the dock powers of the commissioners were trans¬
ferred by act of parliament to a corporate body of trustees
(thirteen) ; six of whom are elected by the bondholders, four
by the commissioners of Birkenhead from their own body, and
three by the commissioners of Wallasey from their own body.
The docks are intended to bound the town on the north and
north-east, and partly on the east, extending from the pier at
Woodside-ferry to the Wallasey bridge. The Wallasey pool
will form a great float of 150 acres. It separates Birken¬
head from Bolton-cum-Seacombe in the parish of Wallasey,
and will communicate on the east with a low-water basin of
37 acres, and on the S.E. with the Egerton dock of 3 acres.
On the north the Egerton dock will be connected with the
low-water basin, and on the S.E. with the Morpeth Dock.
The Morpeth Dock communicates on the S.E. with a tidal
basin of 16 acres for coasters. The total accommodation will
be above 200 acres. The great sea-wall next the Mersey
will be broken only by the entrance to the low-water basin
of 27 acres. At its southern extremity is the basin of 16
acres, bounded on the south by the Woodside-ferry pier.
The company, established under an act of parliament, and
called the Birkenhead Dock Warehouse Company, pur¬
chased a large extent of land fronting Wallasey pool, and
laid it out to accommodate the rising traffic of the port. In
April 1847 their first warehouses, capable of stowing 80,000
tons of goods, were opened. Each block of warehouses is
detached and provided with water, and the whole premises
are surrounded by a wall 12 feet high. A railway branching
from the Chester and Birkenhead line is carried round the
property. The company also built houses for their work¬
men, but although ingeniously constructed, the error of too
great an economy of space has, despite very perfect internal
arrangements, rendered this part of their speculation unie-
munerative. ,
The custom-house department of Birkenhead is under
that of Liverpool, and the entries passed at the latter place
answer for Birkenhead. .
Many manufactories have sprung up on the margin ot the
pool, such as iron-foundries, gun-works, boile -yards, pot¬
teries, varnish works, breweries, &c. No place could be
better suited for the establishment of ship-building yards
and manufactories, which require, on sanitary and economi¬
cal grounds, to be situated at a distance from the inhabited
portion of a large town.
In regard to traffic accommodation Birkenhead is well
provided. It has three ferries with a hotel at each. The
ferries of Woodside and Monks ferry belong by purchase
to the commissioners of Birkenhead. The slips at \v ood-
side are excellent, and the boats are admirably managed.
The Monks ferry is in connection with the Chester and
Birkenhead railway. The Birkenhead ferry and hotel are
the property of the corporation of Liverpool.
The Chester and Birkenhead railway, 16 miles in length,
connects Birkenhead with the midland counties, with the
metropolis, and with Ireland. By a tunnel of about 500
yards long, the line is extended to the water s edge at Monks
ferry. The station there is extensive, being 250 teet long, and
120 feet wide. Another extension line is carried from Grange
Lane to the docks. It has two stations, one at Canning Street
for passengers, and the other at the docks for goods.
The affairs of the township of Birkenhead are managed by
21 commissioners chosen by the rate-payers ; seven ol t lese
retire annually, but are eligible for re-election. The commis¬
sioners of the town were constituted originally under an act
passed June 10. 1833. The mayors and bailiffs of Liver¬
pool, with the 4 junior aldermen, together with 60 other
persons named in the act, were constituted the commis¬
sioners. A subsequent act of the 1 st \ ict. deci eed, t
B I R
Birket-el- there were to be 24 commissioners, 3 of whom were to be
Keroun appointed by the town-council of Liverpool, and the re-
li. mainder elected by the rate-payers. In 1846 an act was
Bl™m Passed f°r the exclusion of the Liverpool members, (j. N.)
t BIRKET-el-Keroun, ?.e., the Horn or How Lake, the
“^ ancient Mceris, is in the province of Fayoum, in Central
Egypt, in Lat. 29. 30. N. Long. 30. 31. E. This lake has
undergone a remarkable diminution since the days of Hero¬
dotus. It was then from 400 to 500 miles in circumfer¬
ence, while its present length is about 30 miles, its greatest
breadth about 6, and it is gradually contracting. Its waters
are brackish, but it still abounds in fish. It communicates
by two channels with the Nile. See Egypt.
Birket-el-Mariouth, or El Kreit, known to the an
cients as the Palus Marea or Mareotis, a lake in Lower
Egypt, in Lat. 31. 4. N. Long. 30. 4. E., separated from the
sea by the narrow peninsula on which Alexandria stands.
After the fall of that city the waters of the lake were gradu¬
ally dried up. In 1801 a French garrison took possession
of Alexandria, and the British army sent to expel them cut
a canal across the isthmus, and let in the waters of the
sea. The old bed of the lake was covered to the extent
of 30 miles in length, and 15 in breadth, while the depth
of the water varies from 4 to 14 feet. See Alexandria,
and Egypt.
BIRMAH. See Burmah.
BIRMINGHAM, or Bermingham, a large commercial
and manufacturing town, situated in a projecting angle of
the north-western portion of the county of Warwick, near
the confines of Staffordshire and Worcestershire. It is in 52.
59. N. Lat. and 1. 18. W. Long.: 102 miles in a straight
line N.W. of London, and by the North-Western railway
112 miles. The parish of Birmingham is bounded on the
E. and N.E. by the parish of Aston, and on the south by
that of Edgbaston, both in the county of Warwick ; and on
the W. and N.W. by those of Harborne and Handsworth, in
the county of Stafford. The parishes of Birmingham and
Edgbaston, with about a third part of Aston, form the parlia¬
mentary and municipal borough; the total area in statute
acres being 7831 ; of which Birmingham contains 2660,
Edgbaston 2545, and Aston 2626.
The parish from which the town derives its name, is, with
the exception of a small portion of land at its western and
northern extremities, almost entirely covered with build¬
ings. Edgbaston, from the circumstance of the fee-simple
of almost the entire parish being vested in one proprietor,
who exercises a stringent control as to the nature of the
buildings erected, is the most pleasant and fashionable part
of the borough.
Birmingham is situated nearly in the centre of England,
built on the crest and sides of a gentle hill, and when viewed
from the S.E. presents the appearance of a vast semi¬
circle, the gradual elevation of the surface adding to the
picturesqueness of the view. This circumstance, too, is fa¬
vourable to its salubrity ; and the general health of the inha¬
bitants will bear comparison with that of any other large ma¬
nufacturing district. Water is obtained in abundance at a
medium depth of about 20 yards ; and the town is further
supplied by a company, whose distribution of this first ne¬
cessary of life amounts to upwards of a million gallons per
day, and occasionally even to upwards of two million gal¬
lons. One shallow river, the Rea, flows through the lower
part of the town, and affords a convenient outlet for drainage.
The general appearance of the town, which in the earlier
part of the present century was not of an inviting character,
is rapidly improving. In addition to the public buildings,
now becoming numerous, many judicious alterations have
been effected by the widening of streets, the removal of un¬
sightly buildings, and the cultivation of a more refined taste
in street architecture generally. The great value of land,
however, in the principal thoroughfares, forms the main ob-
VOL. IV.
BIB 729
stacle to the carrying forward of improvements greatly Birming-
needed in almost every direction. Many of the streets in hara-
the suburbs, and in the centre of the town, are occupied with
the residences of the working classes, who, too frequently,
seek to reside in as close proximity as possible to the* manu¬
factories in which they are employed. Each family, how¬
ever, has a residence of its own, and the practice of living in
cellars is here entirely unknown.
Anterior to the Norman conquest Birmingham was a mar¬
ket-town, and probably to some limited extent its inhabitants
were engaged in manufactures. Its proximity to the iron and
coal districtsof Staffordshire would afford great facilities to the
workers in metals; but the arguments that have been made use
of to show that it was a place of manufacturing celebrity in
the times of the ancient Britons are so extravagant as to carry
with them their own refutation. Notwithstanding its local
advantages, the progress of the town must for a long period
have been slow, as in the levy of men ordered to be made
for the French war in 1346 Birmingham contributed but
four, while Coventry supplied forty. Leland is the first
writer who has left any description of the town on record.
In the Itinerary (temp. Henry VIII.) he thus speaks :—
“ The beauty of Birmingham, a good market towne in the
extreame parts of Warwickshire, is one street going up alonge
almost from the left ripe of the brooke [the Rea], up a
meane hill by the length of a quarter of a mile. I saw but
one paroch church in the towne. There be many smithes
in the towne, that use to make knives, and all manner of
cutting tooles, and many lorimers that make bittes, and a
great many naylors; so that a great part of the towne is
maintained by smithes, whoe have their iron and sea-cole
out of Staffordshire.” Camden, who wrote half a century
later, describes it as “ swarming with inhabitants, and echo¬
ing with the noise of anvils (for here are great numbers of
smithes).” The parochial registers, which commence in
1554, show that the population must at that period have
been very limited, as the entries of deaths in the first six
months amount to only 16, the marriages to 6, and the
births to about 24. At the commencement of the following
century, however, an increase was apparent; the burials in
1608 being 37, and in 1611, 64 ; the marriages in 162] were
10, and in 1625, 17; and in 1627 the baptisms were 102.
In the unhappy contest between Charles I. and his par¬
liament, the inhabitants warmly espoused the cause of the
latter; and in 1642, when the king was on his march from
Shrewsbury to relieve Banbury, they disarmed a guard who
were conveying the royal plate and furniture to the camp,
and sent their prize to Warwick Castle, one of the strong¬
holds of their party. So devoted also were they to the
cause they had espoused, that their workshops supplied 15,000
swordblades to Cromwell’s soldiers, while no temptations
could induce them to furnish a single weapon to the royalist
forces. In 1643 they opposed Prince Rupert’s entrance
into the town, but were defeated with considerable loss ; and
the victors not only levied heavy contributions, but set the
town on fire, eighty houses being consumed. In this fray
the Earl of Denbigh lost his life. A more serious calamity,
however,—the plague,—desolated the town in 1665, and the
inhabitants were compelled to bury their dead in a lonely
spot called Lady wood, at the outskirts of the town. No
records remain to show the number of victims, the entries of
burials in the parochial registers not exhibiting any increase
over their ordinary numbers.
The revolution of 1688 was signalized by the total demoli¬
tion of a Roman Catholic church and convent. These build¬
ings had only been erected a few months ; James II. having
been a contributor of 125 tons of timber from the royal forest
of Needwood. But the close of the eighteenth century was
marked by an outbreak of so disgraceful a character as to
have left an indelible stigma on the party at whose instiga¬
tion it was excited. The strenuous efforts of the dissenters
4 z
730
BIRMINGHAM.
Birming¬
ham.
throughout the kingdom to obtain redress of the grievances
under which they laboured, had been in no instance more
zealously supported than by the Unitarians of Birmingham ;
and Dr Priestley, the minister of one of the meeting houses
belonging to that body, by his arguments and satire, had ex¬
cited against himself the hatred of the more violent mem¬
bers of the church party. The orthodox dissenters, while
warmly sympathizing with the doctor’s views relative to the
connection of ecclesiastical establishments with the state,
held aloof from him on account of his religious writings and
opinions, and hence were not viewed with the same degree
of dislike. On the 14th of July 1791, a dinner in comme¬
moration of the French revolution was held at the Hotel, but
as the public mind had been excited by an inflammatory
handbill that had been extensively circulated, the company
separated at an early hour. A mob assembled, however,
and for three days held the town completely under their
control, burning and pillaging the places of worship and pri¬
vate houses of the Unitarian body. The damage, at a mo¬
derate computation, was L.60,000 ; but of all the property
destroyed no loss was so much to be deplored as that of Dr
Priestley’s laboratory and library, where the results of the
doctor’s scientific researches during a whole life were col¬
lected. The reputation of the town suffered for many years
from the remembrance of this outbreak ; but religious animo¬
sities by degrees subsided, as Dr Priestley, against whom the
chief feeling was raised, never again resided in Birmingham.
When the great movement in favour of parliamentary re¬
form was commenced in 1830, Birmingham took the lead,
but notwithstanding the intensity of the political excitement,
no breach of the peace occurred : and the working classes
have on many occasions borne tbe reverses of trade, which
have sometimes been severe, with exemplary patience. In
1839 when the people, at the instigation of trading political
agitators, had abandoned those leaders in whose counsels
they had previously reposed confidence, an aimless out¬
break occurred, and several houses in the market-place were
destroyed.
The family of De Bermingham is supposed to have held
the manor before the Norman conquest, and retained it after
that epoch in dependence on the Norman lord of Dudley
Castle. One of them engaged in the Barons’ war against
Henry III., and fell at the battle of Evesham in 1265 ; but
under the Dictum de Kenilworth the estate was restored to
his son. The last male representative was deprived of the
family possessions through a conspiracy of John Dudley
Duke of Northumberland, in 1527, who being desirous of
obtaining the estate, contrived a pretended robbery by his
creatures, in the presence of De Bermingham, when riding
in the vicinity of the town ; and who being tried and con¬
victed as an accessary, was persuaded to surrender his
estates to the crown, on promise of a pardon, and a Small an¬
nuity. The act of parliament confirming the pardon still
remains on the statute book. On the attainder of Northum¬
berland, the manor lapsed to the crown, and was granted
in 1555 to Thomas Marrow, of Berkswell, in the county of
Warwick. The present owner is Christopher Musgrave,
Esq. The value, however, is little more than nominal, as
the market-tolls were purchased by the commissioners under
the Street Act, whose powers were vested in the town-
council by tbe Improvement Act of 1851. They now pro¬
duce L.6400 per annum. The manorial residence, which stood
near the parish church, and was surrounded by a moat, fell
into decay after the ruin of the family; but the moat re¬
mained till 1816, when with other land it was appropriated
to the purposes of a cattle-market.
From the earliest known period Birmingham was governed
by two bailiffs, chosen at the court leet of the lord of the
manor; but these officers, for several centuries, could have
been but mere deputies of the lord, having no separate or
independent powers. They were recognized authorities,
however, as instances occur of writs of the crown having Binning,
been directed to them as early as the time of Edward HI. ham-
The duty of the high bailiff (who was generally a Church- N'-*'1
man) was to convene public meetings, inspect the markets,
and proclaim the fairs, two in number. The low bailiff
(usually a dissenter) summoned the leet jury, on whom de¬
volved the choice of the other officers. By the provisions of
the Reform Bill, the elective franchise, with the privilege of
returning two members to parliament, was conferred upon
the town, the bailiffs being appointed returning officers. In
1839, a charter of incorporation was granted by the crown,
but its validity was disputed, though ultimately confirmed
by the legislature. In consequence of the various boards of
commissioners retaining their authority undiminished, the
powers of the corporation were of very limited extent; and
it was not till 1851 that the conflicting views of the differ¬
ent bodies could be sufficiently harmonized to allow of a suc¬
cessful application to parliament for a bill consolidating the
whole of the governing powers within the borough. By
virtue of this act, all the rights and privileges formerly be¬
longing to the different boards are now vested in the town-
council ; and the offices of high and low bailiffs are but a
name. The revenue of the corporation is derived entirely
from rates levied on the inhabitants.
With the exception of the parish church of St Martin, Bir¬
mingham possesses no buildings of antiquity.. A few half-
timbered houses, with projecting eaves and pointed gables, of
the time of James I., still remain in that portion of the town
which Leland denominated “ a pretty street ”—Deritend.; and
part of a brick mansion of considerable size (also belonging to
the Jacobean era) stands at the back of a retail shop , in the
High Street. The remembrance of the hospital or priory of
St Thomas the Apostle is still preserved in several streets, bear¬
ing the names of Upper and Lower Priory, Minories, and
Thomas Street, though the building itself was destroyed before
the close of the sixteenth century ; and the possessions of ano¬
ther establishment, of a semi-religious character, the Guild of
the Holy Cross, were granted by Edward VI. for the purpose
of endowing the grammar school now called after that pious
monarch. ,
Until the year 1711. Birmingham proper possessed but. one
parish church, that of St Martin’s, erected about the .middle
or towards the close of the thirteenth century. The interior
has undergone considerable changes, many incongruous altera¬
tions having been made, while the exterior was cased with
brick so far back as 1692, and presents, in consequence, a
mean and uninviting appearance. The spire escaped this re¬
novation, but having been constructed of a friable stone, was
in so dilapidated a condition as to require to be taken down
in 1853 preparatory to the erection ot a new one. This ele¬
gant specimen of architectural skill was erected about the
middle of the fourteenth century. The.church contains some
ancient monuments of the lords of Bermingham, and a. curious
one of an ecclesiastic, which were carefully restored , in 1846.
St Philip’s church, consecrated in 1715, is in the Italian style,
and the general effect is striking and beautiful. The churches
of the establishment in the entire borough are twenty-five
in number, eighteen having been erected within the last thirty
years. Two new ones are also in course of erection (1854). The
dissenting chapels are numerous, and some of them display evi¬
dence of superior taste. The members of the Roman Catholic
body possess a cathedral and episcopal residence, a chapel, an
oratory of St Philip Neri, a convent for Sisters of Mercy, ad¬
jacent to which is an asylum for destitute female, servants,
and a cemetery. There are also two public cemeteries of con¬
siderable extent, the grounds of which are laid out with great
Until a recent period Birmingham was entirely destitute of
public buildings having the smallest pretension to architectural
beauty. But the deficiencies of former days are now being
rapidly supplied. Chief among the ornaments of the borough
is the town-hall, a splendid edifice in the Corinthian style.
The most remarkable feature of this building is a series ot
fluted columns forty feet in height, which rest on a rustic base¬
ment, and support a bold entablature. The front elevation is
B I R M I N G IJ A M.
Binning- terminated hy a noble enriched pediment, and the general
liam. effect is exceedingly striking. The principal room in the in-
terior is 145 feet long, 65 wide, and of the same height. It
will accommodate about 4000 persons when seated, but double
that number in a standing position. The decorations of the
walls and root are very rich. The building was commenced
in 1832, and was opened for the first time in October 1834, on
the occasion of the triennial musical festival for the benefit of
the general hospital. The organ at the northern extremity of
the hall is one ot the finest in Europe, and was erected by public
subscription. The cost of the hall, including land, was about
L.40,000. The design was not entirely completed till 1850,
the additional expense being L.12,000. The material em¬
ployed is Anglesea granite. The market-hall commenced about
1830, is of Grecian design, having two large Doric, besides
smaller entrances. It is 360 feet m length by 108 in width,
and 60 in height, and is lighted by twenty- six windows on each
side, with six at the north, and two at the south entrances, as
well as by skylights. The roof is supported by seventeen series
of beams, which rest on as many pairs of iron pillars 28 feet
in height and 20 feet apart. In addition to stallage for more
than 500 persons, there is sufficient space for 4000 persons to
perambulate. The expense of the erection was L.30,000, but
the site cost more than double that sum. Near the market-
hall is placed the sole statue of which Birmingham can at pre¬
sent boast, erected in 1809 to the memory of Lord Nelson.
The public office—the only building belonging to the town in
which public meetings could be held before the erection of the
town-hall—is in the Ionic style: having been considerably en¬
larged in 1830, it now contains numerous apartments in which
much of the public business is transacted. The town prison
is situated at the back of this building. The borough jail,
which was built by the corporation, is very capacious, inclosing
within its boundaries seven acres of land, and containing ac¬
commodation for more than 300 prisoners. The separate sys¬
tem of prison-discipline is here carried out. Adjacent to the jail
is the lunatic asylum, in which 350 patients can be accommo¬
dated. This building was also erected by the corporation, who
have likewise established a set of baths. A new workhouse,
under the supervision of the guardians of the poor, was opened
in 1852, and the total expense incurred in the erection of these
four edifices has been upwards of L.150,000. A plan of
sewerage is also being carried out, which will involve an ex¬
penditure equal to that just named. Bingley Exhibition Hall,
in the Roman-Doric style, erected in 1850 by share subscrip¬
tion at a cost of L.7000, for the accommodation of the great
cattle and poultry shows held annually in the town, is about
224 feet long by 212 wide, and covers If acre of land. These
exhibitions, which were commenced in 1849, are held in the
month of December, and have already attained so great a
degree of celebrity as to rival those of the London Smith-
field Club held about the same period, and have given a stimu¬
lus to the establishment of similar societies throughout the
kingdom. The number of visitors is generally from 40,000
to 50,000. A corn-exchange has also been recently erected by
private enterprise for the use of agriculturists and others at¬
tending the markets. There are also, in addition, a school of
design, post-otfice, theatre, news-room, subscription libraries,
and other minor public edifices. With the exception of the
polytechnic institution, which is a mechanics’ institute, there
is no institution for the promotion of science, but the corpora ¬
tion haying granted a site of land for the purpose. Buildings
for a Midland Literary and Scientific Institute on an extended
scale are about to be erected. A statue of the late Sir Robert
Peel by a native artist—Mr Peter Hollins'—will also be placed
m some public thoroughfare of the borough in the course of the
present year (1854). A flourishing society of artists, holding an
annual exhibition ot pictures, has been in existence in the town
tor eleven years. Street architecture has considerably ad¬
vanced of late, many of the retail shops and otfices being
erected in a style of magnificence worthy the important com-
munity amongst which they are situated. There is also a
botanic garden with extensive conservatories at Edgbaston.
The educational establishments of Birmingham are varied
and flourishing. The free grammar school, founded by Ed-
war y I. in 1552, is a noble institution, affording gratuitous in¬
struction in its chief and branch schools for nearly 2000 young
persons. The revenues are derived from lands formerly the
property of a semi-religious fraternity dissolved at the Refor-
731
mation, and called the “ Guild of the Holy Cross.” These Birmine-
possessions, originally of the value of L.21 per annum, are to ham.
a great extent situated in the principal thoroughfares of the ^
town ; and as much of the land has been let on building leases,
the expiry of these has augmented the income of the charity
from L.3300 in 1827, to L,10,000, and this sum will in a few
years be considerably increased. About 460 boys are taught
in the chief ychool; and nearly 1600 of both sexes in four
branch establishments. The school, which was erected from
the designs of Mr Barry, is in the perpendicular Gothic style,
174 feet long and 60 feet high. The front elevation consists of
two stories, with traceried windows, and is divided into compart¬
ments by buttresses, which terminate, above an embattled para¬
pet, in pinnacles enriched with crockets and finials. The
building cost, including the expense of additional land for the
site, L.71,000. In consequence of this great outlay, and the
establishment of an extended and more liberal system of edu¬
cation, the debts of the charity amounted to L.98,000, but the
whole of this sum has been paid from the proceeds of sales of
land to the railway companies. The tercentenary anniversary
of the foundation of the school was celebrated in April 1852
with great eclat. The Queen’s College (which had its origin
in a school of medicine, founded in 1828) obtained a royal charter
in 1843, and is a flourishing institution. Though originally
limited to medical students only, it has now its departments of
arts, law, and engineering, and has an efficient staff of highly
talented professors. Affiliated to the institution is the Queen’s
Hospital, erected in 1840. The collegiate buildings, which have
but a limited frontage, are in the perpendicular style, but the
effect of the facade is greatly impaired by the proximity of ad¬
jacent houses. The Blue-Coat school,founded in 1724, supports
and educates from 200 to 300 boys and girls, who are trained
in the principles of the Established Church, and apprenticed
at the age of fourteen. The annual income is about L.2500.
I here is also a Protestant-dissenters’ charity-school, supported
chiefly by the Unitarian body ; and a large and flourishing
free industrial school, besides numerous minor ones. In 1831
a proprietary school was established at Edgbaston, the build¬
ing being a handsome Elizabethan structure. There is a col¬
lege also, established in 1838, belonging to the Congrega-
tionalists: the number of students is about twenty. In the
vicinity of the town, a training college for the diocese of Wor¬
cester, and a reformatory institution for juvenile criminals,
have likewise been recently established. The census returns of
1851 show the number of day-schools in the borough to be
454, of which 66 are public and 388 private ; scholars on the
books, 22,183, and in actual attendance, 17,985 ; while of
Sunday-schools the number is 70, and of scholars on the books,
21,406, and in actual attendance, 14,376. The proportion of
children attending school to the entire population, is, of day-
scholars, 1 in 11-02, and of Sunday-scholars, 1 in 10‘42.
The charitable institutions of the town are numerous and im¬
portant. They consist of two hospitals, which administer re¬
lief to 20,000 out-patients, and 3700 in-patients annually ; a
general dispensary ; a lying-in hospital; and a variety of other
benevolent institutions. A savings-bank, with 23,674depositors,
and L.421,574 invested in government securities, has been in
operation for 27 years.
To the staple commodities of iron manufacture, brass goods
were added about the seventeenth century. This branch now
forms one of the most important in the town. Every description
of article in this metal is produced in immense quantities both
for the home and foreign markets. Metallic bedsteads in brass
and iron—this department being exclusively cultivated by
some of the largest houses—chandeliers, gas-brackets, cornice-
poles, ornamental railings, metallic picture frames, and curtain
bands; in addition to the humble but not less useful articles of
door-knobs, candlesticks, and hinges,find employment for many
thousands of men, women, and boys. The universal applica¬
tion of steam-power has led to the invention of numerous con¬
trivances for economizing labour, and the result has been a
greatly augmented faculty of production, which, by diminishing
the cost of manufacture, has materially increased the demand.
Another result has been that many branches of labour are now
brought within the range of female industry; and it was given
in evidence before a government commissioner in 1841, that in
one manufactory in the button trade the proportion of females
to males was ten to one ; while in another, in the same trade,
the numbers were 60 males and 300 females. Nearly one-half
732
B I R
Birming¬
ham.
of the married females are engaged in factory labour , the per¬
centage of deaths of children under five years of age is 48, or
nearly one-half of the entire number registered in the whole
borough. This awful rate of mortality can only be accounted
for by the fact just adverted to. Among the more elegant pro¬
ductions of the brassfoundry trade may be classed the manu¬
facture of lamps. These tasteful articles are produced m im¬
mense quantities: enamelled and gilt glass entering largely into
their composition. The buckle trade, for which Birmingham
was at one time so famous, has entirely disappeared ; and t
manufacture of metal buttons has considerably diminished
consequence of the general substitution of Florentine ones The
glass trade (including stained glass for wmdows) is very suc¬
cessfully cultivated; and m the vicinity of the town is the
gigantic establishment of Messrs Chance, who supplied the
whole of this material required for the glazing of the Crystal
Palace for the Exhibition of 1851. In near proximity also is
the immense foundry of Messrs Fox and Henderson, the con¬
tractors for the erection of the entire building. The wondrous
process of electro-plating, which has sprung up entirely within
the last few years, is now carried on to an almost incredible ex¬
tent. The manufactory of Messrs Elkmgton is the parent
establishment in the town ; and articles of the most dazzling
description, and in immense variety, are produced. Jewellery,
in the fabrication of which female labour largely enters, is made
in oreat quantities. Of steel pens fully seven hundred millions
are annually sent into the market. The consumption of steel
in the establishment of Mr Gillott for 1853 was 90 tons , the
number of pens manufactured, 261,273,600. The papier-machd
trade is cultivated very extensively. Many of the articles com¬
posed of this material, consisting of sofas, tables, and other kinds
of furniture, in addition to the smaller descriptions such as
desks, workboxes, and inkstands, are ornamented with figures
flowers, and landscapes, in a good style of art, and inlaid with
pearl— the effect produced being exquisitely beautiful. I he gun
trade, first stimulated by government patronage in the time of
William III., retains its pristine reputation; and a proof-house,
where all gun-barrels manufactured are required to be proved,
was established by an act of parliament in 1813. _ f he ordnance
department of government have also an establishment in the
town. Metal-rolling, wire-drawing, and pin-making, are ex¬
tensively carried on ; but to enumerate more than a few of the
more important trades, where the entire number is 250, were
unnecessary. The great agent of production, the steam-engine,
was introduced in 1767 by Mr Boulton, who, in conjunction
with his partner James Watt, acquired so wide a celebrity.
The Soho, two miles distant from.the town, where the manu¬
facture was formerly carried on, is now dismantled; but the
successors of the firm still conduct the business at Smeth¬
wick, a thriving locality in the neighbourhood. The steam-
power in the borough is nearly equal to that of 6000 horses,
or 90,000 men.
The town was first lighted with gas in 1819. There are Jio'v
two companies, whose annual production amounts to more than
300,000,000 cubic feet; and many of the larger establishments
manufacture their own supply. Canals were first introduced m
1767, and are still used to a considerable extent, notwithstand¬
ing their formidable rivals the railways. The Grand Junction,
connecting the town with Liverpool, was the first line of rail¬
way completed to Birmingham, having been opened in July
1837. This was followed by the London and Birmingham m
the following year, and subsequently by the Derby, and Glou¬
cester. For a considerable period the various lines had sepa¬
rate stations, but the inconvenience arising from this cause has
been remedied, and all the old lines now unite at one point,
in New Street. The length of the great central station (now
nearly completed) is more than 1100 feet, the width varying
from 188 to 211 feet. The structure (with the exception of the
necessary offices, which are of white brick) is composed of iron ;
and the roof, forming a segment of a circle, is covered with
fluted glass. Beneath the span of this immense fabric are ten
lines of rails, four platforms for passengers, and a roadway for
cabs ; but though the span is so great, the roof is unsupported
by a single pillar except those on either side. The Stour Valley
trains depart from this station; and the whole of the passenger
traffic of the London and North-Western and Midland lines will
be transferred to it in the course of the present year (1854).
The Oxford junction, a line belonging to the Great-\Yestern
Company, furnishes a second route to the metropolis ; and for
BIS
this in conjunction with the Dudley and W olverhampton, a
large station will be erected on Snow Hill. The destruction of
house property for the purposes of the different lines has been
immense; in one instance the whole of one side of a street a
mile in length having been removed.
In 1801, the population of Birmingham was 73,670; in 1811,
85,755; in 1821,106,721; in 1831,142,251; in 1841,182,922;
and in 1851,232,841, of whom 113,916 were males., and 118,925
females. The number of persons to a square mile is 41,853,
being greater than that of any other town in England^ except
London and Liverpool. The area in statute acres is 7831, and
the rateable property is assessed at L.655,621. The number
of houses in 1841 was 30,291, and in 1851, 48,892. The in¬
crease, however, would have been much more considerable but
for the cause already stated. (a. d—n.)
Biron
I!
Biscay.
BIRON, Armand de Gontault, Lord of, marshal of
France, and a celebrated general in the sixteenth century,
who signalized himself by his valour and conduct in seveial
sieges and battles. He was made grand master of the artil¬
lery in 1569 ; and so much was he respected or feared on
account of his valour, that nobody dared to assault him at the
massacre of St Bartholomew. He was the first who declared
for Henri IV.; brought a part of Normandy under his sub¬
jection; and dissuaded him from retiring to England or Ro¬
chelle. Biron was killed by a cannon-ball at the siege of
Epernay, July 26. 1592, at the age of sixty-eight. He was
a sort of universal scholar ; and used to carry a pocket-book,
in which he noted everything that appeared remarkable.
This gave rise to a proverb at court, when a person hap¬
pened to say anything uncommon, “ You have found that
in Biron’s pocket-book.”
Biron, Charles de Gontault, created duke of Biron by
Henri IV., was a man of great intrepidity, but fickle and
treacherous. In 1601 he was sent as ambassador to the
court of Queen Elizabeth to announce his royal master s
marriage with Mary of Medici; but being discovered in a
treasonable correspondence with Spain, he was beheaded in
the Bastille at Paris, July 31. 1602.
BIRR. See Parsonstown.
BIRS NIMRUD. See Babylon.
BISACCIA, a city in the Principato-Ultenore of the
kingdom of Naples. It is a bishopric in conjunction with
St Angelo, and contains 5500 inhabitants.
BISACUTA, in the middle-age writers, an axe with two
edges, to cut either way ; or a missile weapon pointed at both
ends. Walsingham represents the securis bisacuta as pecu¬
liar to the Scottish nation.
BISCARA, a town of Algeria, capital of the southern
province of Zaab, and about 200 miles S.E. of Algiers It
is now in the possession of the French. Pop. about 4000.
BISCAY (Vizcaya) Seignory of, one of the three
Provincias Vascongadas or Basque provinces in the north
of Spain. It is bounded on the north by the Bay of Biscay,
east by Guipuzcoa, south by Alava, and west by Santander.
Area 1272 square miles ; pop. (1850) estimated at lo0,00 .
The surface is highly picturesque, being very mountainous,
and diversified with numerous narrow valleys and fertile
plains. The mountains are generally covered with forests to
their summits, while others consist almost entirely of naked cal¬
careous rock. This province is well cultivated, and produces
wheat, maize, barley, rye, flax, chestnuts, grapes, peaches, an
other fruits. The farms are generally small, but are culti¬
vated with great care, and almost entirely by manual labour.
Among its forest-trees are the oak, holly, arbutus, and c Test-
nut ; and furze and heath abound in the poorer parts. I he
wild-boar, lynx, fox, and other beasts of prey, are still found
in several of the forests ; and deer, rabbits partridges, wood¬
cocks, and other kinds of game, are plentiful. I he princi¬
pal river is the Nervion or Ibaizabal, on which the capital,
Bilbao, is situated: it has, besides, several smaller rivers, and
numerous mountain streams. The coast presents a bold an
rugged aspect, and in several places is deeply indented. Its
B I S
Biscay principal ports are Portugalete at the mouth of the Nervion,
II Plencia, Bermeo, and Hea. Biscay is very rich in minerals.
Bishareen. jron 0f finest quality is found in almost every part of the
' province; and marble, lime, and sandstone, are abundant.
The Biscayans, who represent the ancient Cantabrians, are an
industrious, bold, and hardy race; primitive in their manners,
as well as gay, friendly, and hospitable. They are characterized
by an innate love of freedom, and an intense jealousy of every¬
thing having the appearance of an encroachment upon their
liberties. In manners and habits they have a considerable re¬
semblance to the Irish, and were supposed to be of the same
Celtic origin ; but the Basque is not a Celtic language.
The manufacture of iron is the chief branch of industry,
but at present it is less flourishing than formerly, though
their gun-barrels are still in high repute. Among the other
manufactures are porcelain, linens, hats, copper and brass
p wares, straw and rush chairs, ropes, leather, &c. The fish¬
ings are actively prosecuted along the coast. The earliest
whale-fishery of Europe was pursued on this coast by the
hardy Biscayans : but the whale has long ago retired farther
to the north, and deprived them of this species of industry.
The Cantabrians in the time of the Romans were a fierce
and warlike people, and were only subdued after a severe
struggle by Augustus. This province afterwards fell suc¬
cessively into the hands of the Suevi, Franks, and Goths;
and it formed for some time an independent lordship. In the
fourteenth century it came into the power of the king of
Castile, and since that time it has formed a part of the Spanish
kingdom. Although subject to Spain, the Biscayans still
maintain a republican form of administration, nominating
tbeir own governors and magistrates, regulating the amount
of taxation, &c. The term Biscay is frequently used as
synonymous with Basque, to include the three Basque pro¬
vinces.—Madoz, Die. Geograf. de Espana.
Biscay, Bay of, an extensive gulf or bay of the Atlantic,
between the northern coast of Spain and the western coast
of France. It extends from the island of Ushant, off Brest,
to Cape Ortegal on the north coast of Galicia. The Spanish
coast is almost wholly bold and rocky; the French is more
varied, and from the mouth of the Gironde southward to the
A dour is low and sandy. The openness of this bay, the
strong westerly winds, and the current (Rennel’s) which sets
in from the west and sweeps along its southern and eastern
shores, impede its navigation. It receives the waters of the
Loire, Charente, Gironde, and Adour.
BISCEGLIA, a fortified seaport of Naples, in the pro¬
vince of Terra di Bari, situated on a rocky promontory on the
Adriatic, 21 miles W.N.W. of Bari. It is the seat of a
bishopric, and has a cathedral, numerous churches and con¬
vents, a hospital, and a theatre. Its harbour is only acces¬
sible to small vessels, and it has little trade. Being destitute
of springs, it has numerous reservoirs for the collection of
rain-water. Pop. 14,000.
BISCHOP, or Biskop, John de, an artist, born at the
Hague in 1646. He excelled in making copies of the pic¬
tures of the great masters; but he is best known as an en¬
graver. His works are chiefly etchings, harmonized with the
graver; and though slight, yet free, spirited, and pleasing.
He worked chiefly at Amsterdam, where he died in 1686.
BISCH WILLER, a town of France, capital of a canton
of the same name, department of Lower Rhine, 14 miles
north of Strasburg. It has manufactures of woollen and
linen stuffs, oil, soap, earthenware, &c., and some trade in
hops, hemp, leather, and tobacco. Pop. (1846) 6242. Its
fortifications were destroyed by the imperialists in 1706.
BISCUIT. See Baking.
BISHAREEN, the name of several tribes inhabiting the
desert on the western side of the Red Sea, as far north as
Lat., 21°, and south to the Taccaze, a branch of the Ata-
bara, the ancient Astaboras. According to Burckhardt, they
are not of Arabian origin, although they have the manners of
BIS 733
the Bedouins; but, like their more polished neighbours the Bishop.
Abyssinians, they devour raw flesh. z
BISHOP, one of the superior order of pastors in the Chris¬
tian church, consecrated for the spiritual government of the
ordinary pastors in a certain district or diocese. The word
comes from the Saxon bischop, which again is derived from
the Greek orurKOTros, an overseer, inspector, or superintend¬
ent, a title given by the Athenians to those whom they sent
into the provinces subject to them, to see whether everything
was kept in order. The Romans applied the same designation
to those who were appointed inspectors of bread and pro¬
visions.
A bishop discharges the same relative functions as an arch¬
bishop, though of course in a lower sphere. An archbishop
with bishops consecrates a bishop; a bishop with priests or¬
dains a priest; the archbishop visits a province, the bishop a
diocese; the archbishop convocates a provincial synod, the
bishop a diocesan one; and the archbishop has canonical
authority over all the bishops of his province, the bishop over
the priests in his diocese.
The election of bishops was anciently placed in the clergy,
and the people of the parish, province, or diocese ; but after¬
wards, princes and magistrates, patriarchs, and popes, usurped
the power. The election was required to be within three
months after the vacancy of the see; and the bishop to be
chosen from among the clergy of that church. Formerly
the bishop claimed a share in the election of an archbishop ;
but this was set aside by the popes.
In England, during the Saxon times, all ecclesiastical dig¬
nities were conferred by the king in parliament. At length,
however, after several contests, especially between Arch¬
bishop Anselm and Henry I. in consequence of a grant of
King John, recognised in Magna Charta, and established by
the 25th Edw. HI., stat. 6, § 3, bishops were elected by the
chapters of monks or canons—some shadow of which still
remains in the present method of disposing of bishoprics;
but by the 25th Henry VIII. cap. 20, the right of nomi¬
nation was restored to the crown.
Ordinarily, three bishops at least are required in the cere¬
mony of consecrating a bishop; but in some cases one bishop
will suffice. The English succession of Protestant bishops
stands on this last ground. In England, the king being cer¬
tified of the death of a bishop by the dean and chapter, and
his leave requested to elect another, the conge dCelire is sent
to them, with a letter missive, nominating the person whom
he would have chosen. The election is to be within twelve
days after the receipt of it, otherwise the king by letters
patent appoints whom he pleases; and the chapter, in case
of refusing the person named by the king, incurs a preemu-
nire. After election, and its being accepted by the bishop, the
king grants under the great seal a mandate for confirmation,
which the bishop consigns to his vicar-general. This consists
mostly of a solemn citation of such as have any objections to
the bishop-elect, a declaration of their contumacy in not ap¬
pearing, and an administration of the oaths of allegiance and
supremacy, of simony, and canonical obedience. Sentence
being read by the vicar-general, the bishop is installed in the
province of Canterbury by the archdeacon; the fact is re¬
corded by a public notary ; and the bishop is invested with
full powers to exercise all spiritual jurisdictions, though he
cannot sue for his temporalities till after consecration.
Then follows the consecration by the archbishop or some
other bishop appointed by lawful commissions, and two as¬
sistant bishops. The ceremony is much the same as in the
Roman Catholic church, save that after investiture in the epis¬
copal robes, the archbishop and bishops lay their hands on the
new prelate’s head, and consecrate him with a certain form
of words. The process of the translation of a bishop to
another bishopric differs only in this, that there is no conse¬
cration. The age of a bishop is to be at least thirty years;
and, by the ancient discipline, none were to be chosen but
«
734
B I S
B I S
Bishop, those who had passed through all the inferior orders ; but in
some cases of necessity this was dispensed with, and deacons,
nay laymen, were raised at once to the episcopal dignity.
The form of consecrating a bishop is different in different
churches. In the Greek church, the bishop-elect being by
the assistant bishops presented for consecration, and the in¬
strument of election put in his hand, after several prayers,
the first of which is called diaconicum, he demands conse¬
cration ; and after making profession of his faith, he re¬
ceives a benediction. He is then interrogated as to his be¬
lief of the Trinity; to which he answers by a long profes¬
sion of faith, and receives a second benediction. Lastly, his
opinion regarding the incarnation is demanded ; to which he
answers in a third profession of faith, which is followed by a
third benediction; after which the consecrator gives him the
pastoral staff. He is then led up to the altar, where, after
certain prayers, and three crosses on his head, he receives the
pallium, if he be an archbishop or patriarch ; then the kiss
of peace from his consecrator and two assistants; and sit¬
ting down, he reads, prays, and gives the communion to his
1 consecrator and others.
In the Roman Catholic church, the bishop-elect, being
presented by the elder assistant to the consecrator, takes the
oath ; he is then examined as to his faith ; and after several
prayers, the New Testament is drawn over his head, and he
receives the chrism or unction on his head. The pastoral
staff, ring, and gospel, are then given him, and after com¬
munion the mitre is put on his head ; each ceremony being
accompanied with suitable prayers. The consecration ends
with the Te Deum. These last-mentioned ceremonies are
laid aside in the consecration of English bishops. Never¬
theless, the book of consecration set forth in the time of
Edward VI. and confirmed by act of parliament, in which
some of them are enjoined, is declared to be the standard
for this purpose by the thirty-sixth article.
The function of a bishop in England may be considered as
twofold, namely, what belongs to his order, and what belongs
to his jurisdiction. To the episcopal order belong the cere¬
monies of dedication, confirmation, and ordination. By the
common law, the bishop is to certify the judges touching le¬
gitimate and illegitimate births and marriages; and by that
and the ecclesiastical law he is to take care of the probate of
wills and granting administrations, to collate to benefices,
grant institutions on the presentation of other patrons, com¬
mand induction, order the collection and preservation of the
profits of vacant benefices for the use of the successors, defend
the liberties of the church, and visit his diocese once in three
years. To the bishop also belongs the power of suspension,
deprivation, deposition, degradation, and excommunication.
The incomes of the various sees till of late differed exceed¬
ingly in amount; but the ecclesiastical commissioners for
England have adjusted, or are now adjusting, these to a nearer
approach to equality. They have assigned or contem¬
plated fixing the income of the archbishop of Canterbury at
L.15,000; that of the archbishop of York at L.10,000;
London, Durham, and Winchester, at L.8000 ; and the rest
at from L.5500 to L.4500.
All bishops of England are peers of the realm, except the
last consecrated; and, as such, sit and vote in the House of
Lords. They are barons in a threefold manner ; feudal, in
regard to the temporalities annexed to their bishoprics; by
writ, as being summoned by writ to parliament; and lastly,
by patent and creation. Accordingly, they have the pre¬
cedence of all other barons, vote as barons and bishops, and
claim all the privileges enjoyed by the temporal lords; ex¬
cepting that they cannot be tried by their peers, because in
cases of blood they themselves cannot pass upon the trial,
for they are prohibited by the canons of the church from be-
ing judges of life and death. They have the title of Lords
and Light Lever end Fathers in God in England. Besides
two archbishops, there are twenty-five bishops, exclusive
of the bishop of Sodor and Man. The bishops of London, Bishop's
Durham, and Winchester, take precedence of other bishops, Court
who are to rank after them according to their seniority of | ,
consecration. In Ireland there are two archbishops and ^stle 8
twelve bishops. In Scotland, before the Presbyterian esta-
blishment, there were two archbishoprics and twelve bishop¬
rics. The bishops of the Scottish Episcopal, and of the Ro¬
man Catholic church, are not recognized by the state.
The following is a return of the number of colonial
bishops, stating the salaries of each, and sources whence
those salaries are derived, made to the House of Commons
11th June 1852 :—
Diocese.
Quebec .
Toronto .
Montreal.
Nova Scotia
Frederickton
Newfoundland
Rupert’s Land
Salary.
L.
1990 *
1250
800
550
Jamaica 
Barbadoes ..
Antigua 
Guiana  
Sydney  
3000
2500
2000
2000
1500
From what source derived.
Melbourne ...
Newcastle ...
Adelaide 
Tasmania
New Zealand
Cape Town.
Colombo 
Victoria 
Gibraltar ...
800
800
L.200 for house al¬
lowance, also for
age allowance.
1200
800
2000
1000
1200
Imperial parliamentary vote.
Clergy reserves in Canada West.
Colonial Bishoprics Fund; the in¬
terest of investments in the
colonies, and in this country.
Trust funds held by the Society
for the Propagation of the Gos¬
pel, and the rent of a farm in
Nova Scotia.
Colonial Bishoprics Fund.
L.700 Imperial parliamentary
vote.
L.500 Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel.
The interest of a bequest by the
late James Leith, Esq., and an
annual allowance by the Hud¬
son’s Bay Company.
Consolidated fund,
ditto
ditto
ditto
General Colonial Revenue, under
Schedule (C.), annexed to Act
5th and 6th Viet. cap. 76.
L.500 Colonial Treasury.
L.333, 6s. 8d. Colonial Bishop¬
rics Fund.
L.500 Colonial Treasury.
L.333, 6s. 8d. Colonial Bishop¬
rics Fund.
Colonial Bishoprics Fund ; in¬
terest of monies invested in the
colony and in this country.
Part from colonial funds, and in¬
terest of L.5000 invested in
securities in the colony by the
Colonial Bishoprics Fund.
L.600 Imperial parliamentary
vote.
L.600 paid by the Church Mis¬
sionary Society to the Colonial
Bishoprics Fund.
Colonial Bishoprics Fund; in¬
terest of monies invested in the
colony and in this country.
Colonial Funds.
Colonial Bishoprics Fund.
Colonial Bishoprics Fund.
* This includes the salary to the Bishop as rector of the parish.
Bishop’s Court, an ecclesiastical court, held in the cathe¬
dral of each diocese, the judge in which is the bishop’s chan¬
cellor, who decides according to the civil and canon law; and
if the diocese be large, he has his commissaries in remote
parts, who hold what are called consistory courts, for matters
limited to them by their commission.
Bishop Auckland. See Auckland Bishop.
Bishop’s Castle, a market and borough town in the hun¬
dred of Purslow and county of Salop, on the declivity of an
eminence on the river Clun, 159 miles from London. Being
B I S
Bishop’s on the main road between England and Wales, it has some
Stortford trade, especially at its market, which is held every Friday.
II The town-house is a neat structure, as is also the church,
v which stands below the town. The bishops of Hereford had
formerly a castle here. Pop. in 1851, 1699.
Bishop’s Stortford, a market-town of the hundred of
Braughin, in the county of Hertford, 32 miles from Lon¬
don. It is situated on the banks of the river Stort, and
consists of four principal streets. By means of the canal it
communicates with the metropolis, to which it sends much
malt, corn, &c. Market-day Thursday. Pop. (1851) 5280.
Bishop’s Waltham, a market-town in the hundred of the
same name, county of Southampton, 65 miles from London.
Here are the remains of the palace of the bishops of Win¬
chester, and of the forest of Waltham. Principal trade,
leather. Market-day, Friday. Pop. of parish (1851) 2265.
Bishop’s Wearmouth, a large parish adjoining the town
of Sunderland, in the county of Durham. Pop. (1851) 31,824.
See Sunderland. It stands on the Wear, and has several
manufactories of different kinds. Over the Wear there is
a magnificent iron bridge 236 feet in length, consisting of
a single arch.
BISHOPING, a term to denote the devices used by
horse-dealers to make an old horse appear young, or a bad
one seem good.
BISIGNANO, a city and bishop’s see, province of Cala¬
bria Citeriore, in the kingdom of Naples, 15 miles N. of
Cosenza ; pop. 3200. It has a castle, a cathedral, and several
churches, with some trade in silk.
BISLEY, a market-town in the county of Gloucester,
103 miles from London. It is situated in the vale of Chal-
ford (where the manufacture of broad cloth is extensively
conducted), and is irregularly built. The Stroud Canal,
which unites the Thames and Severn, passes through the
parish. The church is handsome, and stands on a conspi¬
cuous eminence. Pop. (1851) 4801.
BISMILLAH, a solemn form used by Mahommedans
at the beginning of all their books and other writings, sig¬
nifying, “ In the name of the most merciful God.”
BISMUTH, one of the metals. See Chemistry. By
imparting hardness, it is a useful compound in the forma¬
tion of several metallic alloys, as in the fabrication of printers’
types, and the composition of foreign pewter. Eight parts
of bismuth, five of lead, and three of tin, constitute what is
called, after its discoverer, Newton’s metal, which melts at
the heat of boiling water, and may be fused over a candle
in a piece of stiff paper without burning the paper. Plum¬
bers’ solder consists of one part of bismuth with five of
lead and three of tin. With an equal weight of lead, it
forms a brilliant white alloy, much harder than lead, and
more malleable than bismuth, though ductile; and if the
proportion of lead be increased, it is rendered still more
malleable.
BISOMUM (bis and a-w/xa), or Disomum, in Homan
Antiquity, a sarcophagus or tomb, for two dead bodies, or
their ashes. The sepulchres of the primitive Christians were
inscribed with the words bisomi, trisomi, quadrisomi, &c.,
to indicate the number of bodies deposited in them.
BISON. See Mammalia, Index.
BISSAGOS, a group of small, low, fertile islands, situ¬
ated at or near the mouth of the Rio Grande, in Western
Africa. The entire number of these islands is very great,
but there are only sixteen of any considerable magnitude.
These are, Bissao, Bulama, date, Bussi, Manterre, Canabac,
Galpineis, Areas, Formosa, Carache, Corbelle, Genthera,
Cavallo, Mel, Casegu, and Cove. The first five are mere
alluvial islands, separated by river-branches from the con¬
tinent, of which they properly form part. The others lie
twenty or thirty miles out at sea, extending in a north¬
westerly direction towards the Gambia. Among the many
smaller islands may be mentioned Bourbon, Sarcieri, Poe-
BIS 735
Ion, Papaygo, and Los Poarcos. Along the exterior side of Bissat
these islands, where they face the ocean, extend numerous II
banks, which render the navigation very dangerous. Bitche.
These islands produce abundantly millet, rice, and fruits,
and are all well stocked with a peculiar breed of oxen
with a hump on the back, and remarkable for size and
strength. The inhabitants, who are tall and robust, are
fierce and warlike. This character applies to the Papels,
who occupy Bissao and the adjoining continent, and still
more to the Bissagos or Bijugas, who possess most of the
remaining islands. They have almost entirely driven out
the Biafaras, a mild and industrious race, who have been
obliged to seek refuge on the continent along the banks of
the Rio Grande. In 1792 some English adventurers formed
the Bulama association, with the view of forming a settle¬
ment on the island of that name ; and on the 11th April
three vessels with 275 colonists sailed for Africa, under the
command of Mr Dalrymple. They sailed to Bulama, and
were quietly taking possession of the island, when the Bis¬
sagos from Canabac attacked the party, and killed several
of their number. Mr Dalrymple then retired to Bissao, and
induced the king of Canabac, for a trifling consideration, to
cede to Great Britain the island of Bulama. A settlement
was then effected ; but finding that, instead of being placed
in a situation of ease and luxury, they were obliged to cul¬
tivate the soil, the colonists lost courage, and most of them
returned home in the vessel which brought them to Bulama.
Captain Beaver being now left with little more than twenty
men, and only half of these effective, was attacked by the
king of Canabac. The enemy was gallantly beaten off; but
the difficulties and distresses of the colony continuing to
increase, Beaver took the first opportunity of conveying the
remnant of his colony to Sierra Leone.
BISSAT, Patrick, descended from the earls of Fife in
Scotland, was born in that county in the reign of James V.
From the university of St Andrews he removed to that of
Paris ; and he afterwards proceeded to Bologna, where he
was appointed professor of canon law. Having filled this
office for several years with great reputation, he died in
1568. He was also distinguished as an orator, a poet, and
a philosopher. Patricii Bissatti Opera omnia, were pub¬
lished at Venice in 1565, 4to.
BISSEXTILE, a year consisting of 366 days, corre¬
sponding to leap year. See Calendar, Solar Year.
BISTOURY (French bistouri, from the city Pistoia), a
surgical instrument for making incisions. Some have the
form of a lancet, others are straight and fixed in the handle
like a knife, and others are crooked, with the sharp edge on
the inside.
BISTRE (French bis, brown), a pigment of a brown
transparent colour, which is best prepared from the soot of
beech-wood, by boiling it in water (in the proportion of two
pounds to a gallon) for half an hour. After standing to
settle, and while still hot, the clearer part is poured off, and
evaporated to dryness. The residuum is bistre.
BISUTUN, or Bessatcn, the plateau of Kermanshaw,
the plain of the ancient Media. Its northern boundary is
a precipitous ridge, generally 1500 feet above the plain.
On this natural escarpment, Sir R. Ker Porter found the
remains of a remarkable bas-relief, representing a Median
king or warrior passing sentence on nine captives before
him, while one prostrate at his feet is in the act of implor¬
ing mercy with outstretched hands. In another portion of
this surface are the remains of a Greek inscription, that has
been nearly effaced by a Persian one of modern date.
BISZTRITZ, a fortified town of Transylvania, pleasantly
situated on a river of the same name, in Long. 24. 34. E.
Lat. 47. 5. 46. N. It has several churches, a gymnasium,
and other schools, a considerable trade in cattle, and about
6000 inhabitants.
BU CHE, a town and fortress of France, department of
736
Bithynia
II
Bitterfeld.
B I T
Moselle, and capital of a canton of the same name. It
stands in a pass of the Vosges, and the citadel occupies the
summit of an almost inaccessible rock in the centre of the
town. It mounts 80 pieces of cannon, and is regarded as
almost impregnable. It has manufactures of earthenware,
with extensive glass-works in the vicinity. Pop. 3131.
BITHYNIA (Bi0ma), a province in the N.W. of Asia
Minor, stretching along the Propontis, the Ihracian Bos¬
porus, and the Euxine, between the rivers Rhyndacus in
the west, and the Parthenius in the east. In the south it
bordered on Galatia and Phrygia Epictetus. The country
derived its name from its inhabitants, the Bithyni, whose
original home was the country about the Strymon in 1 hrace.
Remnants of this nation remained in Thrace, and are fre¬
quently spoken of under the name of I hyni, or 1 braces
Bithyni. On their arrival in Asia, they expelled or subdued
the native tribes of the Mysians, Bebryces, Caucones, and
Mygdones ; the Mariandyni, however, maintained them¬
selves on the coast in the north-eastern part of the country.
The Bithyni, after their conquest of the new country, ap¬
pear to have been divided into two branches, the Thyni on
the coast about the river Sangarius, and the Bithyni in the
southern parts of the country. In the reign of Croesus,
Bithynia was incorporated with the Lydian empire, to¬
gether with which it soon after fell into the hands of the
Persians. Under the dominion of the latter, who probably
made no great changes in the constitution of the country,
it was governed by the Satrap of Phrygia ; for at that time
it scarcely contained any towns except the Greek colonies
of Chalcedon and Astacus. During the subsequent dis¬
turbances in the Persian empire, some native princes of the
Thyni made themselves independent, and maintained this
independence even against Alexander the Great and his
successors. Nicomedes, the first who assumed the title of
king, reigned until b.c. 246. His successor, Prusias I., who
died in b.c. 192, and Prusias II. (who probably died in b.c.
150) did much to establish the kingdom on a firm basis, and
to extend its boundaries. The last king, Nicomedes III., in
b.c. 75, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who at first
united it with their province of Asia, and afterwards with
Pontus, until Augustus constituted it as a separate pro¬
consular province. At the same time that emperor united
the western part of Paphlagonia, under the name of Pontus,
with Bithynia. Theodosius II. again divided the province,
restricting the name of Bithynia to the western halt, which
contained the cities of Nicomedia, Nicaea, and Chalcedon,
while the eastern part, with the cities of Heraclea and Clau-
diopolis, received the name of Honorias.
The country of Bithynia is traversed in all directions
by woody mountains, the highest of which is the Mysian
Olympus, which furnished abundance of timber for ship¬
building. The plains and valleys are very beautiful and fer¬
tile, producing barley, wheat, beans of various kinds, figs,
and wine, but no olives. 1 he district about Bithynium was
distinguished for its excellent pasture ; and the cheese made
there was in great repute among the ancients. 1 he prin¬
cipal river was the Sangarius, traversing the country from
south to north. (See Cramer, Asia Minor, i. 167-215 ;
Leake, Asia Minor, p. 306 ; Forbiger, Handbuch der Alien
Geographic, vol. ii. p. 374, where all the ancient authorities
referring to Bithynia are cited.) (b. s.)
BITLIS, a town of Asiatic Turkey. See Betlis.
BITONTO, a city, the see of a bishop, in the province
of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples, on the great road from
Foggia to Bari. It contains, besides the cathedral, twenty-
four churches, and 14,500 inhabitants, who export the ex¬
cellent wine known by the name of Zagarello.
BITTERFELD, a walled town of Prussia, capital of a
circle -of the same name, in the province of Saxony and go¬
vernment of Merseburg. It is situated on the river Lober,
meai- the Mulde, and has manufactures of woollen cloth and
Bivouac.
B I V
hardware. It was founded by a colony of Flemings in the Bittern
twelfth century. Pop. (1849) of town 3890, of circle 44,625.
BITTERN. See Ornithology, Index.
BITTS, perpendicular pieces of timber fixed in the deck
of a ship for fastening ropes to. There are also bitts to se¬
cure the windlass and the heel of the bowsprit.
BITUMEN (Mineral Pitch, Asphaltum, Erdpech), the
most perfectly inflammable mineral known. Of this there
are three varieties, elastic, earthy, and compact; the first is
distinguished by its softness and elasticity, which, however,
it partly loses on exposure to the air; the second, by its
dull earthy appearance, and softness sufficient to take an
impression from the nail; and the third, from its more or less
conchoidal fracture, corresponding to the degrees of lustre
it possesses. The component parts of these, however, are
nearly the same ; and, except in appearance and consistency,
they do not differ from naphtha, a fine colourless fluid, which
when first inspissated, becomes brown, and is then changed
into mineral pitch by exposure to the air. Bitumen is usu¬
ally of a black or brownish hue, is easily inflammable, and
burns with a bituminous smell, much smoke, and a clear
flame : some varieties even melt at a higher temperature.
In specific gravity it varies considerably, from 0*828 to IT60
according to its density; and in composition it consists chiefly
of hydrogen and carbon. The substance called petroleum
is a liquid bitumen, apparently formed of asphaltum dissolved
in naphtha. The elastic variety has been found principally in
the Odin mine at Castleton, in Derbyshire ; and from its pro¬
perty of taking up the traces of a pencil in the same manner
as Indian-rubber, it has obtained the appellation of mineral
caoutchouc. The semi-liquid species abounds in Trinidad,
where it forms a lake said to be three miles in circumference,
and where, when mixed with grease or common pitch, it is
used for paying the bottoms of ships. It has also been met
with in Persia, in Dalmatia, and in the Hartz. The com¬
pact variety again, occurs, forming nodules, in the lead mines
of Matlock in Derbyshire, at Hurlet near Paisley, in sand¬
stone near Bathgate in Linlithgowshire, imbedded in sand¬
stone in Albania, Hanover, and in many parts of the Continent.
The more liquid varieties of this mineral admit of consider¬
able application for illuminating, for fuel, in the manufacture
of varnish, &c., besides its common application to pavements.
The bitumen employed by the ancient Babylonians, in¬
stead of mortar, to unite the sun-dried bricks in their co¬
lossal structures, was evidently the semi-liquid bitumen
which we now designate petroleum ; and the state in which
the mighty ruins still exist shows how imperishable a cement
this material afforded. The principal source whence this
bitumen was obtained was the fountains of Is, the modern
Hit, on the right bank of the Euphrates. These fountains,
which are considered as an inexhaustible source of bitumen,
still continue to pour it out copiously, mingled with intensely
saline sulphureous thermal waters. Much fine salt is now
made there by a rude process of spontaneous evaporation;
bvt the bitumen floating on the waters is now only employed
to pitch the wicker boats and coracles of the Euphrates and
the Tigris. The celebrity of these fountains caused them
to be visited by Alexander the Great, by I rajan, and by
Julian. The geology of the district presents little peculia¬
rity ; the principal rock being an argillaceous limestone, over
which in many places lies a coarsely-granular gypsum : but
the cause which has for several thousand years produced
a perennial distillation of bitumen in this spot, lies probably
at a considerable depth below the surface.
BIVALVE, a term in Conchology for a shell which
consists of two valves. It is also applied in Botany to a
pericarp in which the seed-case opens into two parts.
BIVOUAC (German beiivacht), the watch or guard of an
army by night during a siege, or in the presence of an enemy.
When an army does not regularly encamp, but lies under
arms all night, the soldiers passing the night around the
Bizari
Black.
B L A
watch-fires, or with such shelter as they can find or con¬
struct upon the spot, it is said to bivouac.
BIZARI, Pietro, a poet and historian of the sixteenth
century, born near Ancona. Having adopted the doctrines
of the Reformation, he took refuge in Scotland, where he
was well received by the Regent Murray. (Tiraboschi.)
BIZERTA, or Benzert, a seaport in the kingdom of
Tunis, on a gulf of the same name, which communicates
with a lake in the interior. It occupies the site of the an¬
cient Hippo Zaritus, the harbour of which, by means of a spa¬
cious pier, protecting it from the north-east wind, was rendered
one of the safest and finest on this coast. This important work,
however, has been entirely neglected by the Turks, whence
the port has been choked up, and now receives only small
vessels. The place, however, is still about a mile in circuit,
defended by several strong castles and batteries. The prin¬
cipal employment of the inhabitants consists in fishing. The
adjoining lake abounds in fish, particularly mullets, the roes
of which, dried and formed into the substance called botargo,
form a considerable article of Mediterranean commerce. It
is situated 38 miles north-west of Tunis. Long. 9. 50. E.
Eat. 37. 17. N.
BLABY, a parish and village in Leicestershire, hundred
of Guthlaxton. The village, miles S.W. of Leicester,
contains a fine old parish church, a Wesleyan and a Baptist
chapel, and a handsome national school. It is near the
line of the Midland railway. Pop. of parish in 1851,
1952, chiefly engaged as framework-knitters and glove-
makers.
BLACK, Dr Joseph, distinguished for his discoveries in
chemistry, was born in France, on the banks of the Garonne,
in the year 1728. His father was a native of Belfast, but
descended from a Scottish family which had been some time
settled there. Mr Black, the father, was engaged in the
wine trade, and resided chiefly at Bordeaux.
He is represented as a man of extensive information, of
candid and liberal sentiments, and of amiable manners; but
particularly distinguished by the strength of his attachments,
and the warmth of his heart. These estimable qualities
procured him the friendship and intimacy of Montesquieu,
who was one of the presidents of the court of justice in the
province while Mr Black resided at Bordeaux.
Some time before Mr Black retired from business, he
sent his son Jqseph, then in his twelfth year, to Belfast, to
prosecute his studies; and when he had completed the usual
course of instruction in a grammar school, he was sent to
the university of Glasgow, in the year 1746. During the
time he studied at that seminary, his attention seems to have
been principally directed to physical science; and he be¬
came a favourite pupil of Dr Dick, then professor of natural
philosophy. After having completed the ordinary course
of general study at the university, he made choice of the
profession of medicine; and directed his view’s to those
pursuits and studies which were necessary to qualify him
for that profession.
About this time Dr Cullen was appointed to the lecture¬
ship of chemistry in the university of Glasgow. Hitherto
the science had been treated as a curious, and only in some
respects as a useful art. That great man, conscious of his
own strength, and taking a wide and comprehensive view,
saw the unoccupied field of philosophical chemistry expanded
before him. He was satisfied that the science was susceptible
of very great improvement by means of liberal inquiry and
rational investigation. He was therefore determined to enter
the unbeaten path, and to conduct his followers to those un¬
explored regions which are included in the wide range of
this comprehensive and attractive science. While these
views were opening in the mind of Dr Cullen, Black be¬
came his pupil; and it was perhaps to this fortunate circum¬
stance that he was indebted for the foundation of his future
YOI. IV.
B L A
737
reputation as a philosopher and a chemist. The liberal Black,
and extensive views of Cullen happily accorded with the Br Joseph,
enlarged habits of thought which the young philosopher
had previously acquired. Dr Cullen took a deep interest
in the progress of his students. He delighted in encou-
raging and aiding their efforts; and, therefore, perceiving
the bias of Black’s pursuits, soon attached him to himself.
By the intercourse and intimacy which followed, Black was
led into the same train of thought, and conducted into the
same course of studies ; he was received into a closer con¬
nection, and became a most valuable assistant in all Dr
Cullen’s chemical operations. The experiments of Black
were frequently adduced to prove facts which were stated
in the lecture, and they were considered as unexception¬
able authority. Thus commenced a mutual confidence
and friendship, which was highly honourable to both, and
was never afterwards mentioned by Dr Black but with
gratitude and respect.
In the year 1751, Mr Black wrent to Edinburgh to com¬
plete the course of his medical studies. There he resid¬
ed in the house of his cousin-german, Mr Russell, professor
of natural philosophy in that university, a gentleman of
enlarged views and liberal sentiments, whose conversation
and studies must have been both agreeable and profitable
to his young friend.
At this time the mode of action of lithontriptic medi¬
cines, but particularly lime-water, in alleviating the pains
of stone and gravel, divided the opinions of professors and
practitioners. This subject became extremely interesting
both to the physician and chemist. And as it is usual for
the students to enter warmly into those discussions which
give rise to much difference of opinion among their teach¬
ers, this subject, being quite suited to his taste, particular¬
ly attracted and interested the attention of Mr Black, who
was then one of Dr Cullen’s most zealous and intelligent
pupils. It appears from some of his memorandums, that
he at first held the opinion that the causticity of alkalies
was owing to the igneous matter which they derived from
quicklime. But having prosecuted his experiments on
magnesia, this grand secret of nature ivas laid open to his
view, and he was led to conclude that the acrimon}^ of
these substances was not owing to their combination with
igneous particles; that it formed their peculiar property;
and that they lost this property and became mild by com¬
bining with a certain portion of air, to which he gave the
name offixed air, because it was fixed or became solid in
the substances into the composition of which it entered.
This grand discovery, which marks one of the most im¬
portant eras of chemical science, formed the subject of his
inaugural dissertation, published at the time when he was
admitted to his medical degree in the university of Edin¬
burgh. He had not availed himself of the time he had
studied at Glasgow, but took the whole course prescribed
by the rules of the university. This delay, it has been
supposed, may have been owing to the investigation of the
subject in which he had engaged not having been com¬
pleted ; which determined him to proceed with caution
till he had established his doctrine by a train of decisive
experiments.
About the time that Dr Black took his medical degree,
Dr Cullen was removed to Edinburgh, which created a
vacancy in the chemical chair at Glasgow. While he
remained at that university, Dr Black had been a diligent
and attentive student; and the discovery published in his
inaugural essay had added much to his reputation. Lie
was therefore looked up to as a person amply qualified to
fill the vacant chair; and accordingly, in the year 1756,
he was appointed professor of anatomy and lecturer on
chemistry in the university of Glasgow. And it was per¬
haps fortunate for himself, fortunate for the public and
5 A
738
niack,
Dr Joseph.
B L A C K.
for science, that a situation so favourable presented itself;
a situation which allowed him full time to dedicate his ta¬
lents to the cultivation of chemistry, which had now be¬
come his favourite science.
Along with the lectureship on chemistry, Dr Black’s first
appointment in the university of Glasgow was to the pro¬
fessorship of anatomy. But the latter branch of medical
study was either not so suitable to his taste, or he did not
consider himself so well qualified to be useful in it; for,^
soon after, arrangements were made with the professor of
medicine, by which the professors exchanged departments,
Dr Black undertaking that of the institutes and practice
of medicine.
At this time his lectures on medicine formed his chief
occupation ; while the perspicuity and simplicity, the cau¬
tion and moderation, which he discovered in the doctrines
which he delivered, gave great satisfaction. rlhe time
and attention which were occupied in these lectures, and
in the medical practice in some measure necessarily con¬
nected with his situation, are supposed by some to have
been the principal cause of Dr Black s haying suddenly
stopped short in that brilliant career on which he had at
first so successfully entered. It is more probable, how¬
ever, that the calm and unambitious temper which seems
to have formed a striking feature of his character, and
which a less friendly hand than his learned biographer
might have set down as nearly allied to indolence, checked
the ardour and perseverance which were necessary to
excite and carry him forward in the path of research
and discovery. Whatever may have been the cause, it is
to be regretted that Dr Black, so conspicuous for his pa¬
tient, judicious, and elegant mode of investigation, and so
distinguished for the simplicity, perspicuity, and precision
of his reasonings and deductions, should have contributed
so little in rearing the noble superstructure of chemical
science, the foundation of which he had been the means
of establishing on a firm and solid basis.
The theory of the nature of quicklime, and the cause of
its causticity, soon became known to the German chemists,
and from them it met with strong opposition. Various
mysterious doctrines at this time prevailed in the German
schools concerning the peculiar nature of fire ; and as the
notions there entertained of the causticity of alkaline sub¬
stances involved some of these doctrines, a great many ob¬
jections were started to a theory which threatened to over¬
throw long established and favourite opinions. The most for¬
midable opponent of the new theory was Professor Meyer
of Osnaburg. All the phenomena of the causticity and
mildness of lime and alkali were, according to his expla¬
nation, to be accounted for by the action of a substance
of a peculiar nature, to which he gave the name of acidum
pingue. This substance, which was supposed to be formed
in the lime during calcination, consisted of an igneous
matter in a certain state of combination with other sub¬
stances. It is a matter of some surprise that Dr Black
should have experienced any uneasiness on account of the
opposition made to this discovery on mere hypothesis un¬
supported by facts or even by plausible arguments, when
his own doctrine had been fully and irrefragably esta¬
blished by the test of decisive experiment. Nor is it less
surprising that, in the course of his lectures for several
years, he should have taken great pains in refuting the
arguments and in combating the objections of Meyer.
Dr Black’s reception at the university of Glasgow was
highly flattering and encouraging. As a student he had
not only done himself much credit by his successful pro¬
gress in the different pursuits in which he was engaged,
but he had also during his residence there conciliated, in
a high degree, the attachment and affection of the pro¬
fessors. When he returned as a professor, he immediate¬
ly became connected in the strictest friendship with Dr Black,
Adam Smith, then professor of moral philosophy in that I)r Jose?,h
university; and the friendship thus commenced grew
stronger and stronger, and was never interrupted through¬
out the whole of their lives. A simplicity and sensibility,
an incorruptible integrity, the strictest delicacy, and sin¬
gular correctness of manners, marked the character of each
of these philosophers, and firmly bound them together in
the closest union.
At Glasgow Dr Black soon acquired great reputation as
a professor, and became a favourite physician in that large
and active city. His engaging countenance, his agree¬
able and attractive manners, free from all studied endea¬
vours to please, and the kind concern he took in the cases
intrusted to his care, made him a most welcome visitor in
every family.
It was between the years 1759 and 1763 that he brought
to maturity his speculations concerning heat, which had
occupied his attention at intervals, from the very first
dawn of his philosophical investigations. His discoveries
in this department of science were by far the most im¬
portant of all that he made, and perhaps indeed among
the most valuable which appeared during the busy period
of the eighteenth century. To enter fully into the na¬
ture of his investigations would be improper in this place ;
but the sum of them all was usually expressed by him in
the following propositions.
When a solid body is converted into a fluid, there en¬
ters into it and unites with it a quantity of heat, the pre¬
sence of which is not indicated by the thermometer; and
this combination is the cause of the fluidity which the
body assumes. On the other hand, when a fluid body is
converted into a solid, a quantity of heat separates from
it, the presence of which was not formerly indicated by
the thermometer; and this separation is the cause of the
solid form which the fluid assumes.
When a liquid body is raised to the boiling tempera¬
ture, by the continued and copious application of heat, its
particles suddenly attract to themselves a great quantity
of heat; and by this combination their mutual relation is
so changed that they no longer attract each other, but
are converted into an elastic fluid like air. On the other
hand, when these elastic fluids, either by condensation or
by the application of cold bodies, are reconverted into
liquids, they give out a vast quantity of heat, the pre¬
sence of which was not formerly indicated by the ther¬
mometer.
Thus water, when converted into ice, gives out 140° of
heat; ice, when converted into water, absorbs 140° of
heat; and water, when converted into steam, absorbs about
1000° of heat, without becoming sensibly hotter than 212°.
Philosophers had long been accustomed to consider the
thermometer as the surest method of detecting heat in
bodies ; yet this instrument gives no indication of the 140°
of heat which enter into air when it is converted into
water, nor of the 1000° which combine with water when
it is converted into steam. Dr Black, therefore, said that
the heat is concealed (latet) in the water and steam; and
he briefly expressed this fact by calling the heat in that
case latent heat.
Dr Black having established this discovery by simple
and decisive experiments, drew up an account of the whole
investigation, and read it to a literary society which met
every Friday in the faculty-room of the college, consist¬
ing of the members of the university, and several gentle¬
men of the city who had a relish for philosophy and lite¬
rature. This was done on the 23d of April 1762, as ap¬
pears by the registers. The doctrine in question vvas im¬
mediately applied by its author to the explanation of a
vast number of natural phenomena; and in his expen-
BLAG K.
Black, mental investigations lie was greatly assisted by his two
^Joseph- celebrated pupils, Mr Watt and Dr Irvine.
As Dr Black never published an account of his doctrine
of latent heat, although he detailed it every year subse¬
quent to 1762 in his lectures, which were frequented by
men of science from all parts of Europe, it became known
only through that channel; and this gave an opportunity
to others to pilfer it from him piece-meal. Dr Crawford’s
ideas respecting the capacity of bodies for heat were ori¬
ginally derived from Dr Black, who first pointed out the
method of investigating that subject.
The investigations of Lavoisier and Laplace concerning
heat, published many years after, were obviously borrow¬
ed fiom Dr Black, and indeed consisted in the repetition
of the very experiments which he had suggested. Yet
these philosophers never mention Dr Black at all; every
thing in their dissertation assumes the air of entire origi¬
nality ; and indeed they appear to have been at great pains
to prevent the opinions and discoveries of Dr Black from
being known among their countrymen. But perhaps the
most extraordinary proceeding was that of M. Deluc. This
philosopher had expressed his admiration of Dr Black’s
theory of latent heat, and had offered to become his edi¬
tor. Dr Black, after much entreaty, at last consented,
and the proper information was in consequence communi¬
cated to M. Deluc. At last the Idee sur la JMeteorologie
of that philosopher appeared, in 1788. But great was the
astonishment of Dr Black and his friends when they found
the doctrine claimed by Deluc as his own, and an expres¬
sion of satisfaction at the knowledge which he had acquir¬
ed of Dr Blacks coincidence with him in opinion. M.
Deluc has, in his own vindication, published an answer to
this charge. See Edinburgh Review, No. 12, 1805.
Dr Black continued in the university of Glasgow from
1756 to 1766. In 1766 Dr Cullen was appointed profes¬
sor of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, and thus
a vacancy was produced in the chemical chair of that uni¬
versity. Dr Black was with universal consent appointed
his successor; and in the new scene on which he entered
his talents became more conspicuously and more exten¬
sively useful. But whilst he could not fail to be highly
gratified by the great concourse of pupils which the high
reputation of the medical school of Edinburgh attracted
to his lectures, his mind was forcibly impressed with the
importance of his duties as a teacher. This had an effect
which, perhaps, was on the whole rather unfortunate. He
directed his attention exclusively to his lectures, and his
object was to make them so plain as to be on a level with
the capacity of the most illiterate of his hearers. The im¬
provement of the science seems to have been altogether
abandoned by him. And never did any man succeed more
completely. His pupils were not only instructed, but de¬
lighted. Many became his pupils merely in order to be
pleased ; and this contributed greatly to extend the know¬
ledge of chemistry. It became in Edinburgh a fashion¬
able part of the accomplishment of a gentleman.
. Perhaps also the delicacy of his constitution precluded
him from exertion; the slightest cold, the most trifling
approach to repletion, immediately affected his chest, oc¬
casioned feverishness, and, if continued for two or three
days, brought on a spitting of blood. Nothing restored
him but relaxation of thought, and gentle exercise. The
sedentary life to which study confined him was manifest-
y hurtful, and he never allowed himself to indulge in in¬
tense thinking, without finding these complaints sensibly
increased.
So completely trammelled was he in this respect, that
a t ough his friends saw others disingenuous enough to
avail themselves of the novelties announced by Dr Black
in ns lectures, and therefore repeatedly urged him to
739
publish an account of what he had done, tins remained Black
unaccomplished to the last. Dr Black often began the •I(,sepli*
task, but was so nice in his notions of the manner in which
it should be executed, that the pains he took in formino-
a plan of the work never failed to affect his health, and
oblige him to desist. Indeed he peculiarly disliked ap¬
pearing as an author. His inaugural dissertation was the
work of duty. His Experiments on Magnesia, Quicklime,
and other Alkaline Substances, was necessary to put what
he had indicated in his inaugural dissertations on a proper
foundation. His Observations on the more ready Freezing of
Water that has been Boiled, published in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1774, was also called for; and his Ana¬
lysis of the Waters of some Boiling Springs in Iceland,
made at the request of his friend T. I. Stanley, Esq. was
read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and published
by the council. And these are the only works of his
which appeared in print during his lifetime.
The aspect of Dr Black was comely and interesting.
His countenance exhibited that pleasing expression of in¬
ward satisfaction, which, by putting the beholder at his ease,
almost never fails to please. His manner was wholly un¬
affected and graceful. He was affable, and readily entered
into conversation, whether serious or trivial. He was a
stranger to none of the elegant accomplishments of life.
He had a fine musical ear, with a voice which obeyed it
in the most perfect manner; for he sung, and performed
on the flute, with great taste and feeling, and could execute
a plain air at sight, which many instrumental performers
cannot do. Without having studied drawing, he had ac¬
quired considerable power of expression with his pencil,
and seemed in this respect to have the talents of an histo¬
rical painter. Figure indeed of every kind attracted his
attention ; even a retort, or a crucible, was to his eye an
example of beauty or deformity.
He had the strongest claim to the appellation of a man
of propriety and correctness. He did every thing in its
proper season, and he always seemed to have leisure in
store. He loved society, and felt himself beloved in it;
and, throughout his whole life, he never lost a friend, ex¬
cept by the stroke of death.
The only apprehension he entertained was that of long-
continued sickness, less, perhaps, from any selfish feeling,
than from the consideration of the trouble and distress which
it would occasion to attending friends ; and never was this
generous wish more completely gratified. On the 26th of
November 1799, and in the seventy-first year of his ao-e,
he expired without any convulsion, shock, or stupor, to an¬
nounce or retard the approach of death. Being at table
with his usual fare, some bread, a few prunes, and a mea¬
sured quantity of milk diluted with water, and having the
cup in his hand when the last stroke of the pulse was given,
he set it down on his knees, which were joined together,
and kept it steady with his hand in the manner of a per¬
son peifectly at his ease; and in this attitude he expired
without a drop being spilt, or a feature in his countenance
changed, as if an experiment had been required to show
to his friends the facility with which he departed. His ser¬
vant opened the door to tell him that some one had left
his name ; but getting no answer, stepped about half-way
towards him, and seeing him sitting in so easy a posture,
supporting his basin of milk with one hand, he thought
that he had dropt asleep, which sometimes happened after
his meals. He went back and shut the door ; but before
he went down stairs, some anxiety which he could not ac¬
count for made him return and look again at his master
Even then he was satisfied after coming pretty near, and
turned to go away; but returning a second time, and go¬
ing close up, he found his master a corpse. Sleep says
the poet, is the kinsman of death. Dr Black found the
740
B L A
B L A
Black
relationship very close indeed, and slept (we had almost said
slipt) away from time to eternity, by a transition so easy as
to be imperceptible even to the eye of affection. .
Black is the negation of colour; or the deprivation o
light, resulting from a peculiarity in certain substances, by
which they absorb the rays of light instead of reflecting them.
Black, from a remote antiquity, has been regarded as the
symbol of mourning and calamity. It is sometimes imposec
as a mark of humiliating distinction ; the most familiar in¬
stance of which is the obligation laid upon the Jews in 1 ui 'ey
of wearing black turbans. . .
Black Act, the statute 9th Geo. I. by which it is felony
to appear armed, and with the face blackened or disguised,
in any park, warren, &c., for the purpose of hunting or steal¬
ing deer, &c. , . , .
'The Black Acts are the Acts of the Scottish parliament
during the reigns of the five Jameses, of Mary, and of James
VI., down to the year 1586 or 1587 ; so styled because writ¬
ten in the Saxon character. ^ 0 „
Black-Bird, Black-Cap, Black-Cock. See Ornitho¬
logy. 0 „
BLACK-Book of the Exchequer. See England.
BLACK-Books, a name given to those which treat ot ne¬
cromancy. The black-book of the English monasteries was
a detail of the enormities practised in religious houses, com¬
piled by order of the visitors under Henry VIII. to blacken
them, and thus hasten their dissolution.
BLACK-Forest, a forest of Suabia, in Germany, running
from north to south between Ortnau, Brisgau, part of Wir-
temburg, and the principality of Furstenburg, towards the
source of the Danube as far as the Rhine above Basle. It
is part of the ancient Hercynian forest. _
BLACK-Friars, a name given to the Dominican order, called
also predicants or preaching friars, and in France jacobins.
BLACK-guard, a common term for an ill-behaved and
disreputable person. It is derived, according to some, from
the French blagueur ; others make it a corruption of black-,
ard, black-kind ; Dr Johnson simply a compound of “ black
and “ guard.”
BLACK-Lead a name improperly applied to plumbago.
Plumbago, or, as it is technically called, graphite, the mineral
used in the formation of pencils, crucibles, &c., has no rela¬
tion to any ore of lead.
Bi.ACK-Letter, a term derived from the dark appearance
of the page in books printed or written in the old English
or modern Gothic character, which was introduced into Eng¬
land about the middle of the fourteenth century.
BLACK-Mail, a certain rate of money, corn, cattle, or other
valuable, anciently paid in the north of England to certain
persons who were allied with robbers and plunderers, in or¬
der to be by them protected from pillage. This composi¬
tion with the protectors and supporters of thieves was pro¬
hibited by the 43d Elizabeth, cap. 13, and it seems to have
been early checked in the English border counties. But
in the Highlands of Scotland the exaction of black-mail from
the lowland borderers continued in spite of every effort to
put it down, till after the Rebellion of 1745.
Black-mail is defined by Dr Jamieson “a tax or contri¬
bution paid by heritors or tenants, for the security of their
property, to those freebooters who were wont to make in¬
roads on estates, destroying the corns, or driving away the.
cattle.” Rob Roy Macgregor, one of the most noted of
these, overawed the country as late as the year 1744, and
frequently robbed the Duke of Montrose’s factor of the rents
after they had been collected from the tenants. Spelman
thinks that this illegal imposition received the name ot black¬
mail from the poverty of those who were thus assessed,
and as being paid in black money, not in silver ; and Du
Cange adopts this idea with little variation, stating that while
brass money is called blanque or blanche maille, or white
money, by the French, the Saxons and English denominate
Black-
Monks
it black, in opposition to silver, which they account white
money. But the more probable opinion is, that the epithet
black is here used in a moral sense, to indicate the illegality "
or iniquity of the exaction. Wachter, however, defines “feea-
“black-mail” tributum pro redimenda vexa, deriving it from
the German “ placken,” vexare, exagitare, whence “ bauren-
placker,” rusticorum exagitator ; and Schilter says that
“ black-en” signifies prcedari.
BLACK-Monks, a denomination given to the Benedictines;
in Latin nigri monachi, and.sometimes ordo nigrorum.
BLACK SEA, or Euxine Sea, Pontus Euxinus of the Bound-
ancients, is a large inland sea, bounded on the west by Ru- aries-
melia, Bulgaria, and Bessarabia; on the north by Russian
Tartary ; on the east by Mingrelia, Circassia, and Georgia ;
and on the south by Anatolia. It is entered from the Medi¬
terranean through the channel of the Dardanelles, anciently
the Hellespont^the Sea of Marmora or Propontis, and the
channel of Constantinople or Thracian Bosporus ; and it
is connected with the Sea of Azof, or Palus Mceotis, by the
strait between the Crimea and the isle of Taman, anciently
the Cimmerian Bosporus, and known by the various mo¬
dern names of the Strait of Kertch, of Yemkale, and ot
Taman. , r. i
Till within less than half a century, the extent of the
Black Sea, and the position of several of its principal capes, {L
„,.ik or>rl wpm verv imnerfectlv ascertained. But
gulfs, and’ ports, were very imperfectly ascertained. But
soon after the commencement of the French Revolution, the
National Institute sent M. Beauchamp to examine this sea,
and especially its southern shores. In this enterprise he
was much impeded by the jealousy of the Turks : neverthe¬
less, he ascertained that Cape Kerempe, Carambw, was
placed in the charts too far to the south ; that the Gult ot
Sansoun, Amisenus Sinus, was deeper than it is common y
represented; and that Trebizond, the Tarabagan of the
Turks, anciently Trapezus, was five or six leagues farther
to the west than it appeared in the charts.. But recent tra-
vellers have discovered that even the Parisian charts aie in¬
accurate. According to Dr Clarke, the Isle of Serpents,
the Ulan-Adassi of the Turks, the Fidomsi of the modern
Greeks, and ancient Leuce, lies fifteen minutes, and the
port of Odessa twenty-seven minutes, too far towards the
north (Clarke’s Travels, i. 653) ; and Mr Macgill ascertained,
from two observations of his own, compared with those ot
some captains who had navigated this sea, that m the Trench
charts even Cape Kerempe is set down fifteen miles too far
north, whilst Cape Aria or Saritch or Careza, Knu-Metopon,
in the Crimea, is placed twenty-two miles too far south.
This, of course, makes a difference in the width of the sea
at this place of thirty-seven miles. (Macgill s Travels,
'According to l he best authorit.es, which Mr Arrowsmith Extent,
has followed in his maps of this sea, it lies between 41 and
46-' degrees of north latitude (the bottom of the Bay ol ■ an-
soun penetrating nearly to the 40th degree, and Cape Ker¬
empe stretching out nearly to the 42d), and between 28 and
4li decrees of east longitude from Greenwich.. I his will
o-ive for its extreme breadth, from Cape Baba m Anatolia
to Odessa, about 380 miles, and for its extreme length, from
the coast of Rumelia to the mouth of the Phasis 932 m les.
The Black Sea, however, may be considered as divided
two parts, by Cape Aria on the south of the Crimea, and
Cape Kerempe on the coast of Paphlagoma; the foime
lying in about 44^, and the latter in about 42 degrees of
north latitude. Both these capes being ^ ve^
sailing between them can discover the eoastoneliers .
The circumference of the Black Sea is about 3800 miles.
The first navigators of Greece who ventured into this sea Name,
having been repulsed or massacred by some of the “e
tribes inhabiting its coasts, their countrymen gav #
name of Pontus Axenos, or “ sea unfriendly to strange s.
But when the repeated Hsits of the Greeks had rendered
BLACK SEA.
741
Former
state.
Blac'-. Sea, these tribes more familiar with strangers, and commercial
intercourse had softened down the original ferocity of their
character, Grecian colonies were established at different points
on the shores of this sea, and the epithet Axenusw&s changed
into Euxinus, which has the opposite import, and means
“ friendly to strangers.” It derives its modern name either
from the dense fogs which frequently cover it, or from the
dangers of its navigation arising from these fogs ; from the
sudden and violent storms to which it is exposed ; and from
the shallows hitherto unnoticed in any chart.
The opinion of the ancients, that the Black Sea was for¬
merly much more extensive than it is at present, and that
it did not originally communicate with the Mediterranean,
is adopted by many modern authors of note, particularly by
Tournefort, Buffon, Pallas, and Dr Clarke, and seems to
be confirmed by several circumstances. Immense strata of
limestone, consisting almost entirely of mineralized sea-
shells, may be traced from the Black Sea to the northward
as far as the 48th degree of latitude, or about a degree and
a half beyond the most northerly point of its northern
shore ; and Pallas, in the third and seventh volumes of his
Travels, has pointed out traces of its having formerly ex¬
tended over the whole desert of Astracan and Jaik. The
evidences derived from the appearance of the present coast
of this sea are still less equivocal in support of the diminu¬
tion of its waters. Pliny expressly states that Taurida or
the Crimea was once not only surrounded by the sea, but
that the sea covered all that portion of it which is at pi'esent
champaign country. Now, from the mouths of the Dnieper
to those of the Don there are found continuous layers of
marine shells ; and if we suppose the waters of the Black
Sea to be restored only to the level of these layers, the
Crimea will again appear as an island. The alluvial nature
of more than three-fourths of the soil of Crimea Proper to the
north, the numerous salt lakes and marshes and thei’emainsof
marine productions of various kinds which are found there,
sufficiently confirm the latter part of Pliny’s statement.
The ancients also believed that the communication be¬
tween the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and the con¬
sequent diminution of the waters of the former, was effected
by the bursting of the Thracian Bosporus at the period
of the great deluge which inundated Greece; and this tra¬
dition seems to be confirmed by a reference to existing
natural phenomena. The cliffs and hills at the mouth of
the Bosporus are composed of enormous pebbles, which
appear to have undergone the action of fire, and afterwards
to have been rounded by long attrition in water. On the
point of the European lighthouse there are immense masses
of hard and compact lava; and the rock of which the Cya-
nean Isles consist appears to have been more or less modi¬
fied by fire, and to have been cemented during the boiling
of a volcano. On the Asiatic side of the strait, a little to
the eastward of the Anatolian lighthouse, there is also a
range of basaltic pillars, exhibiting very regular prismatic
forms. From the consideration of all these circumstances,
and from comparing events recorded in history with the
phenomena of nature, Dr Clarke considers it more than a
conjectural position, “that the bursting of the Ihracian
Bosporus, the deluge mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, and
the draining of the waters which once united the Black
Sea to the Caspian, and covered the great oriental plain of
Tartary, were all the consequences of earthquakes caused
by subterranean fires, described as still burning at the time
of the passage of the Argonauts, and the effects of which
are visible even at this hour.” (Vol. i. p. 680.) It is pro¬
per to mention, that Olivier does not coincide with other
naturalists respecting the former extent of the Black Sea,
or the bursting of the Thracian Bosporus. According to
the most recent survey, made in 1840 by Mr Xavier Hom-
maire de Hell, the difference in level between the Black
Sea and the Caspian is 34 feet.
Bursting
of the
Thracian
Bosporus,
The northern and western coasts of this sea have under- Black Sea.
gone, and are still undergoing, considerable changes ; but ^
the southern coast, consisting chiefly of calcareous rocks, is Changes in
nearly in the same state in which it was in the time of the its coasts,
ancients. According to Valerius Flaccus, the gulfs and
bays in the northern and western coasts were extremely
deep ; most of these, however, are now all either entirely
filled up or very much contracted. In proof that the Black
Sea and the Sea of Azof are still sustaining a diminution of
their waters, it may be stated that ships which formerly
sailed to Taganrog and the mouths of the Don, are now
unable to approach either the one or the other ; that the
Sea of Azof has become so shallow, that, during certain
winds, a passage may be effected by land from Taganrog to
Azof through the bed of the sea; and that the isthmus
connecting the Cyanean Isles with the Continent, which
does not appear to have existed in the time of Strabo, ap¬
pears to be increasing. On the southern coast of the Black
Sea there is, as far as we know, only one instance of a re¬
cession of the waters: the channel which formerly divided
the village of Amasrah, Amastris, is now entirely filled up,
and forms a low isthmus.
A rapid current, which generally flow's at the rate of Currents,
a league an hour, the influence of which is felt at the dis- winds, and
tance of ten miles from land, where it begins to take an- Climate>
other direction, sets from the Black Sea into the Bosporus.
Sometimes, however, the long continuance of a strong
south-westerly wind effectually counteracts this current.
The Black Sea, from its particular form, being like a basin,
into which many large rivers pour their streams, is full of
currents, particularly in summer, when the rivers are in¬
creased by the melting of the snows; and when strong
winds act against these currents, a high sea is produced.
North-east winds prevail from June to August inclusive ;
but the most prevalent winds at other seasons of the year
are from the S. and S.W. The general climate of the
Black Sea is cold and humid; the winters are long, and
frequently very severe ; but the navigation is free of impe¬
diment from ice till the beginning of November, and often
much later. The quantity of fresh water conveyed into this
sea renders it brackish, and liable to freeze with a moderate
degree of cold. It is calculated by some authors, particu¬
larly Tournefort (ii. 404), and the Abbe Barthelemy ( Voy¬
age dAnacharse, tome i. c. 1), that the volume of water it
receives is much greater than that which it discharges into
the Mediterranean. Dr Clarke, however, is of opinion that
the rivers which fall into the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azof do not communicate more water than flows through
the canal of Constantinople ; and hence he concludes, that
admitting the effect of evaporation, the level of the Black
Sea is insensibly falling.
The Black Sea receives a considerable portion of the Rivers,
fresh waters of Europe, as well as of Asia Minor. The
Danube collects the waters of a great part of Germany,
Hungary, Bosnia, Servia, Transylvania, Moldavia, Walla-
chia, and Bulgaria. The Dniester, Bog, Don, and Dnieper,
discharge into it those of a part of Russia and Poland.
The Phasis collects those of Mingrelia ; and the Sangaris,
and Kisil-Irmak, or Haigs, part of those of Anatolia.
In the Black Sea are found the tunny fish, which enters Fishes..
it to spawn ; sturgeon, sterlet, porpesse, mackerel, sole, tur¬
bot of two kinds, whiting, and roach. Some writers also
speak of herrings entering this sea in shoals, but it is pro¬
bable that they are only large sprats. Their appearance,
however, is considered symptomatic of a good sturgeon sea¬
son. It abounds with a species of sea-worm, four or five
inches long, with a head like an arrow, and a body consist¬
ing of a whitish mucilage. This worm is very destruc¬
tive to ships. It does not confine itself to salt-water, and
is therefore not the Teredo navalis or terebranes.
We shall begin our survey of the coasts and ports of this
742 B L A C K S E A.
Black Sea. seaj at j^g entrance from the Bosporus, and proceed along
its western shores. Off each point of the entrance of the
Coasts and Bosporus from the Black Sea is a group of rocky islets,
ports of which retain their ancient name of Cyanean Islands. These
liumelia. pave peen already described. From the Bosporus to Kara-
Kerman, which lies within a few miles of the southern¬
most branch of the Danube, the coast is lined by the
mountainous ridge of the Balkan or Hcemus, which termi¬
nates at Cape Emeniah, Hcemi extrema. 1 he valleys be¬
tween these mountains form little coves, where vessels are
laden with the timber of the Balkan for Constantinople. I he
forest of Belgrade, which takes its name from a village near
Constantinople, extends along the south-western side of the
Black Sea for about 100 miles. Incada lies on this coast
in 41. 52. north latitude. Pliny and Ptolemy make men¬
tion of this town under the name of T henias ; they also
call by the same name a promontory which can only be the
Cape Kouri of the present day. On the northern side of
the harbour there is fair anchorage ; it is only exposed to
winds from the E. and S.E., and is sufficiently spacious to
contain a fleet; but a heavy sea enters it when those winds
blow to which it is exposed. Its chief export is charcoal to
Constantinople. At the head of the Gulf of Toros, which is
bounded on the north by Cape Emeniah, and runs into the
land nearly the same distance, is Bourgas, which exports a
considerable quantity of wool, iron, corn, butter, cheese, and
wine, to Constantinople. The Gulf of Foros, which is four
or five leagues wide, contains several roads fit for the
largest ships, and affords the only safe anchorage upon the
t . western coast of the Black Sea.
ports of* On the coast of Bulgaria is Varna, or Barna, anciently
Bulgaria. Odessus, a Milesian colony, situated at the mouth of a river
which forms a large lake called Dewina, and extensive
marshes. There is no anchorage whatever between Cape
Emeniah and Varna. This town, which derives its modern
name from the small river that discharges itself into the sea
below its ramparts, anciently Ziras, is celebrated for the
siege it sustained, and the long and gallant defence it made
during the late war between Russia and Turkey. The pos¬
session of the place wTas indispensable to the Russians, in
order to insure their communications by sea; but had it
not been for the treason of Jussuf Pasha, the second in
command, there is no reason to believe they would ever
have succeeded in making themselves masters of it. Varna
formerly exported provisions to Constantinople. Between
Varna and Mangalia (formerly Galatis) is supposed to have
been situated Dionysiopolis. The exports of Varna in
1847 amounted to L.600,000. To the north of Mangalia
is situated the port of Kustendji, formerly Tomi, celebrated
by the exile of Ovid. The position of this town invests it
with a high political importance, now that Russia has pos¬
sessed herself of the mouths of the Danube. No physical
impediment exists to prevent the formation of a ship canal
from this point to Tchernavoda on the Danube; the distance
is only forty miles ; and the remains of Trajan’s canal still
exist. Were this enterprise carried out, it would be at¬
tended with results disastrous to the policy of Russia in this
direction, but eminently beneficial to the commerce of
Europe.
All this coast of Rumelia and Bulgaria, from the Bos¬
porus to the mouths of the Danube, formerly belonged to
Thrace.
Kara-Kerman, Istropolis, is a large village on the beach,
off which lie several shoals that oblige vessels to anchor
about a league to the south. Its principal export is corn.
Mouths From Kara-Kerman to Actiar (Sevastopol), in the Crimea,
of the j.]ie coagt is very low, nowhere exceeding sixty feet in
anu e‘ height, and the shoals formed by the rivers run off’ to a con¬
siderable distance. The Danube discharges itself into the
Black Sea between Bulgaria and Bessarabia, by seven
mouths, among swampy islands and shifting banks ; its
stream runs out at the rate of three miles an hour. So Black Sea.
great is the extent over which the waters of this river dif- r*"'
fuse themselves, from the shallowness of the sea, that at the
distance of three leagues from its mouth the water is almost
fresh, and within one league it is perfectly fit for use. A
very singular appearance takes place near the mouths of the
Danube : The porpoise, which everywhere else exhibits a
dark colour, is there perfectly white ; and hence, as soon as
the Greek mariners descry the white porpoise, they have no
doubt that they are in the current of the Danube, although
in thirty fathoms water, and many leagues distant from its
mouth. Opposite the mouths of this river is Serpents
Island, already noticed, a barren rock, and remarkable as
being the only island in the Black Sea at so great a dis¬
tance from land. The only building which now exists upon
it is a lighthouse ; but as the island of Achilles, it had for¬
merly a religious sanctity, and the remains of sacred edifices
are still to be found upon it.
The southern or St George’s branch of the Danube be¬
longing to Turkey was formerly the deepest; that, how¬
ever, silted up, and the traffic of the countries bordering on
the Danube was forced through the northern or Kilia
branch. In the hands of the Russians it silted up also, and
the waters thus turned into the middle or Soulina branch,
which became the more available ; prior to the treaty of
Adrianople the depth of water upon the bar at this mouth
of the river was about sixteen feet. There is little more
than six feet there now. The bar is formed principally of
alluvial deposits, and not of sand washed up by the sea. As,
however, it was not stipulated by the treaty of Adrianople
upon whom the duty of deepening the channel was to de¬
volve, in the year 1840 Austria entered into a convention
with Russia, whereby it was agreed that a tax should be
levied by this latter power upon all ships entering the river
at Soulina; and in consideration of this privilege Russia
became bound to keep the mouth of the river free from all
such impediments as nowr exist. If the Soulina mouth should
silt up it is probable that the waters would again force a
passage through the Kilia branch, and the Russian fortress
of Ismael would command the trade of the Danube. When
the Soulina mouth was in the possession of Turkey, every
vessel leaving the river was obliged to drag a large rake be¬
hind her ; this was sufficient to stir up the mud, which was
then carried away by the mere force of the current. This
practice is prohibited by Russia. Treaty does not allow of
forts being built by any power upon the Soulina mouth of
the Danube.
The Russian province of Cherson is divided from Bess- Coasts and
arabia by the Dniester, anciently Tyras. A bank before it
forms two channels ; that on the west being called the chan¬
nel of Constantinople, and that on the east the channel of
Ockzakoff. The one is 150 fathoms broad, and the other
eighty fathoms; but neither has more than five feet water.
Akerman, on the south bank of this river, has some export
trade in corn, wool, wine, wood, hides, and butter. Ancient
geographers place upon the right bank of the mouth of the
Dniester the town of Hermonactis, and upon the left the
tower of Neoptolemus.
Ovidiopol is situated about fifteen miles from the mouth
of the Dniester. The Niproffski Leman or Lake is here
crossed four or five times a day by a steamer. The traject
takes an hour.
To the north of the Dniester extend the interminable
steppes ; and as far as the mouth of the Dnieper the Black
Sea is bordered by a low monotonous line of coast, some¬
times argillaceous, but generally calcareous. So gentle is
the slope of the vast plains of southern Russia that numer¬
ous rivulets on their way to the sea lose themselves in the
network of lakes which extends along the shore, and for
some distance into the interior. Some of these are lagoons
separated from the sea only by sand-banks, and they may
BLACK SEA.
743
Black Sea. once have served as harbours to Greek mariners. After
the destruction of the kingdom of Tartary, the only village
upon this coast was Kodjabey, a miserable place; but afford¬
ing a comparatively safe roadstead. When the produce of
the fertile provinces of Poland and New Russia sought an
outlet, the huts of Kodjabey were exchanged for the palaces
of Odessa.
The population of this city exceeds 100,000. It there¬
fore ranks as the fourth in the empire. It was declared a
free port in 1817. It owes its prosperity, not so much to
any natural advantages, as to the wise administration of the
Duke of Richelieu while he was governor of this province.
It is situated close to the coast, which is here very lofty,
and much exposed to the winds, especially from the east. In
order to render it a safe and commodious port, the duke
caused a harbour to be formed, in which ships of no small
burden might ride secure from every storm. He also built
a large mole, extending half a werst into the sea; with
several small ones, and a handsome quay, a werst and a half
in length. The roads without the port are safe in summer,
and the anchorage is good. Odessa labours under the want
of a navigable river, and a great scarcity of fresh water.
The total value of the exports for the year 1817 amounted
to 38,000,000 paper rubles;1 since then they have been
very fluctuating. In 1818 they fell without any transition
to 20,000,000. During the war of 1828—29 they sank to
1,673,000. After the treaty of Adrianople, the exports
again rose to 27,000,000. In 1838 they reached 41,000,000,
and the imports 20,000,000. The year 1839 was the most
memorable in the history of Odessa. The exports consist¬
ing almost entirely of corn, amounted to 48,000,000 paper
rubles. In 1840 there was a diminution of 7,184,021
rubles; and in 1841 the first quarter alone presented a de¬
crease of 6,891,332 rubles in comparison with the corre¬
sponding quarter of 1840. The amount of wheat in 1852
shipped in 203 British vessels, was 453,700 quarters. The
amount of Indian corn exported to Great Britain in 1851
in 47 vessels was 74,065 quarters. In 1852, in 101 ships,
we received 219,170 quarters of the same article. The
principal imports are wine, chiefly French, some rum, raw
silk, coffee, sugar, oil, soap, sulphur, fruit, linen cloth, &c.,
but all in rather limited quantities. The great article of
export is wheat, which, however, in the opinion of Mr Mac-
gill, is very far inferior to that of Taganrog, being soft, and
apt to heat; besides this, grain, rye, barley, oats, tallow, and
tallow candles, bees-wax, iron, hemp, &c., are exported.
The Dnieper, Borysthenes, which separates the Russian
provinces of Cherson and Taurida, forms, near its mouth,
a shallow and marshy lake, two and a half miles broad abreast
of Ockzakoff, but more at the confluence of the Bog. The
entrance is almost closed by shifting sand-banks, between
which there are seldom more than five feet water. The
river continues frozen from the middle of December till the
middle of February ; and in the month of May it overflows
its banks, leaving stagnant lagoons in all the low country.
The Bog, Hypanis, falls into the Gulf of Leman, or estuary
of the Dnieper. The small island of Berezane is situated
opposite the mouth of the latter river, almost inaccessible on
account of its perpendicular cliffs of rock and clay. Ockza¬
koff is an inconsiderable port, lying at the junction of these
rivers; its harbour is perfectly secure, but the little trade
it formerly possessed has been drawn away to Odessa. Ock¬
zakoff' was founded at the close of the fifteenth century by
Mengli Ghiri Khan of the Crimea, on the ruins of the an¬
cient Alektor, under its Turkish name of Ozou ; it was twice
taken by the Russians, on the 13th June 1737 under Mar¬
shal Munich, and 15th December 1788 under Potempkin.
All the Turkish buildings have long since been demolished.
Opposite to Ockzakoff is Kinburn, which, before the build¬
ing of Cherson, was intended by the Russians as their prin- Black Sea.
cipal depot for the merchandise sent from the provinces
bordering on the Dnieper. The extension of the Russian
dominions in the west has caused even Cherson, on the right
bank of the Dnieper, to be superseded by Odessa. Yet corn,
hemp, and other articles of exportation, are so much cheaper
and more plentiful here, that many foreign vessels still pre¬
fer this port, though they are obliged first to perform qua¬
rantine, and unload their cargoes at Odessa. The Dnieper
is five miles wide at Cherson, but only vessels drawing six
feet can ascend to it. The Russians, however, have a large
arsenal here, and build line-of-battle ships, which are floated
down the river on machines, and afterwards conveyed to
Ockzakoff to be equipped. Cherson was founded by the
Empress Catherine in 1788, and contains a population of
about 8000 inhabitants. Between Cherson and Nicolai'ef is
situated the tomb of Howard the philanthrophist. Nicolai'ef,
on the Bog, a fine river, without bar or cataract, and with
deep, still water, is the station for vessels when built; and
here they are laid up to be repaired. It has extensive ma¬
rine arsenals, and, next to Sevastopol, is one of the most im¬
portant naval stations on the Black Sea.
The long narrow belt of sand Djarib-Agatch, celebrated
as the course of Achilles (Apo/xos ’A^iAAews), extends into
the shallow Gulf of Kerkinit (Temyraces of Strabo), which
divides the peninsula of the Dnieper from that of the Crimea.
The southern coast of the Crimea is lofty and precipi- Southern
tons ; the mountains beginning at Balacklava, Portus Sym- clie
bolorum, and extending to Caffa, Theodosia. Some of these 'jlimea'
are celebrated in antiquity, and are no less remarkable for
their formation and appearance. The mountain Tchedir-
dagh, Trapezus, rises abruptly from the coast about Alusta
to the height of 4740 feet, according to Messrs Englehardt
and Parrot; it exhibits a mass of limestone very compact,
of a gray colour, and, according to Pallas, yielding a slightly
fetid odour on being rubbed. The most remarkable head¬
land of the Crimea is Cape Tarchanskoi, called by the Tar¬
tars Aya Burun, or the Sacred Promontory, probably the
Parthenium of Strabo ; one of the loftiest mountains in the
Crimea, terminating abruptly in the sea, and forming the
western point of the peninsula. It consists entirely of mar¬
ble. On the southern point is Cape Saritch, Kriu-Metopon,
formerly noticed.
The first port of note on the western coast of the Crimea Western
is Kosloff, or Eupatoria, from which, in 1793, 176 vessels co^st of th0
were freighted with corn, salt, and leather. It is still the Crimea,
most thriving port in the Crimea, and owes its prosperity to
the Karaite Jews, who compose the greater part of the popu¬
lation, which amounts to 10,000. Its exports in 1839 were
2,394,867 rubles. Sevastopol, formerly Actiar, Ctenus, is
the chief station of the Russian Black Sea fleet, to which
indeed it is exclusively appropriated, no merchant ship being
allowed to enter it except in distress. The natural advan¬
tages of this harbour are very great. The largest vessels
may lie within a cable’s length of the shore. Here the fleets
of the world might ride in security, and have convenient an¬
chorage ; and in any of the ports, vessels find from 21 to
70 feet depth of water, and good anchorage. The harbour
somewhat resembles that of Malta. The principal branch
runs eastward for a distance of four miles and three quarters,
and has an average breadth of 1000 yards; it is terminated
by the valley of Inkerman, and receives the muddy waters
of the Tchernoi Retchka. The southern shore of this road¬
stead is indented by three deep coves. Upon the high
ridge which separates two of these (Artillery Bay from South
Bay) the town is situated. The barracks and stores, admi¬
ralty buildings, and numerous churches, present an imposing
appearance. The streets are broad, the houses handsome,
and the population exceeds 40,000.
1 A paper ruble equals lOJd.
44
Black Sea.
BLACK SEA.
The northern shore presents a line of cliff’s of no interest.
South Bay is 3000 yards in length, and sheltered by high
limestone cliffs. It is here vessels are rigged and unrigged,
and a long range of hulks and pontoons are moored along
the shore. Beyond South Bay, and communicating with
it, is the creek in which the government docks are situated ;
they were constructed under the superintendence of Colonel
Upton. They are five in number, and placed on two sides
of a quadrangular basin. The dock basin is supplied \\ ith
water by a canal which, passing through a tunnel at Inker-
man, joins the Tchernoi Retchka at Tchorgouna. from
the quarries at Inkerman has been brought the freestone
of which these docks were constructed. They are said to
have cost the Russian government 9,000,000 rubles. Car¬
eening Bay is still further to the eastward. The entrance
to the harbour of Sevastopol is narrow, and defended by fom
forts, consisting each of three tiers of batteries, and mount¬
ing from 200 to 300 pieces ot artillery. These aie said to
be badly constructed, and not so formidable as they look.
The waters of the harbour are infested with a worm which
seems to have its origin in the Tchernoi Retchka. Between
Sevastopol and Cape Chersonese, there are six distinct bays
running inland parallel to one another, viz., the Quarantine
Bay, the Bay of Sands (Pestchannaia), the Bay of Butts
(Strelezkaia), Round Bay (Kruglaia), the Bay of the Cos¬
sack (Cozatchaia), and Double Bay (Dvoinaia) : all these
possess good anchorage, but have not been used since the
Heraclean colony of Cherson, the ruins of which still exist,
flourished upon the peninsula. Upon turning sharply round
Cape Chersonese, the monastery of St George, hanging upon
the steep mountain side, comes into view, while an opening
so narrow as to be imperceptible until reached is the en¬
trance to the harbour of Balaclava, at the head of which is
established a colony of Arnaout Greeks. It is one of the
most remarkable ports in the Crimea, appearing from the
town land-locked by high precipitous mountains. Its en¬
trance is so extremely narrow, that only one ship can pass
at a time ; but within the port it is three-quarters of a mile
long and 400 yards broad. It is secure from storms in all
weather, and ships of war of any size or rate may find in it
sufficient depth of water. The mountains which surround
it are of red and white marble, and the shore in some parts
is covered with gold-coloured mica, in a state of extreme
division. This port is closed against the vessels of all na¬
tions, not excepting Russians, to prevent smuggling. From
Balaclava the coast trends to the S.E. to Cape Saritch (Kriu-
Metopon), the only anchorage is at Laspi. Cape Saritch,^
s^orpS-°* the southern point of the Crimea, is the commencement of
tie nmea. magnjqcent c]ia;n Gf limestone cliffs, the existence of
which has rendered the southern shore of Taurida so re¬
nowned for its beauty. Sheltered from the keen winds of the
north, the most luxuriant vegetation clothes those banks of
detritus which slope gently from the base of stupendous pre¬
cipices to the sea. Numerous villas belonging to the Rus¬
sian aristocracy are picturesquely scattered amid the vine¬
yards and olive groves which descend to the water’s edge.
Orianda, the chateau of the empress, and the castle of
Alupka, the residence of Prince Woronzoff, are the most
celebrated of these.
The modern watering-place of Yalta is situated in a bay
to the eastward of Cape Aiotodor. Beyond, Alushta (the
Alustan Phrurion of the middle ages), and Soudagh (the
Soldaya of the Genoese), are the only places worthy of note ;
at the latter the limestone range terminates, and the coast,
which affords no good harbour after rounding Cape Cher-
sonesus, now forms the magnificent Bay of Caffa, or Theo¬
dosia, founded by the Milesians. Caffa, was afterwards incor¬
porated into the kingdom of Bosporus. In 1280 it became
the splendid metropolis of the Genoese dominion in the
Black Sea. In 1475 it surrendered to an Ottoman fleet,
under Achmet Pasha, and dwindled down into a Turkish
garrison, only to rise to greater glory than ever in the middle Black Sea.
Southern
shores of
of the seventeenth century, when the Turks gave it the name
of Koutchouk Samboul (Little Constantinople) ; it then con¬
tained a population exceeding 80,000 souls. It has now
sunk to the abject condition of a Russian town,—has been
sacrificed to Kertch,—and were it not for the associa¬
tions connected with it, would be unworthy of notice. The
exports of Theodosia in 1839 amounted to 955,108 rubles.
The harbour of Theodosia, and those upon the south-west¬
ern shore of the Crimea, are the only harbours in Russia
which do not freeze in winter. From the Cape of Schouda,
which forms the eastern shore of the Bay of 1 heodosia, the
coast upon which Greek colonies formerly flourished, is now
deserted, and the whole peninsula of Kertch is a slightly un¬
dulating steppe. The straits at their entrance are about
twelve miles broad, with an average depth of three fathoms.
Upon rounding the Cape of Akbourum, the town of Kertch
(Ponticapeum) rising up the hill of Mithridates bursts upon
the view. It contains a population ot 10,000 inhabitants,
and owes its prosperity entirely to the commerce of the Sea
of Azof, which finds its outlet through the Cimmerian Bos¬
porus. Upwards of 1000 vessels passed through these straits
in 1851. Seven miles to the north of Kertch stands the
dilapidated fortress of Yenikale. Ihe straits are here very
narrow ; the nearest point of the Asiatic shore is the pro¬
jecting Cape Kammenoi. The depth of water on the bar
of Touzla does not exceed two fathoms. The straits are alto¬
gether nearly thirty miles in length, and devoid of any re¬
markable beauty. They are frozen over in winter.
The coast of Anatolia, on the Black Sea, extends to the Coast cf
Kisil-Irmak, which falls into the sea a little to the west of Anatolia,
the Gulf of Sansoun. It is lined by high mountains, termi¬
nating in lofty promontories, and forming a steep and clean
coast, with numerous little coves, into most of which small
rivulets fall. The most remarkable headlands are Cape Kili-
Mili, east of Erekli; Cape Kerempe, the north point of Asia
Minor, very high Icind with breakers off it ? and Cape Indji,
a low point to the west of Sinope. 1 he principal rivers on
this coast, besides the Kisil-Irmak, Halys, and the Sakai ia,
Sangarius, already noticed, are the Falios, Billceus, and the
Barthin, Parthenius. The only port of consequence is Sinope
or Sinoub, strongly situated on the narrow and low isthmus
of a rocky peninsula. The mole which formed its port is
nearly in ruins. The depth of water is twelve feet. I here
is, however, a good road for the largest ships, and Turkish
vessels of war were formerly built here. Sinope is the near¬
est port on the Black Sea to Angora, the only place hitherto
known that supplies the fine goats hair of commerce.
From the Kisil-Irmac to Vona the coast is named Roum Coast of
by the Turks. The chief places are Sansoun, Amisus, on Roum;
the Jekyl-Irmak, which falls into the deep Gulf of Sansoun.
Importsof Sansoun in 1848, L.207,121; in 1849, L.l-8,l lo;
in 1850, L.199,925 ; in 1851, L.193,911. Exports in 1848,
L.306,000 ; in 1849, L.280,355 ; m 1850, L.209,960 ; m
1851, L.172,804. Fatsa, Polemonium, at the mouth of the
Sidemus ; Budjah and Vona, Poona, on the cape of the
From Vona the coast takes the name of the tribes that 0f the La-
inhabit it. The Laziens, Lazi, occupy the coast from Vona ziens.
to the Tchourouk. The principal port on this coast is 1 rebi-
zond, which, although it can admit only small vessels, has
nevertheless a considerable trade. One hundred and h ty
or two hundred small craft annually sail to Taganrog, with
nardek, a marmalade of grapes, and bechmiss, a syrup made
for the use of the distilleries there. In 1848, 13-. slnp^en
tered the port of Trebizond ; of these 39 were British.
The total imports amounted to L.1,726, ^ ° f
L.997,666 was British. The total exports L--°,
which L.71,296 worth were in British ships. In 1851 only
23 British ships out of 172 entered the port, with cargoes to
the value of L.319,479. But these cleared out with L. 106,341
BLACK SEA.
Black Sea. worth of cargoes. The total exports of Trebizond in this
year amounted to L.496,708. The Turkish trade with this
port has greatly increased within the last few years. The
anchorage is not very good. Batoum has recently become
a place of some importance as a Turkish garrison; it is situ¬
ated at the mouth of the Tchourouk (Batys, from whence
probably the present name), and overhung by the lofty moun¬
tains of Akhaltzik. About twenty miles to the south of
the Phasis the little river of Nataneby (Isis of Arrian)
falls into the sea, and separates the Turkish from the Rus¬
sian dominions. Fort St Nicholas upon its right bank is
Coast of the last Russian outpost. Next to the Laziens, the Guri-
the Gu- ons occupy the coast as far as the Rioni or Phasis. At its
rions. mouth this river is sixty fathoms deep and half a league
broad, but there is a small island in the midst of its channel.
The only port in the country of the Gurions is Poti, to
Coast of which the merchants of Georgia resort. The Mingrelians
Alingrelia. occupy the country of the ancient Colchians. Redout Kale
at the mouth of the Khopi, has recently risen into import¬
ance since it has become the port of Tiflis, and steamers
ply between it and Odessa. At the mouth of the Tugour
(Megapomo) is situated the fort of Anaklia. The little pro¬
vince of Zamourzakhan intervenes between Mingrelia and
Akbassia, which extends from the Galazkha to the fort of
Gagra. The most important places in Akbassia are Iskourias
(supposed to be ancient Dioscourias), Soutchoum Kale, one
of the best harbours on the coast, and Pitzounda, celebrated
for its church founded by the Emperor Justinian. Between
Gagra and Anapa the coast is occupied by the Circassian
tribes of the Ardonas, Saghis, Oubikhs, and Chapsoukes.
The port of Guelendchik is the best upon the Circassian
coast, which is here overhung by the towering range of the
Caucasus. At Anapa the mountains cease, and a little dis-
The Kuban, tance to the west one arm of the Kouban falls into a la¬
goon connected with the sea by a narrow channel called
Boughaze, upon which there is never more than five feet of
water. Another arm, the Kara Kouban, falls into the Sea
of Azof; it is not navigable. The Kouban was the former
boundary of the empire in this direction. The Asiatic shore
of the straits of Kertch is low, and Taman is situated at its
most western extremity. The Gulf of Taman is about thirty
miles long.
Commerce The Phoenicians, and after them the Egyptians, in ancient
of the times possessed the commerce of the Black Sea. It passed
Black Sea. t0 Greeks at the commencement of the seventh century
b.c. The Milesians and Heracleans then laid the founda¬
tions of the two states of Bosporus and Cherson.
The commerce of the Greek colonies, which were at first
simple factories, found speedy development as the produc¬
tions of civilization were exchanged for the raw material
furnished by the neighbouring tribes. Numerous towns
were founded upon the shores of Taurida, and the relations
of the mother country became more intimate as the wealth
and importance of these latter increased, until atlast Athens
became in a great measure dependent upon Taurida for her
cereal supplies; and Strabo gives an account of a large ex¬
portation of corn made to the Athenians by Leucon king of
Bosporus (book vii. chap. 5).
After the Greeks the Romans penetrated in their turn
into the Black Sea. Under their dominion the Pontus
Euxinus was less frequented. Rome, mistress of the entire
world, attracted to herself alone all commercial relations,
and the shores of Taurida, too far from the capital, and less
favoured than the provinces in Africa, were insensibly aban¬
doned.
About the third century after Christ, the empire of the
East was founded and Constantinople built upon the shore
of the Thracian Bosporus, and trade upon the Black Sea
received a new impetus under the auspices of the Byzan¬
tine Emperors.
But the thirteenth century formed the most remarkable
VOL. IV.
745
epoch in the commercial history of the Black Sea. Guided Black Sea.
by their ambition and mercantile instinct, the Genoese landed
upon the coast of Taurida, and in 1280 founded the brilliant
colony of Catfa. Factories were established at Tana on the
mouth of the Don, in Colchis, and on the Caucasian coast,
and even the imperial town of Trebizond was forced to
admit one of the most important factories of the republic.
The Genoese colonies thus became the general emporium
of the rich productions of Russia, Asia Minor, Persia, and
the Indies. They monopolized for more than two centuries
all the traffic between Europe and Asia, and presented a
marvellous spectacle of thriving greatness. All this glory
had an end. By the capture of Constantinople in 1453 this
commerce was nearly destroyed; and by the capture of Caffa
in 1476 it was completely annihilated. The Venetians, who
had obtained from the Turks the right of navigating the
Black Sea in consideration of a yearly tribute of 10,000
ducats, strove in vain to take the place their rivals had lost.
They were expelled in their turn from the Black Sea, and
the Dardanelles were closed against all the nations of the
West; and the Turks, and their subjects the Greeks of the
Archipelago, alone possessed the privilege of passing through
the strait. To obtain a share of the commerce thus re¬
stricted to Mussulman subjects was a favourite project with
Peter the Great. In 1699 he succeeded in subduing Azof
and the country round it; but by the unfortunate battle of
Pruth, in 1711, he was compelled to relinquish his conquests.
His successors, however, especially Catherine II., aimed at
the same object. This enterprising sovereign, by the treaty
of Kai'nardgy in 1774, and afterwards by the treaty of Jassy
in l791,completelyaccomplishedherobject; theTurksbeing
obliged to surrender a part of Lesser Tartary and the Crimea,
to allow the Russians to establish a navy in the Black Sea,
and to permit their flag a free passage through the Dar¬
danelles. In 1784 the Porte granted the privilege of navi¬
gating the Black Sea to the Austrians. But no other
European nation obtained this privilege, although the French
carried on a considerable trade under the Russian and Im¬
perial flags, till after the conquest of Egypt by the French,
when a treaty was concluded between the French govern¬
ment and the Porte, by which the latter granted to the for¬
mer the free navigation of this sea. At the peace of Amiens
the navigation was opened to the Prussian, Spanish, Nea¬
politan, Dutch, Ragusan, and English merchant flags ; and
all these nations were allowed to have resident consuls in
the Turkish ports of this sea. The English, however, by
secret treaties with the Turks, in the reign of James I. and
Charles I., had been allowed to navigate this sea; and in
1799 this privilege was renewed.
Russian statistical reports are so little to be relied upon
that it is difficult to give any very accurate returns of the
general trade of the Black Sea. Within the last twenty years
a total change has been effected in the aspect of its com¬
merce. This is chiefly to be attributed to the existence of
the British market. When importations of corn into Eng¬
land were freed from fiscal influences, the vast and fertile
plains of southern Russia, and the rich valley of the Danube,
supplied the ever increasing demand; and the requirements
of Great Britain, however they may increase, will be met
by enormously elastic powers of production. The prohibi¬
tive policy of Russia exercises however a most injurious in¬
fluence upon foreign trade, and combines to render the ex¬
pense of freight upon the coasts of the Black Sea higher than
upon any other eastern sea-board. In consequence of the
more liberal commercial policy of Turkey and the Danubian
principalities the exports of Rumelia, Moldavia, and Wal-
lachia, are increasing far more rapidly than those of the
Russian provinces, while the grain is more highly esteemed
in the English market. The total amount of wheat received
by Great Britain in 1852 from the Russian shores of the
Black Sea was 789'750 quarters in 374 vessels. The total
5 B
746
B L A
Black-
Why tlof.
Principal
Black Sea amount shipped from Rumelia and the Danubian princi¬
palities was 112-650 quarters, in 92 vessels. The general
exports of the principalities have been gradually increasing.
In 1849 the total value of the imports amounted to L.809,240,
in 1850, L.898,715; and in 1851, L.896,895. The total
value of the exports in 1849 was L.1,113,272; in 1850 it
was L.839,712; and in 1851, L.l,274,525. As the corn
trade to the British dominions is the mainly important branch
of commerce in the Black Sea, those statistics connecte
with it which are derived from the English official reports
contain all that is most important. Apart from this no very
remarkable features in the local trade have been recently e
veloped, nor, if there were, are there any authentic reports
of its extent. „ , , , ,,
, The principal articles of commerce afforded by the
articles of countries on the Black Sea are wheat, rice, tobacco, hides,
commerce. ta]loW; hare-skins, honey, wax, iron, and yellow grains for
dyeing from Rumelia and Bulgaria, by the ports of Varna
and Bourgas. The same articles, with the addition of wool,
butter, hemp, masts, ship-timber, and pitch, are exporte
from Moldavia and Wallachia,by Ibraila and Galatz on the
Danube. From Bessarabia by Ovidopol, and from the pro¬
vince of Cherson by Odessa, Akermann, and Cherson, come
corn, oak-timber, hides, tallow, tar, shagreen, wax, honej,
hemp, sail-cloth, and woolfrom the Crimea by the ports
of Actiar, Kosloff, and Caffa, corn, wool, wax, honey, dried
and salted hides, deer-skins, morocco leather, sheep-skins,
salted and dried fish, potash, felt, caviar, wine, silk, and salt-
petre ;—from the countries on the Sea of Azof by the ports
of Taganrog, Berdianski, and Mariapol, iron (of which Con¬
stantinople and Smyrna require about 60,000 quintals each),
dried fish, caviar, butter, hides, tallow', wheat, timber, furs,
sail-cloth, cordage, hemp, linens, wax, and wool from
Anatolia by the ports of Erekli, Amasreh, Ineboli, Sinope,
and Uniah, hides, dried fruits, linens, linen thread, w'ax,^
honey, hemp, copper, and ship-timber ; from the coast of
Roum and Sansoun, the same articles;—from the countries
of the Laziens and Gurions, principally by^ I rebizond, all
the above articles except ship-timber;—and from Mingrelia,
and the country of the Abasses, principally by Soudjuk and
Anapa, slaves, timber, box-wood, wool, silk, furs, butter,
hides, wax, and honey. The trade to those coasts is entirely
carried on by a few Greeks of Constantinople, and is very
insignificant.
The Russian fleet in the Black Sea consisted in 18o3,
according to M. de Haxthausen, of 18 ships of the line, 12
frigates, and 10 corvettes, brigs, &c., exclusive of steamers.
See Clarke’s Travels* vol. i.4to edition; Macgill’s 1 ravels
in Turkey, &c. vol. i.; Coxe’s Travels, vol. iii. 8vo edition ;
Essai Historique sur le Commerce et la Navigation de la
Mer Noire, par le Baron de Saint Joseph, Paris, 1820;
Rottier, I liner air e de Tiflisd Constantinople, 1829; Alex¬
ander’s Travels in the East through Russia and the Crimea
in 1829; Oliphant’s Russian Shores of the Black Sea,
1853. (w.S.) (l.O.)
BLACK-Tin, tin-ore when dressed, stamped, washed, and
ready for smelting. It is the ore comminuted by beating
into a black powder, like fine sand.
Black- Wadd, an ore of manganese, of which, according
to Klaproth, it contains 68 per cent. It is of a brown or
black colour, opaque, sectile, and soils the fingers. Though
its specific gravity is as high as 3-706, it appears very light
in the hand, but imbibes water with violence, and imme¬
diately sinks when immersed. Mixed with linseed oil it in¬
flames spontaneously. The localities of black-wadd are
particularly Devonshire and Cornwall. The dendritic deli¬
neations, often so beautiful upon limestone, steatite, and other
substances, are supposed to derive their colouring matter
from this mineral. It is used as a drying ingredient in paints.
Black- Whytlof, in our old writers, bread of a middle
fineness between white and brown, called in some parts
B L A
“ ravel-bread.” In religious houses it w^as used as a com- Blackall
mon sort; the panis conventualis being pure manchet, or II
white bread. .
BLACKALL, Offspring, an eminent English prelate,
born at London in 1654, and educated at Catharine-Hall,
Cambridge. For two years he refused to take the oath of
allegiance to William and Mary, but at last submitted,
though he seemed to condemn the principles of the Revolu¬
tion. In a sermon preached before the House of Commons
30th January 1699, he animadverted on Toland’s assertion,
in his life of Milton, that Charles I. w-as not the writer of the
Icon Basilike; and also on some insinuations against the
authenticity of the Holy Scriptures; which produced a con¬
troversy between him and that author. In 1700 he was
chosen Boyle’s lecturer; and in 1707 was consecrated bishop
of Exeter/ He died at Exeter in 1716, and was interred in
the cathedral. Hisworkswerepublishedin two vols.folio, 1723.
BLACKBURN, a parish, township, market-town, and
since the Reform act a parliamentary borough, is situated on
a brook, called in Domesday book “ Blackeburn,” but now
only known as “ The Brook,” in the hundred of Blackburn,
in the northern division of the county of Lancaster, 209 miles
from London by railway, 35f from Preston, and 21 miles
N.N.W. from Manchester. The parish contains 15 town¬
ships and 8 chapelries, and is nearly 14 miles long and 10
broad. The living is a vicarage in the gift of the Arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, the rector. Its income is marked in
the clergy list at L.893, the amount rendered some years
back; but as this resulted partly from glebe-lands, which
are being yearly let at high rates on building leases, the pre¬
sent value must be far greater. The vicar has 19 livings
in his gift, most of them small in money value, though many
have large and important populations. The parish church is
a very handsome edifice. Almost every form of dissent is here
represented, but the Independents are by far the most nu¬
merous and influential. There are very many Sunday-schools;
but, from the nature of the trade of the town, education is
on a rather low scale. Thus, of the 1584 persons married
last year (1853) a very small proportion wrote their names.
There is a free grammar-school founded by Queen Elizabeth,
with a good house but small endowment: it has had no pu¬
pils for several years past. There are also a female charity
school, several elementary and Sunday schools, a mechanics
institute, a large subscription library, and a small theatre.
Blackburn received a charter of incorporation in the year
1851, when W. H. Hornby, Esq., one of the largest cotton-
manufacturers of the place, was elected the first mayor.
It returns two members to parliament.
Blackburn is entirely dependent on the cotton trade, and
by the industry and skill of its manufacturers, has made
wonderful progress during the last few years. By the cen¬
sus of 1801 the population was 11,980; and in 1851 it had
increased to 46,536. Several very important inventions
have orginated from the firms of Hornby and Kenworthy,
and Harrison and Son, by which the trade of Blackburn has
assumed a high character in the cotton districts. 1 he names
of Peel and Hargrave are identified with the place, as be¬
longing to men who in the last century gave an impetus to
manufactures. The Leeds and Liverpool canal passes the
town; which is also connected by railways with Burnley,
Preston, Liverpool, Bolton, and Manchester.
Blackburn, as a town, is in a state of transition, which,
unless untoward events interfere, will in a few years give it
an entirely new and improved character. Its old, narrow,
and irregular streets are giving way to the hand of improve¬
ment, and a new town of considerable architectural preten¬
sions is fast springing up. Under an act of parliament the
improvement commissioners are widening the streets, and
laving out new ones ; and a town-hall and exchange is m the
course of erection, on a scale of considerable magnificence.
An extensive market-house has been recently erectec,
B L A
Blacking with slaughter-houses adjoining. If with these measures of
II public utility, means go hand in hand to elevate the opera-
! Back lock. ^veS) Blackburn may one day become equal to any town
in Lancashire.
BLACKING, any factitious black, as lamp-black, shoe¬
black, and the like. A mixture of ivory or lamp-black with
linseed-oil makes the common oil blacking. For a shining
blacking, small-beer or water is used instead of oil, in the
proportion of a pint to an ounce of ivory-black, with the
addition of half an ounce of sugar, and as much gum-arabic.
The white of an egg substituted for the gum increases the
lustre, but is supposed to render the leather liable to crack.
A good blacking is prepared by mixing, in certain propor¬
tions, ivory-black, sour beer or porter, Florence oil, mo¬
lasses, and a small quantity of sulphate of iron.
BLACKLOCK, Thomas, a Scottish poet and divine,
r was born of humble but respectable parents at Annan, in
Dumfriesshire, in 1721. When not quite six months old
he lost his sight by the smallpox. Under this misfortune,
his father and friends endeavoured to amuse him as he grew
up by reading to him various books; among others, the
works of Milton, Spenser, Prior, Pope, and Addison. His
kind and gentle disposition gained the hearts of his com¬
panions, who were very assiduous in their good offices, par¬
ticularly in reading to instruct and amuse him.
Blackloek, at the age of nineteen, had the misfortune to
lose his excellent father, who was killed by the fall of a
malt-kiln belonging to his son-in-law. Thus suddenly de¬
prived of that support on which his youth had leaned, des¬
titute of almost every resource which industry affords to
those who have the blessing of sight, with a body natu¬
rally feeble and delicate, and with a mind peculiarly sus¬
ceptible, this bereavement was doubly severe.
He lived with his mother for about a year alter this event,
and began to be distinguished as a young man of genius.
To poetry he was devoted from his earliest days ; and about
this time several of his productions were handed about,
which considerably enlarged the circle of his friends and
acquaintance. Some of his compositions having been shown
to Dr Stevenson, an eminent physician of Edinburgh, that
gentleman formed the benevolent design of giving him the
benefits of a classical education. Blacklock, in consequence,
was enrolled a student of divinity in the University of
Edinburgh in 1741, and continued his studies under the
patronage of Dr Stevenson till 1745, when he retired to
Dumfries, and resided in the house of his married sister
during the whole time of the civil war which then agitated
the country. When peace had been restored, he returned
to the university, and pursued his studies for six years
longer. During this residence in Edinburgh, he made the
acquaintance of several literary men, particularly Mr Hume,
who was particularly useful to him in the publication by
subscription of the 4to edition of his poems in 1756. Two
editions in 8vo had previously been published at Edinburgh
in 1746 and in 1754.
After applying closely for a considerable time to the study
of theology, in 1759 he passed the usual trials in the pres¬
bytery of Dumfries, and was licensed as a preacher, in which
capacity he obtained high reputation.
In 1762 he married Miss Sarah Johnston, the daughter
of a surgeon in Dumfries; a connection which formed the
great solace and blessing of his future life. A few days after
this event, he was ordained minister of the church of Kirk¬
cudbright, by presentation from the crown, through the in¬
terest of the Earl of Selkirk. This appointment, however,
was so violently opposed by the parishioners, that, after a
legal dispute of nearly two years, he resigned his right to
the living, and accepted a moderate annuity in its stead.
With this slender provision he removed to Edinburgh,
where he received into his house as boarders a certain num¬
ber of young gentlemen, whose studies he superintended.
B L A 747
binding that his advancing age and feeble health required Blackmore
quiet and repose, in 1787he abandoned the tuition of youth. II
In 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was conferred on Black'
him by the University and Marischal College of Aberdeen. v stone-
In the summer of 1791 he was seized with a slight feverish
disorder, which a frame so little robust proved unable to re¬
sist; and after about a week’s illness it carried him off on the
7th of July.
His writings consist chiefly of poems, of which a 4to edi¬
tion was published in 1793; to which was added an Essay
on the Education of the Blind, translated from the French
of M. Haiiy.
BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, a physician, and volu¬
minous writer of theological, poetical, and physical works,
was born in Wiltshire. Having early declared in favour of
the Revolution, King William, in 1697, chose him one of
his physicians in ordinary, and conferred on him the honour
of knighthood. On Queen Anne’s accession, Sir Richard was
also appointed one of her physicians, which office he held
for some time. Dryden and Pope treated the poetical per¬
formances of Blackmore with great contempt; and in a note
in the Dunciad we are informed that his “ indefatigable
muse produced no less than six epic poems: Prince and
King Arthur, in twenty books; Eliza, in ten; Alfred, in
twelve; The Redeemer, in six; besides Job, in folio; the
whole book of Psalms; The Creation, in seven books; the
ISature of Man, in three books; and many more.” But
notwithstanding that Blackmore was greatly ridiculed by
the wits, he is not without merit; and Addison, in the Spec¬
tator, has bestowed some liberal commendations on his Crea¬
tion. It must be mentioned to his honour that he was a
moral writer, and a warm advocate for virtue, at a time
when an almost universal degeneracy prevailed. He died
on the 9th October 1729.
BLACKSTONE, Sir William, an eminent English
lawyer, was born at London, July 10. 1723. His father,
Mr Charles Blackstone, a silkman, citizen, and bowyer of
London, died some months before the birth of our author,
who was the youngest of four children; and his mother also
died before he was twelve years old. Even from his birth,
the care both of his education and fortune was kindly under¬
taken by his maternal uncle Thomas Bigg, an eminent sur¬
geon in London, who on the death of his elder brothers
succeeded to the family estate at Chilton Foliot in Wilt¬
shire. When about seven years old, young Blackstone M as
put to school at the Charter-house; and in 1735 he was ad¬
mitted upon the foundation there by the nomination of Sir
Robert Walpole, on the recommendation of Charles Wither
of Hall in Hampshire, Esq., his cousin by the mother’s side.
In this excellent seminary his talents and industry rendered
him the favourite of his masters, who encouraged and as¬
sisted him to the utmost of their power; so that at the age
of fifteen he was at the head of the school, and qualified to
be removed to the university. He was accordingly entered
a commoner at Pembroke College, Oxford, on the 30th of
November 1738. At this time he was elected to one of the
Charter-house exhibitions, to commence from the Michael¬
mas preceding, but was permitted to continue a scholar there
till after the 12th of December, when he delivered the usual
anniversary oration, by which he acquired very great credit.
About this time also he obtained Mr Benson’s gold prize-
medal of Milton, for verses on that poet. In the February
following the society of Pembroke College unanimously
elected him to one of Lady Holford’s exhibitions for Char¬
ter-house scholars in that house. Flere he prosecuted his
studies with unremitting ardour; and although the classics,
and particularly the Greek and Roman poets, were his fa¬
vourites, they did not entirely engross his attention; for
logic, mathematics, and the other sciences, were not ne¬
glected. At the early age of twenty he compiled a treatise
entitled Elements of Architecture, intended for his own use
748
B L A
Blackstone. only and not for publication, but esteemed by those who
have perused it as in no respect unworthy of his maturer
judgment and more practised pen.
Having made choice of the profession of the law, he was
entered in the Middle Temple, November 20. 1 <41. He
now found it necessary to quit the more amusing pursuits
of his youth for the severer studies to which he had dedi¬
cated himself, and betook himsell seriously to reading law.
He expressed his disagreeable sensations on this occasion in a
copy of verses, afterwards published by Dodsley in the fourth
volume of his Miscellanies, entitled The Lawyer's Farewell
to his Muse; in which the struggle of his mind is expressed
so strongly, so naturally, and with such elegance of language
and harmony of versification, as must convince every rea ei
that his passion for the muses was too deeply rooted to be
laid aside without much reluctance, and that if he had pur¬
sued that flowery path he might have taken a very respect¬
able place among English poets. Besides this, several fugi¬
tive pieces were at times communicated by him to his friends ;
and he left, but not with a view to publication, a small col¬
lection of juvenile pieces, consisting of both original poems
and translations. Some notes on Shakspeare, which just
before his death he communicated to Mr Steevens. and
which were inserted by him in his last edition of that authoi,
show how well he understood the meaning and relished the
beauties of his favourite English poet.
In November 1743 he was elected into the society
of All-Souls College. In the November following he
spoke the anniversary speech in commemoration of Arch¬
bishop Chichelay, the founder, and the other benefactors to
that house of learning, and was at the same time admitted
actual fellow. From this period he divided his time between
the university and the Temple, where he took chambers in
order to attend the courts. In the former he pursued his
academical studies, and on the 12th of June 1745 took the
degree of bachelor of civil law; in the latter he applied
himself closely to his profession, both in the hall and in his
private studies ; and on the 28th of November 1 <46 he was
called to the bar. Though but little known or distinguished
in Westminster Hall, he was actively employed, during his
occasional residences at the university, in attending to its
interests, and in mingling with and improving its interior
concerns. In May 1749, as a small reward for his services,
and to give him further opportunities of advancing the in-^
terests of the college, Blackstone was appointed steward of
its manors. In the same year, on the resignation of his
uncle, Seymour Richmond, Esq., he was elected recorder
of the borough of Wallingford in Berkshire, and received
the king’s approbation on the 30th of May. On the 26th
of April 1750 he commenced doctor of civil law, and thereby
became a member of the convocation, which enabled him
to extend his views beyond the narrow circle of his own
society, to the benefit of the university at large. In the
summer of 1753 he took the resolution of wholly retiring
to his fellowship and an academical life, still continuing the
practice of his profession as a provincial counsel.
His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been
an early and favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term
immediately after he quitted Westminster Hall, he entered
on the duty of reading them at Oxford; and we are told
by the author of his Life, that even at their commencement,
the high expectations formed from the acknowledged abili¬
ties of the lecturer attracted to these lectures a very crowded
class of young men of the first families, characters, and hopes.
But it was not till the year 1758 that the lectures in the form
they now bear were read in the university. Mr Viner hav¬
ing by his will left not only the copyright of his abridgment,
but other property to a considerable amount, to the Uni¬
versity of Oxford, in order to found a professorship, fellow¬
ships, and scholarships of common law, Blackstone was on
the 20th of October 1758 unanimously elected Vinerian pro-
B L A
fessor; and on the 25th of the same month he read his first Blackwall
introductory lecture, which he published at the request of the II
vice-chancellor and heads of houses, and afterwards prefixed
to the first volume of his celebrated Commentaries. It is '
doubtful whether the Commentaries were originally intended
for the press; but many imperfect and incorrect copies hav¬
ing got abroad, and a pirated edition of them being either
published or preparing for publication in Ireland, the learned
lecturer thought proper to print a correct edition himself,
and in November 1765 published the first volume, under the
title of Commentaries on the Laws of England. 1 he re¬
maining parts of this admirable work were given to the world
in the course of the four succeeding years. It ought to be
remarked, that before this period the reputation which his
lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him
to resume his practice in Westminster Hall; and, contrary
to the general order of the profession, he who had quitted the
bar for an academic life was sent back from the college to the
bar with a considerable increase of business. He was like¬
wise elected into parliament, first for Hindoo, and afterwards
for Westbury in Wilts ; but in neither of these departments
did he equal the expectations which his writings had raised.
The part he took in the Middlesex election drew upon him
the attacks of some persons of ability in the senate, and like¬
wise a severe animadversion from the caustic pen of Junius.
This circumstance probably strengthened the aversion he
professed to parliamentary attendance; “where,” he said,
“ amidst the rage of contending parties, a man of moderation
must expect to meet with no quarter from any side. W hen,
on the resignation of Mr Dunning in 1 < <0, he was offeied
the place of solicitor-general, he refused that office; but
shortly afterwards, on the promotion of Sir Joseph \ ates to
a seat in the court of Common Pleas, he accepted a seat on
the bench, and by the death of Sir Joseph succeeded him
there also. This eminent and excellent man died on the
14th of February 1780, in the fifty-seventh year of his age.
BLACKWALL, Anthony, A.M., a learned author, who,
after completing his academical education at Emanuel Col¬
lege, Cambridge, was appointed head master of the flee
school at Derby, and rector of All-Hallows there. In 1722
he was appointed head master of the free school at Market-
Bosworth in Leicestershire; and in 1725 he published the
first volume of his most celebrated work, The Sacred Clas¬
sics Defended and Illustrated, of which the second volume
appeared shortly after his death. Lie was presented to the
rectory of Clapham in 1726, by his former pupil >Ar H.
Atkins, as a mark of his gratitude and esteem. It is related
that when Blackwall waited upon the bishop of the diocese
he was somewhat pertly questioned by a young chaplain as
to the extent of his learning. “ Boy,” replied the indignant
veteran, “ I have forgot more than ever you knew. He
resigned his living in 1729, and returned to Bosworth, w here
he died April 8. 1730, aged fifty-six. His other works are,
an edition of Theognis, 1706; an Introduction to the Clas¬
sics, 1718; and & Latin Grammar.
BLACKWELL, Thomas, a Scottish writer, born in
1701 at Aberdeen, where his father was a minister. He
studied Greek and philosophy in the Marischal College, and
took the degree of A.M. in 1718. Being distinguished for
uncommon parts and an early proficiency in letters, he was,
in December 1723, made professor of Greek in Marischal
College, and continued to teach that language with applause
till his death. In 1735 he published anonymously at Lon¬
don, An Inquiry into the Life and Writings of omer,
8vo, a second edition of which appeared in' 1/36; and not
long after he published Proofs of the Inquiry into Homer s
Life and Writings, being a translation ot the Gieek, a in,
Spanish, Italian, and French notes, subjoined to the original
work. In 1748 he published Letters concerning Mythology,
8vo, but without his name. The same year he was made
principal of Marischal College in Aberdeen ; being the only
B L A
Blackwell layman who had been appointed to that office since the pa¬
ll tronage came to the crown by the forfeiture of the Marischal
Bladum. farnjiy in 1716. In 1752 he became LL.D.; and the year
following published the first volume of his Memoirs of the
Court of Augustus, 4to. The second volume appeared in
1755 ; and the third, which was posthumous and left incom¬
plete by the author, was prepared for the press by John Mills,
Esq., and published in 1764. At the same time a third edi¬
tion of the two former volumes appeared, which is a proof
that his literary talents found many admirers; although it
must be acknowledged that the parade with which it is writ¬
ten, and the peculiarity of its language, exposed it, not with¬
out reason, to some severity of censure. He died at Edin¬
burgh, March 8. 1758, of a consumptive disorder, which was
probably accelerated by his excessive abstemiousness.
Blackwell, Alexander, son of a dealer in knit-hose
at Aberdeen, where he received a liberal education. He
studied physic under Boerhaave at Leyden, took the degree
of doctor of physic, and acquired a proficiency in the modern
languages. He married the daughter of a gentleman in the
neighbourhood; and, after an attempt to establish himself
as a practitioner in Scotland, he went to London, where he
met with no better success. He then became a corrector of
the press, and at length set up a printing establishment of his
own, which was carried on till 1734, when he became bank¬
rupt. He appears to have subsisted for a considerable time
after this event by the ingenuity of his wife, who published
“ A Curious Herbal, containing 500 cuts of the most use¬
ful Plants which are now used in the Practice of Physic,
engraved on folio Copperplates after Drawings taken from
the Life, by Elizabeth Blackwell; to which is added a short
Description of the Plants, and their common Uses in Physic,
1739,” 2 vols. folio. About the year 1740 Blackwell went to
Sweden, and, renewing his intimacy with a nobleman whom
he had met at the Hague, resumed the medical profession.
Having laid before his Swedish Majesty a scheme for drain¬
ing the fens and marshes, considerable sums were expended
for that purpose under the doctor’s direction. Being sus¬
pected, however, of being concerned in a plot for changing
the succession to the Swedish throne, he was put to the tor¬
ture ; and this not producing the desired confession, he was
beheaded, August 9. 1748. Soon afterwards appeared “ A
Genuine Copy of a Letter from a merchant in Stockholm
to his correspondent in London, containing an impartial Ac¬
count of Doctor Alexander Blackwell, his Plot, Trial, Cha¬
racter, and Behaviour, both under Examination and at the
Place of Execution ; together with a Copy of a Paper de¬
livered to a Friend upon the Scaffold.” Blackwell possessed
good natural genius, but was flighty and conceited. His
conversation, however, was facetious and agreeable ; and he
was allowed to have been a well-bred and accomplished
gentleman.
BLADDER, a thin membranous bag in animals, which
serves as the receptacle of some secreted fluid ; as the urin¬
ary bladder, the gall bladder, &c. The air bladder of fishes
is supposed to assist respiration and to give buoyancy in
swimming.
BLADE, the cutting part of an instrument, as of a knife
or sword. The sword-blades of Damascus are very cele¬
brated, and bear a high price.
BLADEN, Martin, a translator and dramatic author,
was originally an officer in the army, and bore the com¬
mission of lieutenant-colonel in Queen Anne’s reign, under
the Duke of Marlborough, to whom he dedicated his trans¬
lation of Caesar’s Commentaries. In 1714 he was made one
of the lords commissioners of trade and plantations, with a
salary of L.1000 a-year, which he enjoyed till his death in
May 1746.
BLADUM, in the middle ages, a name for all sorts of
standing corn; also written blatum,blava,SLX\d biavium. In old
charters bladum included the whole product of the ground, as
B L A 749
fruit, corn, flax, grass ; and it was sometimes applied to any Blaeu
kind of grain threshed on the floor. H.
BLAEU, or Blauw, William, a learned printer of Am- v a1^ j
sterdam, and a disciple and friend of Tycho Brahe. His
Atlas, Treatises of the Globes, Astronomical Institutions,
and other works, together with his fine impressions, have
secured his name from oblivion. He died in 1638.
BLAGRAYE, John, an eminent mathematician, was the
second son of John Blagrave of Bulmarsh-court, near Sun¬
ning in Berkshire. He was sent to St John’s College, Ox¬
ford, where he applied himself chiefly to the mathematics ;
and afterwards retired to Southcote-lodge, near Reading,
where he spent the remainder of his life. He died in 1611,
and was buried in the church of St Lawrence, where a
sumptuous monument was erected to his memory. He is
said to have been eminently distinguished for his benevo¬
lence, candour, and generosity. His published works are,
1. A Mathematical Jewel, Lond. 1585, folio; 2. Of the
Making and Use of the Familiar Stuff, Lond. 1590, 4to;
3. Astrolabium Uranicum Generale, Lond. 1596, 4to; 4.
The Art of Dialling, Lond. 1609, 4to.
BLAINVILLE, Henri-Marie Ducrotay he, a dis¬
tinguished naturalist, was born at Arques, near Dieppe,
Sept. 12. 1777. About the year 1795 he entered the school
of design at Rouen, but after a very short time he went to
Paris, where he became a pupil of Vincent the painter. At¬
tracted by the lectures of Cuvier and other eminent profes¬
sors in the College of France, he commenced the study of
Anatomy, and in August 1808 he took the degree of M.D.
He now devoted himself to the study of natural history,
more particularly the department of myology, and he soon
attracted the attention of Cuvier, who requested Blainville’s
co-operation in a work on comparative anatomy on which he
was then engaged. He was also chosen by that illustrious
professor to supply his place at the College of France and at
the Athenaeum, and he soon afterwards obtained the vacant
chair of anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at
Paris. On that occasion he produced his thesis upon that
curious animal the ornithorhyncus, or duck-bill.
Blainville’s somewhat irascible disposition was probably
one cause of the subsequent estrangement between him and
Cuvier, which ended in an open and irreconcilable enmity.
In 1825 Blainville was admitted a member of the Academy
of Sciences; and in 1830 he was appointed to succeed
Lamarck at the museum in the chair of natural history, an
honour he had well earned by his important contributions
to that science. This he resigned in 1832 to become the
successor of Cuvier in the chair of comparative anatomy,
which he continued to occupy for the space of eighteen years.
His scientific writings are very numerous, and chiefly re¬
late to the animal kingdom. As a comparative anatomist he
proved himself a worthy successor of the celebrated Cuvier.
M. de Blainville was found dead in a railway carriage while
travelling between Rouen and Caen, May 1. 1850.
Besides a great variety of memoirs published in the An-
nales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, and in similar works,
he was the author of Prodrome dune Nouvelle Distribution
Methodique du Regne Animal, 1816; Osteographie, ou De¬
scription Iconographique Comparee du Squelette et du Sys-
teme Dentaire des Cinque Classes dAnimaux Vertebres Re-
centsetFossiles, See.; Faune Franraise, Paris, 1821-1830;
Cours de Physiologic Generale et Comparee, Paris, 1833;
Manuel de Malacologie et de Conchyliologie, Strasbourg,
1825-1827; Histoire des Sciences Naturelles au Moyen
Age, Sec., Paris, 1845, 8vo.
BLAIR, Dr Hugh, a distinguished clergyman of the
Church of Scotland, was born at Edinburgh, April 7. 1718.
His father, John Blair, was a merchant in that city, and
grandson of the famous Mr Robert Blair, minister of St
Andrews, chaplain to King Charles I., and one of the most
distinguished clergymen of the period in which he lived.
750 B L A 1 K
Blair. After the usual grammatical course at school, Blair entered
the humanity class in the university of Edinburgh in October
1730, and spent eleven years at "that celebrated seminary,
assiduously employed in the literary and scientific studies
prescribed by the Church of Scotland to candidates for the
ministry.
At this time he commenced a method of study which
contributed much to the accuracy and extent of his know¬
ledge, and which he continued to practise occasionally even
after his reputation was fully established. It consisted in
making abstracts of the most important works which he
had read, and in digesting them according to the train of his
own thoughts. History, in particular, he resolved to study
in this manner; and, in concert with some of his youthful
associates, he constructed a very comprehensive scheme of
chronological tables for receiving into its proper place eveiy
important fact that should occur. The scheme devised by
this young student for his own private use was afterwards
improved, filled up, and given to the public, by his learned
friend Dr John Blair, prebendary of Westminster, in his
valuable work entitled The Chronology and History of the
World.
In the year 1739 Blair took his degree of A.M. On
that occasion he printed and defended a thesis, De /' unda-
mentis et Ohligatione Legis Natural, which contains a short
but masterly discussion of this important subject, and exhi¬
bits in respectable Latin an outline of the moral principles
which were afterwards more fully unfolded and illustrated in
his Sermons.
On the completion of his academical course, after under¬
going the customary trials before the presbytery of Edin¬
burgh, on the 21st Oct. 1741 he was licensed to preach
the gospel. His public life now commenced with very fa¬
vourable prospects. The reputation which he brought from
the university was fully justified by his first appearance in
the pulpit; and in a few months the fame of his eloquence
procured for him a pi'esentation to the parish of Colessie in
Fife, where he was ordained Sept. 23. 1742. A vacancy
having occurred the following year in the second charge of
the Canongate of Edinburgh, the young orator was elected
by a great majority in July 1743.
’ In this station Dr Blair continued for eleven years, dis¬
charging with great fidelity and success the various duties
of the pastoral office ; till, in consequence of a call from the
town-council and general session of Edinburgh, he was trans¬
lated from the Canongate to Lady Tester’s, one of the city
churches, Oct. 11.1754 ; and on the 15th June 1758 he was
promoted to the High Church of Edinburgh, the most im¬
portant ecclesiastical charge in the kingdom.
Hitherto his attention seems to have been devoted almost
exclusively to the attainment of professional excellence, and
to the regular discharge of his parochial duties. No produc¬
tion of his pen had yet been given to the world by himself, ex¬
cept two sermons ; some translations in verse of passages
of Scripture; and a few articles in the Edinburgh Review,
a publication begun in 1755, and conducted for a short time
by some of the ablest men in the kingdom. But, stand¬
ing as he now did at the head of his profession, he began to
think seriously on a plan for teaching to others that art which
had contributed so much to the establishment of his own
fame. With this view he prepared a course of lectures on
composition ; and having obtained the approbation of the
university, he began to read them in the college on the 11th
of December 1759. The university of St Andrews, moved
chiefly by the merit of his eloquence, had, in June 1757,
conferred on him the degree of doctor in divinity, a literary
honour which at that time was very rare in Scotland. His
first course of lectures was received with great applause;
and the patrons of the university agreed in the following
summer to institute a rhetorical class, under his direction,
as a permanent part of their academical establishment. On
the 7th April 1762, the king was pleased “ to erect and Blair,
endow a professorship of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the
university of Edinburgh, and to appoint Dr Blair, in con¬
sideration of his approved qualifications, regius professor
thereof, with a salary of L.70.” These lectures he pub¬
lished in 1783, when he retired from the labours of the office.
About the time when he was occupied in laying the
foundations of this useful institution, he had an opportu¬
nity of conferring what he considered another important ob¬
ligation on the literary world, by contributing to rescue
from oblivion the poems of Ossian. It was by the joint
solicitation of Dr Blair and Mr John Home that Mr Mac-
pherson was induced to publish his Fragments of Ancient
Poetry; and their patronage was of essential service in pro¬
curing the subscription which enabled him to undertake his
tour through the Highlands, for collecting the materials out
of which he afterwards arranged “ Fingal,” and the other
productions which bear the name of Ossian. Soon after
their publication Blair gave an estimate of their merits in a
“ Dissertation,” which was prodigiously overrated at the time
when it first appeared, and has since, by a natural enough
re-action in public opinion, been treated with unmerited ne¬
glect. It was printed in 1763 ; and being regarded as a mas¬
terpiece of critical acuteness, as well as of elegant composi¬
tion, it spread the reputation of its author throughout all
Europe, and, for a time, silenced the sceptical doubts which
had been raised as to the honesty of Macpherson and the
genuineness of Ossian.
It was in 1777 that Blair published the first volume of
those sermons which had so long furnished instruction and
delight to his own congregation; and this volume having
been well received, three other volumes followed at different
intervals. These sermons experienced an unusual degree
of success, and were circulated rapidly and widely; they
were soon translated into almost all the languages of Eu¬
rope; and His Majesty George III. was graciously pleased,
July 1780, to confer a pension of L.200 a-year upon their
author.
The sermons contained in the fifth volume were com¬
posed at very different periods ; but they were in many
parts recomposed during the course of the summer 1800,
after the writer had completed his eighty-second year. They
were delivered to the publishers about six weeks before his
death, in the form and order in which they now appear.
The reputation which Dr Blair acquired in the discharge
of his public duties was well sustained by the great respect¬
ability of his private character. Deriving from family as¬
sociations a strong sense of clerical decorum, feeling in his
heart deep impressions of religious and moral obligation, he
was eminently distinguished through life by the prudence,
purity, and dignified propriety of his conduct.
In 1748, he married his cousin Catherine Bannatyne,
daughter of the Rev. James Bannatyne, one of the ministers
of Edinburgh; and by her he had a son who died in infancy,
and a daughter who lived to her twenty-first year.
Though liable to occasional attacks from some of the
sharpest and most painful diseases that afflict the human
frame, heenjoyedageneral state of good health; and, through
habitual cheerfulness, temperance, and care, survived the
usual term of human life. After a brief illness,^ and retain¬
ing to tbe last moment the full possession of his mentiil
faculties, he expired on the 27th of December 1800, with
the composure and hope which became a Christian pastor.
Blair, James, an eminent divine, born in Scotland, whei e
he was ordained and beneficed in the Episcopal chuic i.
Going to England about the end of the reign of Charles II.,
he wTas sent by Dr Compton as a missionary to Virginia,
and afterwards by the same bishop made commissary, which
was the highest ecclesiastical office in that colony. He formed
a design of erecting and endowing a college at Williams¬
burg, in Virginia; and, in 1693, came to England to solicit
B L A
Blair, assistance ; when Queen Mary espoused the noble design,
—v-*'' and with the concurrence of King William, a patent was
passed for erecting and endowing a college by the name
of the William and Mary College, of which Blair was ap¬
pointed president, an office which he enjoyed for nearly fifty
years. He wTas also rector of Williamsburg, and president
of the council in that colony. He died in 1743, leaving
four volumes of discourses on our Saviour’s Sermon on the
Mount. London, 1742.
Blair, John, a Scottish author, the contemporary and
companion, some say the chaplain, of Sir William Wal¬
lace. He attended that illustrious hero in almost all his
exploits; and, after his death, wrote Memoirs of the Scot¬
tish Champion, in Latin. But time has destroyed this work,
which might have thrown great light on the history of a
very troubled and remarkable period. An inaccurate frag¬
ment of it only has descended to us. It was published, with
a commentary, in 1705, by Sir Robert Sibbald ; and it is
translated in Hume’s History of the Douglases.
Blair, John, an eminent Scottish chronologer, was born
and educated at Edinburgh, and afterwards went to London,
where he became usher at a school. In 1754 he presented
to the Ivor Id his valuable work, The Chronology and His¬
tory of the World, from the Creation to the year of Christ
1753. This volume was published by subscription, and de¬
dicated to Lord Chancellor Hardwicke. In 1755 he was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1761 of the
Society of Antiquaries. In 1756 he published a second
edition of his Chronological Tables; and in the following
year he was appointed chaplain to the princess dowager of
Wales, and mathematical tutor to the Duke of York. His
services were rewarded with a prebend’s stall in Westmin¬
ster, and other preferments. In 1763 he attended his royal
pupil on a Continental tour, when he visited Lisbon, Gib¬
raltar, Minorca, Italy, and France; and on his return he
published an improved edition of his Chronology, which he
dedicated to the Princess of Wales. The fate of his brother
Captain Blair, who fell in the memorable sea-fight in which
Admiral Rodney defeated and took prisoner the French
commander Count de Grasse, on the 12th April 1782, is
believed to have accelerated his own death, which took place
on the 24th of June in the same year.
Blair, Robert, author of the well-known poem entitled
The Grave, was the eldest son of the Rev. Robert Blair,
one of the ministers of Edinburgh, and the grandson of that
Robert Blair who wras so conspicuous among the Scottish
clergy in the civil wars. He was probably born at Edin¬
burgh about the year 1700, and at the university of that city
received the elements of a classical education. Lie after¬
wards spent some time on the Continent. Upon his return
he took orders, and in 1731 was ordained minister of Athel-
staneford, in East Lothian, where he spent the remainder
of his life. He died of a fever, Feb. 4. 1746 ; and was suc¬
ceeded in his living by John Home, the author of Douglas.
Blair had five sons and one daughter; the late Robert Blair
of Avontoun, Lord President of the Court of Session, being
his fourth son.
Blair wrote several other pieces besides The Grave; but
that poem alone constitutes his title to rank as a poet. It
consists of a succession of descriptions and reflections, which
have no other connection except what they may derive from
their relation to a common subject; but these are inter¬
spersed with striking allusions, picturesque imagery, touches
of a rude though effective pathos, and a vein of sentiment
at once natural and just. The rhythm is often harsh, and
the versification frequently devoid of correctness, harmony,
and grace ; but it has nevertheless a masculine vigour and
freshness about it, which more than atone for the defects in
the finishing; while, in certain moods of the mind, the air
of deep and almost misanthropical melancholy diflused over
the whole, proves highly touching and impressive. Camp-
B L A 751
bell, in the Pleasures of Hope, has borrowed, with a slight Blair-
variation, a line from this poem :— Athole
 its visits, N
Like those of angels, short and far between. aKe'
The vigorous, though occasionally rather forced, poetic con-
ccptions of the author of The Grave, were finely illustrated, in
Cromek’s edition published in 1808, by the grandly wild de¬
signs of William Blake, engraved by the delicate burin of
Schiavonetti. The Grave was first printed at London in 1743.
BLAIR-ATHOLE, or Blair in Athole, a village and
parish in the county of Perth and district of Athole, 18
miles from Dunkeld, 33 from Perth, and 76 from Edinburgh.
Pop. in 1851, 2084. The village has almost completely
decayed; but the parish is nevertheless remarkable for its
interesting localities, striking scenery, and mineral products,
particularly marble, which is found in considerable abun¬
dance and of almost every variety of colour, though some¬
what coarsely grained, in the valley of the Tilt. One of the
most conspicuous objects to the eye of the tourist is Blair
Castle, a seat belonging to the Duke of Atholl, and formerly
a baronial fortress, though now despoiled of its battlements
and other castellated honours. It was occupied by the Mar¬
quis of Montrose in 1644; stormed by a party under the
command of one of Cromwell’s officers in 1653; and gal¬
lantly defended by Sir Andrew Agnew, in 1746, when be¬
sieged by a portion of the Highland army, until he was re¬
lieved by the Hessians under the Earl of Crawford. The
falls of Bruar, celebrated by Burns, are two miles to the
westward ; and the pass of Killiekrankie, famous for the
battle which was there fought in 1689, between the High¬
landers under Viscount Dundee, and King William’s troops
under General Mackay, is about an equal distance to the
eastward of Blair Castle. The old church of Blair, now in
ruins, is said to contain the ashes of Dundee, who fell early
in the action.
BLAISE, a military order instituted by the kings of Ar¬
menia, in honour of St Blaise the martyr, anciently bishop
of Sebasta, and the patron saint of Armenia. Justinian
calls them knights of St Blaise and St Mary, and places
them not only in Armenia, but in Palestine. They made
a vow to defend the religion of the church of Rome, and
followed the rule of St Basil. This institution appears to
have commenced about the same time with the knights-
templars and hospitallers.
BLAKE, Robert, a famous English admiral, born in
August 1589, at Bridgewater, in Somersetshire, where he
was educated at the grammar-school. In 1615 he was en¬
tered at St Alban’s Hall, Oxford, and subsequently removed
to Wadham College. On the 10th of February 1617, he
proceeded B.A. In 1623 he wrote a copy of verses on the
death of Camden, and soon after left the university. He
was early tinctured with republican principles, and disliking
that severity with which Laud, then bishop of Bath and
Wells, pressed uniformity in his diocese, he embraced puri-
tanism. His natural bluntness causing his principles to be
well known, the puritan party returned him member for
Bridgewater in 1640. He served in the parliamentary army
with great courage during the civil war; but when the king
was brought to trial, he highly disapproved the measure, and
declared that “ he would as freely venture his life to save
the king as ever he did to serve the parliament.” After the
death of the king, however, he fell in wholly with the repub¬
lican party, and, next to Cromwell, was the ablest officer of
whom the parliament could boast.
In 1648-49, Colonel Blake, in conjunction with two of¬
ficers of the same rank, Dean and Popham, was appointed to
command the fleet; and soon after he blockaded Prince Mau¬
rice and Prince Rupert in Kinsale harbour. But the latter
getting out, Blake followed them from port to port, and at
last attacked them in that of Malaga, where he burned and
destroyed their whole fleet excepting two ships—the Refor-
752
BLAKE.
Blake.
mation, in which Prince Rupert himself was, and the Swal¬
low, commanded by his brother Prince Maurice. In 16o2
he was constituted sole admiral, and defeated the Dutch fleet
commanded by Van Tromp, Ruyter, and De Witt, in three
several engagements, in which the Dutch lost eleven men of
war, thirty merchant ships, and, according to their own ac¬
count, 15,000 men. Soon after, Blake and his colleagues, with
a fleet of a hundred sail, stood over to the Dutch coast, and
forced the enemy’s fleet to fly for shelter into the lexel,
where they were blockaded for some time by Monk and
Dean, while Blake sailed northward. At last, however Van
Tromp got out, and drew together a fleet of 120 men of war.
On the 3d of June the generals Dean and Monk came to
an engagement with the enemy off the North Foreland,
with indifferent success; but the next day, Blake coming to
their assistance with eighteen ships, gained so complete a.
victory, that if the Dutch had not saved themselves on Calais
sands, their whole fleet would have been taken or destroyed.
In April 1653 Cromwell turned the long parliament out
of doors, and shortly afterwards assumed the supreme powei.
Blake observed to his officers on the occasion, “ It is not for
us to mind state affairs, but to keep foreigners from fooling
us.” In November 1654, Cromwell sent him writh a strong
fleet into the Mediterranean, to obtain satisfaction for cer¬
tain injuries which had been done to our merchants. In
the beginning of December Blake entered the loads of
Cadiz, where he was treated with all imaginable respect;
the Dutch admiral durst not hoist his flag while he was
there; and his name had now become so formidable, that
the admiral of a French squadron which had stopped one of
his tenders when separated in a storm, as soon as he knew
to whom it belonged, sent for the captain on board, and
drank Blake’s health with great ceremony, under a discharge
of five guns, and then dismissed him. Blake, on the 10th
of March, appeared before Algiers, and demanded satisfac¬
tion for the piracies committed on the English, and the re¬
lease of all English captives. The dey, in his answer, alleged
that the ships and captives belonged to private persons, and
therefore he could not restore them without offending all
his subjects, but that the English admiral might easily re¬
deem them ; and if he thought it proper, they would con¬
clude a peace with him, and for the future commit no acts
of hostility against the English. This answer was accom¬
panied with a large present of fresh provisions; on receiv¬
ing which Blake left Algiers, and sailed on the same errand
to Tunis. The dey of the latter place, however, not only
refused to comply with his request, but denied him the
liberty of taking in fresh water. “ Here,” said he, £- are our
castles of Goletto and Porto Ferino ; do your worst.” On
hearing this, Blake began, as his custom was when highly
excited, to twirl his whiskers ; and, after a short consultation
with his officers, resolved to bear into the bay of Porto
Ferino with his great ships and their seconds. On coming
within musket-shot of the castle and the line, he fired on
both so warmly that in two hours the castle was rendered
defenceless, and the guns on the works along the shore were
dismounted, although sixty of them played at once on the
English. Observing nine ships in the road, Blake ordered
every captain to man his long boat with choice men, to enter
the harbour and fire the Tunisians; a service which they
effected with the loss of only 25 men killed and 48 wounded,
while the admiral covered the operation by playing con¬
tinually on the castle with his great guns. This daring action
spread the terror of his name throughout Africa. From
Tunis he sailed to Tripoli; caused the English captives to
be set at liberty; and concluded a peace with that govern¬
ment. He then returned to Tunis, upon which the Tuni¬
sians begged for peace, which he granted on terms highly
advantageous to England. He next sailed to Malta, and
obliged the knights to restore the effects taken by their pri¬
vateers from the English. By these and other great ex¬
ploits, he raised the glory of the English name to such a
pitch, that most of the princes and states in Italy thought -
fit to pay their compliments to the Protector, by sending
solemn embassies to him.
Blake passed the next winter either lying before Cadiz or
cruising up and down the straits. He was at his old station,
at the mouth of the harbour, when he received information
that the Spanish plate fleet had put into the bay of Santa
Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe. Upon this he weighed
anchor, with twenty-five men of war, on the 13th of April^
1657; and on the 20th came to anchor with his ships off
the bay of Santa Cruz, where he saw sixteen Spanish ships
moored in the form of a half-moon. Near the mouth of the
harbour stood a castle furnished with heavy ordnance ; be¬
sides which there were seven forts round the bay, with six,
four, and three guns on each, and connected by a line of
communication manned with musketeers. 1 o make all safe,
the commander of the Spanish fleet caused all the smaller
ships to be moored close in shore; while the six large galleons
stood farther out at anchor, with their broadsides towards
the sea. Blake having prepared for the fight, a squadron of
ships was drawn out to make the first onset, commanded by
Captain Stayner in the Speaker frigate; who, on receiving
orders, sailed into the bay and fell upon the Spanish fleet,
without the least regard to the forts, which kept up a heavy
cannonade. As soon as these had entered the bay, Blake
followed, and stationed several ships to pour their broad¬
sides into the castle and forts; and these kept up so heavy
and well-directed a fire, that, after some time, the Spaniards
found their forts too hot to hold them. In the meanwhile
Blake joined Stayner, and bravely fought the Spanish ships,
out of which the crews were beaten by two o’clock in the
afternoon ; when Blake, finding it impossible to cairy them
away, ordered his men to set them on fire; and this was
done so effectually, that they were all reduced to ashes ex¬
cept two, which sunk downright, nothing remaining above
the water but part of the masts. The English having now
obtained a complete victory, were reduced to another diffi¬
culty by the wind, which blew so strong into the bay that
they despaired of getting out, and for a time lay under the
fire of the castle and of all the forts, which must soon have
torn them to pieces. But the wind suddenly shifting, they
were enabled to work out of the bay, and left the Spaniards
in astonishment at the fortunate temerity of their assailants.
This action does honour to Blake; and although fortune
favoured him in the opportune shifting of the wind, and his
situation was, upon the whole, less trying than that of the
gallant men under Lord Nelson, who made an attempt on
this place, his conduct throughout appears to have been
distinguished for the most adventurous daring, and consum¬
mate nautical skill. “ It was so miraculous,” says the Earl
of Clarendon, “ that all men who knew the place wondered
that any sober man, with what courage soever endowed,
would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly per¬
suade themselves to believe what they had done; whilst the
Spaniards comforted themselves with the belief that they
were devils, and not men, who had destroyed them in such
a manner.” . .
This was the last and greatest action of the gallant Blake.
Consuming with dropsy and scurvy, he was hastening home¬
wards, but just as he came within sight of land he expired.
Disinterested, generous, liberal, and ambitious of nothing
but true glory, Blake was one of the prominent characters
of an age fertile in great men, and remained untainted with
those errors and violences which were then so predominant.
Lord Clarendon observes, “ that he was the first man who
brought ships to contemn castles on shore, which had ever
been thought very formidable, and were discovered by him
to make a noise only, and to fright those who could be raiely
hurt by them. He was the first that infused that degree of
courage into seamen, by making them see by experience
Blake.
B L A
Blake what mighty things they could do if they were resolved ;
II and the first that taught them to fight in fire as well as in
Blane. water”
Blake, William, an engraver of high but wild genius,
was born in Ireland, Nov. 18. 1757. He early evinced a de¬
cided predilection for drawing, and his father, a hosier, al¬
lowed him to follow his natural bias, and devote himself to
the fine arts. He was accordingly sent to London, where
he served his apprenticeship with Bazire, at that time one
of the most noted engravers of the metropolis. He received
instructions in drawing from Flaxman and Fuseli ; and
though much of his time was engrossed in professional pur¬
suits, he found means to compose many odes, sonnets, and
ballads, which gained him a temporary reputation in the
world of letters. He was subject to extraordinary hallucina¬
tions from time to time, during which he believed that he
saw and conversed with the heroes of ancient and modern
history. These visions he reproduced with pen and pencil.
His conceptions have much grandeur, yet too frequently
they bear the impress of the morbid condition of his mind,
especially in the latter years of his life. His best works are
his illustrations of Young’s Night Thoughts, and of Blair’s
Grave.
BLANC, Mont, a mountain in Savoy. See Alps.
BLANCH-Holding, in Law, is a tenure by which the
tenant is only bound to pay an elusory yearly duty to his
superior as an acknowledgment of his right.
BLANCHARD, Jacques, sometimes called the French
Titian, was born at Paris, a.d. 1600. After residing two
years at Rome he went to Venice, where he studied assi¬
duously the works of Titian, Tintoret, and Paul Veronese.
He imitated the style of these masters with much success,
and produced numerous pictures; but his masterpiece is
the “ Descent of the Holy Ghost,” in the church of Notre
Dame. He died at Paris in 1638.
BLANCHE-FerMe, or in ancient leases, a
farm the rent of which was paid in silver, not in cattle.
BLANCHING, in coinage, the operation performed on
the planchets, or pieces of silver, to give them the requisite
lustre. See Coinage.
BLANCO, the name of a cape on the western coast of
Africa, in a barren and dreary region, near the southern
termination of the Great Desert. It forms the boundary of
the Bay of Arguin ; and, with the exception of Cape Verd,
it is the most westerly point of the continent. The Por¬
tuguese discovered it in 1441. The approach to it is not
unattended with danger. Lat. 20. 47. N. Long. 16. 59. N.
There are several other headlands of this name in Africa,
America, &c.
BLANDFORD-FORUM, a market and borough town
in the hundred of Coombs-ditch, and county of Dorset, 103
miles from London. It is one of the most handsome towns
in the west of England, and is situated on a bend of the
river Stour, which flows on its south and west sides. The
church and town-hall are elegant buildings. This town has
frequently been destroyed by fire, but has always risen with
increased beauty. The inhabitants are principally employed
in making shirt-buttons, a manufacture that has long formed
the staple commodity of the place, and been the source of
its prosperity. Market-day, Saturday. Pop. (1851) 3948.
BLANE, Sir Gilbert, Bart., M.D., an eminent phy¬
sician, born in Ayrshire, August 29. 1749. He studied
and graduated at Edinburgh, and was introduced by Dr
Cullen to Dr William Hunter, through whom he was ad-
pointed private physician to Lord Holdernesse, and was in¬
troduced to Lord Rodney. He accompanied the admiral
as private physician to the West Indies in 1780. Blane
was slightly wounded in the memorable action with De
Grasse, and through the influence of Lord Rodney was
made physician to the fleet, without having gone through
the subordinate grades. He remained in the West Indian
VOL. IV.
B L A 753
fleet until 1783, during which time he became acquainted Blanes
with the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., who II
was then a midshipman under Rodney. These distinguished Klankof’-
persons, and his own merits, soon introduced him to exten-
sive practice in London: he became a physician to St
Thomas’s Hospital; a Member of the Royal Society in
1786; and was appointed by that body to deliver the
Croonian Lecture in 1788, for which he choose “ Muscular
Motion” as the subject. His practice and his reputation
rose high. In 1790 he resigned his office in the hospital,
but was placed at the head of the medical department of the
navy in 1795, which he long filled with honour to himself
and advantage to the service. He wras created a baronet in
1812. In 1819 he published his Elements of Medical Logic,
a work that has gone through several editions, and which,
with his valuable Suggestions on the use of Lemon Juice
as a Preventive of Sea Scurvy, and his other contribu¬
tions to medical science, procured him the honour of being
elected a member of the French National Institute in 1826.
His last publication was a pamphlet entitled Warning to the
British Public against the alarming approach of the In¬
dian Cholera, in 1831. His latter years were spent in
retirement from professional duties; and he occupied this
leisure in preparing for the press his Select Dissertations,
which appeared in 1822, and again in 1834. Sir Gilbert
Blane died June 26. 1834, in the eighty-fifth year of his
age. (t. s.t.)
BLANES, a city of the province of Gerona in Spain, at
the mouth of the river Tordera, defended by a castle. Pop.
4397, employed in the fisheries and navigation. Long. 2.
51. E. Lat. 41. 42. N.
BLANK (French Blanc), literally signifies white.
Blancus, or Blanca, was a kind of white or silver money,
of base alloy, coined by Henry V. in those parts of France
which were then subject to England. It was valued at 8d.
sterling.
Blank also denotes a small copper coin, formerly current
in France, at the rate of five deniers Tournois.
Blank- Verse, in modern poetry, is a species of verse
usually composed of ten syllables, and possessing rhythm,
but without rhyme.
BLANKENBURG, a principality forming part of the
duchy of Brunswick. Area 170 square miles, comprehend¬
ing a part of the Hartz Forest; pop. 22,000. The chief
city, of the same name, is at the foot of the Blankelistein
mountain, on the summit of which, 1130 feet above the
city, is situated the summer palace of Louisenburg, with its
pavilions and preserves for game, from which is an enchant¬
ing prospect over a most romantic district. Pop. 3500.
Long. 10. 52. E. Lat. 51. 47. N.
BLANKET,awarm woollen stuff, chiefly used in bedding.
Tossing in a Blanket, in Latin, sagatio, a ludicrous
kind of punishment, which Martial describes graphically
enough : Ibis ab excusso, missus ad astra, sago. Suetonius
relates that it was a juvenile diversion of the Emperor Otho
to stroll out in the dark, and when he met with a helpless
drunken person, to give him the discipline of the blanket.
Every body recollects Sancho Panza’s misfortune in this
way, and the sorrowful sport it proved to the worthy squire
of the knight of La Mancha.
BLANKOF, Jan Teunisz, an eminent landscape-
painter, born at Alkmaer in 1628. His first instructions were
received from two obscure artists ; but he soon became the
pupil of Caesar Van Everdingen, by whose advice he went
to Rome, where he occupied himself in copying the works
of the best masters, and was admitted into the society of
Flemish painters called Bentvogels, who gave him the name
of Jan Maat {i. e. comrade), by which he is generally known.
His subjects were chiefly river scenes, sea-shores, havens,
or ports, which are finely coloured, and executed with a
light and free pencil. He died in 1670.
5 c
754
B L A
B L A
Blaps BLAPS. See Entomology.
II BLARNEY, a small village of Ireland, in the parish of
Blasphemy GarryC]0yne? county of Cork, and 3-|- miles N.W. of the town
of that name. It is pleasantly situated on a small rivulet of
the same name, and is chiefly celebrated as giving name to
that peculiar kind of eloquence supposed to be so characteris¬
tic of the natives of Ireland. The “ Blarney Stone,” the
kissing of which is said to confer this faculty, is pointed out
at the top of the castle; but the real stone, with the founder’s
name upon it, is said to be on the northern angle of the
castle, about twenty feet from the top.
BLASPHEMY (/3A.acr<£y/xta., from /SAaTmo, I hurt, and
<t>r]ixL, I speak) means literally defamation or evil speaking.
In the middle ages it was used to denote simply the blaming
or condemning of a person or thing.
Blasphemy is more peculiarly restricted to an indignity
offered to the Deity by words or writing. Hence Augustin
says, Jam vulgo hlasphemia non accipitur nisi mala verba
de Deo dicere. According to Angelus Clavasius, it is three¬
fold :—1. When something is ascribed to God which is not
suitable to his nature ; and this is, as the divines call it, a
sin contra misericordiam : 2. when some attribute which is
essential to his Godhead is denied, which is a sin contra
justitiam : 3. when that which is only proper to the divine
Creator of all things is attributed to tbe creature; and this is
termed a sin contra majestatem Dei. Lindw7ood defines
blasphemy to be an injury offered to God, by denying that
which is due and belongs to him, or by attributing to him
wdiat is not agreeable to his nature.
Under the Mosaic law blasphemy was punished with
death ; and the same punishment was also awarded by the
civil law. By the canon law blasphemy was only visited by
a solemn penance, and introduced the commutation of cor¬
poral punishment into a pecuniary fine. According to
Blackstone, the offence of “ blasphemy against the Al¬
mighty, by denying his being or providence, or by contu¬
melious reproaches of our Saviour Christ,” is “ punishable at
common law by fine and imprisonment, or other infamous
corporal punishment; for Christianity is part of the laws of
England.” In like manner, the offence of composing, print¬
ing, or publishing a blasphemous libel is left to the common
law, but on a second conviction the punishment is such as
may by law be inflicted in cases of high misdemeanours
(60th Geo. III., and 1st Geo. IV., cap. 5, § 4). The power
to inflict the sentence of banishment also conferred having
been repealed by the 11th Geo. IV., and 1st Will. IV., cap.
73, § 1, and by the 9th and 10th Will. III., cap. 32, § 1, any
person, having been educated in, or at any time having
made profession of, the Christian religion within this realm,
who shall deny one of the persons in the Trinity, or as¬
sert that there are more than one God, or deny Christianity
to be true, or the holy Scriptures of the Old and New
Testament to be of divine authority, is for the first offence
rendered incapable of any office, and for the second is ad¬
judged incapable of suing, being executor or guardian, re¬
ceiving any gift or legacy, and ordered to be imprisoned for
three years. These provisions, however, so far as relate to
denying the holy Trinity, were repealed by the 53d Geo.
III., cap. 160, § 2.
By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punish¬
ment of blasphemy was death. By an act passed in the
first parliament of Charles II., whoever, “not being distracted
in his wits,” should curse God or any person of the blessed
Trinity was punishable with death; and by a statute of King
William’s reign (1695,cap. 11), anyperson reasoning against
the being of God, or any person of the Trinity, or the
authority of the holy Scriptures, or the providence of God
in the government of the world, was to be imprisoned for the
first offence until he should give public satisfaction in sack¬
cloth to the congregation ; to be punished more severely for
the second offence ; and for the third doomed to death. The
capital punishment was in the year 1696 executed against a Blasphemy
young student of divinity named Thomas Aikenhead, whose ||
chief offence was the folly of embarking in speculations be- Blasting,
yond his capacity. An account of his trial and condemnation,
which excited the indignation of Locke, will be found in
the fifteenth volume of the State Trials. Both the Scottish
statutes were repealed by the 53d Geo. III., cap. 160, § 3.
Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost. Divines are not
agreed with respect to the nature of the crime thus deno¬
minated, and the grounds of the extreme guilt ascribed to
it. Dr Tillotson maintains that it consists in maliciously
attributing to the devil the miraculous operations which
Christ performed by the power of the Holy Ghost. But
Dr Whitby refers it to the dispensation of the Holy Ghost
which commenced after our Lord’s resurrection and ascen¬
sion ; and contends that those were guilty of the crime who
persisted in their unbelief, and blasphemed the Holy Ghost,
representing him as an evil spirit. This crime implied a
wilful opposition to the last and most powerful evidence
which God had vouchsafed to mankind, and precluded the
possibility of a return to faith and repentance.
BLASTING, a term used by the engineer and miner to
denote the application of the explosive force of gunpowder
in opening or rending rocks, indurated clay, consolidated
earth, and the walls of buildings. In quarrying sandstone,
consisting of regular layers, the work is performed chiefly
by means of the pick, the ivedge, the hammer, and the pinch
or lever i but for many kinds of limestone, and for green¬
stone and basalt, blasting is always resorted to. Most of the
primary and transition rocks, and nearly all of the trap or
igneous rocks, such as basalt, greenstone, porphyry, amyg¬
daloid, &c., called primitive, could scarcely be torn asunder
by any other means.
At what period blasting with gunpowder was first resorted
to as a power in mechanics, is uncertain. Gunpowder was
applied to military engines in 1312, but there is reason to
believe that its application to the peaceful arts is of a much
later date. It may seem strange at this day to propose the
expansive or explosive force of gunpowder as a new mechani¬
cal potver ; but when the lever and the wredge become in¬
effectual for the purposes of the artificer, he must naturally
attach a high value, and be disposed to apply an elevated
term, to that instrument or means by which he is enabled,
in a very simple manner, to effect his purpose, and over¬
come the greatest obstructions to his operations.
This agent is no less simple in its application than it is
powerful in its effects. It is considered as the result of the
sudden extrication of a permanently elastic fluid by the ig¬
nition of the gunpowder, the extricated gas occupying about
472 times more space than the grains of the powder. Some
authors are of opinion that the powder contains only atmo¬
spheric air in a state of great condensation, and that, when
this fluid is set at liberty, being at the same time highly
rarefied by the heat, from the inflammation of the powder,
it produces the wonderful effects already mentioned. By
others, it is supposed that the air contained in the nitre of
the gunpowder is about 236 times denser than atmospheric
air, and that, when exploded, it produces an effect propor¬
tioned to its condensation ; the elastic fluid expanding with
a velocity which has been calculated at the rate of about
10,000 feet per second ; and its pressure or force, when
thus expanding, having been estimated as equal to a thousand
atmospheres, or as a thousand times greater than the atmo¬
spheric pressure upon a base of the same extent. If we ap¬
ply this product to the pressure of the atmosphere, or at the
rate of 14£- pounds to the square inch, we shall find that the
elastic fluid of gunpowder, at the moment of explosion, ex¬
erts a force equivalent to 62- tons upon the square inch ot
surface exposed to its force. Count Rumford, indeed, esti¬
mated this force at 10,000 atmospheres ; but we have rather
followed the calculations of Hutton, whose opportunities of
Blasting.
Method of
blasting
rocks.
BLASTING.
755
experiment, connected with the military college of Wool¬
wich, were unquestionably great.
In Europe, the art of mining was long chiefly confined to
Sweden and Germany ; but since the disappearance of our
thickly wooded forests, and the universal introduction of pit-
coal for fuel, and of cast-iron in the arts, Great Britain has
made rapid strides towards perfection in the art of mining, and
now rivals her Continental neighbours. Here we may allude
to the coalworks of Northumberland and Durham, of Cum¬
berland, and the western counties of England and Wales.
We may also notice the great extent of similar works in the
south-eastern and south-western districts of Scotland. Much
of this kind of work is done with the pick and shovel; but
without the aid of the expansive force of gunpowder these
operations must have been of very limited extent. Other
works of no less magnitude than those of coal-mines have
been executed in Great Britain, almost wholly by the force
of gunpowder. To illustrate more fully the use of gunpow¬
der in mining operations, we may mention the extensive
works in tunnelling for railways, and for preserving the level
of canals, instead of forming locks, or following a circuitous
line of navigation. The bold attempt of blasting rocks un¬
der such circumstances was, in this country, reserved for
Brindley, the engineer upon the Duke of Bridgewater’s ca¬
nals, who in 1776 completed the first navigable tunnel, at
Harecastle in Staffordshire, upwards of a mile in length. Since
that period the art of blasting has been extensively practised
in a great variety of works, and carried to a wonderful de¬
gree of perfection.
When a perforation is to be made in a rock for the pur¬
pose of blasting with gunpowder, the nature of the rock, and
the inclination or dip of the strata, determine the calibre,
and the depth and direction of the bore or recipient for the
gunpowder. According to circumstances, the diameter of
the hole varies from half an inch to two and a half inches,
the depth from a few inches to many feet; and the direc¬
tion varies to all angles from the perpendicular to the
horizontal. The implements for the performance of this
operation are extremely simple ; and the whole operation of
boring and blasting rocks is so easily performed, that, in the
space of a few weeks, an intelligent labourer may become
an expert quarrier. The chisel, ox jumper as it is technically
called, varies in its length and other dimensions according
to the work to be performed, and its edge is more or less
pointed to suit the hardness or tenacity of the rock to be
bored. If the cylindrical hole to be drilled is of small dia¬
meter and of no great depth, as often happens, the operation
of boring is performed by a single person : with one hand
he manages the chisel or jumper, which he keeps continu¬
ally turning, and with the other he strikes the jumper with
a hammer of six or eight pounds weight. But when the hole
is of larger dimensions, and of a depth exceeding a foot, it
generally becomes the business of one man, in a sitting pos¬
ture, to hold and direct the jumper, to keep it constantly
turning, to supply the hole with water, and occasionally to
clean it out, while two, and even three men, with hammers
of ten or twelve pounds weight, strike successive blow’s upon
the jumper, until the rock is perforated to the desired depth.
To prevent annoyance to the quarriers from the squirting up
of the water, a small rope of straw or hemp is simply twisted
round the jumper, and kept resting on the orifice of the hole.
When the perforation is to be made to a greater depth than
about thirty inches, a chisel or jumper is used, varying in
length from six to eight feet, pointed at both ends, and having
a bulbous part in the middle for the convenience of holding
it. It thus beomes a kind of double jumper, and is used
without a hammer, with either end put into the hole at
pleasure. When a bore of considerable depth is to be made,
after the hole has been perforated a few inches with the com¬
mon jumper, the quarriers lay it aside, and, collecting round
the long jumper, lay hold of it by the bulbous part, lifting
and letting it drop into the hole by its own gravity. In this Blasting,
manner, a hole to the depth of five feet and upwards is per-
forated by the workmen with ease and with great expedi¬
tion. A very ingenious and expeditious method, borrowed
from the Chinese, is by means of a jumper of very consider¬
able length and weight, suspended and worked byarope passed
over a wheel; and which thus acquires, by the twisting and
untwisting of the rope, the requisite rotatory motion. The
jumper is hollow, and is so contrived as to receive and re¬
tain the debris, by means of valves opening inwards. When
the boring is completed, the debris and moisture are care¬
fully cleaned out, and the charge of powder is put into the
hole. In practice, there was formerly no very precise rule
for the quantity of the charge, this being regulated at the
discretion of the quarrier, according to the tenacity and mass
of the rock to be removed ; and these circumstances having
been previously considered in the dimensions of the bore, it
is customary to fill the hole in the proportion of about one-
half with gunpowder.
Of late the experiments and observations of Sir John
Burgoyne and others, which were conducted more exactly
than those of former years, seem to have fully established
the propriety of proportioning the charges to the cubes of
the lines of least resistance, which is the law that theory
would assign for rocks of uniform consistence and cohesion.
The line of least resistance is the distance between the bore
and the open side of the rock, measured in the direction in
which the resistance to the explosion is least. In the chalk
excavations on the South-Eastern railway, where the blasts
were on the largest scale of any work hitherto executed, the
charge in pounds for that kind of work was found in prac¬
tice to be in the proportion of °f ^>e cu^e °f the line of
least resistance in feet. To assist in calculating the charges,
it may be useful to remark that 1 lb. of loosely poured pow¬
der occupies about 30 cubic inches, so that a cubic foot will
weigh about 57-|- lb.
After the charge has been introduced, which should be
done by means of a copper tube extending down to the bot¬
tom of the bore, a long iron, called the pricker, is inserted
amongst the powder, to be afterwards withdrawn when the
priming powder is introduced. While this rod remains, the
process of ramming or stemming the hole is performed by
forcing burnt clay, fragments of pounded brick, stone, or
any other substance less liable than another to produce sparks
of fire on being struck with iron. After a stratum of such
matter has been pressed down upon the powder, the hole is
filled up with pounded stone or earthy matters of any kind,
forced down with an iron punch or rammer of such dimen¬
sions that it nearly fills the hole, but having a groove in it
to receive the pricker. The rammer being flat at the end
which enters the hole, the fragments of stone are pounded
by it round the pricker, which must be occasionally turned
to prevent it from becoming too firmly fixed to be with¬
drawn. This wadding or matter laid immediately over the
powder is forced down gently at first, lest it should explode
prematurely ; but as the hole is more and more filled up, the
quarrier strikes down the stemmer with more violence, and
consolidates the wadding as much as possible, with a view
to pi’oduce a greater effect by the shot. In this operation
consists the chief danger attending the process of blasting ;
for it must be obvious, that unless the utmost care be taken
in forcing down the first portions of the wadding above the
powder, there is great danger of such a collision taking place
between the stemmer and the pricker, or between either of
these and the rock or sides of the hole, as may elicit a spark
of fire, and produce an explosion. From this cause, indeed,
the most dreadful accidents have sometimes happened to
quarriers. It is necessary, as before noticed, frequently to
turn the pricker during the process of stemming the shot;
and it has been known that, by the friction produced in the
mere act of turning it unguardedly, the shot has been fired
756
BLASTING.
Blasting.
Tamping.
off. To prevent accident in this way, copper prickers, or, to
save expense, prickers composed partly of copper and partly
of iron, have been introduced. The copper pricker is certainly
much less hazardous; but notwithstanding that this fact is self-
evident, and lias been clearly established in quarries where
copper and iron prickers have been used at the same time,
yet, from the greater expense of the copper, and its being
more liable to twist and break, it is not yet in universal use.
The hole being now fully charged with the powder and
wadding, the pricker is drawn out; and the small tubular
space which it leaves is sometimes wholly filled with pow;-
der. But vrith a view to save that expensive article, it is
common to insert wheaten or oaten straws filled with pow¬
der. These straw tubes may be joined so as to reach any
necessary depth, the lower straw always terminating in the
root part, where a natural obstruction occurs,- or it is artifi¬
cially stopped with clay. The lower part of the priming
straw is pared very thin, so as to insure the inflammation of
the charge of powder in the hole. A sloiv match, consisting
generally of soft paper, prepared by dipping it into a solu¬
tion of saltpetre, is.then carefully applied to the priming
pow'der. When this match is touched with fire, the quar-
riers give the alarm to all around to retire to a sufficient dis¬
tance, so as to avoid accident from the expected explosion.
This commonly takes place in about a minute. The prim¬
ing first explodes, attended only with flame; then the rock
opens with a sharp report, and fragments of stone are shot
into the air in all directions, from amidst a cloud of smoke.
When blasting is carried on in confined situations, where
the workmen cannot get speedily out of the reach of the
shot, or wheTe adjoining houses, &c., may be in danger
of being injured, it is common to load or cover up the rock
to be blasted with a quantity of furze or brushwood, loaded
with stones or chains to prevent the fragments being driven
to a distance.
It was long supposed that the more firmly the shot was
rammed home, by means of a punch or hammer, the more
powerful would be the effectof the explosion. This, we know,
was long the conviction of military engineers, and was also a
principle invariably adopted by miners, to the great personal
hazard of the artificer. It has however been, we think, suf¬
ficiently established that a wadding or tamping of loose sand,
or of any earthy matter in a dry state, answers all the purposes
of the firmest ramming or wadding. Now, as it is in the opera¬
tion of ramming that accidents most commonly befall the quar-
rier,—accidents which the use of the copper-pricker cannot
altogether prevent,—it is surprising that the use of sand is
not universal.
It may be noticed, that in several works this method is
adopted, particularly at Lord Elgin’s extensive mining ope¬
rations at Charlestown in Fifeshire, where much attention is
paid to the security and comfort of the artificer, as well as
to everything interesting to science. The practice of using
loose sand instead of pounded stone rammed with force, has
been in use at these works for many years,—it is believed
since about 1810. The writer of this article has also had
considerable opportunities of trying the accuracy of these
statements, as to the efficiency of sand, at the extensive quarry¬
ing operations which became necessary in cutting down a
part of the Caltonhill, to form the new approach to the city
of Edinburgh, where upwards of 100,000 cubic yards of
rocky matter w'ere removed, and gunpowder to the value
of nearly L.1000 sterling was expended, chiefly in blasting
rock, consisting of whinstone or greenstone, much traversed
by calcareous spar. The holes at this work were bored of
various dimensions, both as to calibre and depth, and also at
all the angles of inclination, from the perpendicular to the
horizontal. Trials were here made with holes from three
to seven or eight feet in depth, and from an inch to twm and
a halt inches in diameter ; and it was invariably found, that
when the powder was tamped with sand, the effect in tearing
or blasting the rock wras as great as when the more common Blasting,
method of ramming with pounded stone was adopted. In
the judgment of the contractors, the fragments of rock had
a greater tendency to fly to a distance when sand only wras
employed ; but there was as great a bulk of the rock raised
by the shot wadded with sand as by that which was rammed
in the usual way ; and in practice it was found that the shots
with sand were not more liable to fail, or How without doing
execution, than those which were rammed. It is a tact per¬
haps as curious and interesting as any connected with the
subject, that in both ways the shots fail, and at times blow
out, without producing any eftect, or being occasioned by
any apparent cause.
When sand is used immediately above the powder, both
the pricker and the rammer are wholly unnecessary : the
primed straw being inserted into the powder, the sand is
poured into the hole, and the shot is ready for the match.
But a difficulty occurs in the use of sand, which, though
easily surmounted, it may be proper to notice. When the
perforation happens to be horizontal, or at more than an
angle of 45° from the perpendicular, the priming straw is apt
to be injured in filling the hole with sand, an evil to which
the pricker is not liable ; but this is easily got over by in¬
serting the priming straw into a small cylindrical tube of
sheet-iron or copper, while the sand is gently pressed into
the hole; and the small tube, which is open at both ends,
is afterwards withdrawn. By this means the operation of
the horizontal shot is rendered not less sure, and is attended
with no greater expense, and little more trouble, than when
the bore is perpendicular.
It is proper to observe, however, that although hard
stemming ot broken stones with punches or hammers is ge¬
nerally disapproved of, there is still some diversity of opi¬
nion among writers on the subject as to the use ot sand
tamping. General Pasley and some other experimenters
contend for the superiority of clay over sand in every case,
and especially for short bores.
It has been supposed by some that a more complete in- inflam-
flammation of the powder would take place if it were ignited mation of
at the bottom of the hole; but it has been found, from ex- the pow-
periment, that gunpowder is even more fully inflamed by der-
applying the fire near the top; for, in firing ordnance, con¬
siderable quantities of the uninflamed grains of the powder
have been collected, by placing a piece of cloth at a distance
from the gun, and allowing the shot to pass through it.
Quick-lime, suddenly slacked, has been suggested as a uge of
mode of rending rocks; but this process would in practice quick-lime,
be found very defective. In some situations where the ex¬
plosive effects of gunpowder could not be applied with safety,
as in the interior of a building, or for such like purposes,
this mode may be resorted to with good eftect.
Blasting with gunpowder under water is necessarily per- Blasting
formed in various operations of the engineer, particularly in under
the excavation of the foundations of piers, and in deepening water,
the entrances of harbours. This used to be done by insert¬
ing the charge of powder into the perforated rock by means
of a case or cartridge made of tin-plate. The lower part is
made to fit the bore in the rock as nearly as may be; and
from this a small pipe of the same metal, with the priming
powder, is carried to the surface of the water. Here wad¬
ding is unnecessary, the pressure of the water upon the tin
case superseding the necessity of any; and the explosive
effects are generally greater, in proportion to the charge,
than those in the open air. The use of tin tubes in sub¬
marine blasting has now been wholly abandoned, since the
introduction of Beckfbrd’s patent fuse, which may with strict
propriety be called one of the greatest modern improvements
in blasting. The fuse is alike applicable to the removal of
rock thirty feet under water, as to all situations wheie the
rock is spongy or full of springs. T he charge is contained
in water-proof bags, and the fuse, which may be described
B L E B L E 757
BleacKing. as a perforated water-tight rope or hose, is attached to the bored in the centre of the timber; here the charge of powder Blatta
^ shot-bag; and the inflammable composition in the fuse is is inserted, and the orifice of the hole in the log^is then shut II
thus kept in contact with the charge. The fuse itself is of up or closed with the screw, when a match or piece of cord BleachillS-
length sufficient to reach the inside of the diving-bell, or, prepared with saltpetre is introduced into a small hole left V'—
where that is not used, it must be of length to come above in the screw for this purpose, by which the powder is ignited,
the water. It burns at the rate of from two to three feet The application of this screw to the purposes of blasting is
per minute. When the fuse is used above water in damp not very obviously necessary, because, from what we have
quarries, the shot-bags may, for economy, be made of strong seen, it would appear that the auger-hole, being charged
brown paper twice oiled, instead of tarred canvas. It may with powder and sand, would answer every purpose. One
here be observed, that explosions under water have in some great objection to’ the process of blasting applied to the
instances been proposed as a mode of attack in marine war- rending of timber is, the irregular and uncertain direction
fare; and it is presumed that explosions at considerable' of the fracture, by which great waste is sometimes occa-
depths might occasion such an impression on the water, and sioned. It may, however, be necessary to resort to this
so disturb the equilibrium of the atmospheric pressure, as to mode of breaking up large trees, when cut down and left
be capable of sinking large ships or floating batteries. in inaccessible situations, wfiiere a great force of men and
volcdc ^ a mot*e ^le cl!a,'ge by galvanism is a modern of implements cannot easily be procured or applied,
battery. improvement of very great importance, and has the advan- See Treatise of Artillery, by John Muller; Hutton’s Ma-
tage of being equally applicable to submarine and to ordinary thematical Dictionary; Robins’s Nero Principles of Gun-
blasting. All that is necessary is to make a small interrup- nery, by Dr Hutton; Nicliolson’s Journal, vols. xii. and xiii.;
tion in the conducting wire in contact with the charge. In Papers of Corps of Roy. Eng., vols. iv. and vi.; Rudimen-
passing the electric current, a spark is produced at the in- tary Treatise on Blasting and Quarrying Stone, by Sir J.
terruption sufficient to fire the charge. It is instantaneous, Burgoyne, Lond. 1849; Stevenson’s Skerryvore Lighthouse,
and enables the operator to fire simultaneously any number Edin. 1848; Pasley’s Memoranda on Blasting; London Elec-
of charges, according to the effect desired to be produced, trie. Soc. Trans., 1839. The reader is also referred to Vol-
The application of galvanic firing to submarine charges was taic Electricity for later methods of Blasting, (r. s.) (t. s.)
fiist put into piactice by General Pasley, in 1839, on the BE A l PA, a genus of coleopterous insects, belongin<r
wreck of the Royal George at Spithead. It was also used to the division of Orthoptera, and family Blattidee. The
in the same year, at the Skerryvore rock, by Mr Alan best known in this country are the cockroach, B. orientalis, ‘
Stevenson. The simultaneous firing of several charges was that infests our houses, B. germanica, B. pallens, B. ame-
extensively employed by Mr William Cubitt in the blasting ricana. See Entomology.
near Dover in 1843. Three charges of 18,000 lb. of gun- BLAYE, a fortified seaport town of France, capital of
powder were simultaneously fired by this means. Round- an arrondissement of the same name, in the department of
Down Cliff, about 400 feet high, was thrown down, with Gironde, on the right bank of the river of that name, and
comparatively little explosion, and covered the beach with 20 miles N.N.W. of Bordeaux. The river is here about
400,000 cubic yards of chalk rock; producing a saving of miles broad, and is defended by Forts Pate and Medoc;
L.7000 to the South-Eastern Railway Company in this part and all vessels inward-bound to Bordeaux, &c., are required
of their works. This method of blasting is now extensively to anchor at Blaye, and to exhibit manifests of their cargoes;
employed in various parts of the country. and vessels outwards generally call here to take in stores or
Useof Gun-cotton has also been employed in blasting, especially complete their cargoes. It has also a considerable export
gun-cotton. on the Manchester and Huddersfield railway in Standedge trade in wine, brandy, corn, oil, soap, and fruits. The town
tunnel, and on the works in the Stour Valley near Binning- has a strong modern citadel, a handsome public fountain,
ham. It has been stated that gun-cotton produces a much theatre, hospital, tribunals of primary instance and com-
greater effect, weight for weight, than gunpowder, in the merce, agricultural society, &c. Pop." (1851) 4350; of ar-
proportion of 5 to 1. This seems an exaggeration; but the rondissement, 59,469.
disruptive effect really seems to be greater from gun-cotton; BLAZONRY, the art of deciphering coats of arms;
and as it gives no smoke, in confined situations the work- and also that of expressing or describing a coat of arms in
men are enabled sooner to resume their work. appropriate language. The term is said'to be derived from
semy1^ It may also be mentioned, that an instrument called the the German hlasen, to blow; it having been customary at
Blasting Screw has been applied with considerable success jousts and tournaments for the herald to sound a trumpet
to the rending or splitting oflarge trees a,nd logs of timber, when he proclaimed the arms of a knight on ushering him
It consists of a screw which is wrought into an auger-hole, into the lists.
BLEACHING
Smith, that this species is a native of Greece, Dr Sibthorp’s
conjecture that the Struthium, of the ancients was the Sa-
ponaria officinalis, a plant common in Greece, is certainly
more probable. Mr Parkes, in his Essay on Bleaching
{Chemical Essays, vol. iv. p. 7), says, that Theophrastus
states that lime was used by the ancients in bleaching; and
that a ship, partly loaded with linen, and partly with lime
for bleaching it, was destroyed by the w'ater having acciden¬
tally found access to the lime. We endeavoured, with
some pains, to verify this quotation; and, accordingly, turned
over all the writings of Theophrastus with which we are
acquainted, but without being able to find anything bear¬
ing the least allusion to it.
Till the middle of the 18th century, the art of bleaching
was scarcely known in Great Britain. It was customary to send
all the brown linen manufactured in Scotland to Holland to
Is the art of depriving cotton, linen, silk, wool, wax, &c.,
of their colouring matter, and rendering them as white as
possible. The word is probably derived from the French
term blanchiment, which signifies the process of rendering
white.
1. I he ancients, especially in Egypt, where white linen
or cotton was a common article of clothing, must at an early
period have been acquainted with the method of bleaching
that substance ; but none of their writers have left us any
details on the subject. We know, however, from Pliny, that
different plants, and likewise the ashes of plants, which no
doubt contained alkali, were employed as detergents. Pliny
mentions particularly the Struthium as much used for bleach¬
ing in Greece. 1 his plant has been considered by some
as the Gypsophila Struthium. But as it does not appear
from Sibthorp’s Llora Grceca, published by Sir James
758 B L E A (
Bleaching, be bleached. It was sent away in the month of March, and
not returned till the end of October, being thus out of the
hands of the merchant more than half a year. The prin¬
cipal Dutch bleaching-grounds were in the neighbourhood
of Haerlem ; and the great success of their bleaching was
ascribed to the superior efficacy of their water, which,
according to the fashionable theory of the time, was sea¬
water filtered and rendered sweet by passing, through
their sand-downs. Indeed, it was long a prejudice on the
Continent, that no water was efficacious for bleaching but
sG3.-wa.t6r*
The Dutch mode of bleaching was to steep the linen
for about a week in a potash ley poured over it boiling hot.
The cloth being taken out of this ley, and washed, was
next put into wooden vessels containing butter-milk, in
which it lay under a pressure for five or six days. After
this it was spread upon the grass, and kept wet for several
months, exposed to the sunshine of summer.
In the year 1749, as we are informed by Mr Parkes
(Chemical Essays, vol. iv. p. 26), an Irishman, who had
learned something of the art of bleaching, settled in the
north of Scotland, and established a bleaching manufac¬
tory. On applying to the principal Scotch makers of linen,
they readily furnished him with a quantity of goods ; but
after keeping them a whole year, he failed in all his endea¬
vours to bleach them, and the proprietors were obliged to
send them to Holland to get the process completed. Next
summer his efforts were not more successful; the linen
was considerably injured, and even rendered tender by his
management, but it was not whitened. Nevertheless, this
man by perseverance became in a few years an excellent
practical bleacher. He had the merit of introducing the
art into Great Britain, and his descendants at this day
figure among the higher ranks in the metropolis.
The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was
very tedious, occupying a complete summer. It consist¬
ed in steeping the cloth in alkaline leys for several days,
washing it clean, and spreading it upon the grass for some
weeks. The steeping in alkaline leys, called bucking, and
the bleaching on the grass, called crofting, were repeated
alternately for five or six times. The cloth was then
steeped for some days in sour milk, washed clean, and
crofted. These processes were repeated, diminishing every
time the strength of the alkaline ley, till the linen had
acquired the requisite whiteness.
For the first improvement in this tedious process, which
was faithfully copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufac¬
turers were indebted to Dr Francis Home of Edinburgh,
who proposed to substitute water acidulated with sulphuric
acid, for the sour milk previously employed. This sug¬
gestion was in consequence of the new mode of making
sulphuric acid, contrived some time before by Dr Roe¬
buck, which reduced the price of that acid to less than
one third of what it had formerly been. It is curious,
that when this change was first adopted by the bleachers,
there was the same outcry against its corrosive effects as
we have seen some years ago, when chlorine was substi¬
tuted for crofting. No allegation, however, could be worse
founded, and it was completely destroyed by the publica¬
tion of Dr Home (Essay on Bleaching), who demonstrat¬
ed the perfect innocence and the superior efficacy and
cheapness of sulphuric acid, when properly applied, as com¬
pared with sour milk. Another advantage resulted from
the use of sulphuric acid, which was of the greatest im¬
portance to the merchant. A souring with sulphuric acid
required at the longest only twenty-four hours, and often
not more than twelve; whereas, when sour milk was em¬
ployed, six weeks, or even two months, were requisite,
according to the state of the weather. In consequence of
this improvement, the process of bleaching was shortened
> H I N G
from eight months to four, which enabled the merchant Bleaching,
to dispose of his goods so much the sooner, and conse- ' ~ v-'-1'
quently to trade with less capital.
The bleaching art remained in this state, or nearly so,
till the year 1787, when a most important change began
to take place in it, in consequence of a discovery which
originated in Sweden about thirteen years before. In the
year 1774 there appeared in the Memoirs of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Stockholm a paper on manganese, by Mr Scheele.
Among other experiments to which he subjected this .mi¬
neral, he mixed it with muriatic acid, put the mixture in a
retort, and applied heat. He perceived a smell similar to
that of aqua regia. This induced him to collect what
came over in a receiver, and he found it to be muriatic
acid, altered in a remarkable manner by the action of the
manganese on it. Its smell was greatly heightened, it
was become less soluble in water, and it possessed the
property of destroying those vegetable colours on which
it was allowed to act. M. Berthollet repeated the expe¬
riments of Scheele on this new acid in 1785, and added
considerably to the facts already known. He showed that
this new substance (called by Scheele dephlogisticated
muriatic acid) is a gas soluble in water, to which it gives
a yellowish green colour, an astringent taste, and the pe¬
culiar smell by which the body is. distinguished. When
water impregnated with this gas is exposed to sunshine,
it gradually loses its colour, while at the same time a
quantity of oxygen gas is disengaged from the water. If
the liquid be now examined, it will be found to contain,
not the new acid, but common muriatic acid. This expe¬
riment Berthollet considered as exhibiting an analysis of
the new acid, and as demonstrating that it is a compound
of muriatic acid and oxygen. On that account he gave it
the name of oxygenated muriatic acid, which was. after¬
wards shortened into oxymuriatic acid, an appellation by
which it was long known among bleachers.
The property which this gas possesses of destroying
vegetable colours led Berthollet to suspect that it might
be introduced with advantage into the art of bleaching,
and that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to
shorten their processes. At what time these ideas fiist
struck his mind we do not exactly know; but at the end
of a paper on dephlogisticated muriatic acid, read before
the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April 1785, and pub¬
lished in the Journal de Physique for May of the same
year (vol. xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the
effect of the gas in bleaching cloth, and found that it an¬
swered perfectly. 4his idea is still further developed in
a paper on the same substance, published in the Journal
de Physique for 1786. In 1786 he exhibited .the experi¬
ment to Mr Watt, who, immediately upon his return to
England, commenced a practical examination of the sub¬
ject, and was accordingly the person who first.introduced
the new method of bleaching into Great Britain.
Mr Parkes, in his Chemical Essays, published in 1815,
has mentioned some facts upon this subject, which it will
be proper to state. In the early part of . the year 1787,
Professor Copland of Aberdeen accompanied the Duke of
Gordon to Geneva, and was there shown the discolouring
property of chlorine gas by M. de Saussure. Mr Copland
was much struck with the importance of the expeiiment,
and on his return to Aberdeen in July 1787, he mentioned
the circumstance, and repeated the experiment before
some eminent bleachers in his own neighbourhood. Ihese
gentlemen were Messrs Milnes of the house of Gordon.
Barron, and Company, Aberdeen. They immediately be¬
gan the application of the process to the bleaching of
linen on a great scale; and Mr Parkes assures us that
they were the first persons who applied the new process
to practical bleaching in Great Britain.
BLEACHING.
Bleaching. But this statement, though it may appear plausible at
first sight, is quite incorrect. The writer of this article
cesrintro- t0°^ fifierty aPplying t° Mr Watt himself for in¬
duced into fo.rmatic!n on t*le subject. Mr Watt has preserved copies
Britain by ab bis letters since the year 1782, taken by means of
Mr Watt, his copying machine; and he allowed the writer of this
article to peruse such oi them as bore any reference to
this subject. Now, two letters were found which entirely
set the matter at rest. The first of these is to his father-in-
law, Mr Macgregor, dated Birmingham, 19th March, 1787.
In this letter he gives a particular detail of the new bleach¬
ing process, states its advantages, and says that he had
sent Mr Macgregor a quantity of the whitening liquor.
The second letter is to Berthollet, and is dated Birming¬
ham, May 9, 1787. The following is a part of that letter,
which we have transcribed verbatim : “ Je ne sais pas si
j’ai encore fait la liqueur acide si fort que vous avez fait,
mais je vous donnerois les moyens de juger. Je trouve que
4 onces de mon acide mele avec la quantite necessaire
d’alkali de pearl-ash peut blanchir un gros de toile brune,
telle comme j’ai vu chez vous. II est vrai qu’il ne la fait
tout-a-fait blanc ; mais il le fait aussi blanc, que je puis le
faire, meme en ajoutant une second dose d’acide. Je
bouille la toile par avance dans une solution d’alkali faible ;
et, a mi blanc, je la bouille une second fois. Je trouve que
le savon est meilleur que 1’alkali pur pour la second bouil¬
lon. J ai blanchi tout-a-fait le coton, mais je ne suis en¬
core parvenu a blanchir parfaitement la toile de lin.” The
reader will observe that the date of both of these letters
is some months before Mr Copland’s return from the Con¬
tinent. M. Berthollet had published his process in 1785,
and as Watt had brought it to England in the end of 1786,
and had put it in practice, and introduced it into Mr Mac-
gregor’s bleachfield, near Glasgow, in the month of March
1787, it is clear that Saussure has no claim to the original
discovery, nor Mr Copland to the first introduction of the
new process into Great Britain.1
Dr Henry quotes a letter of Mr Watt, dated February
23, 1788, in which he says, “ I have /or more than a
twelvemonth been in possession and practice of a method
of preparing a liquor from common salt, which possesses
bleaching qualities in an eminent degree; but not being
the inventor, I have not attempted to get a patent or ex¬
clusive privilege for it.” (Annals of Philosophy, vi. 423.)
This letter alone is sufficient to show that Mr Watt’s ex¬
periments were of an earlier date than those of Messrs
Milnes. He says further, that “ at that very time 1500
yards of linen were bleaching by the new process, under his
directions.” This great experiment was conducted in the
bleachfield of his father-in-law, Mr Macgregor, near Glas¬
gow ; where, as he wrote to M. Berthollet, soon after, 500
pieces were bleached by the new method, and Mr Mac¬
gregor was so satisfied of the importance of the new pro¬
cess, that he had resolved to continue it. Mr Watt made
several improvements in the method of M. Berthollet.
Instead of employing muriatic acid and manganese, as had
been done by Scheele and Berthollet, he had recourse to
the cheaper mode of a mixture of common salt, black oxide
of manganese, and sulphuric acid. Pie made use of
wooden vessels to hold the water which was to be impreg¬
nated with the chlorine, coating them within with a mixture
of wax and pitch, which rendered them air tight, and pre¬
vented the gas from acting on the wood. Mr Watt like¬
wise contrived a test to indicate the strength of the wa-
tei impregnated with chlorine, as far as its bleaching Bleacffing.
effects wei e concei ned. He took a determinate quantity ^ —
of the infusion of cochineal, and ascertained how much
of the bleaching liquor was necessary to destroy the
colour. P’he strength of the bleaching liquor was obvi¬
ously inversely as the quantity necessary to destroy the
colour. But M. Welter hit upon another method about
the same time, which has been considered as preferable,
and has in consequence come into general use. He em¬
ployed a solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, instead of the
infusion of cochineal. In other respects the two methods
were the same.
Mr Thomas Henry of Manchester began his experi¬
ments on bleaching by means of chlorine nearly as early
as Mr Watt, and without any previous knowledge of what
he had done. He was very assiduous, and very success¬
ful in his trials. At a meeting of the bleachers held at
Manchester early in 1788, he exhibited half a yard of
calico, bleached by the new method, which was considered
as superior in whiteness to half a piece of calico bleached
by the same process by Messrs Cooper, Baker, and Charles
laylor. In consequence of this exhibition he was applied
to by Mr Ridgway of Horwich, to be instructed in the new
process : and the instructions which the latter accordingly
received were the first step of a series of improvements
carried on by Mr Ridgway and his son, with an ability and
spirit of enterprise which have raised their establishment
to its present extent and importance. (See Annals of Phi¬
losophy, vi. 423.) These two gentlemen, Messrs Watt and
Henry, had the chief merit of introducing the new mode
of bleaching into Lancashire, and the neighbourhood of
Glasgow.
In the year 1789 M. Berthollet published a memoir on
the subject, in the second volume of the Annales de Chi-
mie, p. 151. In this memoir, which constituted the first
publication on the mode of bleaching by means of chlorine,
Berthollet gives a detail of the progress of his experiments,
and states the attempts that had been made to introduce
the new mode of bleaching into France. M. Bonjour,
who had assisted him in his experiments, associated him¬
self with M. Constant, a manufacturer of cloth at Valen¬
ciennes, to form a bleaching establishment in that city
upon the new plan. But their project was prevented by
the prejudices of the inhabitants and by the jealousy of
the bleachers, who were afraid of being injured by the
introduction of any new improvements. M. le Comte de
Bellaing, however, who approved of the project, granted
a piece of ground possessed of all the requisite conveni¬
ences, but at rather too great a distance from Valen¬
ciennes. Mr Bonjour applied to the board of commerce
for the exclusive privilege of bleaching for some years,
according to the new method in Valenciennes and Cam-
bray, and for two leagues around these places, offering at
the same time to explain the new process in all its details
to those who wished to make themselves acquainted with
it. But the request was refused.
It does not appear from Berthollet’s account that the
new mode of bleaching had been successfully established
in any manufactory in France before the publication of his
Memoir. One of the great difficulties in the way of ap-
plying chlorine to bleaching, was the very disagreeable
and noxious odour which characterized it, and which ren¬
dered it not only very offensive, but highly injurious to the
health of the workmen. Berthollet describes, at consider-
Thelyto Prof. T. Thomson, when he drew up the preceding historical detail for the Supplement to the
cyclopiedia Britannica in the year 1816, thought it right to write to Professor Copland, stating the facts
questing him to say whether they were accurate. Mr Copland returned no answer to the letter. This
we think, as an admission of the accuracy of the statements.
Sixth Edition of the En-
given in the text, and re¬
silence may be considered.
760
BLEACHING.
Bleaching able length, a vessel contrived for impregnating water with
-‘■■''■V''"*'' it, by M. Welter, and likewise the mode of preparing the gas
from common salt, black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric
acid. But his improvements, though considerable, wei e far
from obviating the inconveniences complained of.. Some
method was wanted which should deprive water impieg-
nated with this gas of its smell, without depriving it o
its bleaching qualities. The first attempt to accomplis i
this object originated with M. Berthollet himself.
When he first began to bleach by means of water im¬
pregnated with chlorine, he employed that liquid as con¬
centrated as possible ; but he found that the textuie of
the cloth steeped in it was considerably injured. 1 o pre¬
vent this effect, he at first added a little alkali to the liquid,
in order to saturate a portion of the acid. But he found
afterwards that it was better to dilute the liquid with wa¬
ter. Before this last method occurred to him, however,
he was requested to go to Javelle, to show* the bleacheis
there the method of preparing the chlorine and making the
bleaching liquor. He went twice in consequence, prepar¬
ed the liquor before the bleachers, and added some pot¬
ash to prevent the acid from injuring the texture of the
cloth. Some time afterwards the manufacturers of Javelle
announced in the different journals that they had disco¬
vered a peculiar liquid which they called Lessive de Ja¬
velle, and which possessed the property of bleaching cloth
immersed in it for a few hours. Ihis liquid they pic-
pared by dissolving potash in the water which they were
going to impregnate with chlorine. 1 he consequence
was, that the liquid absorbed a much greater quantity of
gas, and might be diluted with a considerable proportion
of water, without losing its bleaching quality.
Being disappointed in their attempts to introduce this
liquor among the French bleachers, they came ovei to
England, and applied to parliament for the exclusive pri¬
vilege of supplying the British bleachers with this liquid.
The patent was to be given to MM. Bourbollon de Bon-
neuil and Company. In consequence of this application,
a meeting of the bleachers of Lancashire was adyeitised
in the beginning of the year 1788. It was at this meet¬
ing that Mr Henry exhibited the half yard of calico
bleached according to the new method. Mr Watt had
written a letter to Dr Percival on the subject, which was
communicated to the meeting. He stated in it that he
had been in possession of a new method of bleaching, by
means of chlorine, for above a year; that he had learned
it from Berthollet, and that he had every reason to be¬
lieve that the liquor of MM. Bourbollon de Bonnueil and
Company consisted of chlorine, or of some preparation of
it. In consequence of this meeting, the county members
of parliament were requested to oppose the intended mo¬
nopoly. Mr Watt also exerted all his influence ; and Mr
Parkes informs us likewise, that one of the Messrs Mlines
of Aberdeen, who had been informed of the use of chlo¬
rine by Mr Copland, happened to be in the gallery of the
House of Commons when the application in favour cf the
French gentlemen was made. He took immediate mea¬
sures to inform the principal members that this was not
a new process; that he himself had long ago prepared an
article equally advantageous; and that he was ready to
substantiate the truth of his statement when required.^
(Parkes’s Chemical Essays, iv. 62.) In consequence of
the united exertions of all these different gentlemen, the
bill was thrown out, and the monopoly prevented.
It seems to have been partly in consequence of this
application of the French gentlemen that Mr Henry of
Manchester was induced to attempt bleaching upon a large
scale with chlorine. His attention had been first drawn
to the subject by the papers of Berthollet, published in
the Journal dc Physique, during the years 1785 and 1786.
He was at that time engaged in a course of lectures on Bleaching,
dyeing, printing, and bleaching. An acquaintance with
the properties of chlorine, which he had repeatedly had
occasion to exhibit in his course of lectures, and the ge¬
neral hints previously thrown out by Berthollet, led him
to conclude that the liquor of Bourboilon and Company
could be nothing else than chlorine, or some compound of
it. His first operations on the large scale consisted in
exposing the goods, in a moist state, in air-tight cham¬
bers, to the action of chlorine gas. He likewise began to
prepare for sale a bleaching liquor, in which the g^as was
condensed in a very weak solution of potash; which, as
we learn from Berthollet, was the very same with the
Lessive de Javelle. This liquid possessed two advantages
over water simply impregnated with chlorine gas. Its
smell was less noxious, and it might be employed to whiten
printed calicoes without destroying the colours which had
been dyed upon the cloth. But these advantages were
much more than counterbalanced by equivalent disad¬
vantages. It was found not to go nearly so far as water
impregnated with chlorine gas, and when kept for some
time it lost its bleaching properties altogether. The rea¬
son of this last alteration is now sufficiently understood:
the chlorine in the liquid was gradually converted into
common muriatic acid and chloric acid; the water con¬
taining merely common muriate of potash and chlorate of
potash. In consequence of these disadvantages, the ad¬
dition of potash to the bleaching liquid was soon laid
aside. The next attempt to destroy the noxious smell of
the liquid, without destroying its bleaching property, was
the addition of lime to the liquid. Mr Henry of Man¬
chester was one of the first persons who thought of this
addition. On the floor of his air-tight chambers rested
a stratum of thin cream of lime, through which the goods
were passed by means of a wince; and were afterwards
exposed, on quitting the liquor, to chlorine acid gas.
Hence the chloride of lime was formed upon the cloth.
But this method was objectionable in the case of some
coloured goods, the colours of which were injured or de¬
stroyed by that earth. It admitted, therefore, of only a
partial application. , . .
Other persons made similar attempts, none of which
appear to have been attended with success. But Mr
Tennant of Glasgow, after a great deal of most laborious
and acute investigation, hit upon a method of making a
saturated liquid of chloride of lime, which was found to
answer perfectly all the purposes of the bleacher. Ihis
was certainly a most important improvement. Without
it, the prodigious extent of business carried on by some
of our bleachers could not possibly have been transacted.
To give some idea of the rapidity with which bleaching
is conducted according to the new process, we may men¬
tion the following fact, which we state on what we consi¬
der as very good authority. A bleacher in Lancashire
received 1400 pieces of gray muslin on a Tuesday, which
on the Thursday immediately following were returned
bleached to the manufacturers, at the distance of sixteen
miles, and they were packed up and sent oft on that very
day to a foreign market. The quick return of capita
which is thus made is a benefit entirely to be ascribed to
the new mode of bleaching.
In the year 1798 Mr Tennant took out a patent for his
new invention, and offered the use of it to practical bleach¬
ers, for a fair and reasonable portion of the savings made
by its substitution for potash, then m general use. Many
of the bleachers, however, used it without paying him, and
a combination was formed to resist the right of t ic pa¬
tentees. In December 1802, Mr Tennant and Company
brought an action for damages against Messrs Slater and
Varley, nominally the defendants, but who, in fact, were
BLEACHING.
Bleaching, backed and supported by a combination of almost all the
bleachers in Lancashire. In consequence of this action,
the patent right was set aside by the verdict of a jury and
the decision of Lord Ellenborough, who used very strong
language against the patentees. The grounds of this de¬
cision were, that the patent included a mode of bucking
with quicklime and water, which was not a new invention.
It was decided that, because one part of the patent was
not new, therefore the whole must be set aside. Had the
writer of this article constituted the jury, the verdict
would have been very different. Lime was indeed used
previous to the patent of Mr Tennant; but it was em¬
ployed in a quite different manner from his, and he would
have allowed all of them to continue their peculiar me¬
thod without any objection, because it would have been
productive of no injury to his emolument. If the very
same process as that of Mr Tennant was employed before
he took out his patent, there could be no doubt that the
process originated with him, and that those who used it
had been induced to do so from the information which
they derived from him. In the opinion of the writer of
this article, Mr Tennant was hardly used, and the words
employed by Lord Ellenborough were quite inapplicable
to him. But when a very powerful combination is formed
against any individual, the sentiments with which they
are actuated propagate themselves with rapidity; and it
is difficult for the most upright jury to avoid being sway¬
ed by prejudices, which are the more formidable, that
their existence is not perceived.
In consequence of this decision, the use of liquid chlo¬
ride of lime in bleaching was thrown open to all, and ap¬
pears now to be universally employed by the bleachers in
Britain. Mr Tennant, thus deprived of the fruits of se¬
veral years of anxious and laborious investigation, advan¬
ced a step farther, to what may be considered as the com¬
pletion of the new method. This consisted in impregnat¬
ing quicklime in a dry state with chlorine.1 He had
taken out a patent for this on the 13th of April 1799, and
his right fortunately was not contested. He began his
manufactory of solid chloride of lime at first upon a small
scale, which has been ever since gradually extending, and
his manufactory is now the largest of the kind in Great Bri¬
tain. During the whole period of the duration of his patent
he laboured under great disadvantages. The chlorine gas
with which the lime was impregnated was obtained from
common salt. Now, his patent did not extend to Ireland,
in consequence of which manufactures of dry chloride of
lime were established in that kingdom. In Ireland the
manufacturer obtained his salt duty free, while Mr Ten¬
nant was obliged to pay a duty of 7s. 6d. per bushel.
Such, however, was the superiority of the methods em¬
ployed by Mr Tennant, that he was able to compete with
the Irish manufacturers in their own country.
In the year 1815, in consequence of the joint applica¬
tion of the bleachers, the duty on common salt, former¬
ly charged upon all bleachers and others who employed
that article in the preparation of a bleaching liquid, was
taken off, and they were henceforth allowed to use it duty
free. But this act, while it affords great advantages to
bleachers on a large scale, precludes those who only work
on a small scale from making their own chloride of lime;
the consumption of the powder, therefore, is likely to in¬
crease very much among the little bleachers and calico
printers. Its use is also considerable in partially discharg¬
ing the colour of Turkey red cloth. The method was ori¬
ginally a French invention; but a patent was granted to
761
Mr Thomson, a Lancashire calico-printer, for the process, Bleaching,
which, we believe, he imported from Jouy. The method
is this: An acid paste, consisting of tartaric acid, or any
other acid thickened with gum, is first printed on the
Turkey red cloth, which is then passed through liquid
chloride of lime. It becomes white only where the acid
was applied. On this bleached part any other colour may
be applied, and the combinations produced are exceed¬
ingly beautiful and striking.
Such, as far as we are acquainted with the subject, is
the history of the progress of the new method of bleach¬
ing in Great Britain. We have said nothing of the Irish
bleachers, because we are not particularly acquainted with
the progress of the new method in that country, though
we believe that chlorine was tried by the Irish bleachers
almost as early as it was in Great Britain. Mr Parkes
supposes that Mr Kirwan might have proposed the trial
of the new re-agent, in consequence of some suggestion
from Scheele or Saussure. (Parkes’s Chemical Essay, iv.
43.) But we have no evidence that this was the case.
Indeed, it would be quite unreasonable to attempt, by
such vague suspicions, to detract from the merit due to
Berthollet for his original suggestion of the application of
chlorine to bleaching, a merit which he has enjoyed with¬
out a competitor for thirty years. Scheele was dead be¬
fore any one attempted to introduce the new gas into
bleaching, either in Great Britain or Ireland; and there
is every reason for believing that Saussure’s knowledge of
the bleaching qualities of chlorine originated from Ber-
thollet’s publications on the subject in 1785 and 1786.
The bleaching powder, or chloride of lime as it is usually
called, is made by exposing slacked lime to an atmosphere
of chlorine gas till it refuse to absorb any more. Unslacked
lime is incapable of absorbing this gas; but slacked lime,
or hydrate of lime, absorbs it readily. Mr Tennant of
Glasgow, the original inventor of the process, whose firm
is still by far the greatest in this manufacture in Britain,
prepared it by covering the floor of a stone chamber with
a layer of slacked lime to the height of a few inches. The
stone of which the chamber is built is the Glasgow coal
sandstone, which is rendered impervious to the chlorine
by being coated externally with a layer of cement, made
by melting together wax and rosin in the requisite propor¬
tions to make a stiff but very ductile cement. The wooden
door of the apartment is then closed and made air-tight.
There is an aperture above, which can be occasionally
opened; the use of which seems to be to allow the com¬
mon air of the chamber to make its escape. A mixture of
native black oxide of manganese, ground to a fine powder,
of common salt, and of sulphuric acid diluted with water, is
put into a large leaden vessel, nearly spherical, and furnished
at the top with a lid, which fits so as to be air-tight. From
this lid a leaden tube passes into the lime chamber, to con¬
vey the chlorine gas as it is formed. This leaden vessel is
cased on the outside with an iron vessel, between which and
the leaden vessel there is an interval. At first the chlorine
gas is extricated without any heat being applied; but after
the process has continued for some time, a current of steam
is made to pass into the inside of the iron case, which heats
the leaden still sufficiently high to continue the process till
the whole common salt is decomposed, and of course the
disengagement of chlorine gas is at an end.
The black oxide of manganese (supposing it pure) is a
compound of
1 atom manganese — S’o) . _
2 atoms oxygen.... =2-0) °
1 The idea of saturating slacked lime with chlorine was first suggested by Charles MTntosh, Esq. of Cross-Basket who w,i« ot tint
time a partner of Messrs Tennant and Knox. eu, wno was at that
VOL. iy.
o 1)
762
bleaching.
Bleaching. By the mutual action of the sulphuric acid and the acid
of the common salt it is converted into protoxide of man¬
ganese, composed of
1 atom manganese = S’5) -
1 atom oxygen = 1'0)
It therefore loses an atom of oxygen. Ihis atom unites
with the hydrogen of the muriatic acid evolved, forming
water, and thus converting the muriatic acid into chlorine.
It is obvious from this, that if the black oxide of manganese
were pure, every 5‘5 parts of it would be sufficient to gene¬
rate 4-5 parts of chlorine, which is the quantity contained
in 7-5 parts of common salt. Hence the proportions of
black oxide and common salt which ought to be used are
51 of the former to of the latter. But the black oxide
of manganese employed in this country is never pure, it
is always contaminated with a quantity of peroxide of iron,
seldom less than one-fourth of the weight of the ore, and
often amounting to one-third of that weight. It contains
also not unfrequently barytes or lime, which seem to be m
chemical combination with a portion of the oxide. On t is
account it is always necessary to use more than of man¬
ganese for every 7^ of salt. We believe that the quantity
of black oxide for every 7£ parts of common salt ought not
to be less than 8 parts, to make sure of obtaining the whole
chlorine from the common salt.
The black oxide of manganese having a specific gravity
of 4-97, and being insoluble in water, speedily falls to the
bottom of the leaden still, and would soon cease to convert
the muriatic acid into chlorine. To prevent this, there is
an agitator in every leaden vessel, which is very frequently
moved by the workmen whose province it is to take charge
of these stills. By this means the manganese, which is in
very fine powder, is mixed with the whole liquid, and thus
brought into contact with the nascent muriatic acid, which
it deprives of its hydrogen, and thus converts into chlorine.
To decompose parts of common salt completely,
parts of sulphuric acid of the specific gravity of 1*843 are
requisite. This acid should be previously diluted with at
least its own bulk of water; or it is better (when the ma¬
nufacturer of bleaching powder makes his own acid, which
is generally the case) to employ the sulphuric acid in the
state in which it comes from the leaden chambers, without
any artificial concentrations. This, if the acid maker con¬
ducts his process properly, may be as high as 1*75. Mr
Tennant finds it better to employ a still greater quantity of
acid than 12^ for every of salt; because the decomposi¬
tion goes on with the application of less heat, and the leaden
stills are much less corroded, than when a smaller quantity
of acid and a stronger heat are employed. What remains
in the still after the evolution of the chlorine gas is at an
end, is a mixture of sulphate of manganese, bisulphate of
soda, and free sulphuric acid. It would not do to lose the
free sulphuric acid. The residue is therefore mixed with
as much common salt as the sulphuric acid is able to de¬
compose, and the whole is gradually fused in a furnace. By
this fusion the sulphate of manganese is decomposed as well
as the common salt, and there remains sulphate of soda
mixed with oxide of manganese and peroxide of iron. Lixi-
viation gets rid of these two oxides, and leaves a solution of
sulphate of soda, which is evaporated to dryness, mixed
with pounded coal, and ignited in a reverberatory furnace.
By this simple process the Glauber salt is converted into
sulphuret of sodium, from which carbonate of soda is extri¬
cated by simple and well-known processes.
The bleaching powder, when first prepared, was a bi¬
chloride of lime, or a compound of one atom of chlorine and
two atoms of lime. But of late years Mr Tennant has
improved his process so much, that it is now a chloride of
lime, or a compound of one atom chlorine and one atom
lime; that is to say, it contains twice the quantity of chlo¬
rine which it originally did, and goes twice as far when
32
employed in bleaching; and other manufacturers have been Bleaching,
obliged to follow his example. Hence the value of the
bleaching powder all over Great Britain is about doubled,
while its price is reduced to less than one-hall ot what it
was originally; being sold at present at the rate of three¬
pence per pound, containing nearly hall its weight of chlo¬
rine.
With respect to the nature of bleaching powder, no ex¬
periments have been made sufficiently decisive to remove
all doubts. The most commonly received opinion is, that
it is a compound of chlorine and lime, or a chloride of lime.
The objection to this opinion is what happens when car¬
bonate of soda is saturated with chlorine to form the disin¬
fecting liquor used by Labaracque. If the solution be
evaporated, a peculiar salt is obtained, which possesses
bleaching properties. No chlorine gas is given off during
the evaporation. The same phenomena take place when
carbonate of potash is saturated with chlorine. From this
it has been conjectured, that when chlorine acts upon
slacked lime, a certain portion of the lime is converted into
calcium, while a portion of the chlorine is converted into
chlorous acid, or a compound of one atom ot chloiine and
three atoms of oxygen. On this supposition it is evident
that three-fourths of the lime are converted into calcium.
The three atoms of oxygen thus evolved convert one atom
of chlorine into chlorous acid. This chlorous acid unites with
the one-fourth of lime remaining, and converts it into chlo¬
rite of lime; while the three atoms of calcium evolved,
uniting each with an atom of chlorine, constitute chloride
of calcium. According to this view of the subject, the
strongest bleaching powder will be a mixture of
3 atoms chloride of calcium = 21)
1 atom chlorite of lime = 1.
So that about one-third of the weight is chlorite of lime,
to which alone the bleaching powers of the substance is
owing. . .
It is rather inconsistent with this opinion, that bleaching
powder does not attract moisture from the atmosphere with
nearly so much rapidity as might be expected from a mix¬
ture containing two-thirds of its weight of so deliquescent
a salt as chloride of calcium; unless, indeed, this be pre¬
vented by the chloride and chlorite being united into a
double salt. When sulphuric acid or muriatic acid, however
diluted, are poured into a solution of bleaching powder,
chlorine gas is given out in abundance. This seems rather
inconsistent with the notion of its being a mixture of chlo¬
ride of calcium and chlorite of lime ; at least no such evolu¬
tion takes place when these acids are mixed with solutions
of chloride of calcium or chlorate of potash.
The bleaching powder, in order to be applied to the
cloth, must be dissolved in water; and the quantity em¬
ployed for the first process consists of a solution of 24 lb.
of bleaching powder in 60 gallons of water.
In general, a solution of one pound of bleaching powder
in one gallon of water has a specific gravity of 1*05. But
the specific gravity of the bleaching powder solution into
which the cloth is put is only 1*02. The quantity ot
liquor of this specific gravity necessary for 700 lb. of cloth
is 971 gallons. Hence it is obvious that the quantity
of bleaching powder required for 700 lb. of cloth will be
388i lb. . . . .
But the specific gravity of the solution is not sufficient
to determine its qualities as a whitening substance, ihe
longer bleaching powder is kept, especially if it be not wen
shut up from the action of the atmosphere, the less bleach¬
ing power does it possess. We have purchased it from
apothecaries in London a great many years ago almost
totally inert; yet this inactive substance was soluble 1
water, and was capable of augmenting the specific gravity
of the liquid as much or nearly as much as the best bleach
ing powder whatever; but the liquid was merely a solution
BLEACHING.
763
Bleaching, of chloride of calcium. Some other method, accordingly,
^ of judging of the goodness of bleaching powder is necessary
for the bleachers. The method commonly employed by
the bleachers is the indigo test, first brought into use by M.
Wel ter.
The mode of applying the indigo test fol¬
lowed in this country is by means of the gra¬
duated glass tube, figured in the margin,
which is known by the name of the Test-tube.
The method is as follows: One part of the
best indigo is dissolved in nine parts of strong
sulphuric acid, and the solution is mixed with
990 parts of water, making a solution, -joWth
part of which is indigo. Of this liquid a
quantity is to be poured into the test-tube, so
as to fill it up to 0, or the commencement of
the scale. The bleaching liquor whose power
is to be tried is then to be dropt gradually in,
and mixed with the blue liquor by shaking
the tube from time to time till the blue is
changed into a clear brown. As soon as this
takes place, the degree of the scale to which
the mixture reaches is observed, and the figure
marked at that degree indicates the strength
of the steep-liquor. The lowest on the scale
is, of course, the strongest in bleaching power,
being capable of destroying most colour. The
liquor whose strength is thus ascertained is denominated
steep-liquor, of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 degrees, the last of
which is the w eakest ever used for any kind of goods. By
adding stock-liquor when the steep-liquor is too weak, and
water when too strong, this liquor may be obtained of any
strength which is required.
This mode of testing is obviously defective, because we
have no good method of determining the goodness of the
indigo itself employed as the test; and yet it is well known
that different indigoes vary considerably in the quantity of
colouring matter which they contain. Various attempts
have been made to improve it; but at best it can only be
considered as enabling us to compare the relative values of
the different varieties of bleaching powder. It can never
give us the absolute quantity of oxygen which the bleaching
powder is capable of disengaging, upon which its bleaching
powers must entirely depend.
Mr Dalton, however, in his paper On Oxymuriate of Lime,
in the Annals of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 15, has pointed out
a process, which, when a little modified, as it has been by
Mr Walter Crum, one of the most extensive bleachers in
the neighbourhood of Glasgow, answers exceedingly well,
and enables us to determine the true quantity of oxygen
which the solution of the bleaching powder is capable of
yielding to the cloth. Mr Crum’s method is this. He
dissolves four ounces of green sulphate of iron in hot water,
and then adds solution of bleaching powder by small quan¬
tities at a time till the smell of chlorine begins to be per¬
ceptible. This is a proof that the whole of the protoxide
of iron in the four ounces of green vitriol has been converted
into peroxide. The strength of the bleaching powder
liquid employed by Mr Crum, when the object is to test its
value as a bleaching ingredient, is one pound of bleaching
powder dissolved in one gallon of water. Of this he adds
quantities by ^th of a gallon at a time to the solutions of
green vitriol, till the smell begins to become sensible. Six
of these measures may be added at once without any risk of
evolving any smell; but on the addition of the seventh
measure it is necessary to proceed with caution, adding
only a little at a time, lest the point of saturation be ex¬
ceeded. Let us suppose that 7-j measures were necessary
to evolve the smell of chlorine ; as 64 measures contain one
pound of bleaching powder, it is obvious that 7^ measures
will contain 820*3 grains. We learn from the experiment,
14
36*5
that in the case in question 820*3 grains of bleaching powder, Bleaching,
when placed in contact with protoxide of iron, are capable's—^
of converting all the protoxide of iron contained in four
ounces of green vitriol into peroxide. Now, crystallized
sulphate of iron is composed of
1 atom sulphuric acid.. 5 )
1 atom protoxide of iron 4*5 > 17*375
7 atoms water.......... 7*875)
Consequently four ounces of the salt must contain 396*2
grains of protoxide of iron, to convert which into peroxide
will require 44 grains of oxygen. This, of course, is the
quantity of oxygen contained in 820*3 grains of the bleach¬
ing powder tried. If six measures had been sufficient in¬
stead of 7i, then 656^ grains of bleaching powder would
yield 44 grains of oxygen. In general, the bleaching powder
employed by the bleachers is of about this strength.
Sulphate of manganese might be substituted for sulphate
of iron. The result would be the same, excepting that the
protoxide of manganese is converted into the native black
oxide, by uniting with an additional atom of oxygen. And
as crystallized sulphate of manganese is composed of
1 atom sulphuric acid   5*0)
1 atom protoxide of manganese 4*5
4 atoms water 4*5 J
it is obvious that 14 of sulphate of manganese will go twice
as far, as a test of bleaching powder, as 17*375 of sulphate of
iron. Thence If oz. of crystals of sulphate of manganese will
just go as far, as a test for bleaching powder, as 4 oz. of sul¬
phate of iron. The manganese is thrown down in the state
of native black oxide; not, however, pure, but every six
atoms of it are combined with one atom of lime, constituting
a compound which may be called sex-manganite of lime,
composed thus:
6 atoms black oxide   33*Cf|
1 atom lime    3*5j
Prussian blue might also be employed as a test for bleach¬
ing powder. A solution of bleaching powder dissolves prus-
siate of iron, and the solution, when just neutral, is yreen ;
when there is an excess of bleaching powder the liquid be¬
comes brownish yellow. But prussiate of iron can only be
employed as a comparative test in the same way as indigo;
although it is preferable to indigo, because it can always be
obtained of the same relative strength or purity.
1. Bleaching of Cotton.
Cotton is a kind of down which fills the seed-pods of
various species of plants, particularly the Gossypium her-
baceum, hirsutum, and arboreum, from all of which it is ex¬
tracted in considerable quantity for the purposes of manu¬
facturers. This substance was known to the ancients, and
made by them into thread and cloth. Cotton cloth appears
to have been generally worn in Egypt and the neighbouring
countries at a very early period; and no doubt the plant
was cultivated in India and China for similar purposes before
the time at which the history of these nations, as far as we
are acquainted with it, commences. Pliny gives a short de¬
scription of the gossypium which grew in Upper Egypt,
which is sufficient to show us that it was the same with our
cotton plant. “ Superior pars Algypti in Arabiam vergens
gignit fruticem, quern aliqui gossipion vocant, plures xylon,
et ideo lina inde facta xylina. Parvus est, similemque bar-
batae nucis defert fructum, cujus ex interiore bombyce
lanugo netur. Nec ulla sunt eis in candore mollitiave prae-
ferenda.” (Plinii Natur. Hist. lib. xix. c. 2.) The byssus
mentioned in the same chapter was probably likewise a
species of cotton ; though the account of it given by Pliny
is not sufficiently precise to enable us to make out the point
with certainty.
Since the discovery and colonization of America and
the West Indies, and our great connection with the East,
cotton has become a very common article of clothing in
764
BLEACHING.
Bleaching.
Europe. The manufacture of cotton cloth in consequence
has increased prodigiously, and in Great Britain constitutes
one of the great branches of manufacturing industry. The
quantity of colouring matter in cotton is much less than in
linen, and it is more easily removed. Hence the bleaching^
of cotton is much easier, and occupies less time, than that ot
linen. On that account it will be best to give the reader a
clear idea of the processes at present followed by the. most
skilful cotton bleachers in Great Britain. The bleaching ot
cotton is practised chiefly in Lancashire and the neighbour¬
hood of Glasgow, to which districts the cotton manufacture
is almost confined. We shall describe the processes as they
are followed in the most extensive bleaching-houses, where
they have been brought to the state of greatest perfection.
The processes are numerous, though each is sufficiently
simple. Let us follow the cotton cloth, from the time that
it comes into the hands of the bleacher till it is returned to
the merchant fully bleached and ready for sale.
1. The first process is to stamp the proprietor’s name
upon the end of every piece of goods, that there may be
no mistake from the mixture of the cloth belonging to dif¬
ferent persons, so that every individual may have his own
goods returned to him again without the least risk of error.
The substance used for the purpose is coal-tar, which dis¬
tils when pit-coal is heated in iron retorts for the purpose
of obtaining coal-gas. It consists of a mixture, or rather
solution, of black bituminous matter in naphtha. A quantity
of coal-tar is spread over a woollen sieve with a brush. A
wooden stamp containing the name of the proprietor of the
cloth is pressed against the cloth. It takes up the requisite
quantity of coal-tar, and when pressed against the end of
the piece makes a black and very distinct impression of the
name, which withstands all the subsequent processes to
which the cloth is to be subjected without being obliterated;
but which might be removed were the stamped part of the
cloth to be wrell washed with soap, and rubbed hard between
the hands of the washer. Damask table-cloths, &c., are
generally marked with Turkey-red thread, linen goods with
nitrate of silver.
2. The cloth thus marked is in the next place singed, in
order to remove the numerous hairs or flocks of cotton,
wffiich w3 * * * 7ould have the effect of injuring the look of the cloth.
This is usually done by passing the pieces with a uniform
velocity over an iron heated red hot. The heat is sufficient
to burn off the hairs ; but the cloth passes too rapidly to be
injured by the hot iron. Some years ago Mr Hall of Not¬
tingham contrived a very ingenious apparatus, by means of
which the cloth is singed by coal-gas. Some idea may
be formed of the nature of the process by the following im¬
perfect description. A represents the gas flame issuing
from a pipe, and B the cloth drawn uniformly along, with
the requisite velocity to prevent it from catching fire from
the flame ; C represents the section of a kind of vessel ter¬
minating in a tube D, which is connected with an air-pump
kept working during the whole process. The consequence
is, that the cloth presses rather forcibly against the bottom
of C, and the flame is cut oft' by the cloth without passing
through it, singeing only one side of it.
3. If the cloth were thrown into a vessel of water, re¬
gularly folded into a number of plies, the water would not
be able to penetrate through it, but the central folds would
remain dry. Io prevent this, each piece of cloth is pulled
into a band, by drawing it between the hands so as to give
it a slight resemblance to a rope. This band is folded loosely,
and tied up by one of its ends into a kind of irregular bundle.
These bundles are thrown one after another into a large Bleaching,
square cistern or vessel, filled with cold water, and left in "s—
that situation till they are completely soaked. In many
bleaching establishments, instead of merely soaking the
goods, it is customary to steep them in water of a tempera¬
ture varying from 150° to 170° Fahr., or to boil them for a
certain time, to remove the flour or paste dressing which had
been applied by the weaver. Muslin goods, however, and in
certain bleaching establishments all calicoes, are first tho¬
roughly wetted, and then covered either with pure water, or,
better still, with a weak spent alkaline lye of a temperature
from 100° to 150°, when they are allowed to ferment for a
period of 36 hours. As the dressing consists of sour paste, it
is the acetous fermentation which occurs, but it must not be
continued longer than 36 hours, otherwise it is apt to run
into the stage of putrefaction, which injures the fabric of the
cloth. This plan cannot be followed with advantage if the
cloth contains many grease stains, or the weaver has applied
tallow or oil to his warp during its manufacture. Experience
has shown that acids render these fats or oils nearly insoluble
in alkaline lye, and should the cloth afterwards be dyed these
grease spots attract the colouring matter and cause the cloth
to assume a mottled appearance.
The cloth, when removed from the steep vat, or ferment¬
ing vat, as the case may be, is either taken to the wash-stocks
where it is well washed for half an hour, or is put into the
dash-wheel which effects the washing in from eight to ten
minutes.
The dash-wheel is a cylindrical box revolving on its axis.
It has four divi¬
sions, as shown by
the dotted lines,
and an opening
into each divi¬
sion. Two pieces
are put into each,
abundanceof wa¬
ter is admitted
behind, and the
knocking of the
pieces as they _
alternately dash ~
from one side of the division to the other during the revolu¬
tion of the wheel effects the washing. The process lasts
from four to six minutes. The object is to remove as much
of the weaver’s dressing as possible from the cloth before the
regular bleaching processes commence.
4. The next process to which the cloth is subjected is
boiling with lime. This is done in a large circular boiler,
or kier as it is termed, of which a section is given in the
margin. It has two
parts ; the pan of
wrought iron A, set in
brick-work, on which
the fire acts ; and the
upper part B, which
is of cast iron, and B
which contains the
goods to be boiled.
These parts are sepa¬
rated by a cast iron
false bottom C, per¬
forated with small
square apertures. D
is an iron pipe placed
in the centre of the
kier, and resting upon
the false bottom. The liquid in the pan A, from the pres¬
sure upon it, does not boil till it is heated considerably above
the boiling point. At last it begins to boil in a part of the
pipe D, where the pressure is less than in the pan. A mix-
n
35
BLEACHING.
765
Bleaching, ture of steam and water is formed there, producing a column
of lower specific gravity than before. This rushes up the
pipe, and is thrown back by the cap E into the boiler, over
the cloth, making room for another portion of highly heated
liquid, which rising also in the pipe, boils in its turn, making
room for a third portion, and so on till the pan is emptied of
all its liquid above the bottom of the pipe. The liquid then
filters gradually through the goods in the vessel B into the
pan, where in a few minutes it is again heated to the requisite
degree, and again rushes up the pipe as before. This pro¬
cess lasts about eight hours after boiling commences. The
pipe D is often not carried lower than the grating C, to
which it is firmly screwed. This operation is usually called
“ bucking.”
Another kind of boiler, in which the water is heated by
steam from a sepa¬
rate boiler, is now
in very general
use. It consists of
a cylindrical vessel
AA, 9 feet wide,
of wood or iron,
having a false bot¬
tom BB, on which
the goods are
placed, about six
inches from the
real one. A small
pipe E, in the centre of a wider one CC, conveys the steam
from the steam-boiler. When the liquid boils at the bottom,
where the steam issues, the steam forces its way up the
pipe CC, carrying with it a quantity of the lye, which is
thrown back by the small cover D, spreads itself over the
surface of the goods, and filters through them into the space
below the false bottom, where it is again heated by the
steam, re-ascends the pipe CC, and so on in constant suc¬
cession, till the alkali is exhausted. FF is a wooden cover
which prevents the cooling of the materials below a boiling
heat.
For some goods these vomiting boiling vats are objec¬
tionable, as it is found that exposing the goods at the bot¬
tom of the vat to the contact of steam to a certain ex¬
tent injures their fabric. To get rid of this difficulty some
bleachers employ a simple boiler, with a false perforated
bottom, set some five inches above the true bottom ; or they
use a movable rack frame, which they let down with the
cloth into the boiler. The most improved boiler, however,
consists of a modification of the above described vomiting
boilers, of which the accompanying is a sketch. A is the
wooden kier or vat, containing the cloth,
with false perforated bottom DD. B is the
cast iron boiler, with a wrater-tight top EE.
P is the pump, with a movable copper tube
N. C K is the pipe of communication be¬
tween the kier and the boiler, with a valve at
each end, that at C acted on by a handle H ;
that at K opening inwards, so as to allow free
egress to the water flowing down from the
vat, but shutting by the pressure of the steam in the boiler
B, so as to allow no steam to escape through it. The pump
is only used till the water in the boiler boils, and is kept
constantly at work till the water heats, in order to heat the
cloth slowly. As soon as the water boils, and the pressure
of the steam which collects in the upper space of the boiler
B is sufficient to force the water through the pipe PPN ;
the piston of the pump is removed, and the boiling fluid
forced up is vomited out on the broad plate M, which spreads
it equally over the cloth. The fluid as it soaks through the
cloth, finds its way into the vacant space between the top of
the iron boiler and the false bottom of the vat, and the work¬
man, acting on the handle FI, opens the valve C, and allows
the liquid to escape into the boiler, where it is heated, and Bleaching,
the same process is kept going on so long as is thought '
necessary.
The quantity of lime used in this process is 1 lb. of lime
for every 35 lb. of the cloth. This lime, previously slacked,
is mixed with water in a separate vessel, till it has acquired
the consistency of cream. A layer of pieces of cloth is de¬
posited in the boiler, and over it is spread equally a portion
of this cream of lime. Then another layer of goods is intro¬
duced over the former, which is covered with cream of lime
as before. In this way the goods and cream of lime are in¬
troduced in alternate layers, till the whole has been put into
the boiler; then the requisite quantity of water is introduced,
and the process of boiling begun.
The colouring matter of the cotton, which it is the object
of bleaching to remove, is also acted upon by the lime, but
certainly not removed ; for the colour of the cloth after it
has undergone the lime-boiling is darker than it was before
it was wetted at all. Yet it cannot be doubted that this
colouring matter has been acted on by the lime, and that it
is rendered more easily removable by the future processes
to which the goods are subjected.
Some bleachers, in order to shorten the number of pro¬
cesses, instead of boiling with lime alone, boil with lime and
soda, in the proportion of from 55 to 65 lb. of each to the
ton of cloth. This mixture has the effect of rendering the
lye a solution of caustic soda, the lime being rendered inert
by combining with the carbonic acid of the soda. This plan
is said to answer fully as well as boiling the cloth in the same
quantity of lime separately, washing it, and afterwards boil¬
ing it separately in the soda lye. In this case the vomiting
boiler is not used, but a simple boiler with a false bottom
set five inches above the bottom of the iron, and the cloth
is kept carefully covered with the lye during the whole pro¬
cess of boiling.
After the lime-boiling, the cloth is carefully washed in
the dash-wheel, in order to remove the lime, loaded as it is
with impurities, as completely as possible from the cloth.
It is then drained, or passed through the squeezers, to expel
as much of the water as possible.
5. The cloth, now thrown into loose folds, is next sub¬
jected to the action of the bleaching powder or chloride of
lime, the solution of which is usually of the strength of 1 on
the indigo test-tube, or nearly in the proportion of one pound
of chloride of lime to every six gallons of water. The cloth
is left in this cold solution about six hours.
It is then taken out and washed with water. It has now
assumed a kind of light gray colour. It is not yet white,
but much whiter than when it came into the hands of the
bleacher.
6. The next process to which it is subjected is called
sourmg. Eight gallons of the sulphuric acid of commerce
are mixed with 200 gallons of water. This constitutes a
liquid having a decidedly sour taste, but too dilute to be in
the least corrosive. Some bleachers use their “ sour” much
more dilute, viz., only 1^ gallon to 300 gallons of water.
In this liquid it remains tor about four hours. It is then
taken out and carefully washed in cold water, to remove the
acid as completely as possible. By the souring the cloth
is rendered much whiter than it was before. The sulphuric
acid dissolves and removes the oxide of iron with which the
cloth is always more or less contaminated. It removes also
the lime which the cloth had imbibed partly from the lime¬
boiling and partly from the bleaching liquor in which it was
so long immersed. The colouring matter of the cloth would
seem to combine with the sulphuric acid, and to form a
compound much whiter than the uncombined colouring
matter itself. That it is not removed is obvious from this,
that if the cloth be steeped in an alkaline solution, the dark
colour is again in some measure restored.
7. The cloth, after being well washed in cold water, is
7C6
BLEACHING.
Bleaching, immersed in an alkaline lye, in which it is boiled for eight
hours, precisely in the same way as was described when
giving an account of the lime-boiling. Sixty pounds of
soda made caustic by quicklime are used for every 2100
pounds of the unbleached cloth, or for every boiler of a ton’s
capacity. Some prefer using the soda in its carbonated
state, but continue the boiling a little longer.
After this boiling the cloth is again carefully washed in
cold water.
8. A solution of bleaching powder is now prepared, two-
thirds of the strength of the first bleaching powder liquid,
in which the cloth is immersed, and left for five or six hours;
but by this exposure the bleaching powers of the liquid are
not exhausted, so that by an additional supply of strong
liquor it may be rendered fit for another process.
If the cloth to be bleached has red ends, which is some¬
times the case, it is carefully washed after this exposure
to the action of the bleaching liquor before it is subjected
to souring; but if there be no red ends this washing is dis¬
pensed with.
9. The next process is a souring. The mixture of sul¬
phuric acid and water is nearly of the same strength as before,
and the cloth is left immersed in it about four hours, or
sometimes not so long. By this process the bleaching of
the cloth is completed, for it comes out of the acid steep
quite white.
It is a very material thing to remove all trace of the sul¬
phuric acid from the cloth as completely as possible; be¬
cause any portion of it remaining would corrode and destroy
the cloth, especially when it was exposed to the action of
heat. To accomplish this necessary result, the cloth is sub¬
jected to very careful washing; and this washing process is
repeated two several times.
10. Such are the processes of bleaching cotton cloth when
of the best quality, and carried to the greatest extent. In
many cases several of the processes are omitted; but we
have thought it right to detail them all as they are applied
to cotton shirting, and to the better cotton fabrics that are
to undergo the subsequent processes of calico-printing. But
after the bleaching is finished, the cloth is put through a
variety of subsequent processes by the bleacher, in order
that it may please the eye of the purchaser, and be in the
best possible state for commanding a ready sale. Of the
most important of these processes it will be requisite to give
a short account.
The cloth is squeezed after washing, in order to remove
a considerable portion of the water which it had imbibed in
the washing. This is done by making it pass between two
rollers, which by their pressure force out the water. There
is something ingenious in this process, simple as it is, that
deserves to be noticed. The pieces of cloth, as they come
out of the washing wheel, are crumpled together, and fre¬
quently entangled in irregular knots. If these knots were
allowed to enter between the rollers, they would, from their
too great size, be apt to derange them, and might even stop
the motion of the machinery altogether. To prevent this
from happening, a water cistern, the top of which is on a
level with the floor of the room, and which is constantly
kept full of water, is placed immediately before the rollers.
Over this water the cloth is made to pass on its way to the
rollers. By the force necessary to drag it through this water,
the piece is stretched, and any wrinkles or knots into which
it may have been cast are effectually removed. Thus the
cistern of water is made to answer the purpose of one or
rather of two workmen. For as two pieces of cloth pass
through the rollers at once, were it not for the water, two
persons would be required to unfold the cloth, one to each
piece.
Plate CV. fig. 1, exhibits a view of the machine called
squeezers, employed to press as much water as possible from
the piece after being bleached. It consists of a cast-iron
framing, with two wooden rollers, which are pressed together Bleaching,
by a double lever, and made to revolve by means of wheels
connected with a shaft from a steam-engine or water-wheel.
The wet piece is laid down at one side of the machine, and
after passing between the rollers, is folded by a workman
stationed at the opposite side.
11. The cloth after the squeezing process is still wet, and
is crumpled together like a rope. The next process is to
pull out each piece to its breadth. This is done by women,
a number of whom are constantly employed in this simple
but necessary process. But the edges of the piece still con-
tinue folded in. To make them straight, a workman knocks
them against a smooth beating stock, first one edge and then
the other. By this process the pieces are spread out to their
full breadth, and all the folds and wrinkles removed as be¬
fore the bleaching processes commenced. The pieces are
then stitched end to end by women with a sailor’s needle, to
prepare them for the mangle.
12. The next step is mangling the cloth while still wet,
by passing it successively between cylinders, forced towards
each other by levers, to which a considerable weight is at¬
tached. These cylinders require all to be turned quite true,
so as to be perfectly round. One of them is of brass, and
two are of wood. By this mangling process the water is
equalized throughout the whole piece, the threads are flat¬
tened, and the cloth stretched, smoothed, and wound upon
a roller, and thus rendered fit for receiving the starch.
13. Starching is the next process ; and though it be well
understood, yet it may not be superfluous to give a short
sketch of the processes which the bleacher follows, the great
object being to unite economy with exactness. Wheat starch
would be too expensive ; the bleacher therefore satisfies
himself with flour. But the gluten of wheat flour renders
it unfit for starching. The first step, therefore, is to get rid
of that ingredient. Flour is mixed with water in the pro¬
portion of one pound of flour to the gallon of water, and
allowed to remain for twenty-four hours. A brisk fermen¬
tation takes place, an acid, lactic, is generated, the texture
of the gluten is destroyed, and the water acquires a specific
gravity of T015. After twenty-four hours, the whole liquid
is passed through a sieve. The starch passes along with
the liquid, but the bran is retained upon the sieve. The
starch is then boiled, a little indigo being added, and water
also, so as to proportion the thickness ot the liquid to the
degree of stiffness which the goods are to acquire.
In many cases the starch is mixed with porcelain clay,
about equal bulks of flour and porcelain clay being most
commonly employed ; though the proportion varies accord¬
ing to circumstances. The starch is applied in the state ox
a pretty thick paste, while the goods are passed between a
pair of rollers. . .
In other cases equal quantities of porcelain clay and cal¬
cined sulphate of lime are mixed with the starch. These
substances are applied only on one side ; but by the rolleis
they are forced into the cloth, intermix themselves with its
internal structure, and add greatly to its apparent strengt i
and thickness. This method of thickening was undoubtedly
intended at first as a fraudulent method of making the pur¬
chaser believe that the cloth was much stouter and thicker
than it really was. But it has been so long practised, and
is now so universally known, that all purchasers must e
aware of it, and of course not in any danger of being de¬
ceived. But it certainly serves the purpose of making t e
goods appear much more beautiful, and of a stouter fabric
to the eye ; and as long as they continue unwashed, they
are really stronger than they would be without this artmcia
dressing. So far it is beneficial; and as it does not en¬
hance the price, the purchasers have no reason to complain
of imposition. .
Plate CV. fig. 2, represents the starching machine o
stiffening mangle; the middle roller being of brass and t e
BLEACHING.
767
Middle Flue.
Flue.
Bleaching, other two of wood. They are pressed together by means
‘ of levers, which are loaded less or more, so as to leave the
requisite quantity of starch in the cloth that passes through
the rollers. A is the roll of pieces as they come from the
water mangle, B a box containing the starch. It is fur¬
nished with a roller fixed near the bottom. The piece, in
passing under this roller, gets filled with starch, the super¬
fluous part of which is pressed out again by the rollers of
the mangle. The piece is then rolled up as before at the
back of the machine.
14. The next process is to dry the goods after starching.
This is done by hanging them on rails in an apartment
heated by a flue passing round the room and down the
centre, where it passes into the chimney. There are usu¬
ally two furnaces, one at each corner of one of the sides of
the apartment. The flues from these furnaces pass round
the apartment in Flue- ®
the way repre¬
sented in the
margin, and unit¬
ing in the cen¬
tre of the side of
the room far¬
thest from the
furnaces, pass
down in one _
common flue through the centre of the room to the chim¬
ney, which is situated midway between the two furnaces.
The side flues are usually covered by thin brickwork, but
the middle common flue is covered with plates of cast iron.
When the cloth is hung up in this apartment the tempera¬
ture is at first low, but it gradually rises as the goods get
dry. The workmen, while employed in hanging up the
goods on the rails, &c., which occupies a considerable time,
find themselves obliged to throw off part of their clothes,
and even sometimes to work naked, with the exception of
a pair of drawers or a cloth wrapt round their loins.
15. Nothing now remains but the process of calendering,
which gives the goods their final gloss and texture. For
this purpose they require in the first place to be damped.
This is done by passing them leisurely over a machine,
which scatters upon them, as they pass, an infinity of ex¬
ceedingly small drops. When these drops are first applied,
if we hold up the cloth between the eye and the light, we
see a great number of small round wet spots, while the
greatest part of the cloth is dry. But when the pieces are
left for some time standing together in a heap, these spots
gradually disappear, and the cloth acquires a uniform damp¬
ness, which fits it for assuming the gloss which it acquires
by the calendering.
Plate CVI. fig. 3, represents the damping machine. A is
a box containing a circular brush B, which is made to re¬
volve rapidly, its points just touching a surface of water
which is kept of a uniform height. The goods, dry from
the stove, are laid down at C ; they are pulled in single
folds over the surface of the box A, by the pair of rollers
D, which are turned round by machinery. A shower of
minute drops of water is thus thrown up upon the cloth as
it moves over the surface of the box, and the piece, folded
up by a workman, is left in a heap till the drops have all
disappeared, and the cloth acquired a uniform degree of
dampness.
Calendering is making the cloth to pass between a pair
of rollers forced against each other by the application of a
considerable pressure. During this process the texture of
the cloth is made to vary at pleasure. When the goods
pass simply between the smooth rollers, the threads are flat¬
tened, and the whole piece assumes a soft and silky lustre.
When two folds of the cloth are made to pass together
through the rollers, the threads make an impression on each
other, and assume a wiry appearance, with an intermediate
hollow between each. Various degrees of this wiry appear- Bleaching,
ance may be given at pleasure. ^
Plate CVI. fig. 4, represents the calender. It consists
essentially of a framework, arranged so as to retain a num¬
ber of rollers parallel, one above another, with levers and
pulleys to press them together, and wheels and shafts to
make them revolve. Two of these rollers are of cast iron,
nicely turned and polished, and three (the largest) of wood
with iron centres. The piece of cloth, after being damped,
is laid down in front of the calender, and made to pass in
various ways between these rollers, after which it is rolled
round a cylinder behind, and taken away to be folded.
The goods, after being thus calendered, are folded, and
various devices are stamped in red or in blue upon the end
of the piece, according to the different markets in which
they are to be exposed; for different stamps are requisite
for different markets, South America, the West Indies, In¬
dia, North America, the Mediterranean, &c., requiring each
its own device ; and, what is very curious, the sale of the
goods in a great measure depends upon these stamps; so
that if they were absent, the goods, however well prepared,
and however excellent in every other respect, would not
meet with a ready sale. Everywhere appearances are more
attended to than realities. Man is essentially a gullible
animal, and quackery is a most important principle in hu¬
man affairs in general. After the goods have been regu¬
larly folded, they are placed piece by piece into a Bramah’s
press, with a sheet of pasteboard between each ; and after a
certain interval an iron plate is substituted for the paste¬
board, to prevent any inequality in the pile. After sufficient
pressure in this machine, they are packed up between boards,
to prevent any injury during the carriage, and sent to the
merchant or manufacturer to whom they belong.
Such is a sketch of the processes at present followed in
the most extensive bleaching establishments in Great Bri¬
tain for bleaching cotton. The processes altogether amount
to about twenty-five, and the whole expense of bleaching
and finishing a piece of twenty-four yards in length is ten-
pence, which is somewhat less than one halfpenny per yard.
When the goods are bleached previous to being printed
or dyed, no starching or calendering processes are gone
through ; but the cloth after receiving its last washing is
passed through the squeezers to remove its surplus water.
Each piece is then folded separately into a flat square mass,
which is knocked by men against the edge of the smooth
beating stone, for the purpose of removing all creases from
the cloth. It is then hung up on wooden bars in the dry¬
ing room, and when dry is folded and tied up in parcels of
ten pieces each, preparatory to being handed over to the
dyers or printers.
The finer muslin goods are not now boiled in lime, as
it is proved to injure their fabric, and it is found that the
purest whites may be obtained without its aid. A caustic soda
lye is used instead, made by boiling for one hour soda with
an equal weight of caustic lime. In finishing muslin goods,
they are run through water containing some fine starch, and
a little fine smalts, which give them a clear shade. They are
then pressed nearly dry, and are thorough-dried on a tin cy¬
linder heated by steam.
Book muslins again, after being dried, are passed through
starch coloured with smalts ; after being wrung out of which
they are dried in a heated room, three or four persons
stretching each piece from its selvages to keep the piece to
its breadth. Sewed dresses, trimmings, &c., are starched in
the same way, and kept stretched till they are dry.
The loss of weight sustained during the bleaching of fine
cotton cloth in the bleaching houses round Glasgow amounts
very nearly to ten per cent. Of this one-half may be con¬
sidered as weaver’s dressing ; so that the real loss sustained
during the bleaching is not more than five per cent. But
when some coarse cotton goods are bleached, we are in-
#
768
BLEACHING.
Bleaching, formed, by a gentleman who tried the experiment, that the
^' loss of weight, independently of the weaver’s dressing,
amounts to ten per cent.
2. Bleaching of Linen.
From the experiments of Mr Lee, who took out a patent
about the year 1810, it appears that the colouring matter
of flax is not chemically combined with the fibrous threads
constituting the bulk of the stalk ; but that a chemical com¬
bination takes place while the plant is steeped in water.
The object of this steeping is to rot the plant, and enable
the fibres to separate readily from the stalk. The putre¬
faction goes on to a considerable extent, and generates so
much noxious matter as to destroy any fish which may
be in the water where the flax is steeped. I his fermen¬
tation weakens very considerably the strength of the flax
fibres, and even destroys many of them. Mr Lee s process,
therefore, if it be practicable on a large scale, wxmld be a
prodigious improvement. It would render the flax fibres
much stronger, it would increase their quantity, and it would
save the expense of the materials employed in bleaching the
linen. The late Dr Thomas Thomson was informed that
Mr Lee’s process had uniformly failed of success when ti ied
in Ireland. If this account were true, it is extremely difficult
to explain it. Dr Thomson saw it performed by woikmen
under his own direction at Old Bow, near London, with the
most complete success; not merely upon handfuls of flax, but
upon whole fields of it. Indeed the whole is so extremely
simple, that we cannot well see how it should fail, if properly
conducted. We cannot, therefore, help suspecting that the
prejudices of the Irish, with which it would have to contend,
have been too powerful for it; but that, as soon as it shall
meet with fair play, it will be found just as piacticable, and
certainly much cheaper and better than the methods at pie-
sent in use.
That Mr Lee’s process has hitherto failed, and that it has
been abandoned by the patentee himself, is an undoubted
fact; but we cannot avoid suspecting that this was in some
measure the fault of the patentee himself. If, instead of at¬
tempting the process at Old Bow, at a distance from the linen
manufactory, and where no person qualified to appreciate its
importance was likely to be near, he had tried it in a place
where the linen manufactory existed,—Dundee, for example,
or Belfast,—and had he associated with himself some person
who was conversant with machinery, and who could have ap¬
plied a mechanical process more convenient and expeditious^
than the method of Mr Lee, which was simply beating off
the woody fibre by means of wooden mallets,—we cannot
but think that the process would have been attended with
success. The object of Mr Lee was to save the expense of
bleaching linen. For when the flax is separated from the
plant without the putrefactive process induced by steeping
it in water, nothing more is necessary in order to make it
white than simply to wash it in water.
A few years ago Mr Claussen renewed the attempt to
prepare flax without steeping, by breaking it by ^ means of
machinery, separating the refuse part of the stalk from it,
and then by a chemical process splitting the hollow fibres,
so as to reduce them to a soft cottony state fit for spinning
by means of the cotton-spinning machinery. The fibre was
proposed to be split by steeping the prepared flax in a solu¬
tion of carbonate of soda, and then plunging it into dilute
sulphuric acid. The sudden evolution of carbonic acid gas
within the hollow tube of the flax was said to have the
effect of splitting up the fibre and reducing it to fine flat
threads possessing the felting properties of cotton. Sir Ro¬
bert Kane was commissioned to report on these processes, and
his report was printed by the House of Commons, May 20.
1852. It reports that the whole process failed. The ma¬
chinery for the beating and cleansing of the flax failed to
separate it sufficiently from the refuse part of the stalk ; and
the chemical process for the splitting of the hollow tube only Bleaching,
broke up small portions of the exposed ends, leaving the v-- Jl
greater portion untouched.
As steeping is uniformly practised, the colouring matter
becomes chemically combined with the fibres of the flax, and
the process of bleaching must be had recourse to in order
to render it white.
Formerly it was the custom to boil linen in lyes of pearl
ashes or of soda, wash it, and expose it for several days on the
grass, and repeat these several processes five or six times
before it was steeped in the “sour’ (acid solution), oi was ex¬
posed to the action of the chloride of lime. Mr Grimshaw,
calico-printer, near Belfast, however, recommended an early
souring in dilute sulphuric acid, and the process of bleaching
has been thereby greatly hastened. Still the bleachingof linen
as commonly followed is a very tedious process, accoiding
to the plan adopted, requiring from eight to eighteen separate
steepings, boilings, and sourings, with as many separate
washings, besides exposure to the sun’s light on the grass
from thirty to sixty days. If the linen is not exposed on the
grass to the sun it requires more frequent and longer immer¬
sion in the chloride of lime solution to bleach it propci 1 \ • It
cannot be doubted that many of the processes at present fol¬
lowed even in large bleachfields are very faulty, and might
be greatly shortened. This will be apparent from casting
a glance over the three following plans, each of which pro¬
duces linen of a pure white. In the first the bleaching is left
entirely to the action of the chloride of lime, and is the most
scientific. The last is evidently a very faulty plan, and in
it, as well as the second, the bleaching is trusted a good deal
to the action of the sun’s rays. As the processes followed are
the same as for the bleaching of cotton, we shall merely give
the different plans in the form of a list of the succession of
the different operations. The goods bleached are 360 pieces
of linen, each 35 yards long.
1st PLAN.—No Exposure on the Grass.
Steeped in weak alkaline lye and fermented 36 hours; washed.
Boiled in lye of 60 lb. caustic soda 6 hours ; washed.
Steeped in solution of chloride of lime 15 hours ; washed.
Soured in sulphuric acid solution 6 hours; washed.
Boiled in lye of 60 lb. caustic soda 4 hours; washed.
Steeped in solution of chloride of lime 14 hours; washed.
Soured in sulphuric acid solution 10 hours ; washed.
Washed with brown soap on rubbing board; washed.
2d PLAN.—Exposed on Grass.
Steeped in w'eak alkaline lye and fermented 36 hours , washed.
Boiled with 60 lb. pearl ashes; washed. Exposed on grass 3 or 4
days.
Do. 80 do. do.
Do. 90 potashes do. do.
Do. 80 do. do.
Do. 60 pearl ashes do. do.
Soured in dilute sulphuric acid ; washed.
Boiled with 60 lb. pearl ashes ; washed. Exposed on grass.
Steeped in chloride of lime solution ; washed.
Soured in dilute sulphuric acid ; washed. Exposed on grass.
Boiled with 30 lb. pearl ashes; do. do.
Do. 20 do. do.
Soured in dilute sulphuric acid; washed.
Washed with brown soap on rubbing board; washed.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
3d PLAN.—Exposed on Grass.
Steeped in weak alkaline lye and fermented 36 hours; washed.
Boiled with 60 lb. lime ; washed.
Do. 50 do.
Soured in sulphuric acid, If gallon to 300 gallons.
Boiled with 60 lb. soda ; washed. Exposed on grass 3 or 4 clays.
7. 8. 9. 10. Do. do. do.
Soured in sulphuric acid 1 gallon to 300 gallons ; washed.
12. Boiled with 50 1b. soda; washed. . ..
13. Steeped in chloride of lime solution, of strength If by indigo
test-tube ; washed.
14. Boiled with 50 lb. soda; washed. Exposed on grass.
15 Do. do. do.
16. Steeped in chloride of lime solution, 2 degrees strength by
indigo test-tube; washed.
3.
4.
5.
6.
11
■6
BLEACHING.
Bleaching. 17. Boiled with 50 lb. of soda; washed.
18- Steeped in chloride of lime solution, 6 degrees by indigo test-
tube ; washed.
19. Soured in sulphuric acid, 1 gallon to 300 gallons; washed.
20. Scoured with brown soap ; washed in pure water.
The loss of weight which linen sustains during bleaching amounts
to about one-third of the whole weight of the goods. By the first of
the above plans the loss was about 31 per cent., by the second 33
per cent.; but we have not learned the loss by the third plan.
Charles Tennant, Esq.of StRollox, made some experiments inl831to
determine by which parts of the process the chief loss was sustained
during bleaching. The result was that in 1000 parts by weight,
linen yarn lost in the fermenting alkaline steep 57 parts
In 4 boils with caustic soda, 70
In 4 steeps with chloride of lime, 170
In 4 steeps in the sour, 18
Total, 315 parts in 1000.
3. Bleaching of Wool.
Wool consists of fine filaments or tubes, the external sur¬
face of which, instead of being smooth like the tubes of hair,
is thrown into transverse corrugations or wrinkles, very simi¬
lar in appearance to those of the ram’s horn. These trans¬
verse wrinkles, under a powerful microscope, are seen to be
covered with a line of circular apertures or pores, which com¬
municate with the internal part of the filament. Wool is
covered with a peculiar varnish or greasy matter which im¬
pairs its qualities, and which it is the object of the bleacher
to remove. To this varnish the name of “ yolk” is given.
It is a fatty unctuous matter, chiefly derived from the cuta¬
neous perspiration, but no doubt also secreted by the pores
of the wool itself; and it imparts that peculiar heavy odour
to sheep with which all must be familiar. From the re¬
searches of Vauquelin it would appear that this unctuous
varnish consists chiefly of a kind of soap, together with a
small quantity of waxy matter, a peculiar odorous animal
substance, acetate, carbonate, and muriate of potash, and a
little lime. This varnish, in consequence of its soapy nature,
is soluble in water, so that washing in pure water would
remove the greater portion of it; but it is found more ad¬
vantageous to remove it by the process termed “ scouring.”
Scouring is performed by means of an ammoniacal lye,
which is thus prepared. Five parts of river or other soft
water are to be mixed with one part of stale purified urine,
which is found to contain a large quantity of ammonia.1 This
mixture is to be boiled for a short time; and into this, at
about the heat of fifty-six degrees, or so that the hand of
the workman can be easily held in it for a considerable time,
the wool is to be thrown. Four or five pailfuls will gene¬
rally be sufficient for twenty pounds of wool. After steep¬
ing for a short time, the wool is to be stirred about in the
mixture continually for about a quarter of an hour or twenty
minutes, according to the quantity of greasy matter. It is
then to be taken out and drained into a basket, so that the
drainings may drop into the vessel in which it was steeped,
that nothing may be lost. It must now be completely rinsed
by exposing it in baskets to a continued stream of clear
water, while a workman is perpetually employed in stirring
it with a pole, till the water passes off perfectly clear. The
wool is then removed, aud a fresh quantity put into the
basket, which is to be treated in the same manner. The
steeping and rinsing are to be repeated till the wool has at¬
tained as great a degree of whiteness as it is capable of re¬
ceiving from this operation.
In order to conduct this process to the greatest advantage,
it is necessary that the workman should attend to the follow¬
ing circumstances:—\st, A quantity of fresh lye must be
om time to time added to the bath, as the immersion of
the wool is found to weaken its power; but it is better not
entirely to renew the bath, as the grease abstracted from the
wool during its immersion forms with the ammonia of the
urine a kind of soap, which much increases the cleansino-
quality of the bath. 2d, Increasing the temperature of the
bath will augment its detergent powers, and may sometimes
supply the want of an addition of stale urine ; but both these
circumstances require caution, as too great a degree of heat
hardens the greasy matter, and renders it more difficult of
solution; and again, too much urine makes the wool harsh.
2>d, After being much used the bath becomes too foul, and
must be entirely renewed.
It is known that the wool is properly scoured by its fila¬
ments being smooth, long, slender, white, and perfectly free
from foreign substances, and not having lost their natural
tenacity.
If this scouring be properly done there is no need of fur¬
ther washings in soaps, or otherwise, till it is subjected to
the process called “sulphuring;” and in point of fact it is
very rarely passed through any other process. Some, how¬
ever, recommend that for the finer wools, where a very de¬
licate white is wished, it should be passed through one, two,
or more baths of soft soap. No caustic alkaline lyes can be
employed, as they destroy the wool altogether, dissolvino- it,
and forming with it a kind of soap.
Scouring, however, is seldom sufficient to bring the wool
to that brilliant whiteness which is desirable for some manu¬
factures. This is imparted by means of the vapour of sulphur,
or by steeping it in water impregnated with sulphurous acid
gas, which is called by the manufacturers sulphuring.
The usual method of sulphuring woollen goods is to expose
them in a close apartment to the vapour of burning sulphur.
The goods are hung on poles so disposed that the vapour can
readily pass between the pieces, and when the chamber is
filled, a quantity of sulphur placed in very flat and broad
dishes is set fire to, and allowed to burn away gradually in
the chamber, while every aperture by which the vapour could
escape is carefully closed. The acid vapour generated by the
combination of the sulphur with the oxygen of the air of the
chamber penetrates to every part of the cloth to which it can
get access, destroys the colouring matter, and thus completes
the bleaching. Everything is allowed to remain quiet till it
is supposed that the effect of the sulphurous vapour has fully
taken place, which requires from 6 to 24 hours.
After sulphuring the wool has a harsh crispy feel, which is
removed by passing it through a weak soap bath. Soft (pot¬
ash) soap is preferred for this purpose, after being washed
with which it is wrung out by the aid of hooks, fixed at each
end of the wash-tub, on which the wool is fastened, and
twisted round by means of a handle fixed to one of the
hooks. It is then hung up and dried.
4. Bleaching of Silk.
Silk is the fine glossy filament or thread which the cater¬
pillar of the silk-moth (Phalaena bombyx) spins around it
m the form of a cocoon or hollow ball before it assumes the
form of a chrysalis. These cocoons are thrown into hot
water, and being agitated there the ends of the threads are
caught hold of, and several being wound off together into
one thread, thus form what is termed “ raw silk.”
Silk is covered with a kind of varnish, the nature of which was
only recently examined by M. Hoard. He showed that this
varnish, instead of being a gum, as was usually believed, re¬
sembled a mixture of bee s wax and oil, with a resinous
colouring matter, and in raw silk constituted 23 or 24 per
cent, of the weight. The varnish is soluble in water, and
affords a solution which forms a lather like soap. The yel-
769
Bleaching
water pr0p,e^ty °I urine has be®n long known, and it is frequently employed in washing to save soap. At sea, where fresh
cleanses1 of . i:,are^ fo1, the PUIT0S<; of washing, the sailors are accustomed to scour their foul linens in stale urine, which so far
hem that a subsequent rinsing in salt water renders them tolerably pure and sweet.
VOL. IV.
0 E
770
BLEACHING.
Bleaching, low varnish is of a resinous nature, is insoluble in water, but
is soluble in alcohol. The colour is easily discharged either
by the sun or by chlorine. Bees’ wax also exists in all silks,
but the whiter the silk the less wax does it contain.
This varnish, or “ gum” as it is technically called, gives
the silk a stiffness and elasticity which, for many of the pur¬
poses to which silk is applied, it is desirable to remove. I us
is called “ ungumming ” by the bleachers of silk. I nougn
many different processes have been suggested for this pur¬
pose, none seems to answer so well as the old process of
scouring in a weak solution of soap. Mr Hoard, however,
has shown that if the silk be kept in the soap too long after
the varnish is removed, it begins to lose body, and has its
qualities impaired, becoming dull, stiff, and discoloured, in
consequence of being partly dissolved. He states that white
or yellow silks may be completely scoured in one hour in
the soap bath, using about 15 lb. of water for eachpoun o
silk, and a suitable quantity of the finest soap. The soap
and silk should be put into the water half an hour before it
is brought to the boiling point, and then be boiled one hour.
They are then removed, wrung out, washed in pure water,
and either exposed to the vapour of sulphur or passed through
a solution of sulphurous acid gas in watei.
The following, however, is the process usually followed by
the scourers of silks. „ ,
A quantity of water is put into a boiler over a fire, and
for every hundred pounds of silk to be scoured, thirty pounds
of very fine soap are dissolved. The solution is generally
boiled; but before the silk is put into it, the heat must be
lowered to about 90 degrees of Fahrenheit, and at this tem¬
perature it must be kept during the process. I he silks are
to be hung in the liquor on rods or frames, and left till the
gum is sufficiently destroyed; care being taken to alter their
position now and then, so that every part may be exposed to
the action of the bath. When perfectly ungummed, they
are flexible and of a dull whiteness ; in this state they are to
be wrung with the pin to clear them of the soapy water,
then well shaken, and put into coarse linen bags, in parcels
of from twenty to thirty pounds each.
These bags are now to be steeped in a fresh bath, oi, as
the workmen say, are to be baked. The bath is prepared m
a manner and proportion much as before, except that t ie
quantity of soap may be somewhat diminished as the heat is
to be increased ; for the silk is now to be boiled for an hour
and a half, taking care to keep the bags from sticking to t e
bottom of the boiler, by frequently stirring them with a stick.
For silk that is intended to be dyed, the former steeping
in the lukewarm soap bath is unnecessary, and the boiling
only is employed, using a greater quantity of soap in propor¬
tion to the fineness of the colour. Thus for the ordinary
colours, the proportion above laid down, or even less, will
suffice; but for the saffron and the poppy and cherry red
colours, even 50 pounds are sometimes employed to the 100
pounds of silk. ,
After boiling, the silk is wrung as before, and then washecl
thoroughly in a stream of water ; they are then examine ,
and if it appears they are not sufficiently or not uniformly
scoured, they must be submitted to a fresh bath.
The white silk usually sold has a bluish shade., fhis is
given it by a bath impregnated with litmus or indigo. This
is prepared by dissolving a pound and a half of fine soap in
about ninety gallons of water, in which a small .quantity of
litmus or indigo has been diffused. The bath is heated to
about 90 degrees, and the silk is passed through it over rods
or reels till it has acquired the requisite shade. Being taken
out, it is wrung and dried.
This process gives to the silk the tints known by the names
of “ silver white,” “ azure white,” and “ thread white,” ac¬
cording to the depth of shade which has been imparted.
The “ China white ” tint is given by adding annotto to the
bath instead of indigo.
From these processes the silk acquires a tolerably clear Bleach^,
white, but the highest degree is given to it by the action of v-—v~''
the sulphurous acid, either in the state of vapour, as is
usually practised, or by immersing it in the liquid acid, ac¬
cording to the method of Mr O’Reilly.
At Lyons no soap is used in the tinting process; but,
after being boiled, the silk is washed, wrung dry, sulphured,
and then passed through water properly blued.
Silk intended for blonds and laces is not deprived of its
natural varnish, as it is essential that such silk should pre¬
serve its natural stiffness. The whitest raw silks are there¬
fore selected for this purpose ; they are steeped, then rinsed
in water containing a very little soap, wrung dry, exposed
to the vapours of sulphur, and then tinted by being passed
through water properly blued.
Dr Ure mentions that the Abbe Collomb in 1785 scoured
silks by boiling them for eight hours in pure water. The silks
were stronger than after the usual process, but were not so
white. It may be mentioned that a patent has lately been
taken out in England for bleaching silks by means of steam.
o. Bleaching of Rags for the Papermaker.
The rags to be whitened should be well washed in the
engine, and when reduced to what is called half-stuff, the
water should be run off, leaving just enough to allow them
to be easily turned. While the rags are thus preparing, a
solution of the bleaching powder is to be got ready, by
putting the powder into a pitcher or other convenient vessel,
and pouring upon it two or three gallons of watei, stirring
and bruising it well, till everything soluble is taken up.
After it lias°stood some time to allow the insoluble sedi¬
ment to fall down, it is fit for use, and the pure solution
should be poured into the engine, ffhe sediment may be
repeatedly washed with fresh portions of water to exhaust
any remains of soluble matter, which alone, is useful in the
whitening process. After the bleaching liquor is put in,
the stuff is allowed to turn in the engine for ten or fifteen
minutes. It is then emptied into a chest or puncheon where
it should lie from six to twelve hours, by which time the
required degree of whiteness is attained. It is then
thoroughly washed to free it from all remains of the chloride.
The quantity of powder usually allowed is from two pounds
to four pounds for every hundredweight of rags, in propor¬
tion to the whiteness required and the difficulty of whiten-
1 "frags containing dyed colours to be discharged, should
be well washed, and reduced to half-stuff. They are then
removed from the engine and put into a puncheon made
water-tight, but having a sufficient opening in the side to
admit with ease the putting in and taking out of the stuff,
and capable of being shut up so as to retain the water.
Having put the stuff into this puncheon, take for every
hundredweight of the rags a solution containing from five
to eight pounds of bleaching powder, according to the
strength and fixedness of the colours to be discharged.
Pour the solution into the puncheon among the stuff, al¬
lowing liquid enough to let the stuff float easily, and for
each pound of powder used add half a pound of sulphuric
acid. Then shut up and secure the opening so as to make
the puncheon air-tight; then turn the puncheon round
upon its axis, by means of a crank fixed at one end o i .
Moving it in this manner gives facility and uniformity to
the discharging process.
6. Bleaching of Straw.
The fine wheat-straw used in Tuscany, and elsewhere, for
straw-plaiting, after being cut, dried, and tied up in bundles,
is stacked for a month, "it is then spread out m a meadow,
and exposed to the action of the sun and air, being fre
quently turned during that period. The lower joint of t e
straw is then pulled off, leaving only the upper joint with
B L E
Bleaching the ear attached; this being the only part of the straw
II used. It is then steamed, and after that exposed to the
Bled-el- vapours of sulphur, which complete the bleaching. It is then
Jereede. tje(] Up jn hun(]ieS) ;n which state it is ready for the market.
v,—In this country straw is usually bleached by the vapours of
sulphur alone ; but Dr Ure mentions that a solution of the
chloride of lime may be advantageously substituted.
7. Bleaching of Yelloio Wax.
Before the discovery of chlorine and its application to
bleaching, this was effected by exposing the yellow wax,
formed into thin cakes, to the free action of the air, sun,
and dew. The chlorine, however, as being far more expe¬
ditious, is to be preferred.
In the bleaching of wax it is proper to employ the simple
gas, and its action would be the most effectual if used in the
gaseous form. For this purpose a pneumatic tub, with a
cover secured in the manner recommended by Rupp, is the
most proper. This should be filled with water, and the wax,
shred very fine, must be introduced, and the gas made to
pass through the water, while the agitator is kept in constant
motion. In the course of an hour or two the wax will be
bleached, may be separated from the water, melted, and
formed into cakes.
8. Of Whitening and Cleaning Prints, Maps, Books, and
other Articles of Paper.
The chlorine was first applied to this purpose by Chaptal,
and the method has been employed with the greatest suc¬
cess by Vialard and Heudier.
Gas might be used for this purpose, but it is safer and
equally efficacious to employ it in the liquid form.
Simple immersion in chlorine, letting the article remain
in it a longer or shorter space of time, according to the
strength of the liquid, will be sufficient to whiten an engrav¬
ing. If it be required to whiten the paper of a bound book,
as it is necessary that all the leaves should be moistened by
the liquid, care must be taken to open the book well, and
to make the boards rest on the edge of the vessel, in such
a manner that the paper alone be dipped in the liquid; the
leaves must be separated from each other, in order that they
be equally moistened on both sides.
The liquor assumes a yellow tint, and the paper becomes
white in the same proportion. At the end of two or three
hours the book may be taken from the acid liquor and
plunged into pure water, with the same care and precaution
as recommended in regard to the acid liquor, that the water
may exactly touch the two surfaces of each leaf. The water
must be renewed every hour, to extract the acid remaining
in the paper, and to dissipate the disagreeable smell.
By following this process there is some danger that the
pages will not be all eqtially whitened, either because the
leaves have not been sufficiently separated, or because the
B L E 771
liquid has had more action on the front margins than on Bleaching
those near the binding. On this account the practice fol- II
lowed by book-binders, when they wish to whiten printed Bled'e1’
paper, is to be preferred. They destroy the binding entirely, vJereede‘ y
that they may give to each leaf an equal and perfect immer-
sion; and this is the second process recommended by M.
Chaptal.
“ They begin,” says he, “ by unsewing the book and se¬
parating it into leaves, which they place in cases formed in
a leaden tub, with very thin slips of wood or glass, so that
the leaves, when laid flat are separated from each other by
intervals scarcely sensible. The acid is then poured in,
making it fall on the sides of the tub, in order that the leaves
may not be deranged by its motion. When the workman
judges, by the whiteness of the paper, that it has been suf¬
ficiently acted upon by the acid, it is drawn off' by a cock at
the bottom of the tub, and its place is supplied by clear fresh
water, which weakens and carries off' the remains of the
acid, as well as its strong smell. The leaves are then to be
dried, and, after being pressed, may be again bound up.
“ The leaves may be placed also vertically in the tub; and
this position seems to possess some advantage, as they will
then be less liable to be torn. With this view I constructed
a wooden frame, which I adjusted to the proper height, ac¬
cording to the size of the leaves which I wished to whiten.
This frame supported very thin slips of wood, leaving only
the space of half a line between them. I placed two leaves
in each of these intervals, and kept them fixed in their place
by two small wooden wedges, which I pushed in between
the slips. When the paper was whitened, I lifted up the
frame with the leaves, and plunged them into cold water, to
remove the remains of the acid, as well as the smell. This
process I prefer to the other.
“ By this operation books are not only cleaned, but the
paper acquires a degree of whiteness superior to what it
possessed when first made. The use of this acid is attended
also with the valuable advantage of destroying ink spots.
This liquor has no action upon spots of oil, or animal grease;
but it has been long known, that a weak solution of potash
will effectually remove stains of that kind.
“ When I had to repair prints so torn that they exhibited
only scraps pasted upon other paper, I was afraid of losing
these fragments in the liquid, because the paste became dis¬
solved. In such cases I inclosed the prints in a cylindrical
glass vessel, which I inverted on the water in which I had
put the mixture proper for extricating the oxygenated muri¬
atic acid gas. This vapour, by filling the whole inside of
the jar, acted upon the print, extracted the grease as well as
ink spots, and the fragments remained pasted to the paper.”
Vialard and Heudier by this process restored several of
the most valuable books of the French national library, and
we believe they were the first who carried Chaptal’s process
into actual execution. (t.t.) (j. s—k.)
BLED (or BELED) EL-JEREEDE, an extensive ter¬
ritory in Africa, immediately to the south of the kingdoms of
Algiers and Tunis, from which it is separated by the range
of the Atlas. On the southern side it passes gradually into
the great desert of the Sahara, the character of which it in
some degree partakes. The northern districts indeed are to¬
lerably watered by streams descending from the Atlas, some
of which spread even into considerable rivers, that never
reach any receptacle, but are either absorbed by the sands
or diffused into shallow and extensive lakes. Some of the
districts thus irrigated possess a considerable share of fer¬
tility ; but the greater number labour under severe drought,
which always increases till the country assumes the arid
character of the desert. It is only in a few spots that the
grains and fruits which are carried to such perfection in Bar¬
bary can be raised with advantage. The date, peculiarly
adapted to dry soil, is almost the exclusive product, and
forests of the tree producing it cover a great extent of the
territory. It forms the food of the people, and their chief
article of export, by which they obtain the few foreign
luxuries in which they indulge. They likewise rear sheep
and goats, and employ themselves in the chace of the os¬
trich for the sake of its valuable feathers, which form another
article of trade. The name of the country is commonly
supposed to be derived from jcrid, a date ; but Dr Shaw
conceives jeridde, dry, is the true etymology.
The people of this district, exposed to the direct rays of
a burning sun, are lean and swarthy, with a shrivelled ap-
w
772 ELI
Bleeding pearance, and their eyes are frequently subject to inflamma-
I! tion, in consequence of the reflection of the rays from a
Blind, naked arid soil; yet the plague, which commits such havoc
in the cities of Barbary, never attacks the Bled-el-Jereede,
notwithstanding the constant intercourse between the two
places. The inhabitants in general reach a good old age,
of which they often exhibit the appearance without any de¬
cay in the faculties of body or mind. They are composed
of a mixture of Arabs and native Africans, partly living in
rude villages, partly wandering in tents. In some places,
where rain scarcely ever falls, the people construct then
dwellings of the salt with which the territory abounds ; but
a casual shower often melts these frail habitations. Another
characteristic feature is the occurrence of water, which is al¬
most uniformly found on digging to a certain depth beneath
the arid surface, and to which the natives give the appella¬
tion of the sea under ground. When the soil is dug into, it
rushes forth, sometimes in such quantities as to drown the
workmen employed. By bringing up this subterranean store,
fertility is communicated to the most barren soils ; but the
labour of the operation is such that it can be practised only
to a limited extent.
Bleeding of cl Corpse, a pretended phenomenon once
superstitiously believed to be exhibited by the bodies of per¬
sons murdered, which, on the touch or even the approach
of the murderer, appeared to bleed. This circumstance was
formerly admitted in England and elsewhere as a detection
of the criminal, and proof of the fact.
BLEIBERG, a town in the circle of Villach in Illyria,
remarkable for the lead mines whence it derives its name.
The produce of the lead mines is about 2000 tons annually
besides which there are valuable copper mines in the adja¬
cent mountains. The town contains 3/00 inhabitants.
BLEMYES, or Blemmyes, a nomad tribe of Ethiopia,
fabled to have had no heads, their eyes and mouths being
placed in their breasts. (See Augustin, De Civ. Dei, xvi. 8.)
BLENDE, in Mineralogy, a sulphuret of zinc, and by
much the most common ore of that metal. In its crystalline
form, its colour, and appearance, this mineral varies extremely.
The most common varieties, certainly, are brown or black,
but a fine oil-green transparent species occurs at Schemnitz
in Hungary ; another of a rich hyacinth-red colour is met
with at Klapruck in Transylvania ; and a third in botroidal
concretions, having a white fibrous structure, is found near
Fowey in Cornwall. The fibrous blende of Prziham in
Bohemia possesses, after a fresh fracture, a lustre almost
metallic, and is peculiar, from the portion of cadmium with
which it is associated. The crystalline form of blende is
tessullar, and often presents the faces of the dodecahedron,
to which figure the larger cleavable varieties are easily re¬
ducible by mechanical division. The surfaces of the crystals
are extremely resplendent, and have at times a strong ada¬
mantine lustre. They yield to the knife, are rather brittle,
and possess a specific gravity equal to 4-07. Blende, accor¬
ding to Thomson and Berthier, is composed of
Zinc 59-09 70-4
Iron 12*05  4*0
Sulphur 28*86 35*6
When strongly heated in the oxidating flame of the blow¬
pipe, it gives off' vapours of zinc, which form a coating on
B L I
the charcoal ; but it does not melt. It is soluble in nitric Blenheim
acid, during which process sulphuretted hydrogen is disen- II
gaged. Some varieties are phosphorescent in the dark when ^ mind- y
rubbed, and present that phenomenon even although the ex-
periment be repeated under water. The sulphuret of zinc
occurs both in primitive and secondary rocks, and is an al¬
most constant accompaniment in the veins of lead, iron, and
copper, associated with quartz, calcareous spar, or barytes.
Great quantities of blende are found in Derbyshire and Corn¬
wall, at Alston Moor and Lead Hills, at Klapruck in Tran¬
sylvania, and Freyberg in Saxony; m Hungary, Bohemia,
Silesia, and the Hartz. It is used in some places for obtain¬
ing the zinc in combination with it, but is otherwise an un¬
important ore.
BLENHEIM (German Blindheim), a village of Ger¬
many, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and circle of Suabia, re¬
markable as the scene of the defeat of the French and Ba¬
varians on the 13th of August 1704, by the English and
their confederates under the Duke of Marlborough and
Prince Eugene. See Britain.
Blenheim House, a princely mansion erected for the Duke
of Marlborough at Woodstock, near Oxford, as a testimony
of national gratitude, and, with the manor of Woodstock,
settled on the duke and his heirs, in consideration of the
eminent services performed by him, and more especially of
his decisive victory at Blenheim over the French forces un¬
der Marshal Tallard. The sum of L.500,000 was voted by
parliament for the purchase of the manor of Woodstock, and
the erection of this edifice. Blenheim, notwithstanding the
malicious strictures of Swift, and the unjust criticisms of
Evans and Walpole, is a magnificent pile, built by Sir John
Vanbrugh, in a massive Italo-Corinthian style. Walpole’s
taste in architecture may well be distrusted, when it pro¬
duced the crudities of Strawberry-hill. The front of Blen¬
heim from wing to wing extends to 348 feet; and the great
hall is a lofty noble apartment, in good propprtions. In the
house are a considerable number of fine pictures,—the most
noted of which are, “The Young St Augustine and Pope
Gregory,” by Titian; “ Europa,” “ Esther,” and “ The Massacre
of the Innocents,”by P. Veronese; “ St Jerome,” by Tintor¬
etto ; “ Magdalen,” by C. Dolce; many historical subjects, by
Rubens; portraits by him and Vandyk; “ The W oman taken
in Adultery,” “ Isaac blessing Jacob,” by Rembrandt,” &c.
BLENNORRHCEA (fikiwa and pew), an inordinate se¬
cretion or discharge of mucus ; more particularly applied to
that of the urethra and vaginq.
BLENNY. See Ichthyology, Index.
BLEPHARIS, a genus of acanthopterygious fishes, of
the family of Scomberoides. See Ichthyology. The
same name has been applied to a genus of orthopterous in¬
sects. See Entomology.
BLETONISM, a supposed faculty of perceiving and in¬
dicating subterraneous springs and currents by sensation ;
so called from one Bleton, a Frenchman, who was reputed
to possess such power.
BLIGHT, a disease incident to plants, and affecting them
variously, the whole plant sometimes perishing by it, and
sometimes only the leaves and blossoms, which are scorched
and shrivelled up, whilst the rqst remains green and flou¬
rishing,
General ob¬
servations.
BLIND,
An epithet applied to a person deprived of the use of sight;
or to one from whom light, colours, and all the variety of
the visible creation, are intercepted by some natural depriva¬
tion or accidental disease.
There is no external sense or faculty which affords such
an endless variety of perceptions as that of vision ; nor of
all losses that can be sustained is there one productive of so
many disadvantages and evils as the want of that faculty.
By no avenue of perception is knowledge so accessible, by
none, in fact, does it flow so abundantly, as through t e
channel of this sense, which not only reveals external things
in all their beauty, in all their changes, and in all their varie-
\
BLIND.
773
Blind, ties, but supplies those materials out of which the ima-
gination creates new forms still more glorious; whilst the
understanding traces the varied relations existing among
the ideas thus received, and gives birth to a secondary and
reflex class still more subtile and refined. To the blind
man, however, the visible universe is totally annihilated;
he is perfectly conscious of no space excepting that in
which he stands, or to which his extremities can reach.
Sound, indeed, gives him some ideas of distant objects;
but these ideas are often obscure and indistinct; and al¬
though by them the notion of distance in general, or even
of some particular distances, may be obtained, yet they
never fill the mind with those vast and exalting conceptions
of extension which are inspired by ocular perception. For
although a clap of thunder or an explosion of ordnance
may be distinctly heard after they have traversed an im¬
mense region of space, yet when the distance is uncom¬
monly great it ceases to be indicated by sound ; and hence
the ideas of extension acquired by hearing are extreme¬
ly confused and inadequate. But the living and compre¬
hensive eye darts its instantaneous glance over expanded
valleys, lofty mountains, sweeping rivers, and vast tracts
of land or of ocean. It measures in an instant of time the
mighty space from earth to heaven, or from one star to an¬
other. By the assistance of telescopes its horizon is almost
indefinitely extended, its objects are greatly multiplied,
and the sphere of its observation is prodigiously enlarged.
By these means the imagination, habituated to vast im¬
pressions of distance, can not only recall them in their ut¬
most extent with as much rapidity as they were at first
imbibed, but can multiply them, and add one to another,
till all boundaries, distances, and measures, are swallowed
up in immensity. By profusely irradiating the face of
things, and clothing objects in a robe of diversified splen¬
dour, nature at once invites the understanding to expa¬
tiate on that extensive and gorgeous theatre which she
thus opens up, and gratifies the imagination with every
possible exhibition of the sublime and the beautiful. The
man of sight enjoys these unspeakable advantages, and be¬
holds from afar the objects of his attention and curiosity.
Taught by experience, he measures their relative distances;
distinguishes their qualities; determines their situations,
positions, and attitudes; traverses in security the space
which divides them from him; stops at the point where
they are placed; and either obtains them with ease, or
immediately perceives the means by which the obstacles
that intercept his passage to them may be surmounted.
The blind, on the contrary, not only may be, but in reality
are, during a considerable period, apprehensive of danger
from every motion they make towards any object or place,
because their contracted power of perception can give
them no certain intelligence of the obstacles or hazards
which may intervene.
Nor is this the worst of their case. All the various
modes of delicate proportion, all the beautiful varieties of
light and colours, whether exhibited in the works of na¬
ture or of art, are to them irretrievably lost. Dependent
for every thing on the good offices of others, and from
every object obnoxious to injury, which they are neither
capacitated to perceive nor qualified to resist, they are,
during the present state of being, rather to be consider¬
ed as prisoners at large than citizens of nature. The
sedentary life to which they are doomed relaxes the frame,
and subjects them to all the disagreeable sensations which
arise from dejection of spirits. Hence the most feeble
exertions create lassitude and uneasiness, and the natu¬
ral tone of the nervous system, destroyed by inactivity,
exasperates and embitters every disagreeable impres¬
sion. But even from their loss, however oppressive and
irretrievable, they derive some advantages; not indeed
adequate to recompense, but sufficient to alleviate, their
misery. The attention of the mind, confined to those
avenues of perception which it can command, is neither
dissipated nor confounded by the multiplicity or rapid
succession of surrounding objects. Its contemplations are
more uniformly fixed upon itself and its own operations;
and hence its perceptions of such external things as are
contiguous and obvious to observation become more lively
and exquisite, whilst even the instruments of corporeal
sensation are more assiduously cultivated and improved;
so that from them are derived notices and presages of
approaching pleasure or impending danger, which entire¬
ly escape the attention of those who depend for security
on the information of sight. A blind man, when walk¬
ing swiftly, or running, is kindly and effectually checked
by nature from rudely encountering such hard and ex¬
tended objects as might hurt or bruise him. When he
approaches bodies of this kind, he feels the atmosphere
more sensibly resist his progress ; and in proportion as his
motion is accelerated, or his distance from the object di¬
minished, the resistance is increased. He distinguishes
the approach of his friend from afar by the sound of his
steps, by his manner of breathing, and almost by every
audible token which he can exhibit. Prepared for the
dangers which he may encounter from the surface of the
ground upon which he walks, his step is habitually firm
and cautious. Hence he not only avoids those falls which
might be occasioned by its less formidable inequalities,
but from its general bias he collects some ideas how far
his safety is immediately concerned; and although these
conjectures may sometimes prove fallacious, yet they are
generally so true as to preserve him from accidents not
incurred by his own temerity. The rapid torrent and the
deep cascade not only warn him to keep a proper distance,
but inform him of the direction in which he i.s moving, and
form a kind of audible beacons to regulate his course. In
places to which he has been accustomed, he as it were
recognises his latitude and longitude from every breath of
varied fragrance wafted by the breeze, from every ascent
or declivity in the road, from every natural or artificial
sound that strikes his ear. Regulated by these and other
analogous signs, the blind have not only been known to
perform long and difficult journeys themselves, but even
to conduct others through dark, tortuous, and dangerous
paths, with the utmost security and exactness.
It were endless to recapitulate the various mechanical
operations of which they are capable, from the nicety and
accuracy of their touch. In some the tactile powers are
said to have been so highly improved, as to perceive that
texture and disposition of coloured surfaces by which some
rays of light are reflected and others absorbed, and in this
manner to distinguish colours.1 But the testimonies to
this fact still appear too vague and general to deserve im¬
plicit credit. We have known a person who had lost the
use of his sight at an early period of infancy, and in the
vivacity and delicacy of his sensations was not perhaps in¬
ferior to any one: this individual having often heard that
others in his situation were capable of distinguishing
colours by touch with the utmost exactness and prompti¬
tude ; and being stimulated partly by curiosity to acquire
a new train of ideas, if that acquisition were possible, but
still more by incredulity respecting the fact alleged ; tried
Blind.
1 De comite Mansfeldico coeco refert Keckermanus, solo tactu album a nigro discernere; de equo fusco vel albo, item de columba
nigra vel cserulea, judicium ferre potuisse. (Sijst. Physic, lib. iii. c. 16.)
W M
BLIND.
lind.
repeated experiments, by touching the surfaces of different sible for a blind man to tell that the sky is azure, that Blind,
bodies, and examining whether any such diversities could the sun, moon, and stars are bright, that the rose is red,
be detected in them as might enable him to distinguish co- the lily white or yellow, and the tulip variegated; by con-
lours ;—but nothing of the kind was he ever able to ascer- tinually hearing these substantives and adjectives joined,
tain. Sometimes, indee.d, he imagined that objects which he may be mechanically taught to join them in the same
had no colour, or, in other words, were black, had something manner; but as he never had any sensation of colour,
different and peculiar in their surfaces; but this experi- however accurately he may speak of coloured objects, his
ment did not universally hold; and his scepticism there- language must be like that of a parrot, without meaning
fore still continued to prevail. That the acoustic percep- and without ideas. Homer and Milton had been long
tions of the blind are distinct and accurate, we may fairly acquainted with the visible world before they were af-
conclude from the rapidity with which they ascertain the dieted with the calamity of blindness. They might, there-
acuteness or gravity of different tones, as relative one to fore, still retain the warm and pleasing impressions of
another, and from their exact discernment of the various what they had seen ; their descriptions might be animated
kinds and modifications of sound and of sonorous objects, with all the enthusiasm which had originally fired their bo-
if the sounds themselves be in any degree significant of soms when the grand or delightful objects which they de-
their causes. lineated were immediately beheld; and that enthusiasm
It is owing to this vivacity and accuracy of the other might even be heightened by a bitter sense of their loss,
senses, and the assiduous application of a comprehensive and by the regret which a situation so dismal naturally
and attentive mind, that we are enabled to account for inspired. But how shall we account for the same ener-
the rapid and astonishing progress which some of them gy, the same transport of description, exhibited by those
have made, not only in those departments of literature on whose minds visible objects were either never impress-
which were most accessible to their understandings, but ed, or must have been entirely obliterated?
even in the most abstract, and, if we may be allowed Yet certain it is, however extraordinary the fact may ap-
the expression, occult sciences. What, for instance, can pear, that the latter class of the blind experience such emo-
apparently be more remote from the conceptions of a tions, and depict them with astonishing accuracy and truth;
blind man than the abstract relations and properties of that they seem to have a kind of imaginative feeling of ex¬
space and quantity? Yet the attainments of Dr Saun- ternal beauty, and to enter into accounts of natural scenery
derson in all the branches of mathematics are well known with a keener relish than those who enjoy the blessing of
to the literary world since the publication of his works; sight. To them light, and shadow, and colour in all its va-
and we have the testimony of Dr Guillie to the fact that riegated modifications, are merely voces etpraterea nihil;
the blind in general have a remarkable aptitude for the yet by the force of imagination, aided by the information
study of the exact sciences.1 supplied by the other senses, and by certain suggestions and
When we reflect on the numberless advantages derived relations of language, they are enabled, as it were, to ap-
from the use of sight, and the immense importance of the proximate to ideas which it is impossible they should ever
information it conveys, both for the well-being of the body fully attain, and to form for themselves a set of notions
and the improvement of the mind, we are almost tempted adjusted in such a wonderful manner as to serve as links
to doubt the fidelity of the reports which have been pub- in the chain of association, and to guide them to the use
lished concerning such persons as, without the assistance of accurate expressions, in speaking or writing of things
of sight, have arrived at high degrees of eminence even in which to them are as if they were not. But the specula-
those sciences which would appear absolutely unattainable tions into which these considerations would lead us are of
without the aid of this sense. It has, however, been de- too refined and subtile a nature to be prosecuted further
monstrated by Dr Reid, that blind men, by proper in- in such an article as the present. Whoever thinks the
struction, are capable of forming almost every idea, and subject of sufficient consequence to merit a nicer scrutiny,
attaining almost every truth, which can be impressed on may consult the preface to Blacklocks Poems printed at
the mind through the medium of light and colour, except Edinburgh 1754; or the account of his life and writings
the sensations of light and colour themselves. {Inquiry by the Rev. Mr Spence, prefixed to a quarto edition of his
into the Human Mind, chap. vi. § 1, 2.) Yet there is one poems published at London in the year 1756; or the Es-
phenomenon of this kind which seems to have escaped sai sur l'Instruction des Aveugles, by Dr Guillie, a work
the attention of that great philosopher, and of which no which, from the opportunities of observation enjoyed by
author either of this or any former period has been able the author, is naturally of high authority on the subject of
to offer any satisfactory explanation, although it seems to which it treats.
merit the attention of philosophers. For, admitting that It has already been hinted that the blind are objects of
the blind can understand all the phenomena of light and compassion, because their sphere of action and observation
colours, and that on these subjects they may extend their is abridged; and this is certainly true. For what is human
speculations even beyond the sphere of their instructions, existence in its present state, when deprived of action,
and by the mere force of genius and application investi- and to a certain extent of contemplation ? Thus limited, all
gate the mechanical principles of optics from the data that remains is the information derived from form, or from
which they had previously obtained ; yet it will be difficult sensitive and locomotive powers. But for these, unless
to assign any reason why these objects should prove more directed to happier ends by superior faculties, few rational
interesting to a blind man than any other abstract truths beings w’ould, in our opinion, be grateful. The most im-
whatsoever. By means of a retentive memory, it is pos- portant view, therefore, which can be entertained in the
1 Si la privation de la vue pent, dans quelques circonstances, devenir un avantage, e’est dans I’etude des mathematiques. Les aveugles
ont des dispositions naturelles pour cette science, a laquelle ils se livrent avec un gout decide. Tres-jeunes, ils apprennent facile-
ment les operations les plus coinpliquees de I’arithmdtique, et, sans employer aucun des moyens dont les clair-voyans font usage pour
la geometric, ils ont une ide'e exacte et precise des figures; ce qui est prouve par leur succes dans 1’algebre, la trigonometric, et les
autres branches subsdquentes des mathe'matiques. Leur intelligence pour cette e'tude est tellement de'veloppe'e, que non seulement
ils sont en e'tat de suivre parfaitement les demonstrations faites sur le tableau, et de profiler des lemons publiques donn^es par les
maitres les plus distingue's (M. Biot, M. Francoeur), mais merue remporter, dans les Lycees, les premiers prix sur les clair-voyans.
(Essai sur I'lnstruct. des Aveugles, p. 159,160.)
BLIND.
Blind, education of a person deprived of sight, is to redress as
**~Y^m*/ effectually as possible the natural disadvantages under
which he lies ; or, in other words, to enlarge as far as may
be the sphere of his knowledge and activity. But this
can only be done by the improvement of his intellectual,
imaginative, or mechanical powers; and which of these
ought to be most assiduously trained and cultivated, the
genius of every individual can alone determine. Were
men to judge of things by their intrinsic nature, less would
be expected from the blind than from others. But, by some
pernicious and unaccountable prejudice, people generally
hope to find them either possessed of preternatural talents,
or more attentive than others to those which they actually
do possess: for it was not Rochester’s opinion alone,
That if one sense should he suppress’d,
It but retires into the rest.
Hence it unluckily happens that blind men, when they do
not gratify the extravagant expectations of the spectators,
too frequently sink in the general estimation, and appear to
be much less considerable and meritorious than they really
are. This general diffidence of their powers at once deprives
them both of the opportunity and the spirit to exert them¬
selves ; and they descend at last to that degree of insig¬
nificance in which the public estimate has fixed them.
From the original dawning of reason and spirit, therefore,
the pai-ents and tutors of the blind ought to inculcate this
maxim,—that it is their indispensable duty to excel, and
that it is absolutely in their power to attain a high de¬
gree of eminence. To impress this notion on their minds,
the first objects presented to their observation, and the
first methods of improvement applied to their understand¬
ing, ought to be capable of being comprehended without
difficulty by those internal powers and external senses
which they possess. Not that improvement should be
rendered quite easy to them, if such a plan were possible ;
for all difficulties which are not really or apparently in¬
superable heighten the charms and enhance the value of
those acquisitions which they seem to retard. But care
should be taken that these difficulties be not magnified or
exaggerated by imagination; since the blind have natu¬
rally a painful sense of their own incapacity, and conse¬
quently a strong propensity to despondency continually
working in their minds.
For this reason, parents and relations ought never to
be too ready in offering their assistance to the blind in
any office which they can perform, or in any acquisition
which they can make for themselves, whether they are
prompted by amusement or necessity. Let a blind boy
be permitted to walk through the neighbourhood without
a guide, not only though he should run some hazard,
but even though he should suffer some pain. If he have a
mechanical turn, let him not be denied the use of edge-
tools ; for it is better that he should lose a little blood,
or even break a bone, than be perpetually confined to the
same place, and thus debilitated in his frame, and de¬
pressed in his mind. Such a being can have no employ¬
ment but that of feeling his own weakness, and becoming
his own tormenter; or perhaps transferring to others a por¬
tion of the malignity and peevishness engendered by the
natural, adventitious, or imaginary evils which he feels.
Scars, fractures, and dislocations in his body, are trivial
misfortunes compared with imbecility, timidity, or fretful¬
ness of mind. Besides the pernicious effects of inactivity
in relaxing the nerves, and consequently in depressing the
spirits, nothing can be more productive of discontent, envy,
jealousy, and every mean and malignant passion, than a
painful impression of dependence on others, and of our in¬
sufficiency for our own happiness. This impression, which
even in his most improved state will be but too deeply felt
by every blind man, is redoubled by that utter incapacity
775
of action superinduced by the officious humanity of those Blind,
who would anticipate or supply all his wants, prevent all^-^V^
his motions, and do or procure every thing for him with¬
out his own interposition. It is the course of nature that
blind people, as well as others, should survive their pa-
i-ents; and it may likewise happen to them to survive
those who, by the ties of blood and nature, are more im¬
mediately interested in their happiness. But when they
come to be dependent on the world, such exigencies as
they themselves cannot meet will be but coldly and lan¬
guidly supplied by strangers. If their expectations be high,
their disappointments will be the more sensible ; their de¬
sires will often be resisted, seldom fully gratified; and, even
when their requests are granted, the concession will some¬
times be so ungraceful as to deprive it of the character of
kindness. For these reasons, we repeat, that, in the training
of a blind man, it is infinitely better to direct than to su¬
persede his own exertions. From the time he can move and
feel, let him be taught to supply his own wants; to dress
and to feed himself; to run from place to place, either
for exercise or in pursuit of his own amusements or avo¬
cations.
In these excursions, however, it will be proper for the
parent or tutor to superintend his motions at a distance,
without seeming to watch over him. A vigilance too ap¬
parent may defeat its own object, and create, in a mind
naturally jealous, a suspicion of its originating in some in¬
terested motive. But, on the other hand, when dangers
are obvious and great, those who are intrusted with the
care of the blind will find it neither necessary nor expe¬
dient to make their vigilance a secret. They ought then to
acquaint their pupil that they are present with him, and
to interpose for his preservation whenever his temerity
renders it necessary. But objects of a nature less noxious,
which may give him some pain without any permanent
injury or mutilation, may with design be thrown in this
way, provided, however, that the design be industriously
concealed ; for his own experience of their bad effects will
prove a much more eloquent and sensible caution than the
abstract and frigid counsels of any monitor whatever.
When the season of childish amusement has expired,
and the impetuosity of animal spirits has abated, the tutor
will probably observe, in the whole demeanour of his pupil,
a more sensible degree of timidity and precaution, and his
activity will then require to be stimulated rather than re¬
strained. In this crisis, exercise will be found requisite
to preserve health and facilitate the vital functions, as
well as for the mere purpose of recreation ; and, of all
kinds of exercise, riding on horseback will be found by far
the most eligible and advantageous. On such occasions,
however, care must be taken that the horses employed be
neither capricious nor unmanageable; for on the docility
of the animal which he rides, not only the safety, but the
confidence, of the blind will entirely depend. In these ex¬
peditions, whether long or short, his companion or atten¬
dant ought to be constantly with him; and the horse
should either be taught to follow its guide, or be conduct¬
ed by a leading rein. Next to this mode of exercise is
walking. If the constitution of the blind boy be toler¬
ably robust, let him be taught to encounter eveiy vicis¬
situde of weather which the human constitution can en¬
dure with impunity. And when the cold is so intense,
or the elements so tempestuous, as to render air and exer¬
cise abroad impracticable, there are methods of exercise
within doors, which, though not equally salutary, are still
highly eligible. The dumb-bells, the bath-chair or spring
board, and the common swing, have been particularly re¬
commended for this purpose ; and as each affords an agree¬
able exercitation, any of them may be had recourse to at
pleasure.
776
BLIND.
Blind.
Education
of the
blind.
Institutions for the education of the blind have been
established in different parts of Britain in the following
order :—Liverpool, Edinburgh, Bristol, London, Norwich,
Glasgow, York, Manchester, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Exeter,
Aberdeen. There are three establishments in which the
blind are received in Dublin, and one in Belfast. The
oldest of these establishments with us date from about the
beginning of this century ; the majority of them from a few
years only. We shall briefly describe the system prac¬
tised in the Asylum for the Industrious Blind in Edinburgh,
—an institution which, though in some respects inferior
to that of Paris, is on the whole well calculated to serve as
a model for others of a similar description.
This asylum was for many years the only one of the
kind in Scotland; but latterly an institution of the same
description has been formed at Glasgow, and is now con¬
ducted upon nearly the same plan. It was originally in¬
tended for men ; and, during a period of twenty-eight years
from its formation, no provision whatever was made for the
employment or instruction of the blind of the other sex,
who, from their greater helplessness, have still stronger
claims to the charitable and humane consideration of the
public. But about the year 1820 a female asylum was
instituted under the care of the same directors, though in
a separate house; and both branches of this interesting
establishment are now conducted upon the same general
plan, and with nearly equal success.
The leading feature of this plan is to combine industry
with instruction, and alternately to find occupation for the
hands and heads of those who are admitted into the asy¬
lum. Accordingly, the men and boys are employed in
making baskets of all descriptions; in weaving cloth of
cotton, linen, and hair; in rope-making in all its branches ;
in forming matrasses of straw, sea-grass, and hair, and in
stuffing beds; in working door-mats, hearth-rugs, and
other articles of this description; and, in general, in any
occupation for which they have a taste, or in which they are
likely to excel. The females, on the other hand, are em¬
ployed in sewing, knitting, spinning, and other occupations
peculiar or suited to their sex, especially in the different
kinds of “ plain and white seam,” as it is called, which
they execute with singular neatness. Stockings, shoes,
snow-boots, table-mats, table-covers, shawls of all descrip¬
tions and colours, spensers, tippets, dresses for ladies and
gentlemen, hair-mits, and such like articles, are also ma¬
nufactured in the asylum. A great part of the knitted
fancy work has, we understand, been invented by the
mistress of the house; and such is the perfection to which
this elegant branch of industry has been carried, that its
products are said to have found their way to all parts of Blind,
the world.
France has done much towards the education of the
blind, which indeed has engrossed a large share of atten¬
tion in that country; but although the methods employ¬
ed are in some respects superior in point of scientific
adaptation, it may, nevertheless, be doubted whether any
institution in the neighbouring kingdom be upon a more
efficient footing than that in Edinburgh, which owes not
only its existence, but the success which has attended its
endeavours, to the spontaneous and benevolent zeal of en¬
lightened individuals. Various opinions have been expres¬
sed respecting the French method of teaching the blind to
read by means of letters in relief,—a very ingenious though
by no means a recent invention.1 It has been said, for exam¬
ple, that angular letters are preferable to circular ones, as
being more easily felt; and Mr Gall of Edinburgh has con¬
structed an alphabet of this kind on the French plan, whilst
others have been making trial of a variety of shapes and forms
with a view to the same object. But no device of this kind
has hitherto been patronised by the directors of the Edin¬
burgh institution ; nor, as far as we know, has any one yet
been proposed which is in all respects calculated to answer
the end proposed. From what has been done, however,
for enabling the blind to feel a written language, it seems
practicable, by some analogous method, to teach them both
to read and write ; and we are inclined to hope that such a
method, combining distinctness with simplicity and cheap¬
ness, will in time be discovered.
In the Edinburgh institution the men and women are
taught to read and write by means of what is called the
“ string alphabet.” This is formed by so knotting a cord,
ribbon, or the like, that the protuberances thus made upon
it may, by their shape, size, and situation, denote the ele¬
ments of language. The letters of this alphabet are dis¬
tributed into seven classes, which are distinguished by
certain knots or marks; and each class comprehends four
letters, excepting the last, which includes only two. The
first or A class is distinguished by a large round knot;
the second or E class, by a knot projecting from the line;
the third or I class, by a series of links, vulgarly called the
“ drummer’s plaitthe fourth or M class, by a single
noose; the fifth or Q class, by a noose with a line drawn
through it; the sixth or U class, by a noose with a net-
knot cast on it; the seventh or Y class, by a twisted noose.
The first letter of each class is denoted by the simple cha¬
racteristic of its respective class; the second by the cha¬
racteristic and a common knot close to it; the third by
the characteristic and a common knot half an inch from it;
1 The first attempt of this kind appears to have consisted in a modification of the Illyrian or Sclavonian alphabet, which was doubt¬
less preferred on account of the square form of the letters; but on trial it was found to possess no advantage over the common cha¬
racters, and to have disadvantages peculiar to itself. (Fournier, Manuel Typographique, tome ii. p. 226, No. 68, 1766.) Movable
letters on small tablets of wood were next tried; but after a time this expedient was also abandoned, as not suited for the instruction
of the blind, though singularly well adapted for teaching children who see to read. In fact, it was by means of similar letters that
Usher, afterwards archbishop of Armagh, was taught to read by his two aunts, who were both blind. (Biographia Britannica, voce Usher;
London, 1773)- In the sixteenth century letters were engraved in wood for the instruction of the blind;—these, however, were not in
relief, but cut out in the ordinary way of engraving;—the fingers could with difficulty be employed in ascertaining their configuration;—
when used in printing, the letters remained white, whilst the rest of the space was blackened;—and hence they had none of the advan¬
tages which belong to letters in relief, and which are essential in the instruction of the blind. (Francesco Lucas, Arte de Escrivir, Ma¬
drid, 1580, 4to.) This method was reproduced with some modifications in 1575, by Rampazzetto, an Italian ; but with no better success.
{Esscmplare di piu sorti di Lettere di M. Gio Francesco Cresci, Milanese, Scrittore en Venetia; 1575, 4to.) In 1640 a writing-master of
Paris, called Pierre Moreau, caused movable characters to be cast in lead for the use of the blind; but, discouraged by the difficulties
he met with, or not choosing to incur the expense to which the prosecution of the scheme would have subjected him, he abandoned it,
and applied himself to the formation of matrices for a new variety of letter, which still bears his name in French typography. A
simpler and more ingenious method than any of these consisted in forming letters by means of pins stuck into large pincushions, leav¬
ing out only the heads, which of course were easily felt, and rendered the shape of the letters quite distinct as well as palpable, while
the arrangement could be altered at pleasure, and with extreme facility. By this natural and easy plan the celebrated Mademoiselle
Paradis learned to read. Various other modes were also tried; letters in wood were again had recourse to, and again dropped; and
no method secured general approbation till 1783, when letters in relief, that is, letters raised, or as it were embossed on paper, were
first invented, and, being gradually improved, were afterwards employed in the instruction of the blind in France. Nor has this inven¬
tion as yet been superseded by any thing that seems better adapted to the purpose.
BLIND.
Blind, and the fourth by the characteristic and a common knot
‘*~Y~**1 an inch from it. Thus, A is expressed by a large round
knot; B by a large round knot, with a common knot close
to it; C by a large round knot, and a common knot half
an inch from it; and D by a large round knot, and a com¬
mon knot an inch from it; and so in the case of the other
classes. This alphabet was invented by Robert Milne
and David Macbeath, both at one time inmates of the
asylum, and it is found by experience to answer the pur¬
pose for which it was intended, as by means of it the
blind can communicate with their friends and with one
another.
Robert Milne, one of the persons above named, also
improved the arithmetical board. An instrument of this
kind had been invented by Dr Saunderson, and afterwards
modified by Dr Moyes ; but the board used in the asylum
is considered as superior to it in several respects, and has
lately undergone a further improvement by the substitu¬
tion of metal for wood; in consequence of which it has
been rendered both cheaper and more correct than before.
By means of this instrument both men and women are
taught figuring, and may be carried to any extent in arith¬
metical acquirement. Two small square pins with knobs
represent the ten digits.1
The blind are taught geography, both ancient and mo¬
dern, by means of globes and boards constructed solely for
their use ; astronomy, by means of an orrery and celestial
maps similarly adapted; and mathematics, on a board of
analogous construction. In all these branches of science the
progress they make is considerable, and, with reference to
their peculiar situation, astonishing. As the plan of the
globes and boards is exceedingly simple, a few words on
each will suffice. From a plan submitted to him, the present
master constructed two globes, one thirty and the other
thirty-six inches in diameter. Having described the me¬
ridians and parallels of latitude, and drawn the boundary
lines of countries, and divisions of all kinds, he glued on
twine or cord on such lines as are continuous, employing
shorter pieces to indicate rivers, and pins to denote towns :
the portions representing land are covered with fine sand ;
the rivers and seas are left smooth; the meridian circle,
which is of iron, is so deeply marked as to render the
divisions easily felt; and the equator is indicated by small
pins. The globes, thus prepared and adapted, have been
found by experience completely to answer the purposes
of instruction. With regard to the maps, again, they are
pasted on square boards, and have cord glued on the
boundary lines, in precisely the same manner as the globes.2
The orrery has brass hoops or rings to represent the or¬
bits of the planets, which are indicated by balls or spheres
of proper relative dimensions, and slide at pleasure along
the rings or orbits; the ecliptic, or the outer edge of the
circular board, is marked with the degrees of the circle
and the days of the month in such a manner as to be felt;
and the signs of the zodiac are raised figures, also placed
on the edge. The celestial maps consist of square and ob¬
long boards, on which is glued Bristol paper, cut into the
figure of the sign or constellation which it is intended to
represent, after which steel knobs of different sizes are
driven in to indicate the different magnitudes of the stars,
while small knobs on the sides of the board denote the
degrees. Ihe mathematical board is a square of fourteen
inches, full of small holes, with a few pins fitted to them,
777
so as to represent certain letters of the alphabet; while Blind,
with fine cord or twine extended from the angular points
are formed the lines of the figure or diagram, whatever
it may be. The globes and boards for geography, as well
as the orrery, celestial maps, and mathematical board,
were invented in 1824, and are used in no other institution
excepting that of Glasgow, and that of Boston in North
America, to each of which a set of these instruments was
transmitted by order of the directors of the Edinburgh
Asylum. In as far as we are able to judge, these latter
instruments seem superior to those employed in the Pari¬
sian institution ; at all events they are simpler, which is a
great advantage; and with regard to the mathematical
board, the method of representing the diagrams appears
to be by far the best that has yet been employed.
The inmates of this establishment are also taught to
play on the violin and piano-forte. They read the music
from boards constructed for their use, but by whom invent¬
ed we have not learned. The game of draughts is a favour¬
ite amusement with them. It is played on a board of the
common kind, but the alternate squares are covered with
sand, and in each there is a small hole fitted to receive a
pin, attached to the piece, which is thus retained in the
position in which it is placed.
The greater part of the inmates of this institution con¬
sists of persons who originally lost their sight by disease or
accident; and there are but few who have been blind from
their birth. At the same time, it has been remarked that
when one child in a family is born blind, those that follow
it are also generally born blind. There are two or three
instances of this in the asylum; and we know several
others without the walls of the institution. This succes¬
sion of blindness is probably to be referred to the force
of imagination ; and, in fact, the mother of two blind chil¬
dren being questioned on the subject, stated her belief
that the second instance was occasioned by her continual¬
ly looking on and thinking of her sightless child.
The experience acquired in the institution confirms Results,
the general observation which we made at the outset,
that the loss of one faculty, especially sight, is almost al¬
ways accompanied by a compensatory and counterbalan¬
cing improvement in the other senses'and faculties. This
undoubtedly arises, not from any original superiority in
the senses or faculties which remain, but from a closer
attention to their indications, and above all from inces¬
sant application. The sense of touch, in particular, is
signally improved, and, as it were, quickened in blind
persons, who have no other means of discovering the size
and figure of the bodies presented to them. With regard
to the statement, however, which has sometimes been
made, that they can distinguish colours by touch, we may
mention that no instance of such extreme delicacy of touch
has occurred in the experience of the Edinburgh institu¬
tion. Memory, like touch, is also improved by constant
use and application; and this holds equally true in all cases,
though it is more signally exemplified in the case of the
blind, who depend so much on this faculty. It has been
thought that the memories of the blind are greatly assisted
by the exclusion of external objects, which from their
multiplicity tend to distract the attention ; but as dark¬
ness magnifies dangers, which consequently engross the
thoughts and excite continual apprehensions, it may rea¬
sonably be doubted whether the attention of the blind is
1 For an account of the method employed in the Royal Institution of Paris, see Dr Guillie’s Essai sur VInstruction des Aveu^-les
p- 159. In Paris, as in Edinburgh, Saunderson’s table has been abandoned as operose and inconvenient. * ’
2 In the Parisian institution improvement has been carried a step further; fine iron wire covered after the fashion of milliners is
used instead of cord for the divisions, as well as the meridians and parallels of latitude; whilst towns and islands are represented bv
hemispherically-headed nails of different sizes; and over the whole blank paper is pasted, so as in fact to form a skeleton man in rt'
lief. (Guiltie, p. 147, 149.) 1
778
blind.
Blind, not at times as liable to be disturbed as that of those who
possess the blessing of sight, and receive impressions from
the external world ; and hence it is to application chiefly
that the improvement of this faculty in the case of the
blind ought to be ascribed.
The same observation holds true in regard to those
signs and indications which persons who see neglect be¬
cause they are not necessary to be attended to, but which
are of great importance to the blind, and are consequent y
carefully attended to by them. Hence they can discover
by the voice whether a person be tall or short, agreeable or
disagreeable, and also form some judgment of the passions
and affections of the mind. They have even in some
cases attempted, from such indications, to describe the
external form and beauty of a person. They know the
steps of their friends and companions even at a distance.
Breathing and smell also afford indications. In hearing a
sermon they can tell by the sound of the preacher s voice
whether he uses notes; and currents of air, or different
modifications of atmospherical pressure, enable them to
discover when they approach any object or building.
Their curiosity is so intense that at any risk it must be
gratified; and as they are often not aware of the danger
to which they expose themselves, they generally attain
their object. It is a remarkable fact, that a person born
blind never dreams that he sees the object of his dreams.
The blind have been made to communicate with the
deaf and dumb by means of the finger alphabet; the for¬
mer, of course, appealing to the sight of the latter, and
the latter forming the alphabetical characters palpably
on the fingers of the former. An attempt was also made
by the deaf and dumb to discover what was said by the
blind from the varying configuration of their lips in speak¬
ing ; but it did not succeed to any extent, and was aban¬
doned, more especially as it could be employed by only
one of the parties. In France the means of communica¬
tion between these two classes of unfortunates have been
improved by the invention of a set of pantomimic signs,
representing not letters, but words or ideas. These are
formed by means of the arms, which being extended some¬
what in the manner of a telegraph, are made, by each
change of position, to represent a word or idea; and when
the blind communicate in this way with the deaf and dumb,
their arms are placed in contact, and they go through the
strange hut ingenious pantomime together in a manner
equally grotesque and amusing.  
Parisian The experience acquired in the Parisian institution is
matitution. substantially^ in accordance with what has been stated as
the results of continued observation in the Edinburgh
asylum. Dr Guillie is decidedly of opinion that the blind
have no natural superiority in any sense or faculty over those
who possess all their faculties in an ordinary state of perfec¬
tion. “ L’adresse qu’on remarque dans les aveugles pour le
toucher,” says he, “ et 1’aptitude des sourds-muets a saisir
tous les traits de la physionomie, resultent de la necessity
ou ils sont, les uns, de se servir presque continuellement
du tact pour suppleer a la vue qui leur manque, et les
autres, d’employer la vue pour remplacer I’ou'ie et la pa¬
role : 1’organe n’en est pas moins en tout semblable a ce-
lui des clair-voyans; et si l’aveugle-ne opere par Chesel-
den ne reconnaissait plus par le toucher, apres 1 extraction
de la cataracte, les objets comme il le faisait auparavant,
ce n’est pas qu’il eut perdu, en recevant la vue, la faculte
de toucher, mais seulement, parce qu’il ne 1’employait plus
que comme sens auxiliaire et correctif de la vue.” P. 32,
33. In this opinion the Abbe Sicard, Dr Guillie’s distin¬
guished colleague, completely coincides.
“ The memory of the blind is prodigious” This fact
has been exemplified in Paris as well as in Edinburgh and
everywhere else ; how to account for it is another ques¬
tion. In man there is a memory of sensation and a memory
of intelligence : the one recalling his merely physical per- -
ceptions; and the other his reflections, judgments, rea¬
sonings, speculations, and moral sentiments. Now it is
principally with the latter description of memory that the
blind are eminently provided; and although they are de¬
prived of the means which persons having the use of sight
possess for forming an artificial kind of mnemonics, it is
probable that they construct an internal scheme for their
own use, and of still superior efficacy. Such at least is the
opinion of Dr Guillifi; and it appears to be founded.
Helvetius has remarked {De l'Esprit, chap. hi. disc. 3),
that a great memory is a phenomenon of order ; that it is
almost entirely factitious ; and that among men well orga¬
nised, the great inequality of memory is less the effect of
unequal perfection in the organ or faculty which produces
it, than of unequal attention in cultivating it. But the
blind are in general eminently distinguished for the spirit
of order, referred to by the French philosopher as the ba¬
sis of a great memory; and as the faculty in question de¬
pends mainly on association, of which natural arrange¬
ment or classification is the very essence, it must of course
be greatly strengthened in minds which are animated by
the spirit of order, and have a tendency to arrange their
ideas in a strictly logical sequence. _
Another peculiarity of the blind is great fecundity of
imagination; united in some with a facility in analyzing
and recombining their ideas, to which their extraordinary
progress in the exact sciences is to be ascribed. Of the
former quality, Homer, Milton, Delille, and many others
might be cited as examples; of the latter we shall give two
instances in the words of Dr Guillie. “ Le premier est
Paingeon, qui, par 1’esprit de 1’ordre dont il est doue, a
acquis des connaissances transcendantes en mathema-
tiques, et apres avoir remporte, en 1806, tous les premiers
prix au concours general des quatre Lycees de Paris, fut
nomme, par le Grand Maitre de 1 Universite, professeur
de mathematiques au Lycee d’Angers: 1 autre est J. De¬
lille, aujourd’hui pensionnaire des Quinze-Vingts, qui a
porte tres-loin la metaphysique de la langage Francaise;
un aplomb parfait, une precision admirable dans ses de¬
finitions, caracterisent surtout ce sujet que nous nous
enorgueillissons d’avoir forme.” Both were educated un¬
der Dr Guillie, at the Royal Institution for the instruction
of the blind.
On the subject of the moral condition of the blind Ur
Guillie has stated many curious and interesting particu¬
lars. They are generally deficient in modesty or shame. “ La
pudeur, qui est une des graces de la jeunesse, est presque
pour eux un etre imaginaire, quoiqu ils aient une sorte de ti-
midite qui tient peut-etre plus, il est vrai, de crainte que
de la honte, raais qui augmente beaucoup leur embarras
dans certaines circonstances.” They are, it is said, for the
most part without sensibility and without gratitude; irri¬
table, suspicious, vindictive, implacable. Their situation
obliges them to be on their guard against all the world; the
consciousness of their own deficiency, and the disadvan¬
tages under which it places them, render them suspicious
as well as selfish; and, by an easy, and we had almost said
natural transition, they come to arrange in the same cate¬
gory their benefactors and their enemies. “ Commes de
toutes les demonstrations exterieures, qui reveillent en
nous la commiseration et les idees de la douleur, les
aveugles ne sontaffectes que par la plainte,” says Diderot,
“ je les soupconne, en general, d’inhumanite. Quelle dif¬
ference y a-t-il, pour un aveugle, entre un homme qui
urine et un homme qui, sans se plaindre, verse son sang i'
Nous-memes, ne cessons-nous pas de compatir, lorsque la
distance, ou la petitesse des objets, produit sur nous le
meme effet que la privation de la vue chez les aveugles.
Blind.
BLIND.
779
Blind. (Letlres sur les Aveugles.) This is too strongly stated;
but the principle in human nature, on which the striking
observation of Diderot is founded, would lead us to anti¬
cipate, at least in part, the moral results to which we have
alluded. It has been alleged that the blind have a ten¬
dency towards atheism ; but this is denied by Dr Guillie,
who, however, qualifies his contradiction by a very lament¬
able admission: “ Neanmoins, je ne les justifierai pas en-
• tierement du reproche d’impiete qu’on leur a fait avec quel-
que fondementand he adds, “ la conscience enfin n’a
pas sur leurs actions 1’influence qu'elle a sur nous.” But
as these observations are grounded on a partial experi¬
ence, we hope they have no application to the blind of this
country, amongst whom sounder principles and better feel¬
ings will always, we trust, prevail; nor will they ever lose
a sense of dependence on that Being, whose existence
they have only to stretch forth their hands to discover,
and who has opened the eye of humanity to compassion¬
ate, and the hand of charity to relieve, their wants.
Remark- History has preserved sundry particulars of blind per-
ahle blind sons5 who, of themselves, acquired great knowledge before
persons,. t]iere existed any regular method of instruction applicable
to their case. The number of these is considerable; so
much so, indeed, that any accurate enumeration would
not only be a task of great difficulty in itself, but would
also far exceed the limits prescribed to this article. It
may not be uninteresting, however, to signalize a few of
those who have made the greatest figure in science and
in art.
The number of blind appears to have been very consi¬
derable in Asia and Italy in the time of the Romans.
This is proved by the great number of physicians who at
the epoch in question wrote on ocular diseases ; but what
mode of instruction, or whether any at all, was employed in
those times, we have not learned. Diogenes Laertius and
Thrasylus relate (Diog. Laert. lib. ix., Vossius, De Philo-
sophia) that several philosophers voluntarily deprived
themselves of sight in order to pursue their contempla¬
tions with less interruption ; and, amongst those who in¬
flicted on themselves this deprivation, is cited Democritus
of Abdera. But it is scarcely probable that this philoso¬
pher, the companion of the gymnosophists of India, a man
who laughed at every thing, and whom his countrymen
wished Hippocrates to cure of madness, because he believed
that all things were as they ought to be, depending on
chance and the fortuitous aggregations of atoms, should
have put out his eyes in order to scoff philosophically, when
he might have indulged his humour to so much better pur¬
pose with the use of his sight. Besides, putting out the eyes
was next to crucifixion, one of the most ignominious punish¬
ments inflicted by the laws of ancient times, and as such
was reserved only for great criminals. It may therefore
be doubted whether the laughing philosopher of Abdera
would, on a mere hypothesis, treat himself like a felon:
and the words of Cicero, “ Democritus impediri etiam animi
aciem aspectu oculorum arbitrabatur ( Disp. v. 39),
which have been often quoted, seem rather to express
a general opinion than to state a particular fact, or warrant
the inference that the philosopher had deprived himself of
sight because he thought that the penetration of the
mental was impeded by the vision of the natural eye.
Diodatus, Cicero’s master in philosophy, applied him¬
self to study with more assiduity than ever, after he had
lost his sight; and, what is still more remarkable, he
taught geometry with so much precision, that his dis¬
ciples found no difficulty in comprehending how to trace
the most complicated figures from his instructions. (Ci¬
cero, ubi supra ; Zahn, Specul. Physico-Math. Hist, tome
iii. c. 6.) Cornelius Aufidius, a Roman citizen, who had
lost his sight m his youth, distinguished himself in the Blind,
study of elegant literature, and wrote a Greek history,
(Zahn, Sens. Ext. Mirab. § 2.) Eusebius the Asiatic
became blind at five years of age. He acquired vast
knowledge and profound erudition, and taught with the
utmost facility as well as success. (Cassiodorus De Inst.
Div. Litter, c. 5.) St Jerome has left an account of Dydi-
mus of Alexandria, his master, of whom he speaks with
great respect. This blind man, who had lost his sight at
the same age with Eusebius, flourished in the fourth cen¬
tury. Ruffinus, Paladus, Isidorus, and several other cele¬
brated men, were his disciples. He acquired great know¬
ledge by having the sacred and profane authors read to
him ; he was one of the ablest mathematicians of his time;
and he applied himself especially to theology, for which
he had a decided taste. He composed several works, the
principal of which is A Treatise on the Holy Spirit, trans¬
lated into Latin by St Jerome. Dydimus was pious as
well as learned: nevertheless, his attachment to the opi¬
nions of Origen, on whose books he had commented,
caused his works to be condemned after his death by the
council of Lateran. St Athanasius and St Antony had
the greatest esteem for him. Dydimus died a. d. 398, at
the age of eighty-five. (Hieronymus De Viris Ulustr.
c. 109; Socrates, lib. iv. c. 25; Ruffinus, lib. ii. c. 7.)
Nicaise of Malignes flourished in the fifteenth century,
and enjoyed great reputation for the extent of his learning.
Blind from the age of three years, he nevertheless made
great advances in science, and taught publicly, in the uni¬
versity of Cologne, both the civil and canon law, citing
from memory long passages which he had never seen,
guos nunquam viderat. Having been elected doctor of
Louvain, the pope granted a dispensation for his admission
to priests’ orders ; after which he employed the rest of his
life in preaching, and died at Cologne in 1492. (Uritheme
et Valere, Bibliotheque des Ecrivains des Pays-Bas.)
James Shegkius, born at Shorndorf, in the duchy of Wir-
temburg, taught philosophy and medicine with great suc¬
cess at Tubingen for about thirteen years. Having early
become blind, he was so little sensible of the loss of sight
that he refused to allow himself to be couched by an ocu¬
list, who offered to restore vision—in order, as he said, not
to be obliged to see many things which appeared odious or
ridiculous. He died at Tubingen in 1587, leaving several
treatises on different points of philosophy, medicine, and
controversy. (Zahn, Visus Im. Dep. et Ccecit. Ex. Mir. p.
114.) John Fernand, born in Belgium, was the son of a
Spaniard, and blind from his birth. His father was very
poor; but he surmounted the obstacles both of poverty
and blindness, and became a poet, logician, philosopher,
and musician. He composed from memory several pieces,
which are considered excellent of their kind. (Zahn, ubi
supra.') Ascanius Pedianus the historian lived several
years after the loss of his sight, and wrote treatises on
grammar, which exhibit no trace either of his age or in¬
firmity. (Fidgosus, lib. viii. c. 7.)
Uldaric Schomberg, born in Germany towards the com¬
mencement of the seventeenth century, lost his sight by
the small-pox at the age of three; but as he grew up he
applied himself to the study of the belles-lettres, which
he afterwards professed with credit at Altorf, at Leipsic,
and at Hamburg. (C. Harknocks, Alt und Neu Preussen,
1684.) Bourchenu de Valbonais, born at Grenoble in 1651,
became blind when very young, soon after the naval com¬
bat at Solbaye, where he had been present. But this acci¬
dent did not prevent him from publishing the History of
Dauphine, in two volumes folio. He had made profound
researches into the history of his province, and, besides the
work just mentioned, published a Nobiliaire of Dauphine.
{Feller, vol. ii.) Of Dr Nicolas Saunderson, Lucasian
I
780
B L I N D.
Blind.
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge,
and one of the most remarkable men of his time, some ac¬
count will be found under the proper head. He was born
in 1682, at a small town in the county of York, and died
at Cambridge in 1739, at the age of fifty-six. He invent¬
ed a table, which has since been greatly improved, for
teaching arithmetic palpably to the blind. A notice of
Dr Blacklock will be found under the biography of that
individual. Dr Henry Moyes professed the Newtonian
philosophy, which he taught with considerable success as
an itinerant lecturer. He was also a good chemist, a re¬
spectable mathematician, and a tolerable musician.
M. Phefel of Colmar, who lost his sight when very
young, in consequence of a violent ophthalmia, composed
a great deal of poetry (6 vols. 8vo, Colmar, 1791), consist¬
ing chiefly of fables, some of which have been translated
into French by M. Degerando. He was privy counsellor to
the margrave of Baden; and established at Colmar a mili¬
tary school or academy, where children of the best families
were sent to be educated. Among the pupils of this learn¬
ed blind man may be mentioned Prince Schwartzemberg,
Prince Eisemburg, and M. Heilman, lately pensionary of
the Quinze-Vingts. He died at Colmar in 1809. Weis-
semburg of Manheim became blind at the age of seven.
He wrote perfectly, and read with characters which he
had imagined for his own use. He was an excellent geo¬
grapher, and composed maps and globes, which he em¬
ployed both in studying and teaching this science. He
was the inventor of an arithmetical table, differing but little
from that of Saunderson. {Journal de Paris, April, 1784.)
The blind man of Puiseaux must be known to all who
have read Diderot’s celebrated Lettres sur les Aveugles.
He was the son of a professor of philosophy in the univer
comparative fulness of vessels by the sound of the liquor in
falling; and the neighbourhood of bodies by the action of v
the air on his face. Being asked on one occasion if he
would not be very well pleased to have eyes, he replied,
“ Si la curiosite ne me dominait pas, j’aimerais bien autant
avoir de longs bras : il me semble que mes mains m’in-
struiraient mieux de ce qui se passe dans la lune que vos
yeux ou vos telescopes; et puis les yeux cessent plutot
de voir que les mains de toucher. II vaudrait done bien
autant qu’on perfectionnat en moi 1’organe que j’ai, que de
m’accorder celui qui me manque.” He employed charac¬
ters in relief in order to teach his son to read, and the
latter never had any other master than his father.
M. Huber of Geneva, an excellent naturalist, and author
of the best treatise extant on bees and ants, was blind from
his earliest infancy. In reading the descriptions of these
insects, we can scarcely persuade ourselves that they are
not the production of a singularly clear-sighted man, well
versed in this branch of natural history. In executing
his great work, however, M. Huber had no other assis¬
tance than what he derived from his domestic, who men¬
tioned to him the colour of the insects; and then he ascer¬
tained their form and size by touch, with the same facility
as he would have recognised them by their humming when
flying in the air. This laborious writer has also publish¬
ed a valuable work on education.
Francis Lesueur, born of very poor parents, at Lyons, on
the 5th of August 1766, lost his sight when only six weeks
old. He went to Paris in 1778, and was begging at the
gate of a church, when M. Haviy, discovering in the young
mendicant some inclination to study, received him, and
undertook the task of instructing him, at the same time
promising him a sum equal to that which he had collected
Blind.
sity of Paris, and he had attended with advantage courses of in alms. Lesueur began to study in October 1784,
chemistry and botany at the Jardin du Roi. After having months after, he was able to read, to compose with charac-
dissipated a part of his fortune he retired to Puiseaux, ters in relief, to print; and in less than two years he had
where he established a distillery, the products of which he
came regularly once a year to Paris to dispose of. There was
originality in every thing that he did. His custom was to
sleep during the day, and to rise in the evening ; he worked
all night, “because,” as he himself said, “ he was not then
disturbed by anybody.” His wife, when she rose in the
morning, used to find every thing perfectly arranged. He
spoke very sensibly of the qualities and defects of the organ
in which he was deficient, and answered questions put to him
with much justness and discrimination. Being interrogated
as to the idea he formed of a mirror, he replied, “ C’est une
machine qui met les choses en relief loin d’elles-memes,
si elles se trouvent placees convenablement par rapport a
elle. C’est comme ma main qu’il ne faut pas que je pose
a cote d’un objet pour le sentir.” To Diderot, who visit¬
ed him at Puiseaux, he put some very singular questions
on the transparence of glass, colours, and such like mat¬
ters. He asked if naturalists were the only persons who
saw with the microscope, and if astronomers were the only
persons who saw with the telescope ; if the machine which
magnified objects was greater than that which diminished
them; if that which brought them near was shorter than
that which removed them to a distance. He believed
that astronomers had eyes of different conformation from
those of other men, and that a man could not devote him¬
self to the study of a particular science without having
eyes specially adapted for the purpose. “ The eye,” said
he, “ is an organ upon which the air ought to produce
the same effect as my cane does upon my hand.” He
possessed the memory of sounds to a surprising degree,
and recognised by the voice those whom he had only heard
speak once. He could tell if he was in a thoroughfare or
in a cul-de-sac, in a large or in a small place. He esti¬
mated the proximity of fire by the degree of heat; the
learned the French language, geography, and music, which
he understood very well. His intelligence and penetra¬
tion were indeed surprising, and he was among the blind
what Massieu has since been among the deaf and dumb.
He was successively repeater to his comrades, head of the
printing and economy of the institution for the blind, and
pensionary of the Quinze-Vingts. It is painful to add, that
he proved unthankful to his benefactor and master, to whom
he owed every thing; and that by his conduct he merited
the reproach of ingratitude, a vice which, with some rea¬
son, has been charged against the blind generally.
Avisse, born at Paris, was one of the most distinguish¬
ed eleves of the institution. His father, who kept furnish¬
ed lodgings in the Rue Guenegaud, intended him for
the sea; and he embarked when very young on board a
vessel fitted out for the slave-trade, in the capacity of se¬
cretary or clerk to the captain; but he was struck by a
coup de vent on the coast of Africa, and lost his sight from
the violent inflammation which ensued. On his return his
parents procured his admission into the institution for
the blind, where, in a few years, he became professor of
grammar and logic. He produced a comedy in verse, in
one act, entitled, La Ruse d'Aveugle, which was perform¬
ed on the 2d Nivose, year 5; a scene, also in verse, en¬
titled L'Atelier des Aveugles-travailleurs; and several
other pieces, which were all printed in one volume 12mo.
in the year 1803. He died before he had completed his
thirty-first year, at the very time when the high hopes en¬
tertained of him were on the point of being realized.
Nor have the blind been less distinguished in the prac¬
tice of the arts than in science and literature. Many in¬
stances of their eminence in this respect may be mention¬
ed. Indeed, the want of sight seems little or no impedi¬
ment to manual dexterity. Stengel mentions a young
B L I
Blind, cabinet-maker of Ingolstadt, who, having lost his sight by
an explosion of gun-powder, amused himself by construct¬
ing pepper-mills, which he made without the use of any
other instrument than a common knife, and executed with
so much exactness and elegance that they were thought
deserving of a place in the gallery of curiosities at Munich,
where they may still be seen. (Laurentius Stengelius De
Monstris, c. 16.) Sir Kenelm Digby has stated several
extraordinary particulars of a preceptor of his son, who
was so completely blind that he could not distinguish the
light of noonday from midnight. He surpassed in skill
the ablest players at chess ; at long distances he shot ar¬
rows with such precision as almost never to miss the
mark; he constantly went abroad without a guide, and
frequented most of the public promenades; he regularly
took his place at table, and ate with such dexterity that it
was impossible to perceive he was blind; when any one
spoke to him for the first time, he was able to tell with
certainty his stature and the form of his body; and when
his pupils recited in his presence, he knew in what situa¬
tion and attitude they were. (Digbaeus De Nat. Corpor.
c. 28.) Aldrovandus mentions (Hist. Monstr.) a butcher
of Boulogne, who estimated by touch the weight of the
animal he was about to kill. M. de Piles saw in Italy a
blind man, a native of Cambassy in Tuscany, who was a
very good designer. M. de Piles met him in the Justiniani
Palace, where he was modelling in wax a statue of Miner¬
va. By means of touch, he had seized with precision the
form and proportions of the original. The duke of Brac-
ciano, who had seen him working, doubted whether he
was completely blind; and, in order to put the matter to
the test, he caused the artist to take his portrait in a dark
cave. It proved a striking likeness. Some, however, ob¬
jecting that the duke’s beard, which was of patriarchal
amplitude, had helped the artist to recognise him, the latter
offered to execute a portrait of one of the duke’s daugh¬
ters, which he accordingly did, and it also proved an ex¬
cellent likeness. “ J’ai vu,” says M. de Piles, “ sortis
des mains de cet illustre aveugle les portraits du feu roi
d’Angleterre, Charles I., celui du pape Urbain VIII., et
en France, le portrait de M. Hesselin, tons parfaitement
executes.” (Cours de Peinture, p 260, 1766.) “ Nous
avons vu, des nos jours,” says Dr Guillie, to whom we are
indebted for the particulars of the more distinguished
blind, “ M. Buret, 1’un des plus habiles sculpteurs de 1’-
academie, devenu aveugle, a 1’age de vingt-cinq ans, par
suite de la petite verole, ne pas cesser pour cela de tra-
vailler, comme le faisait 1’aveugle de Cambassy.” (Essai
sur VInstruction des Aveugles, p. 94, Paris, 1817.)
Giovanni Gambasio of Volterra lost his sight at the age
of twenty, and remained ten years in this state, ignorant
of even the elements of sculpture. All of a sudden, how¬
ever, “ the desire of making a statue came upon him and
having handled in every way a marble figure representing
Cosmo de’ Medici, he formed one of clay, so extremely like
that it astonished all who saw it. His talent for statuary
now developed itself to such a degree, that Prince Ferdi¬
nand, grand duke of Tuscany, sent him to Rome to model
the statue of Pope Urban VIII. which he also rendered a
striking likeness of the original. He also executed many
others with equal success. (Aldrovandus, Hist. Monstr.)
A Dutch organist, blind from his early youth, became very
skilful in his profession ; he also acquired the habit of dis¬
tinguishing by touch the different kinds of money, and even,
it is said, the primary colours. He was a first-rate card-
player ; for in dealing he knew the cards which he gave to
others as well as those which he kept for himself. (Lecat,
Iraites des Sens, p. 11.) Chauvet, born blind, was for
several years organist of Notre-Dame-de-Bonne-Nouvelle
at Paris. Mademoiselle Paradis of Vienna, who had lost
her sight when two years old, formed the delight of the
N D. 781
spiritual concerts at Paris in the year 1784. This lady, who Blind,
had great talents for musical composition, invented a method ^
of writing whatever she composed, by figuring the concords.
She began at first by tracing them on cards pricked with
needles ; but this first essay proving unsatisfactory, she fell
upon another method, which, however, has not been ex¬
plained,—a circumstance we regret the more, since it has
been described as at once certain and of easy execution.
Holman, the blind traveller, being still alive, can scarcely
with propriety be made the subject of a notice in this place.
This catalogue might easily be extended; but enough
has been said, and a sufficient number of facts accumulated,
to show what the blind are really capable of. There seems,
in truth, to be a sort of compensating power, alike subtile
in its resources and refined in its operation, by which a
multitude of latent faculties and unheeded perceptions are
called into activity to supply the want of one great inlet of
knowledge, and which, taken in the aggregate, and fully
developed, appear almost sufficient to fill up the blank which
has been left by nature or produced by disease in the cata¬
logue of human organs. Hence there are few things prac¬
ticable by persons possessed of sight which have not been
done by those who want it; whilst in regard to several the
balance of advantage is clearly in favour of the blind. This
is at once a wdse and beneficent provision of nature ; in per¬
fect harmony with the whole economy of providence in
the structure of the body as well as of the mind of man ;
and singularly illustrative of that foresight which has pro¬
vided, with such benevolent care, for the casualties as well
as the wants to which we are exposed in the present state
of existence. Had the case been otherwise every loss would
have been irreparable, and the smallest deprivation would
have driven us to despair. (j- B E-)
The number of blind persons in Great Britain has been variously
estimated ; by the most recent authorities it is computed at 25,000.
Of these, the great majority belong to the poorer classes, and conse¬
quently possess few facilities for education or self-improvement.
A good deal has of late years been attempted with a view to amelio¬
rate their condition ; but very much still remains to be done. Many
causes conspire to retard and obstruct the kindly efforts of English
philanthropists in their behalf, and none more than the tenacious
rivalry of self asserting system-mongers. While the public is en¬
gaged in deciding upon the respective merits of these “ systems,” it
forgets the beautiful maxim “ bis dat, qui cito datand the objects
of their benevolence meanwhile pine away in neglected helplessness.
It is impossible here to discuss or even to enumerate all the methods
that have been devised for the education of the blind; we shall
therefore confine ourselves to those that, by their popularity or
their intrinsic worth, recommend themselves most strongly to our
consideration. Their object—the teaching of the blind to read, and
in this way developing the higher faculties of their minds is the
only point they can be said to possess in common. From the cha¬
racters they respectively adopt, these systems have been arranged
into two classes—the alphabetical and the arbitrary—in the first of
which the Roman letters of the ordinary alphabet are employed;
in the latter arbitrary characters represent letters, words, and com¬
binations of sounds. Of the alphabetical systems, the best are—
1. Alston’s system; 2. The American ; 3. The French alphabetical;
4. Alston modified. Of the arbitrary systems, the best are—1. Lu¬
cas’s system ; 2. Frere’s system ; 3. Moon’s ; 4. Le Systeme Braille;
5. Le Systeme Carton.
The merits of these two great classes have been long and keenly
canvassed by their respective propounders ; but it is now generally
admitted that of the two classes the alphabetical is the best; and
that of the alphabetical systems Alston’s is the most convenient for
general use. The reasons for so decided a verdict in favour of the
last-named method are briefly summed up in the Tangible Typogra¬
phy of E. C. Johnson, who thus defines the conditions which must
be satisfied by every system intended to facilitate the intellectual im¬
provement of the blind. “ The system of embossed printing for
their use should embrace at least the following features :—1. It must
resemble as nearly as possible the type in ordinary use among those
who have eyesight; (a) that the blind scholar learning to read may
have every possible help from words which he may have formerly
seen, but which now his fingers must decipher; {b) that he may de¬
rive help in learning from any one who can read an ordinary book ;
or, if needful, that his friend may be able to read to him. 2. It
782
B L I
B L O
Blind Coal must present the words correctly spelt in full, that when he learns
|| to write, he may do so in a correct manner which others can read.
Bloch. 3. The raised characters must be clear, sharp, and well defined,
v J which the finger hardened by long work, and the keen soft touch of
the little child, may be alike able to discern.” No system at present
in use fulfils all these conditions save Alston’s, and those framed
upon its model.
Lucas's system is a stenographic one, differing however, from all
stenographic systems in this, that the characters occupy more space
than if the words were all written at full length in Roman capitals.
The New Testament in Alston’s system is comprised within 623
pages, whereas in Lucas’s it occupies 841.
Mr Frere’s system is also a stenographic one, based on the phonetic
principle, or combination of elementary sounds. His alphabet con¬
sists of 29 arbitrary symbols, to each of which is attached a short
descriptive versicle, intended to fix more strongly in the memory of
the learner the force of the symbol. The vowels are represented
by simple dots, which in different positions denote different vowels,
and are divided into five long and five short. • Twelve rules in dog-
grel metre are supplied, which teach the learner how to supply the
omitted vowels correctly.
Moon’s is perhaps more difficult and intricate than either Lucas’s
or Frere’s. Its principles are thus propounded by Mr Moon him¬
self. “ In order to avoid the complicated form of the Roman letter,
and the still less discernible angular type, I have invented an alpha¬
bet, each letter of which is formed of two lines only : most of the
letters bearing a partial resemblance to those in ordinary use. Nine
forms placed in different positions represent the whole alphabet
and numerals ; one form serving for A, V, K, L, and X, and another
for E, L, M, and Y, while there are but four contracted forms, merit,
ing, tion, and ness." It will be found, however, on examination, that
the resemblance between the letters of Mr Moon’s alphabet, and the
Roman capitals of that in common use is by no means so great as
the above announcement would reasonably warrant us in expecting.
As Mr Moon’s system is moreover the most cumbrous and expensive
that has yet been devised, it is not probable in the meantime that
its adoption will be so general, or its success so great, as its author
would seem to have anticipated. The New Testament has been
printed according to the plan propounded in each of the five systems
already enumerated. If it be taken as a standard of comparison
for the whole five, their relative position will be as follows :—
Systems.
American
Alston’s
Lucas’s 
Frere’s 
Moon’s ....
No. of
Volumes.
No. of
Pages.
430
623
841
733
Sq uare
inches in
Page.
117
90
70
110
110
£ s. d.
0 16 0
2 0 0
2 0 0
2 10 0
4 10 0
Block.
t.
Blind Coal, or Anthracite, corresponds to the glance
coal of England, and the stone coal of Wales. It is very
common in Scotland and in Ireland, as well as in many parts
of the Continent; and in America it is the staple fuel. See
Coal. Its application to the useful arts is given in the
article Smelting. See also Mineralogy.
BLINDING, a species of punishment anciently inflicted
on thieves, adulterers, perjurers, and others, and from which
the ancient Christians were not exempt. It was sometimes
effected by a mixture of lime and vinegar, or scalding vine¬
gar, poured into the eyes; sometimes a rope was twisted
round the head till the eyes started out. In the middle
ages, this punishment was effected by holding a red-hot
iron basin before the eyes. See Abacinare.
BLINDNESS, Periodical, is that which comes and
goes by turns, according to the season of the moon, the
time of day, and the like. Diurnal blindness is called
hemeralopia. Nocturnal blindness, called also nyctalopia,
is that which ensues on the setting of the sun in persons
who see perfectly in the day, but become quite blind as night
approaches. (See Phil. Trans. No. 159, p. 560; and a
singular case related by Dr Samuel Pye in the Medical
Observ. and Inquir. vol. i. p. 111.)
BLOCH, Mark Eliezer, an eminent ichthyologist and
helminthologist, born at Anspach, of very poor Jewish pa¬
rents, about the year 1730. Having entered the employ¬
ment of a surgeon at Hamburg, he was enabled by his own
exertions to supply the want of early education, and made
great progress in the study of anatomy, as well as in the
other departments of medical science. He established
himself as a physician at Berlin, and found means to collect
there a valuable museum of the subjects of all the three king¬
doms of nature, as well as an extensive library.
He applied himself, however, more particularly to those
parts of natural history which are the most connected with
the practice of physic ; and, on occasion of a prize question
of the academy of Copenhagen, he entered into a very ela¬
borate examination of the different species of worms which
are found in the bodies of other animals. In his essay on
this subject, to which the prize was adjudged, he maintains
that the parasitical species are only found within the animal
body ; and since they often occur in the foetus, and in cavi¬
ties which are completely inclosed, he infers that they must be
generated in some unknown way, and not taken in with the
food in the form of eggs. For the general remedy in cases
of worms in the intestinal canal, he recommends large draughts
of cold water, followed by cathartics. He has added to his
Essay a complete classification and description of all the
species of intestinal worms, accompanied by figures.
M. Bloch also published a variety of papers on different
subjects of natural history, and of comparative anatomy and
physiology, in the collections of the various academies of
Germany, Holland, and Russia, particularly in that of the
Friendly Society of Naturalists at Berlin. But his great
work was his Ichthyology, which occupied the labour of a
considerable portion of his life. His attention was first
directed to the subject by receiving a present of a species
of salmon, which he could not find described in the Linnaean
System of Nature ; and he discovered a number of similar
omissions in Artedi, and in all former ichthyologists. He
accordingly undertook to collect into one work everything
that was known respecting the natural history of fishes, and
to give figures of all the species; and he passed several
summers by the sea-side, and among fishermen and their
nets, comparing the descriptions of authors with nature, and
taking bold sketches of the most interesting subjects, not
uncommonly on board of the fishing boats which furnished
them. His publication was encouraged by a large subscrip¬
tion, and it passed rapidly through five editions in German
and in French. He made little or no alteration in the sys¬
tematical arrangement of Artedi and Linnaeus, although he
was disposed to introduce into the classification some modi¬
fications depending on the structure of the gills, especially
on the presence or absence of a fifth gill, without a bony
arch ; a character which affords some useful subdivisions of
several genera. To the number of genera before esta¬
blished, he found it necessary to add nineteen new ones ; and
he described 176 new species, many of them inhabitants of
the remotest parts of the ocean ; and by the brilliancy of
their colours, or the singularity of their forms, as much ob¬
jects of popular admiration as of scientific curiosity.
In 1797 he paid a visit to Paris, where he was secure of
finding a variety of collections of such subjects of natural
history as had been inaccessible to him on the shores of the
Baltic ; and he returned to Berlin by way of Holland. His
health, which had hitherto been unimpaired, began now to
decline. He went to Carlsbad for its recovery, but his con¬
stitution was exhausted, and he died there on the 6th of
August 1799. (Coquebert in Rapport de la Societe Phi-
lomathique, vol. iv. 8vo, Par. 1800.) (T- Y-)
BLOCK, an instrument or machine of wood, chiefly em¬
ployed in the rigging and other parts of a ship, by means
B L O
B L O
783
Block- of which a facility is given to the hoisting or lowering of
Machinery, the masts, yards, and sails, or to the moving of any great
weight, as guns, anchors, bales, casks, and the like. It is,
in fact, a modification of the pulley, and the names may
almost be considered as synonymous.
There is nothing in the appearance of a block which, to
an unpractised eye, would seem to require any stretch of
mental ingenuity or of manual dexterity to manufacture.
It is a machine apparently so rude in its structure, and so
simple in its contrivance, that the name was probably given
to it from its general resemblance to a log of wood, as is
obviously the case with a butcher’s block, a barber’s block,
the block of the executioner, &c. Of the two constituent
parts of a ship’s block, the external shell and the internal
sheave, every carpenter might make the one, and every
turner the other; and yet, when blocks were made by the
hand, it seldom happened that the several parts were ad¬
justed to each other with sufficient accuracy, or that a strict
uniformity was observed in the various sorts and sizes; with¬
out which they cannot be expected to work with that de¬
gree of ease and truth which is so desirable, and even
necessary, in the important office they are designed to fulfil
in the rigging and other parts of a ship.
BLOCK-MACHINERY. To acquire a greater degree
of accuracy and uniformity, as well as celerity, in the mak¬
ing of blocks, Mr Walter Taylor of Southampton took out
a patent in the year 1781, to secure to himself the benefit
of some improvement he had made in the construction of
the sheaves: he also shaped the shells, cut the timber, &c.,
by machinery, which was put in motion by water on the
river Itchin, near Southampton, where he carried on so ex¬
tensive a manufacture of blocks, as to be able to contract
with the commissioners of the navy for nearly the whole
supply of blocks and blockmakers’ wares required for the
use of the royal navy.
Mr Dunsterville of Plymouth had also a set of machines
wrought by horse-power, for making the principal parts
of blocks ; his manufacture, however, of this article was
not carried to any great extent; but the blocks made by
this machinery, as well as those by Mr Taylor’s, were said
to be of a superior quality to those constructed by the hand,
though still deficient in many respects.
No objection, however, would probably have been made
to the quality of the blocks furnished by Mr Taylor, and
used in the navy. It would rather appear that the enor¬
mous quantity consumed in the course of a long protracted
war first called the attention of the admiralty or navy board
to the possibility of some reduction being made in the ex^
pense of so indispensable and important an article in the
naval service; and to the imprudence of depending en¬
tirely on a single contractor, whom accident or misfortune
might disable from fulfilling his contract.
On these considerations, it seems to have been the in¬
tention of government to introduce, among other improve¬
ments then carrying on in Portsmouth dock-yard, a set of
machines for making blocks, at the new wood-mills erected
in that yard in 1801. About this time the improvements
which had been introduced into private concerns were gra¬
dually finding their way into the great public establishments
of the country. Still, however, an old maxim seemed to
prevail, that government ought not to be its own manufac¬
turer. This maxim, though perhaps generally just in poli¬
tical economy, is, we conceive, neither just nor wise when
applied to those articles which are of the first necessity in
the royal navy. Indeed, where the safety of so many
thousand lives depends wholly, as is sometimes the case,
on the strength of materials and goodness of workmanship,
it is most desirable that the whole ship, and every part of
it, from the pin of a sheave to the sheet anchor, should be
manufactured under the immediate superintendence of re¬
spectable officers in the royal service.
About this time, too, Mr Brunei (afterwards Sir Marc Block
Isambart Brunei) had completed a working model of ^acllinery'
certain machines for constructing, by an improved method, v>—*v-^’
the shells and sheaves of blocks. This model was submit¬
ted to the inspection of the lords commissioners of the
admiralty, and by them referred to General Bentham,
the inspector-general of naval works, who represented
that, as the making of blocks was one of the purposes for
which a part of the force of the steam-engine erecting at
the wood-mills was intended to be applied, he did not
hesitate to recommend the new machine, as an invention
which would enable the government to construct its own
blocks with a greater degree of celerity and exactness
than those which were then in use; and that it appeared
to be well suited for manufacturing blocks of every de¬
scription and size, with a degree of accuracy, uniformity,
of the methods hitherto
Brunei’s machinery was
and cheapness, far beyond any <
The adoption of Mr
practised
the consequence of this opinion.
The advantages to be expected from blocks so made
were stated by Mr Brunei to consist,—first, in bringing the
shape of the outside of the shell to certain determined di¬
mensions, so that those of the same size should actually
be so, and not differ from one another, either in the pro¬
portion of the mortises, or in the shape and dimensions of
the outside; secondly, in adding strength where it was
wanted, by making the head and bottom more substantial,
and less liable to split; and, thirdly, in leaving the wood
between the two mortises thicker, so as to admit a suffici¬
ent bearing for the pins,—all of which would be accomplish¬
ed without requiring any dexterity on the part of the
workmen, but entirely by the operation of the machinery.
The uniformity and exactness with which they were to
be made would be attended with another important ad¬
vantage to the public ; the difficulty of counterfeiting
them would act as a precaution against embezzlement.
Another very considerable advantage would be derived
from the employment of much waste wood in the dock¬
yard, usually sold for little or nothing, for firewood and
other purposes.
The sheaves or shivers would, by this new machinery,
be made so mathematically true, and so exact to each
other in their thickness and diameters, that every sheave
of any particular size would equally fit any shell of the
size for which it was intended; and the inconvenience to
which ordinary blocks are liable from the friction of the
ropes against one or alternately both of the sides of the
mortises, was intended to be removed by placing a sheet
of metal on the upper part of the mortise, bent to the pro¬
per shape by an engine adapted for the purpose. Brunei
also proposed a new form for the clue-line and clue-garnet
blocks, so as to secure the sails from splitting, by prevent¬
ing the points of the sails getting into the blocks ; which
has since been adopted and greatly approved of in the
navy.
In the sheaves, instead of the double coak or cogue in¬
serted in two halves, he substituted a mixed metal coak
of a new and particular form, which will be described
hereafter, of increased strength and durability. This coak
was to be cast with precision in moulds, and fitted by an
engine with the greatest nicety ; and the pins or axes of
the sheaves were to be of wrought iron, case-hardened
and coated with tin, which would preserve the iron from
rust in the parts which are not kept free from it by fric¬
tion ; as it has been found by experience that, however
tight the pin be forced into the shells, the water will in¬
sinuate itself and corrode the pin; and when this is the
case, the rust soon extends itself to the parts on which
the sheave turns, and renders it unfit for use.
From the machines that were already completed for
manufacturing blocks of certain dimensions, Mr Brunei.
784
BLOC K-M ACHINERY.
Block- was enabled to make a calculation of the saving as to the
machinery, cost, compared with the contract prices, which would
be effected by the adoption of his invention. It was as
under:
Blocks of
12 inches. 16 inches.
d.
5
8
13
d.
6
21 inches.
5. d.
18 If
27 Of
8 inches.
s. d.
Brunell’s prices 1 8f
Contract prices 2 3^
Saving in first cost...0 6f 2 6^- 4? 6^ 8 lOf
These savings, if realized to the full extent, were pro¬
bably not more important than the increased strength,
durability, and facility of working, which have been gain¬
ed by the adoption of the block-machinery.
Those parts of the machinery which Brunei had com¬
pleted in London under his patent were transferred to
Portsmouth, and, in the course of the year 180-t, were in
operation; but the increased number of machines, the
improvements that suggested themselves to the ingenious
inventor, the application of other machines for making
dead-eyes, trucks, and all manner of block-maker s wares,
besides circular and upright saws, lathes, engines foi turn¬
ing pins, rivetting, polishing, &c. exercised his skill and
ingenuity till the year 1808, when he considered the
whole system to be complete in every part, and incapable,
as far as he could judge, of further improvement, hrom
that time to the present, the block-machinery has been in
full and constant employment, without requiring the least
alteration, and very little repair, beyond the unavoidable
wear and tear of engines that are kept in almost constant
motion; and, which is still more extraordinary, without
requiring the aid of the inventor, though attended only
by a few common workmen or labourers ; but they are
superintended by Mr Burr, the master of the wood-mills,
who is considered as an able and ingenious machinist.
The quantity of blocks of every description, manufactured
by the machinery in Portsmouth wood-mills, is more than
sufficient for the consumption of the whole navy and the
board of ordnance, and if pushed to the utmost extent of the
works, would also have been sufficient to supply the greater
part of the shipping employed in the transport service.
It may be a matter of some curiosity to know the re¬
sults of this system of machinery. It is put in motion by
a steam-engine of thirty-two horses power, which, how¬
ever, is applied to a great variety of other purposes at the
same time, wholly independent of the block-machinery.
It has been found by calculation, that four men with the
machinery, as it now stands, can complete the shells of as
many blocks as fifty men could do by the old method;
and that six men will furnish as many sheaves as.before
required sixty; and that these ten men, in displacing the
labour of one hundred and ten men, can with ease finish
in one year from 130,000 to 140,000 blocks of different
sorts and sizes, the total value of which cannot be less
than L.50,000; and this is stated to be the average num¬
ber which has annually been made from the year 1808 to
the conclusion of the war. This number is found to be
fully sufficient for supplying the wear and tear of blocks,
not only in the naval, but also in the ordnance depait-
ment. The consumption, however, must depend on other
circumstances besides the number of ships in commission,
and will be greater or less according as ships have been
employed on severe or easy service, in a good or bad cli¬
mate, in fine or rough weather, &c. Nor will the number
here stated appear to be enormous, when it is considered
what a multitude of blocks are 1’equired for a thousand
sail of ships, which at one period of the war were in com¬
mission at the same time. A ship of 74 guns, for instance,
requires the following blocks for her equipment:
No. Block-
Single blocks from 5 to 26 inches  622 machlliei7
Double ditto from 7 to 26 ditto  130
Various other blocks, generally large, and several)
of them treble j
For each of the 74 guns, 6 blocks  444
Total  1270
Besides dead-eyes, hearts, parrels, and puttock-1 jqq
plates, all manufactured at the mills J
Of all kinds in a 74 gun ship, 1430
The average number of ships of the line in commission
appears to have been about 100; these would require
143,000 blocks; and allowing the remaining 900 ships and
vessels to require only twice this number, there would be
wanted for the first equipment of the 1000 ships of war
429,000 blocks, which, at the ordinary rate of making
them at the mills, would require three years in com¬
pleting.
The different sorts and sizes of blocks used in the navy
exceed two hundred, and they vary from four to twenty-
eight inches in length. Those above eighteen inches are
more sparingly used, and the shells of the largest kinds
are made in parts, and fitted together by hand.
To the completion of this ingenious machinery, Brunei
gave his whole attention from the month of September
1802 to June 1808, during which time he received no
other compensation beyond the daily allowance of one
guinea; but as it was now in full operation, and ascer¬
tained to be capable of making a sufficient number of
blocks for the whole naval and ordnance departments,, it
became a question in what manner the author of the in¬
vention should be rewarded. It was suggested by Geneial
Bentham, and agreed to by Brunei, that the savings of
one year, as compared with the contract prices, would be
a fair and not an unreasonable remuneration for the time,
labour, and ingenuity bestowed on these extraordinary ma¬
chines. It was no easy matter, however, to ascertain with
precision what the actual savings amounted to.
Mr Brunei, by estimate, made them amount
t0   L.21,174 0 0
Mr Rogers, clerk to General Bentham, by
estimate. 12>742 0 0
General Bentham, after going into every possible de¬
tail of expense with the utmost minuteness that could be
expected in a private manufacturing concern, calculated
them at   L.16,621 0 0
Add six years’ allowance at a guinea a-day,
about.:.  2,400 0 0
For the working-model  1,000 0 0
Total amount received by Brunei, about L.20,000 0 0
Supposing, therefore, the whole cost of the buildings,
steam-engine, machinery, interest of money, &c. to amount
(which we understand to be about the mark) to L.53,000,
and the net compensation for profits to about L.18,000,
the whole expense of the concern was completely cleared
in four years. The savings of L.18,000_on one year’s ma¬
nufactured articles of the value of L.50,000 amounts to
something more than Brunei had originally made it by
computation. , .
It would occupy too much space to enter into a minute
description, and require more time than we can spare to
prepare engravings in detail, of the various complicated
systems of machinery that are employed for the comple¬
tion of a block ; and, after all, they would afford but little
use or instruction, excepting perhaps to a professed ma¬
chinist ; and perspective views of the several systems
would tend rather to mislead or confuse than to inform t ie
BLOC K-M A C H IN E R Y.
Block- general reader. But as everybody who happens to in¬
machinery. Spect Portsmouth dock-yard makes a point of visiting the
block-machinery, we think it may be of some use, in con-
veying a general idea of the most striking parts of the
machinery, by following the process of making a block
from the rough unsided tree, till the last finish is given
to it.
We have stated that the original intention of the build¬
ing was that of a wood-mill, in which all manner of sawing,
turning, boring, rabbetting, and the like, was tobe performed,
and that the block-machinery was superadded to the first
design, with which, however, it has interfered so little,
that, in addition to the immense number of blocks manu¬
factured at the mill, upwards of a hundred different ar¬
ticles of wood-work are made by other machinery, put in
motion by the same steam-engine, from the boring of a
pump of forty feet in length, to the turning of a button
for the knob or handle of a drawer. (See Dock-yard,
Portsmouth.) Lest, however, the engine, with such a
variety of work, might be overloaded, a second engine has
been added, to assist, if found necessary, or to be substitut¬
ed in the event of accident happening to the other. Among
the many ingenious machines belonging to the wood-mills,
exclusive of those for making blocks, one of very great, ef¬
fect, and at the same time great simplicity, is a circular
saw for cutting rabbets in the edges of deal planks, in¬
vented by Mr Burr, the superintending master of the
wood-mills.
The whole of the machinery in these mills is put in
motion by straps passing over drum-heads, by which the
several movements, numerous as they are, are carried on
without the least noise; and all the engine-work, and
every part of the machinery, are so truly made, and so
firmly put together, and work with such accuracy in all
their motions, that though the spectator is surrounded on
all sides with movements in every possible direction, and
some most rapid and violent, the only noise that disturbs
him arises from the cutting, boring, turning, polishing, and
other instruments which are actually in contact with the
work that is under execution, and none of it from the
working of the machinery. All the iron work, of which
it is chiefly composed, was made by Mawdsley; and there
is but another workman, perhaps, in the united kingdom,
who could have finished the engines in a manner so wor¬
thy of the invention.
The first wing of the building is chiefly occupied by
upright and circular saws, used for a variety of purposes
not immediately connected with the making of blocks.
The only operation for this department is that of convert¬
ing the rough timber, which is generally elm or ash, most
commonly the former, into its proper scantling; that is to
say, squaring it by the upright or straight-cutting saw,
and then, by a circular saw, cross-cutting it into a certain
number of parallelopipedons, whose lengths may bear the
required proportion to the thickness of the log. Some of
these pieces are again cut longitudinally, according to the
thickness that may be required for the shell of the block,
especially those for single and double blocks, which of
course are thinner than three and four-fold blocks. This
operation is performed by what is called a ripping-saw.
The logs thus cut out are then taken into the second wing
of the wood-mills, where the machinery peculiar for the
construction of blocks is erected ; and here the first pro¬
cess may be said to commence in making the Shell.
This operation is performed by the Boring Machine,
which, by means of a centre bit applied to the middle of
the shell, bores a hole for the centre pin of the sheave,
while another bores one, two, or three holes, at right an¬
gles to the direction of the first, to admit the first stroke
of the chisel, and, at the same time, to serve for the head
VOL. IV.
785
of the mortise or mortises, according as the intended block Block-
is to contain one, two, or three sheaves. When thus bored, machinery,
the log is carried from hence to the
Mortising Machine, which is an ingenious and striking
piece of mechanism. The block being firmly fixed on a
movable carriage, the latter is so contrived as to be made
to advance to the cutting chisels, which are set fast in a
movable frame. Every time the frame with the chisels
ascends, the block in its carriage advances a little, so as to
present to the chisels a fresh surface of wood to be acted
upon at each stroke of their descent; and this up and
down motion is continued with such rapidity, that the
chisels make from one hundred to one hundred and thirty
strokes in a minute, until the prescribed length has been
mortised out; when, by raising a handle, which is done
by a boy, the machine is stopped precisely when the chisels
stand at their greatest elevation; and are thus left in the
proper position, ready to commence a second operation.
No harm, however, would happen, either to the block or
the machinery, should the attending boy neglect to stop
the work at the proper time, or even to fall asleep, not¬
withstanding the force and rapidity of the stroke; for, by
a particular contrivance, the farther advance of the block
is stopped, and the chisels, therefore, act in full space,
and cut only the air. It is, indeed, a general characteristic
of Brunei’s machinery, to be so constructed as to carry
with it a defence or protection against its own operations,
and to counteract all ill effects that might otherwise arise
from any neglect or inattention of the workmen.
The chips cut by the chisels are thrust out of the mor¬
tise by small pieces of steel attached to and projecting
from the back of each chisel. They are each of them,
besides, armed with two cutters placed at right angles to
the edge, called scribers, which mark out the width of the
chip to be cut by the chisel at each stroke. These scri¬
bers answer another purpose; their cutting is so true as
to leave the two sides of the mortise so perfectly smooth
as to require no further trimming or polishing.
The next process is to remove the block from the mor¬
tising machine to a circular saw, in order to have the four
corners taken off, by which operation it is reduced to an
octagonal shape. This saw being fixed into a table or
bench, the workman has nothing more to do than to slide
each log along the surface of the table, in the direction of
the line marked out for the saw to cut it.
The next operation is to place the block upon the
Shaping Machine. This is perhaps one of the most inge¬
nious and most effective contrivances in the whole ma¬
chinery of the wood-mills. It consists principally of two
equal and parallel circular wheels moving on the same
axis, to which one of them is firmly fixed, but on which
the other is made to slide ; so that these two wheels may be
placed at any given distance from each other, and blocks
of any size admitted between their two rims or periphe¬
ries. For this purpose, both rims are divided into ten
equal parts, for the reception of ten blocks, which are
firmly and immovably fixed between the two wheels.
When the double wheel with its ten attached blocks is
put in motion, the outer surfaces of the blocks, or those
which are farthest from the centre, strike with great vio¬
lence against the edge of a chisel or gouge fixed in a
movable frame, which, being made to slide in a curved
direction in the line of the axis, cuts those outward faces
of the blocks to their proper curvature, which can be al¬
tered in any way the workman pleases, by a contrivance
attached to the cutting tool. As soon as the tool has tra¬
versed the whole length of the block, or over the space
contained between the two peripheries of the wheels,
the machine is thrown out of the gear, and its prodigious
velocity checked by a particular contrivance. The ten
5 G
786 BLOC K-M A
Block- blocks are then, by a single operation, and without re-
machinery, moving them, each turned one fourth part round, and
another fourth part of their surface brought outwards,
which, being exposed to the cutting instrument traversing
in the same direction as before, have the same curvature
given to these new surfaces. A third side is then turned
outwards, and, after that, the fourth and last side, when
the whole ten blocks are completely shaped, and ten other
octagonal logs applied to the peripheries to undergo the
same operation.
The immense velocity with which the wheels revolve,
and the great weight with which their peripheries are
loaded, would make it dangerous to the workmen or bye-
standers, if, by the violence of the centrifugal force, any
of the blocks should happen to be thrown off from the rim
of the wheels; to prevent the possibility of such an acci¬
dent, an iron cage or guard is placed between the work¬
man and the machine.
The shell of the block being now mortised and com¬
pletely shapen, the last operation is performed by the
Scoring Machine, which, by means of cutters, scoops out
a groove round the longer diameter of the block, deepest
at the ends, and vanishing to the central hole for the pin
on which the sheave turns. The intention of this groove
or channel is to receive the hempen or iron strap which
surrounds the block. The only thing that now remains
for completing the shell, is the removal of the little rough¬
nesses from the surface, and giving to it a kind of polish,
which is done by the hand.
The Sheaves. The wood generally used for making
sheaves is lignumvitse, but iron or bell-metal have occa¬
sionally been substituted for this wood. An attempt was
made to introduce sheaves of a kind of porcelain, which
answered well enough for some particular purposes, but
were not to be trusted in situations where they were lia¬
ble to sudden jerks and irregular motions. In the navy
they are almost invariably of lignumvitae, a few perhaps
of ebony. The machinery employed for making this part
of the block consists of a Circular Saw, by which the log is
cut into plates of the thickness required for the sheaves,
according to their several diameters. These plates are
next carried to a Crown Saw, which bores the central hole,
and at the same time reduces them to a perfect circle of
the assigned diameter. The sheave, thus shaped, is next
brought to the Cooking Machine, a piece of mechanism not
inferior in ingenuity to the Shaping Machine for the shells.
It would be useless to attempt to describe by words the
movements of this engine, but the effect of the operation
is singularly curious. A small cutter, in traversing round
the central hole of the sheave, forms a groove for the in¬
sertion of the coak or bush, the shape of which is that
of three semicircles, not concentric with each other, nor
with the sheave, but each having a centre equally distant
from that of the sheave. The manner in which the cut¬
ter traverses from the first to the second, and from this to
the third semicircle, after finishing each of them, is ex¬
ceedingly curious, and ne”er fails to attract the particular
notice of visitors. So very exact and accurate is this
groove cut for the reception of the metal coak, and so
uniform in their shape and size are the latter cast in
moulds, that they are invariably found to fit each other so
nicely and without preparation, that the tap of a hammer
is sufficient to fix the coak in its place. The coaks are
cast with small grooves or channels in the inside of their
tubes, which serve to retain the oil or grease, without
which it would soon ooze out, and the pin become dry.
The sheave, with its coak thus fitted in, is now taken to
the Drilling Machine, which is kept in constant motion.
In casting the coaks a mark is left in the centre of each of
the three semicircles. This mark is applied by a boy to
C HIN E R Y.
the point of the moving drill, which speedily goes through Blockade,
the two coaks and the intermediate wood of the sheave,
A copper pin, cut from wire, of the proper length and
thickness, is inserted into the holes thus drilled. And
the sheave is then taken to the Rivetting Hammer, which is
something like a small tilt hammer, and can easily be made
to strike on the pin with greater or less velocity, accord¬
ing as the workman presses with more or less force on the
treadle. The rivetting being performed, the next opera¬
tion is that of broaching the central hole on which the
sheave turns, by means of a steel drill or cutter.
The last process is that of turning a groove for the rope
to run in round the periphery of the sheave, and this ope¬
ration is performed by a lathe, which is so constructed,
that while this groove is cutting round the rim of the
sheave, another part of the engine is turning smooth the
two surfaces or faces of the sheave; and this lathe can
be made to adapt itself to sheaves of different diameters.
The shell and the sheave being now completed, there
remains only the iron pin, which, passing through the two
sides of the former, serves as the axis on which the latter
turns within the mortise. These pins are also made,
turned, and polished by engines for the purpose, so that,
with the exception of strapping by rope or iron, the whole
block is completed at the wood-mills. It may here be re¬
marked, that the French, in the dock-yard of Brest, have
long been in the practice of making blocks by machinery ;
but they have not attempted anything like a shaping ma¬
chine, nor any substitute for it, the external shape of the
shell being made entirely by hand; nor have they such a
coaking machine as that invented by Brunei. The ma¬
chinery at Brest is put in motion by horses. (See Dock¬
yard.) (J. b—w.)
BLOCKADE, in war, the shutting, up of any place or
port by a naval or military force, so as to cut off all com¬
munication with those who are without the hostile line.
There is, perhaps, no part of the law of nations which,
in practice, presents so many perplexing questions as that
which concerns the respective rights of neutral and belli¬
gerent states. No definite line of distinction has yet been
drawn between the privileges of war and peace; and the
consequence has been, that, in all the wars which have
been waged in Europe, the general tranquillity of the
world has been endangered by the jarring of these two
different interests. It has commonly happened, too, that
all these important questions have been agitated during a
season of war; when the passions of the contending parties
were keenly engaged in the dispute; when principles were
already subverted; and when the minds of men, exasperat¬
ed by the glaring infraction of acknowledged rights, were
not in a state to agree on any system of general equity by
which to regulate and reform the erring policy of states.
In these circumstances, many points of international law,
which appear to rest on the most obvious principles, and
which are very clearly settled in the writings of civilians,
have, nevertheless, been the occasion in practice of no
small controversy, and have frequently involved nations
in all the miseries of protracted war. This has been in
some measure manifested in the case of the Rights of
Blockade, respecting which, though no difference of opi¬
nion has ever prevailed amongst speculative writers, a con¬
troversy arose during the late contests in Europe, which,
along with other points, ultimately involved Great Britain
in a war with the neutral powers. We propose, in the
course of the subsequent observations, to state, ls£, The
general principles from which the most approved writers
have deduced the rights of blockade; and, 2d, To give a
short account of the differences which took place between
the neutral and the belligerent states, respecting the ex¬
tent of those rights.
B L O
Blockade. In regulating the respective privileges of the neutral
and the belligerent, it has generally been held as a fun¬
damental principle, by writers on the law of nations, that
those rights, from the exercise of which less benefit would
accrue to the one party than detriment to the other,
should be abandoned; and in all cases where the rights of
peace and the rights of war happen to come into collision,
the application of this rule will decide which of the two
parties must yield to the convenience of the other. Thus
the neutral state is debarred from carrying on any trade
with either of the belligerents in warlike stores. The ge¬
neral right to a free trade is modified, in this particular
instance, by the paramount rights of the belligerent. To
refrain for a time from trading with an individual state in
warlike stores, can at most only impose a trifling incon¬
venience on the neutral power, whilst the continuance of
such a trade might terminate in the destruction of the
belligerent. The detriment occasioned to the one party,
by the existence of such a trade, is, in this manner, infi¬
nitely greater than the loss suffered by the other from its
abandonment. Warlike stores, and whatever else bears
a direct reference to war, are accordingly proscribed as
unlawful articles of trade, and made liable to seizure by
either of the belligerents. To this inconvenience the
neutral is exposed, to avoid the greater inconvenience and
damage which might fall on the belligerent by the licens¬
ing of such a trade. On the other hand, the neutral state
enjoys the most unlimited freedom of trade in all other
articles with either of the powers at war; and though, by
means of this beneficial intercourse, they may be both
furnished with the means of carrying on a protracted con¬
test, this is a contingent and incidental consequence of
the trade, which, in its character, is substantially pacific,
and which is attended with such great and immediate ad¬
vantages, that they could not, with any regard to equity,
be sacrificed to the remote convenience of the belligerent.
Applying these principles to a siege or to a blockade,
it is evident that the belligerent who had an expensive
scheme of hostile operations of either kind in dependence
would be far more seriously injured by its interruption
than the neutral would be benefited by a free intercourse
with the blockaded place. On this ground, therefore, a
belligerent who has formed a siege or a blockade, has an
indisputable right to debar the neutral from all intercourse
with those who are included within his lines ; and any at¬
tempt to penetrate the blockade for the purposes of trade,
subjects those who attempt it to destruction, and their
properties to confiscation. The very existence, indeed,
of a siege or a blockade, as a lawful act of hostility, im¬
plies the right of enforcing it by an indiscriminate exclu¬
sion of all who seek access to the besieged.
But although this view of the nature of a blockade, and
of the rights attaching to it, is clearly laid down by all
writers on the law of nations, and although it has been ac¬
knowledged in practice by all civilized states, a question
was agitated in the late wars of Europe, between the
neutral and the belligerent powers, as to the degree of re¬
straint necessary to constitute a blockade, and, of course,
to entitle the blockading party to all the rights conse¬
quent upon this scheme of operations; and it is this dis¬
pute which was, in a great measure, the occasion of a
general war with the neutral powers.
The unexampled success which attended the naval ope¬
rations of Great Britain, during the war with France, na¬
turally suggested to her rulers the possibility of extend¬
ing this species of annoyance, and of converting the all-
powerful navy which they possessed into an instrument
of active hostility. With this view, instead of confining
its efforts to the mere watching of the enemy’s already
ruined trade, it was resolved to give greater scope to such
B L O 787
an immense engine of maritime power, by placing under Blockade,
blockade the enemy’s ports, the mouths of navigable
rivers, and even extensive tracts of his coast. Procla¬
mations to this effect were accordingly issued; and the
neutral trader was duly warned off, and prohibited, un¬
der the peril of detention, from all intercourse with the
interdicted coast. But the legality of these blockades
by proclamation being disputed, both by the neutral
powers and by the enemy, their execution was resist¬
ed by a counter-decree, which, on the plea of retaliation,
placed under blockade the whole island of Great Bri¬
tain, and subjected all neutral vessels to detention and
capture which should have been found touching at any
of its ports. On the same plea of retaliation, several
decrees, or orders in council, were issued by Britain,
ordaining, that no neutral vessel should have any inter¬
course with France and her dependencies, except such
vessel should first touch at a British port, where, in some
cases, the cargo was to be landed, and was to pay certain
duties to the British government. From this period the
maxims of equity, and the rules of international law, were
set aside, and the ocean became a scene of proscription
and pillage. All this anarchy having originated in a dis¬
agreement respecting the nature and extent of a blockade,
it becomes of importance to bring back the question to its
true elements, and to fix the principles by which alone it
should be settled.
The object of a blockade is to reduce the inhabitants
of the blockaded town to such straits that they shall be
forced to surrender to the discretion of their enemies in
order to preserve their lives; and hence the legality of every
blockade, except with a view to capture, has been ques¬
tioned. But without entering into this question, it seems
obvious that, in order to constitute the blockade of a
town, either with a view to capture or to temporary an¬
noyance, the line by which it is surrounded should be so
complete as entirely to obstruct all access into the place.
When a place is blockaded with a view to capture, the
task of maintaining a real blockade may safely be left to
the blockading party. But when a port is blockaded
with a view to mere maritime annoyance, the case is
widely different; because, in these circumstances, the
belligerent will equally attain his end by maintaining the
mere show of a blockade, while he is in possession of all
its substantial rights. He may, to save himself expense
and trouble, relax the blockade of his enemy’s ports, while
he enforces the exclusion of all neutrals as rigorously as
if he were maintaining an effectual blockade; and, in this
case, his proclamations, while they are issued ostensibly
for the blockade of the enemy’s ports, would, in reality,
amount to edicts for the suppression of the neutral trade.
The urgent, immediate, and obvious interests of the neu¬
tral would here be sacrificed to the remote, and in many
cases imaginary, convenience of the belligerent. An edict
might be issued for the blockade of the enemy’s ports, or
of extensive tracts of his coast, round which no hostile line
could ever be drawn so as to constitute a real blockade; and
the whole trade of the neutral, with those interdicted parts
of the enemy’s territory, would be immediately annihilated
at the arbitrary mandate of one of the belligerents. Instead
of being carried on as a matter of right, instead of being
regarded as a common benefit to the civilized world, and
on this account as proper to be cherished and encouraged,
the neutral trade would, under such a system, be looked
upon in the light of a tolerated evil, existing only by the
sufferance of those who imagined they had an interest in
obstructing and in crushing it. The law of nations is not
a partial system, modelled to suit the convenience of one
party. It is a system of general equity, and its edicts are
founded on a comprehensive view of what is for the com-
788
Block zyl
II
Blois.
B L O
mon welfare and protection. In this view, then, the conse¬
quences to the neutral of those extensive and nominal block¬
ades are sufficient to constitute them illegal. The damage
to the neutral is infinitely greater than the benefit to the bel¬
ligerent. The rights of blockade, and the limitation of those
rights, must stand upon the same principle of justice and of
public law; and their extension beyond this equitable prin¬
ciple must terminate in universal confusion and anarchy.
In opposition to these arguments in favour of the neutral
powers, it has been urged that the new system of naval an¬
noyance, introduced by Great Britain in 1806, was legal ac¬
cording to the strictest construction of the law of blockade,
because the proclamations for interrupting all intercourse be¬
tween the different parts of the French coast were not issued
until it was ascertained, by the most particular inquiries, that
Great Britain possessed an effectual naval force to blockade
the enemy’s coast from Brest harbour to the mouth of the
Elbe. It is solely upon this principle that the ministers of
our country maintained the legality of those blockades; and
any breach in the line of blockade, they admitted, would be
sufficient to constitute them illegal. Such, then, is the state
of this important controversy, which seems to resolve itself
into a mere question of fact, namely, whether the blockading
power has actually carried into effect the blockade, of which
notice by proclamation has been given to the neutral powers.
At the conclusion of the last treaty between Great Bri¬
tain and America, no settlement of these disputed questions
took place. The main war between the European bellige¬
rents, out of which the American dispute had incidentally
sprung, being at an end, the controversy respecting rights
which could only be exercised in a state of war had lost all
practical importance. It had become a mere question of ab¬
stract right, the decision of which was wisely adjourned by
the powers at war, and not suffered to clog the work of a ge¬
neral peace. It is likely, however, that on the breaking out
of any new war, this and other questions of a like nature
would recur, and on this account it might be of importance
to the future peace of the world if these questions could be
settled according to some acknowledged rule of equity or
policy, and that without delay. (d. b—N.)
BLOCKZYL, a town of Overyssel, in the Netherlands,
on the river Aa, at its junction with the Zuyder Zee. It has
a port sufficient to contain 200 vessels. Its fortifications,
which were considerable, have been allowed to fall to decay.
Long. 5. 52. E. Lat. 52. 45. N. Pop. 1650.
BLOEMART, Abraham, a Dutch historical painter,
born at Gorkum in 1567, who also painted landscapes with
good effect, and etched with considerable skill. He died in
1647. His son Cornelius was an eminent engraver, and re¬
markable for the softness and purity of his burin.
BLOIS, the capital of an arrondissement of the same
name, and also of the department of Loire et Cher in France,
is pleasantly situated in the form of an amphitheatre on the
steep slope of a hill on the right bank of the Loire, 35 miles
S.W. of Orleans. The town itself cannot be said to be
either handsome or well built; on the contrary, the houses
are generally mean, and the streets narrow and crooked. It
contains, however, several remarkable monuments of anti¬
quity. The castle is an immense structure built at different
periods, part of it as early as the thirteenth century. Here
Louis XII. was born, and the Duke of Guise and his brother
the cardinal basely murdered by the command of Flenry III.
It is now used as barracks. Among its other remarkable
buildings are the Hotel de Ville, the episcopal palace, now
the Hotel of the Prefecture, the Cathedral, the Church of
St Vincent, &c. An ancient aqueduct, cut in the solid rock
by the Romans, conveys the waters of several springs to a
reservoir, whence they are distributed to different parts of
the town. It is the seat of a bishopric founded by Louis XIV.,
and has a communal college, normal school, diocesan semi¬
nary, botanical garden, theatre, and public library. It ma-
Blood.
B L O
nufactures gloves, hosiery, hardware, and leather, and has an Blond
extensive trade in wine, timber, brandy, &c. Population
(1851) of town, 16,104; of arrondissement, 131,817.
BLOND, J. Christopher be, a painter of portraits and v
other subjects in miniature, was born at Frankfort in 1670.
He became known at Rome in the year 1716, being at that
time painter to the Count Martinetz, ambassador at that
court. He next went to Amsterdam ; and, after some years’
residence in the Low Countries, he came to England, where
he established a new method of printing mezzotinto plates
in colours, so as to imitate the pictures from which they
were copied. This invention,—which was not his own, but
borrowed from Eastman and others,—consisted in having
several mezzotinto plates for one piece, each expressing dif¬
ferent shades and parts of the piece in different colours. Le
Blond next embarked in a scheme for copying the cartoons
of Raphael in tapestry, and made drawings from them for that
purpose. Houses were built and looms erected at the Mul¬
berry Ground at Chelsea ; but the contributions not being
equal to the first expectations, the scheme was suddenly de¬
feated, and Le Blond disappeared, to the no small dissatis¬
faction of those who were engaged with him. He died in
an hospital at Paris in 1740. Le Blond explained his art in
a book entitled II Colonto, published in 1730, and he was
also the author of a treatise in French on Ideal Beauty,
which was published in 1732, and has since been translated
into English.
BLONDEL, a troubadour, the friend and companion of
the English Richard (Cceur de Lion) to the Holy Land. He
is said to have discovered the place where his master was
confined by his singing, when the gallant crusader was im¬
prisoned by the mean revenge of the Duke of Austria, though
modern scepticism has thrown doubts on the minstrel s part
in that event. (Berrington’s Richard I.)
Blondel, David, a Protestant minister, distinguished
by his skill in ecclesiastical and civil history, was born at
Chalons-sur-Marne, and was admitted to the ministry at a
synod of the Isle of France in 1614. He soon made himself
known by certain learned works, and in 1650 he succeeded
G. J. Vossius in the professorship of history at Amsterdam.
Bayle says he had a very singular way of studying. He lay
on the ground, and had around him the books which he
wanted for the work he was composing. He died in 1655.
Blondel, Francois, an eminent architect, born at Ribe-
mont in Picardy, a.d. 1617. He was employed in various
negotiations; arrived at the dignity of marechal-de-camp
and counsellor of state ; and instructed the dauphin of France
in mathematics. He was also made member of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences, and director of the Academy of Architec¬
ture. Fie died at Paris in 1688.
BLOND US, Flavius, an antiquary and historian, born
at Forli in 1388. He was secretary to Eugenius IV. and
several of the popes. Besides other works he wrote a history
extending from the year 400 to 1440. He died in 1463.
BLOOD. See Anatomy and Physiology, Animal.
Religious uses of Blood. Amongst the ancients blood
was used for the sealing and ratifying of covenants and al¬
liances, on which occasions the contracting parties drank
a little of each other’s blood; and also for appeasing the
manes of the dead, in order to which blood was offered on
their tombs as part of the funeral ceremony.
The blood of victims was anciently the portion of the
gods; and accordingly it was poured or sprinkled on the
altars in oblation to them. But the priests made another use
of blood, namely, for divination; the streaming of blood
being held a prodigy or omen of evil.
The Roman priests were not unacquainted with the use
of blood in miracles ; and they had their fluxes of blood from
images, ready to serve a turn, as, for instance, that said to
have streamed from the statue of Minerva at Modena befoi e
the battle at that place. But we know not whether, in this
789
B L 0 B L O
Blood, species of legerdemain, their successors have not gone be-
^ yond them. How many are the relations, in ecclesiastical
writers, of madonnas, crucifixes, and wafers, bleeding ? The
liquefaction of the blood of St Januarius at Naples, repeated
annually for so many ages, seems to transcend all the frauds
of the Grecian or Roman priesthood. But the chemists at
last got into the secret; and M. Neumann of Berlin per¬
formed the miracle of the liquefaction of dried blood, with
all the circumstances of the Neapolitan experiment.
Amongst the schoolmen we find a famous dispute, under
Pope Pius II., whether the blood of Christ, which fell from
him in the three days’ passion, retained or lost the hypo¬
static union ; and consequently whether it was the proper
object of adoration. The Dominicans maintained the for¬
mer, the Franciscans the latter. But the Dominican doc¬
trine gained the ascendency, as being fitted to favour the
profits of the monks, who becoming somehow possessed, as
they said, of a few drops of this precious liquor, were certain
of receiving ample offerings from the deluded laity, who
flocked to pay their homage to the sacred relic. Joseph of
Arimathea is said to have first brought into Britain two sil¬
ver vessels filled with the blood of Christ, which by his order
was buried in his tomb. King Henry III. had a crystal,
containing a portion of the same blood, sent him by the mas¬
ter of the temple of Jerusalem, attested with the seals of the
patriarch ; which treasure the king committed to the church
of St Peter’s, Westminster, and obtained from the bishops
an indulgence of six years and a hundred and sixteen days
to all who should visit it. And Matthew Paris assures us,
that the object of the king in summoning his nobles and pre¬
lates to celebrate the feast of St Edward in St Peter’s Church
was chiefly pro veneratione sancti sanguinis Christi nuper
adepti, in veneration of the holy blood of Christ lately ac¬
quired. Divers others of our monasteries were possessed of
this profitable relic ; as the college of Bons -Hommes at Ash-
ridge, and the abbey of Hales, to which it was given by
Henry, son of Richard, duke of Cornwall and king of the
Romans. This supposititious blood was resorted to by a
great concourse of people for devotion and adoration ; till, in
1-583, when the Reformation commenced, it was perceived
tto be only honey clarified and coloured with saffron, as was
shown at St Paul’s cross by the bishop of Rochester. The
like discovery was made of the blood of Christ found among
the relics in the abbey of Feschamp in Normandy, pretended
to have been preserved by Nicodemuswhen he took the body
from the cross, and given to that abbey by William duke of
Normandy. It was buried by his son Richard, and again
discovered in 1171, and attended with different miracles;
but the cheat, which had long been winked at, was at length
exposed, and a relation of it is given by Speed.
Avenger of Blood, among the Jews, was the next of kin
to the person murdered, wbo was authorized to pursue the
murderer, and, unless he found shelter in one of the cities
of refuge or sanctuaries, to take life for life.
Ecclesiastical judges retire when judgment is to be given
in cases of blood, by reason of the maxim, Ecclesia non
novit sanguinem. The church condemns no person to death ;
and by law, its members become disabled from their functions
by the effusion of blood.
Bloon-Hound, the canis sagax of Linnaeus, le chien
courant of Buffon, the sleuihounde of the Scots, a hound or
dog, with long, smooth, and pendulous ears. It was a dog
of great use, and in high esteem with our ancestors, being
employed to recover any game that had escaped wounded
from the hunter, or been killed and stolen out of the forest.
It was remarkable for the acuteness of smell, tracing the lost
beast by the blood it had spilt, from which the name is de¬
rived. This species could, with the utmost certainty, discover
the thief by following his footsteps, let his flight be rapid, and
through the most secret and thickest coverts ; nor would it
cease its pursuit till it had taken the felon.
The true blood-hound was large, strong, muscular, broad¬
breasted, of a stern countenance, of a deep tan colour, and Blood-
generally marked with a black spot above each eye. Whyte
Blood- Whyte, or Blood-wyte, in ancient law, signified a 11
customary amercement paid as a composition for the shed- Bloomfield
ding of blood. The word is also written blodwhite, blodwita,
blodwyta, bloodwit, blodwit, bloudwit, bluidiveit; being
formed from the Saxon bind, blood, and vite or wite, a fine or
penalty. It also denotes an exemption from this penalty,
granted by the king to certain persons and communities as
a special favour. King Henry II. granted to all tenants
within the honour of Wallingford, Ut quieti sint de hidagio
et blodicite et bredwite.
Blood, Thomas, generally known by the appellation of
Colonel Blood, was a disbanded officer of Oliver Cromwell’s,
famous for his daring crimes and his good fortune. He was
first distinguished by engaging in a conspiracy to surprise
the castle of Dublin ; but this scheme was defeated by the
vigilance of the duke of Ormond, and some of Blood’s ac¬
complices were executed. Escaping to England, he medi¬
tated revenge against Ormond, and actually seized him one
night in his coach in St James’s Street, where he might
have finished his purpose if he had not studied refinements
in his vengeance. He bound his captive on horseback be¬
hind one of his associates, resolving to hang him at Tyburn,
with a paper pinned to his breast; but when they had got into
the fields, the duke, in his efforts for liberty, threw' himself
and the assassin to whom he was fastened to the ground ;
and, while they were struggling in the mire, his grace was
rescued by his servants. But the authors of this attempt
were not then discovered. A little while after, in 1671,
Blood formed the design of carrying off the crown and regalia
from the Tower; an attempt which had very nearly been
successful. He had bound and wounded Edwards, the
keeper of the jewel-office, and had escaped out of the Tower
with his prey; but he was overtaken and seized, together
with some of his associates. One of these was known to
have been concerned in the attempt upon Ormond, and
Blood was immediately concluded to be the ringleader.
Wheja questioned, he frankly avowed the enterprise, but
refused to discover his accomplices. All these extraordinary
circumstances made him the general subject of conversation ;
and the king was moved with an idle curiosity to see and
speak with a person so noted for his courage and his crimes.
Whether the communications at this interview excited the
fear or admiration of the king, they confirmed his resolu¬
tion of granting a pardon to Blood. Charles carried his kind¬
ness to Blood still further, granting him an estate of LAOO
a-year in Ireland, encouraging his attendance about his per¬
son, and showing him great countenance. Whilst old Ed¬
wards, who had bravely ventured his Ife in defending the
crown and regalia, was forgotten and neglected, this villain
became a kind of royal favourite. Blood enjoyed his pen¬
sion about ten years ; but at last being; charged with fixing;
an imputation of a scandalous nature cm the Duke of Buck¬
ingham, he was obliged to find bail to* avoid being thrown
into prison, and before the trial came oa he died at his house
in Westminster, August 24. 1680.
BLOODSTONE, or Heliotrope, in Mineralogy, a
chalcedony or agate of a deep green colour, with blood-red
spots interspersed through it. Tartary and Siberia are its
chief localities. It occurs in Scotland in the isle of Rhum,,
in veins in trap rock.
BLOOMFIELD, Robert, the author of several pastoral'
poems of great beauty, was born of very humble parents at
the village of Honington in Suffolk,, in 1766* Without
education but what a village school afforded, and losing his
father at the age of eleven, he was apprenticed to a farmer,
and could only improve his taste by perusing such books as
he could borrow. Among these, Thomson seems to have-
been his favourite author, and The Seasons, inspired him*
B L 0
B L 0
with the ambition of being a poet. He came to London, and
composed The Farmer's Foy, in a garret in Bell Alley.
The MS. fell into the hands of the late Capel Lofft, who en¬
couraged him to print it; and it succeeded so W’ell, that above
26,000 copies of it were sold. His reputation was increased
by the appearance of his liural Tales, Songs and Ballads,
News from the Farm, Wild Flowers, and The Banks of the
Wye. These are of unequal merit; but all breathe a spirit
of purity and enthusiasm for the beauties of nature, that
place the name of Bloomfield among the most natural and
amiable of our pastoral poets. The extensive sale of The
Farmer's Boy and Wild Flowers seem to have done little
for the benefit of the poet. His broken health and pecu¬
niary difficulties carried him off at Shefford in Bedfordshiie,
in 1823, in his 57th year. (t. s.T.)
BLOUNT, Charles, younger son of Sir Henry Blount,
was born at Upper Holloway, April 27. 1654. His ‘‘ Amma
Mundi, or an Historical Narration of the Opinions of the
Ancients concerning Man’s Soul after this Life, according
to Unenlightened Nature,” gave great offence; but his trans¬
lation of Philostratus’s Life of Apollonius Tyanceus was sup¬
pressed as an attack on revealed religion. A similar work of
his, called Great is Diana of the Ephesians, under colour of
exposing superstition, struck at revelation. In 1684 he
printed a kind of introduction to polite literature, under the
title of Janua Scientiarum. In his zeal for the Revolution,
he wrote a pamphlet to prove King W illiam and Queen Mary
conquerors, which was condemned to be burnt by both
houses of parliament. One of his best pieces is a Vindica¬
tion of Learning, and of the Liberty of the Press, which had
some influence in preventing a renewal of the act that re¬
strained the freedom of the press. After the death of his
wife, he proposed to marry her sister, and on this subject
wrote a letter, with great learning and address ; but the
Archbishop of Canterbury and other divines decided against
him, and the lady having refused him, the unhappy man shot
himself, a.d. 1693. A collected edition of his works was
published in 1695, by Gildon, with a life and vindication by
the editor.
Blount, Sir Henry, an English writer, born at his father’s
seat in Hertfordshire, Dec. 15. 1602. He went abroad in
1634, and, becoming acquainted with ajanissary at Venice,
accompanied him into Turkey. After two years he returned
home and published an account of his travels, which is not
esteemed a w'ork of much authority. He was knighted by
Charles I. and was at the battle of Edge-Hill, at which time
he is supposed to have had the charge of the young princes ;
but after the king’s death he sided with the parliament.
Nevertheless, on the restoration of the royal family he was
appointed high-sheritf of the county of Hertford. He died
Oct. 9. 1682.
Blount, Thomas, a learned English writer, born in
1618 at Bordesley in Worcestershire. Upon the breaking
out of the Popish plot, he was much alarmed on account of
his reputation as a zealous Catholic ; and being seized with
a palsy, he died in December 1679. Besides other treatises he
was the author of Boscobel, or the History of His Majesty’s
Escape after the Battle of Worcester.
Blount, Sir Thomas Pope, the eldest son of Sir Henry,
was born at Upper Holloway, Middlesex, Sept. 12. 1649.
He distinguished himself as a lover of liberty, and a true
patron of learning. He was made a baronet by Charles
II. in whose reign he represented St Albans in two parlia¬
ments, and Hertfordshire three times after the Revolution.
He wrote in Latin, A Critique on the most celebrated
Writers; Essays on several subjects ; and other works of
minor importance. He died June 30. 1697.
BLOW, John, a celebrated English composer, born in
1648 at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire; died in
1708. The degree of doctor of music was conferred upon him
by Archbislvop Sancroft. In 1673 he was made a gentleman
of the chapel royal, and in 1685 was named one of the Blow-pipe,
private musicians of James II. In 1687 he became master
of the choir of St Paul’s Church; in 1695 was elected or¬
ganist of St Margaret’s, Westminster; and in 1699 com¬
poser to the chapel royal. In 1700 he published his Am-
phion Anglicus, a collection of pieces of music for one, two,
three, and four voices, with a figured-bass accompaniment.
Dr Burney mentions that in the Amphion Anglicus, “ the
union of Scottish melody with the English is first conspicu¬
ous.” Blow was a crude and careless composer, as may be
seen from a number of specimens given by Dr Burney in
the third volume of his History of Music. (g. f. g.)
BLOW-PIPE, an instrument for directing the flame of
a lamp or candle horizontally, so as to communicate an in¬
tense heat to small bodies placed in the flame. This is ef¬
fected by impelling with velocity through a small aperture,
against the flame, a stream of air, by means of the muscles
of respiration and the mouth, or by a bellows. The blow¬
pipe is used in soldering, by the jeweller and goldsmith, and
other artists, who fabricate small objects of metal; by the
glass-blower, in making thermometers and barometers, and
other instruments formed from the tubes which are obtained
from the glass-house ; by the enameller ; and also in glass-
pinching, which is the art of forming glass in a mould fixed
on a pair of pincers, into the ornamental pendants for glass
lustres. This is one of the many ingenious processes carried
on at Birmingham. The glass-blower, the enameller, and
the glass-pincher, work their blow-pipe with the blast of a
pair of bellows. As the process of soldering requires a shorter
continuance of the blast, the blow-pipe for this purpose is
blown by the mouth. By the mineralogist and chemist the
blow-pipe is used as an instrument for extemporaneous
analysis in the dry way.
Fig. 1, Plate CVIL, is the common blow-pipe used in Different
soldering ; it is of brass. Fig. 2 is Dr Wollaston’s blow-pipe, forms of
which is composed of three tubes of brass, of an elongated Wow-pipes,
conical form, which are made to fit stiff and air-tight into
each other when in use, and the two smaller pack into the
largest; so that the instrument, when not in use, occupies
a very small space, and may be carried in the pencil-case of
a common pocket-book. This, with a piece of platina-foil,
two or three inches long, to hold the object of experiment
to the flame, constitutes a commodious dokimastic apparatus
for the travelling mineralogist. I he three parts of the tube
are represented, packed the one within the other, at A, se¬
parate at B, and put together ready for use at C, fig. 2. _
A second division of blow-pipes consists of those which Bulbed
have a cavity for the purpose of retaining the humidity of the blow-pipes,
breath, which, without this precaution, collects into drops
when the blowing is continued long, and is at last driven
upon the matter under operation so as to cool it. They are
of various forms ; see figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and have been
contrived for the purposes of the chemist and mineralogist.
Fig. 3 is of glass or of metal. Fig. 4 is of brass or of silver,
containing no alloy of copper, so that it may not be subject
to green rust. This is the form recommended by Bergman
in his treatise on the application of the blow-pipe to the
purposes of the mineralogist, which is contained in the
collection of his works. (See Bergmani Opuscula, vok ii.)
For the facility of cleaning, it is in three pieces, which fit in
stiff at A and B. Fig. 5 is of tin, that is to say of tinned
iron ; the small pipe A is of brass and has two or three raps
that fit on stiff; each cap is pierced with a hole of a differ¬
ent diameter ; and as the blast issues through this hole, the ^
force of the blast may be varied by changing the cap. I his
is called Dr Black’s blow-pipe. Fig. 6 is of silver; the acl-
iutage, which is of platina, turns on an axis at right angles to
the main tube at A, so that it may be made to form different
angles with the main tube ; the prolongation B serves to ic-
ceive the condensed vapour of the breath. Fig. 7 is of brass ,
A is cylindrical, the axis of the cylinder being at right angles
B L O W-P I P E.
Blow-pipe, to the axis of the blow-pipe. A consists of two pieces,
one of which fits air-tight into the other, and may be
turned on its axis, so that the pipe of issue may be made
to form different angles with the axis of the blow-pipe, as
the position of the matter under experiment may require.
Flame. Flame consists of vapour in a state of incandescence.
Many substances, both of the vegetable, animal, and mine¬
ral kingdoms, have the quality of giving out this incan¬
descent vapour, p'or domestic uses, and for the arts, or¬
ganized bodies of the vegetable and animal kingdom alone
are employed to produce it; such as oils, some of which
are solid, others fluid, at the usual temperature of the air,
alcohol, ether, wood, and pit-coal. This latter, though
found amongst minerals, is composed of organized matter
changed and rendered bituminous by a particular process
of decomposition. I he blow-pipe, by directing the in¬
candescent particles of which the flame consists so as to
strike against and surround a small body, produces the
effect of heating the body considerably. The flame used
with the blow-pipe may either be the flame of an oil or
spirit lamp, or of a candle; the flame of the carbonated
hydrogen gas proceeding from the distillation of the pit-
coal, is also found advantageous for this purpose.
Mode of In order to use the blow-pipe, the breath impelled
blowing, through it is to be directed across the flame of a lamp or
candle, applying the orifice from which the air issues a
little above the upper end of the wick ; and a jet of flame is
thus formed, as represented at fig. 8. This jet is made
to fall on the body to be heated. The operation may be
continued for a considerable length of time; an uninter¬
rupted blast is kept up by the muscular action of the
cheeks, whilst the ordinary respiration goes on through the
nose; and a little practice is sufficient to enable the ope¬
rator to succeed. The jet of flame is conoidal, internally
blue, and externally yellow. By more or less immersion
in this jet of flame the subject of operation receives a
greater or less degree of heat, and becomes oxidated in a
greater or less degree. If a bead of borax, containing
oxide of manganese, be kept fused for some time in the
inner flame, the bead becomes colourless; when it is af¬
terwards kept fused in the outer flame, the manganese ac¬
quires more oxygen, and the bead becomes of a violet
colour. This violet colour may be made to appear more
speedily by adding a particle of nitre.
Its use in Ihe first who applied the blow-pipe to the analysis of
niinera- minerals was Swab, counsellor of the college of mines in
l°Sy- Sweden in 1738. Its application to the science of mine¬
ralogy was afterwards further improved by Cronsted, Ilin-
man, Gahn, Scheele, and Bergman, and by other men of
science since their time.
The blow-pipe is useful to the mineralogist and chemist,
as affording a ready method of knowing what the com¬
ponent parts of bodies are. Trials with the blow-pipe are
generally made by the chemist in order to know the na¬
ture of the constituent parts, before he proceeds to the
other steps of dry or humid analysis, which are requisite
for ascertaining the quantities of the constituent parts.
Then recourse is had to other means than the blow-pipe ;
for, in order to come at a knowledge of the proportions of
the constituent parts, it is necessary that the quantity of
each constituent part be large enough to be weighed in a
balance, and, for this purpose, the quantity of the sub¬
stance employed must be larger than what can be manag¬
ed with the blow-pipe.
Support of 1° experimental mineralogy with the blow-pipe, the
charcoal, small fragment of the body subjected to trial should not
exceed the size of half a peppercorn ; if larger, it cannot
be sufficiently heated. It is placed in a lenticular cavity,
made with a knife, in a piece of well-burnt charcoal of
wood, free from cracks, and not too porous, and of the
length of four or five inches, so as to be held conveniently Blow-pipe,
in the left hand. Some blow-pipes have been made with
a stand, to which they are connected by a ball and socket
joint, the stand being fixed to the table by a clamp; and
this construction leaves the right hand at liberty. In re¬
ducing fragments of metallic ores by the blow-pipe, charcoal
should be used as a support, for the charcoal attracts the
oxygen from the metallic oxide, and reduces it to a me¬
tallic form; and when thus reduced, the metal may be
kept fused on the charcoal, which prevents or retards its
again attracting oxygen. The charcoal support has like¬
wise the advantage of increasing the heat by its incan¬
descence. For both these reasons, to prevent oxidation,
and to increase and reverberate the heat proceeding from
the jet of flame, the goldsmith who solders his small work
by the blow-pipe attaches his work to a piece of charcoal,
by means of wires, in the process of soldering.
When it is required that the fragment of a mineral Support of
should be heated without the contact of charcoal, theplatina.
fragment is exposed to the flame in a small spoon of pla-
tina, with a wooden handle, the cavity of the spoon being
a hemisphere of three tenths of an inch in diameter ; or on
a thin lamina of platina two or three inches long and half
an inch broad, and of the thickness of common writing
paper; or it is held by a forceps, three inches long, made
of thin platina. Bergman, who published his treatise on
the blow-pipe in 1780, before the working of platina had
come into use, employed a small gold spoon, as that
metal has the quality of remaining pure and uncontami¬
nated, whilst in contact with many of the chemical agents ;
but platina is preferable ; for, besides possessing the quali¬
ty of resisting the action of many chemical agents, it has
likewise the advantage of difficult fusibility. It has now
for a good many years been wrought into various instru¬
ments both in London and Paris ; and when wrought it is
sold at the price of about a guinea the ounce, which is one
quarter the price of gold. Some platina workers, as Jean-
etti of Paris, who was one of the first, form the crude gra¬
nular platina into masses, by melting it with arsenic, and
subsequent heating and forging ; others dissolve the crude
platina in nitro-muriatic acid, and reduce the nitro-muriate
of platina to a metallic state by heat. Platina, however,
although infusible alone by the heat of the common blow¬
pipe, will be dissolved and melted if heated along with
some of the metals. Platina supports, therefore, should
not be used where they are liable to be in contact with a
fused metal. These effects are notable in the case of tin ;
for when tin is melted in contact with a vessel of platina,
the tin enters into a combination with the platina, corroding
and rendering it brittle, so that pieces of the platina vessel
come off on the application of a small force, and the ves¬
sel is thus rendered useless. Platina vessels also become
unserviceable by frequent and continued exposure to great
heat. Platina crucibles which are much used become brit¬
tle, and crack at the edges; and care should be taken to
cool these vessels gradually, that they may last as long as
possible. A platina vessel, in which sulphuric acid was
boiled for a long time, at last became perforated and un¬
serviceable.
Borax (borate of soda) is used along with the fragment Fiuxe9.
of mineral in many cases. When exposed to the flame it
becomes opaque, swells and ramifies much, in consequence
of parting with its water of crystallization; afterwards it
fuses into a colourless and transparent bead. It is con¬
venient to use calcined borax, which is borax deprived of
its water of crystallization by heat in a crucible: this
melts into a bead on the charcoal at once. The solubility
of a mineral in borax, with effervescence or without effer¬
vescence, and the colour which the mineral communicates
to the borax, are the chief distinctive characters obtained
792
B L O W-F I P E.
Blow-pipe-by treating a mineral with that substance. Phosphate of serving to regulate the blast. The lamp has a cotton Blow-pipe,
ammonia is also sometimes used as a flux in the same wick of nearly an inch in thickness; the wick is kept to- 1
manner as borax, and carbonate of soda; but both these, gether by a tin wick-holder, which is soldered to the
especially the latter, have the inconvenience of sinking lamp ; and melted tallow fills the lamp, and feeds the wick
into the charcoal, which borax is free from. with fuel. In order to get rid of the smoke, which is in
Characte- Mention must be made here of a few of the most pro- considerable quantity, there may be placed at a conve-
ristic phe- minent phenomena, characteristic of different mineral sub- nicnt aistance above the flame a tin funnel ending in a
nomena of stances when treated by the blow-pipe. Some minerals tube, which conveys the smoke out of the room. A con-
minerals are fusible alone, such as garnet and felspar; the last, how- venient method of carrying away the smoke from the
treated by ever) ig rather difficult to fuse. Some are infusible, and glass-blowers’ lamp is represented in fig. 13. It consists
b ow- chan colour . bituminous shaie loses its black colour, and of a cover of thin sheet copper, which is placed on the
Plpe’ becomes white ; green and dark coloured steatite become table, covering the lamp and nozzle. The fore-part of this
white. Some dissolve in borax without effervescence, as cover is open, so as to allow the jet of flame to pass freely,
ao-ate, quartz, felspar, amiantus, garnet. Some dissolve in From the upper part of the cover two tubes run upwards
borax with effervescence. This is the case with carbonate for the exit of the smoke; and between these the glass-
of lime ; it forms with borax a globule transparent whilst blower has a view of the object he is at work upon, whilst
in fusion, but in cooling the globule becomes opaque, his eyes are screened from the light of the flame. The
the lime being no longer held'in solution by the borax, two tubes join above in one short tube; and over the
in like manner as the watery solutions of certain salts, sa- open end of this short tube, at a small distance above, is a
turated when hot, deposit a part of the salt on cooling, tube suspended from the ceiling by wires, which conveys
Some of the metals communicate peculiar colours to bo- the smoke into the chimney of the room. By a handle
rax. Copper, in certain proportions, and at a certain de- attached to the cover, the cover with its tubes is removed
gree of oxidation, gives a brown colour to borax when when it is necessary to trim the wick. The flame of gas
heated by the blow-pipe ; cobalt gives a deep blue tinge ; from pit-coal may be used instead of a lamp, with a bel-
manganese communicates a violet colour; iron tinges borax lows of this kind. . .
brown, and, if in greater quantity, black. These colours are The regularity of the blast in the double bellows is et-Water,
produced by the metals in a state of oxide. The smell fected by means of a weight pressing on the air contained pressure
emitted by some minerals when heated by the blow-pipe is in the second compartment of the bellows ; just in the same apparatus,
another character serving to distinguish them. That of way as a stream of air is made to issue regularly from a
minerals containing sulphur is the peculiar suffocating tube fixed in the mouth of an inflated bladder, when a
smell of sulphureous gas; minerals that contain arsenic weight is placed on the bladder. A regular stream of air
emit, when heated, a smell like that of garlic. The na- may also be obtained, by subjecting inclosed air to the
ture of some minerals is recognised bv the particular form pressure of a column of water, mercury, or some other
of crystallization which they assume "in cooling. This is liquid. If a vessel containing air, and open at the mouth ,
the case with phosphate of lead, which, after being fused, be plunged into the water with the mouth downwards,
cools on the charcoal into an opaque white spheroidal po- and if the water on the outside of^ the vessel rise higher
lyhedron. Some ores are reduced to a metallic globule than the surface of the water within the vessel, then the
with great ease on the charcoal; thus the native sulphu- column of water, whose height is the difference of level,
ret of lead, called galsena, being heated by the blow-pipe, exercising its pressure, as all liquids do, in every direction,
the sulphur is driven off, and the lead remains in its me- will act upwards on the inclosed air; the inclosed air,
tallic state. A small particle of silver may be melted by pressed and more condensed than the external air, will
the blow-pipe; likewise gold, copper, and, Bergman says, escape in a current, by a stop-cock opened on the top o
cast-iron. Metallic zinc, when exposed to the flame of the vessel for its issue; and this issue will continue till
the blow-pipe on the charcoal, melts and burns with a the surface of the exterior and interior water come to a
bluish-green flame, and becomes covered with oxide, level, when the air in the vessel will have the same den-
which flies off and floats in the air in light white flocks, sity as the external air. The force with which the m-
Metallic antimony becomes red hot, and melts on the closed air is pressed is equal to the weight of a column
charcoal; and if the operator ceases to blow, a white fume of water whose height is the difference of levels, and whose
rises, and oxide of antimony forms upon the globule, in base is the surface of water exposed to the inclosed air.
whitish crystalline spiculae; but if the globule, in a state The gasometers used by Lavoisier, to afford a stream o
of fusion, be thrown upon a brick floor, it runs along for a oxygen gas and a stream of hydrogen gas, for effecting
considerable way, rebounding several times, and leaving a the composition of water, are constructed upon this pnn-
trace of white oxide of antimony. ciple. An apparatus of the same nature hins for many
Some substances communicate colour to the flame of years been employed upon a great scale in different parts
the blow-pipe. Muriate of copper, whose crystals are of Britain, to regulate the most powerful blast used in the
green, communicate a vivid green to xhe flame; sulphate arts,—that for reducing ironstone to the state of cast-iron,
and nitrate of copper, whose crystals are blue, likewise In blast-furnaces upon this construction, the blast is raised
impart a green colour to the flame when they are exposed by means of a large cast-iron cylinder, which acts as a be -
to its action. Some of the salts of strontian give a purple lows, having a valve in the bottom that opens inwards, and
tino-e to the flame. that admits the air during the ascent of the piston; when
Glass- The preceding observations relate to the blow-pipe work- the piston descends, the valve shuts, and the air is driven
blower’s gd by the breath. When it is required to continue the use into a large parallelopipedal vessel, less in heig it t lan in
bellows. of the blow-pipe so long that it would be fatiguing if the the other dimensions, immersed in water, and having its
breath merely were employed, the glass-blower’s table, under surface closed only by the water. In t ns vesse
fig. 9, is used. It consists of a double bellows, so fixed the air is pressed by the column of water, whose height is
as to be worked by the foot, and to impel a current of the distance between the surfaces of the exterior and in¬
air through a tin blow-pipe against the flame of a lamp terior water; and a pipe of issue, terminating in a nose
fixed on the table. For the sake of durability, the blow- pipe, conducts the blast to the furnace. , Melogra-
pipe is sometimes of brass, on which is screwed a nozzle of The blow-pipe of the Abbe Melograni of Isap es, or t le ni s blow-
platina. The blow-pipe may have a stop-cock, as in fig. 9, use of the mineralogist, operates by thepressuie o water, pipe.
B L O W-P I P E.
793.
Hlow-pipe. It is composed of two hollow globes, the upper filled with
vwhich, by running into the lower, forces the air
contained in the lower to issue through a nozzle. This ap-
paiatus is described by Mr Greenough, in Nicholsons
Journal, vol. ix. p. 25 and 143. It has some inconve¬
niences, and does not appear ever to have come into much
use.
Water- The water-pressure apparatus, applied to the blow-pipe,
blow-oine ?rr'vhlch a.section is given at fig. 10, was contrived by Mr
for glass- . i ey’ an ingenious fancy glass-blower. It consists of a
blowers. ^ ^ox a partition in it, reaching within half an inch
of the bottom; water is poured in, equal in bulk to three
fourths of the capacity of the box. The water in the ca¬
vity DE is open, and subject to no other pressure but that
of the atmosphere, being only covered by the lid of the
vessel; the apartment F is closed at top, so as to be air¬
tight, and the water in it is pressed by the elasticity of
the air confined in its upper part. The tube C has its
lower extremity always plunged in water, so that when
air is blown in through it, the return of the air by that
tube is prevented. Before the apparatus is set to work,
the surface of the water in both compartments is at the
same height, both being pressed by air of the density of
the surrounding air; but when air is blown in through C,
the air rises through the water to the top of the compart¬
ment F; and as the only issue for the air is through the
small aperture of the blow-pipe, by which it cannot es¬
cape nearly so fast as it is blown in, the air consequently
becomes condensed in the upper part of the compartment
F; and this condensed air pressing on the water in F
more strongly than the atmosphere does on the water in
DE, depresses the surface of the water in F, and causes
it to rise in DE, which is effected by a portion of the wa¬
ter passing under the partition into the open compartment
DE. Thus the pressure exerted by the column of water
whose height is the difference of level of the water in DE,
and of the water in F, forces the air from the compartment
h through the blow-pipe a, which is directed against the
flame of a lamp; and this pressure keeps up a constant
blast till the water in the two compartments comes nearly
to the same height. The degree of condensation of the
inclosed air, and the height of the column of water press¬
ing on the condensed air, are measures of each other, when
much air is blown in, so as to occasion a considerable de¬
gree of condensation. The difference of level resulting is
considerable; and the column of water, which is always
re-acting with an equal and contrary pressure on the con¬
densed air, causes it to issue with greater velocity from
the blow-pipe. When the condensation diminishes, so
does the column of water, and the velocity of the issuing
stream of air. More air is to be blown in with the mouth
through the tube C from time to time, so as to keep the
blast regular. Mr Tilley is of opinion that this apparatus
produces a more regular stream of air than a double bel¬
lows, and it has likewise the advantage that the operator
is free from the trouble of moving a pedal. The dimen¬
sions of the vessel AA, which is either of tinned iron or
of tinned copper, are seventeen inches in height, five
inches in width, and nine in breadth; the lid of the ves¬
sel opens and shuts on hinges, and supports the tallow
lamp B. The bent glass tube a, which terminates in a
small hole, is fitted air-tight into a tin tube, which is made
conical, and which forms the issue from the top of the com¬
partment F; for this purpose paper is wrapped round the
glass tube, and then cotton wick yarn, in a conical form,
so that the glass tube thus clothed may fit tight into the
socket, and may nevertheless be moved round, that the
blast may act properly on the flame. The bent metal
tube C is also fixed into its socket in the same manner:
its junction with the socket is seen in fig. 10. There is a
VOL. IV.
screen formed of a tin plate sliding vertically in grooves Blow-pipe,
between two upright pieces of tin ; the edge of this is
seen at S, in fig. 10. It is intended to protect the eyes
of the operator from the light of the lamp, whilst, at the
same time, he can see the subject of his operation over the
top of the screen. This screen is not soldered to the ves¬
sel, but is held fast by its foot being placed between the
lid of the vessel and the top of the close chamber F. Two
rests for supporting the operator’s arms project, one from
each side of the vessel; upon these the arms are placed
when any substance is held to the flame. These rests are
wrapped round with woollen list or leather, so as to be
more convenient for leaning upon. The whole of the ap¬
paratus, including the lamp and case, weighs only three
pounds and a half. When it is to be used, the vessel is
fixed to a table or bench by means of a leather strap
buckled to two loops, which are on the sides of the vessel
opposite to each other; and the strap is passed under the
table or bench. The long flat cotton wick is preferred by
some glass-blowers to the usual round cotton wick. The
lamp is filled with tallow, which melts after the lamp has
been lighted for some time, and then it burns as freely as
oil, and with a less offensive smell. When not in use the
tallow becomes solid, and is more conveniently carried
about than oil. Hogs’ lard also does well for burning in
this lamp. Some glass-blowers mix cocoa-nut oil, which
is solid at the temperature of the climate of Britain, with
hogs’ lard, and find it to answer well in the lamp. The
lamp is placed within another vessel, marked K, which
supports it at a proper height, leaving a space between
them, to receive any tallow that may run over the edge
of the lamp. A wire bent at the end is convenient for
trimming the wick, and forming it into a channel through
which the stream of air is to be directed. It is conve¬
nient to have several lamps with wicks of different thick¬
nesses, namely, one to hold two flat cottons of about one
inch and a quarter broad, another to hold four, a third to
hold six, or as much common wick-yarn as is equal to
those wicks in bulk, and glass adjutages of different sized
apertures to suit the different sized wicks. (See Transac¬
tions of the Society for Encouraging Arts, vol. xxxi.)
The eolipile, fig. 11, has been applied to act as a blow-Eolipue.
pipe. It is a hollow vessel of brass, sometimes made in
form of a small kettle, sometimes in form of a ball of two
inches in diameter, with a tube of brass that screws into
it. The tube is to be screwed off in order to pour in al¬
cohol by a small funnel, and then the tube being replac¬
ed, and heat applied to the bulb, the vapour of the alco¬
hol issues from the small aperture of the tube, and be¬
ing directed against the flame of a lamp, the flame is
driven in a horizontal stream, such as the blow-pipe pro¬
duces. The instrument has a safety valve, S, to prevent
the danger of explosion, which might happen if the nozzle
were stopped. The same wick that heats the bulb may
serve to furnish the jet of flame, as is the case in the eolipile
represented in fig. 11. This instrument has been proposed
to be applied to the purposes of the mineralogist; but it
does not appear to be either so readily put in action or so
efficacious as the common blow-pipe, which is also simpler
in its construction, less bulky, and more easily carried
about.
Mr Newman, philosophical instrument-maker, of Lisle Newman’s
Street, London, having observed that air condensed in a blow-pipe,
cavity required a considerable time to escape through a
small aperture made to give it issue, contrived the appa¬
ratus represented at fig. 12, which acts as a blow-pipe.
This apparatus consists of a strong plate-copper box, per¬
fectly air-tight, three inches in width and height, and four
in length; a condensing syringe to force air into the box;
and an adjutage with a stop-cock at one end of the box,
5 H
794
B L O
Blow-pipe, by which the issue of the air is regulated. The piston rod
of the condensing syringe works through collars of leather
in the cap, which has an aperture in the side, and a screw
N connected with a stop-cock, which may be made, to
communicate with a jar, bladder, or gasometer, containing
oxygen, hydrogen, or other gases. When this communi¬
cation is made, and the condenser worked, the gas con¬
tained in the jar or bladder is thrown into the box, and
issues through the adjutage upon the flame of a lamp
placed near it. When the apparatus is worked with com¬
mon air, a few strokes of the piston fills the chamber with
compressed air. When the cock of the adjutage is open¬
ed, the air issues with great velocity in a small stream, and,
when directed on the flame of a lamp, produces a jet of
flame as the common blow-pipe does, but with more pi e-
cision and regularity. The force of the stream of air is
easily adjusted by opening more or less the stop-cock ot
the adjutage; and, when the box has been moderately
charged, the stream will continue to issue uniformly for
twenty minutes; when the strength of the blast begins to
decline, it will be restored by working the syringe. The
apparatus is very portable, and not liable to injury. It is
made by Mr Newman, the inventor, with a lamp adapted
to it, so as to pack up in a box not more than six inches
in length and four inches in width and height, enough ot
space being left for other small articles; others he makes
in boxes somewhat larger, so as to contain also a selection
of chemical tests. (See Jouvnol of Science, edited by the
Royal Institution, No. 1.)
with a Sir Humphry Davy having discovered that the explo-
mixture ofgion from oxygen and hydrogen gases would not commu-
oxygcn nicate through very small apertures, Mr Children propos-
and hydro-ed t0 him to empi0y Newman’s blow-pipe for effecting a
gen" combustion of a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas is¬
suing from a small aperture. This Sir Humphry did,
and found that the flame produced an intense heat, which
instantly fused bodies of a very refractory nature. Dr
Clarke, professor of mineralogy at Cambridge, having con¬
sulted Sir Humphry on the subject, 'proceeded to ex¬
pose a great variety of mineral substances to the flame,
for the purpose of observing its effects upon each of them.
The tube of glass through which the mixture of the two
gases issues, is cemented on the pipe of issue of New¬
man’s blow-pipe. The tube at first used by Dr Clarke was
three inches in length, and the diameter of its cavity
7Lth of an inch. The end of the tube was constantly
breaking during the experiments, owing to the sudden
changes of temperature, until at last he usually worked
with a tube only one inch and three-eighths in length.
When the current of gas is feeble, from the gas in the re¬
servoir having come nearly to the same degree of density
as the surrounding air, or from the current being suppress¬
ed in the beginning of an experiment, then the flame has
a retrograde movement, passing up the capillary cavity of
the tube about half an inch, and, after splitting the end
of the glass tube, the flame goes out of itself; so that, even
in this case, there is no danger of explosion. In order to
try the effects of an explosion, four pints of a mixture of
the two gases were condensed into the chest, which was
all that the syringe could force into it. 1 he glass tube
was taken off, so that the diameter of the nose-pipe, by
which the gas was to issue, was about one eighth of an
inch. A burning spirit-lamp was placed at this aperture,
and the stop-cock being opened by means of a long string
attached to it, the whole gas exploded with a report like
that of a cannon; the chest was burst, the stop-cock
driven out, and one end of the chest was torn off and
thrown against the wall of the room. This shows the dan¬
ger of using the apparatus with too large an aperture, and
the necessity of employing a capillary tube.
B L O
When the mixture of the two gases is to be employed Blow-pipe,
in Newman’s blow-pipe, the chest is first exhausted of air, H.
and then the gaseous mixture in a bladder, screwed on at
N, is to be forced into the chest by the condensing sy-p)rdike's
ringe. The proportions of the two gases which Dr Clarke.eXperj_
found to produce the greatest heat are, two volumes of ments.
hydrogen and one of oxygen gas. The intensity of the
heat is much greater when the gases are pure ; the oxygen
procured from manganese does not produce nearly so
great a heat as that got from the hyper-oxymuriate of pot¬
ass. The intensity of the heat may be regulated by al¬
lowing the gas to issue in a more or less copious stream,
which is done by turning the stop-cock. The heat, Dr
Clarke thinks, is greater than that produced by the largest
galvanic batteries. Most substances hitherto tried are
fused by it, so that it is difficult to find supports for hold¬
ing the subject of experiment to the flame. . The supports
employed by Dr Clarke were, charcoal, platina, a piece of
tobacco-pipe, black lead. Lime, strontian, and alumine,
were fused. The metal of strontian was got, and retained
its lustre for some hours. The alkalies were fused and
volatilized almost the instant they came in contact with
the flame. Rock-crystal fused into a transparent glass
full of bubbles. Quartz gave the same result. Opal fused
into a pearly white enamel. Flint fused rapidly into a
white frothy enamel. Blue sapphire melted into greenish
glass balloons, ramified singularly. Foliated talc fused in¬
to a greenish glass. Peruvian emerald melted into a trans¬
parent and colourless glass, without bubbles. Lapis la¬
zuli fused into transparent glass, with a slight tinge of
green. Pure foliated native magnesia, from America, is
the substance the most difficult of fusion; it is, however,
at last reduced to a white opaque enamel. Agalmatolite
of China fuses into a limpid colourless glass. Iceland spar
is next in difficulty of fusion to the native magnesia; but
it does at last melt into a limpid glass, and, during the pro¬
cess, gives an amethyst-coloured flame, as strontian does ;
the fusion of pure lime and of all its compounds is at¬
tended with a flame of the same colour. Diamond first
became opaque, and then was gradually volatilized. Gold,
fused along with borax, on a piece ot tobacco pipe, was
nearly all volatilized. Platina wire, ^th of an inch in
diameter, melted the instant it was brought into contact
with the flame of the gas ; the melted platina ran down in
drops, and the wire burnt as iron wire does in oxygen gas.
Brass wire burnt with a green flame, differing from the
green flame that salts of copper give. Copper wire melt¬
ed rapidly without burning. Iron wire burnt with bril¬
liant scintillation. Plumbago melted into a bead which
was attractable by the magnet. Blende or native sulphuret
of zinc melted, and metallic zinc appeared in the centre
of the melted mass. And metalloid oxide of manganese,
crystallized in prisms, was reduced to a metallic state.
(See Dr Clarke’s Account of his Experiments, in the
Journal of Science, edited at the Royal Institution, Octo¬
ber 1816.) (w. A. C.)
Blow-pipe, a straight metal tube used by anatomists tor
inflating with the breath the collapsed vessels of the dead
subject in order to ascertain their course. This tube is
of an elongated conical form, six inches in length; the
aperture of the large end being y^ths of an inch in dia¬
meter, and that of the smaller end the size of a needle s
point. . . ~
BLOWING, in a general sense, denotes an agitation ot
the air, whether performed with a pair of bellows, the mouth,
a tube, or the like. .
Blowing, among gardeners, denotes the action ot tlowers
in opening and displaying their leaves. In this sense, blow¬
ing is the same with flowering or blossoming.
The regular blowing season is the spring, although
B L O
Blowing some plants have other extraordinary times and manners
Machines, of blowing, as the Glastonbury thorn. Different flowers,
algo, as the tulip, close every evening, and blow again in the
morning. Annual plants blow sooner or later according
as their seeds are put in the ground; and hence the curi¬
ous in gardening sow some every month in summer, to
have a constant succession of flowers. The blowing of
roses may be retarded by shearing off the buds as they are
put forth.
Blowing of Glass, one of the methods of forming the
various kinds of work in the glass manufacture. It is per¬
formed by dipping the point of an iron blow-pipe in the
melted glass, and blowing through it with the mouth, ac¬
cording to the dimensions of the glass to be blown. See
Glass.
Blowing of Tin denotes the melting its ore, after be¬
ing first burnt to destroy the mundic.
BLOWING Machines, in the arts and manufactures,
and in domestic economy, are instruments for producing a
continued current of air, principally for the purpose of fa¬
cilitating the combustion of fuel. The first idea of such
a machine was doubtless derived from the lungs, which
we are constantly in the habit of using for the purpose of
blowing, but more especially in the simple and useful ap¬
plication of the blow-pipe.
Common Of these different machines, the common bellows bears
bellows, the greatest resemblance to the lungs, and was in all pro¬
bability the first contrivance for artificial blowing., In the
first instance, this instrument might be a simple bag, ca¬
pable of distension by a mechanical force, the air being
drawn in and pressed out of the same aperture in the man¬
ner of breathing. The first improvement upon this sim¬
ple form would be to admit the air by a valve opening in¬
wards when the bellows were distended, the blast outwards
being from another aperture. This improvement consists
in the air being admitted at a wider aperture, which fills
the bellows in less time than would be required by the
small pipe through which the air is allowed to escape. The
blast, in this state of the machine, is not continuous, but
in puffs, at intervals of time required for the air to enter
the bellows through the valve ; the blowing interval being
to the filling interval as the areas of the apertures. This
irregular blast was for some time remedied by employing
two bellows which blew alternately, the blowing on one
taking place while the other was filling. The inconve¬
nience, however, was but partially remedied by this con¬
trivance. The invention of what are called double bellows
must have been considered a valuable acquisition in the
art of blowing. But previous to describing these, it will
be necessary to give a description of single bellows above
mentioned.
Single bel- It will be needless, however, to say more than refer the
lows. reader to common domestic bellows, which are in every
respect the same as the single bellows first used. The
leather nailed to the upper and lower boards is prevented
from collapsing, when the boards are separated, by a hoop
of wood contained within, performing the office of the ribs
in the sternum of animals, without which the breathing
would not be performed. The lower board contains the
valve which admits the air. When the two boards are se¬
parated, the air lifts the valve in entering the cavity.
When full of air, the closing of the boards causes the air
within to close the valve, thus preventing its return in that
direction, and compels it to escape at the pipe, the mouth
of which is called the nozle or nose-pipe.
Double In order to conceive the construction of the double bel-
beliows. lows, we have only to take a third board of exactly the
same shape as the other two, and connect it with the lower
board by a piece of leather similar to that of the single
bellows, making two cavities exactly similar, and separat-
B L o 795
ed by the lower board of the single bellows, which now Blowing
becomes the middle board of the double bellows. The Machines,
third board we shall now call the lower board. This lat-
ter has a valve in it exactly similar to the first, which still
retains its place in the new construction.
The middle board is now fixed in a horizontal position,
the pipe being placed to the fire to be blown. The lower
board is held down by a weight, which keeps the lower
cavity constantly full of air. The top board has a weight
laid upon it, which presses all the air out of the upper
cavity through the pipe.
The machinal action by which the blowing is perform¬
ed is, first, to lift up the lower board. This forces the air
from the lower into the upper cavity, the valve in the
middle board preventing its return. The weight on the
upper board now presses the air with a uniform blast
through the pipe. During this time the lower board de¬
scends, which fills the lower cavity with air from the at¬
mosphere; and this again rises and gives its contents to the
upper cavity, and thence passes through the nose-pipe.
Hence we see that that irregular puffing blast which belongs
to the single bellows is here confined to the lower board,
which supplies air to the upper cavity, while the upper
board is constantly pressing uniformly upon the air in it.
Although this is a considerable improvement upon the
single bellows, it does not completely obviate the irregu¬
larity of the blast. So long as the lower board is not in
action, the pressure on the upper board being uniform, the
blast is the same. Every time, however, the bottom board
rises to force the air into the upper cavity, an extra pres¬
sure is given to the air in the upper cavity, and a tempo¬
rary puff is produced. In the application of bellows to the
smith’s forge, the continued blast was of less importance
than in the blast-furnaces applied to the smelting or re¬
fining of ores. The single bellows are at present almost
exclusively employed by anchor-smiths and cutlers; while
the blacksmith and most others use double bellows, which
are doubtless better for all purposes.
In France and other parts of the Continent, bellows Wooden
have been formed entirely of wood,, instead of the flexible bellows,
sides of leather, which serves to increase and diminish the
capacity. The wooden bellows consist of two boxes, each
open on one side, the one being just capable of containing
the other; the outer box being placed with the mouth up¬
wards, the other is made to descend into it with the mouth
downwards, the latter being capable of moving up and
down, while the other remains fixed. In the bottom of
the fixed box is a valve like the common bellows, and a
pipe on the same level to let out the blast. The change
of capacity, by the motion of this box, causes the blast,
and with less waste of power than that occasioned by the
bending of the leather in the common bellows. This ad¬
vantage is, however, probably more than compensated by
the loss of air from the box not fitting on the sides. See
a description of this and some other blowing-machines
under Pneumatics.
The common smith’s bellows have latterly been con- Circular
structed of a circular form. The boards of these bellows are bellows,
round, and the movable boards parallel to the horizon and
to each other. We have given a view of this construction
in Plate CVIII. figures 4 and 5. A is the blast-pipe, B the
movable lower board, C the fixed board, into which the
pipe is inserted, and D the upper movable board, on which
is placed a weight to regulate the strength of the blast.
Motion is given to the lower board by the lever L, and the
chain H working on the roller R.
The form of these bellows being cylindrical, the weight
required to produce a certain pressure and strength of blast
will be easily determined. If the diameter be one foot, the
area will be 113T9 inches. The most convenient and pro-
796 BLOWING]
Blowing per blast for smiths’ bellows is about f lb. upon the inch,
Machines. or frotn that to ^ lb. The upper board, in this case, would
require a weight of 56*5 to give a blast equal to half a
pound upon an inch. This pressure would give a velocity
equal to about 207 feet in a second. If the diameter of the
nose-pipe be changed, the number or length of the strokes,
or both, must be changed, in order that the pressure and
the corresponding density of the blast may remain the
same. If the number and length of the strokes be kept
up, and the aperture diminished, at the same time that
the capacity of the bellows admits not of enlargement,
the pressure and density of blast will be increased, al¬
though no additional weight be laid on. This frequently
happens in the smith’s bellows when he makes an in¬
creased effort to blow after the upper cavity is full. It is
much better, however, not to exert the bellows in this
way when a stronger blast is required, but to produce the
effect by an additional weight. A very strong blast is
found to be injurious to the iron when welding heats
are required, and still more so in working steel. It is
much better that an increase of air, which is frequently
wanted, should be furnished by increasing the aperture,
supposing the power to be at the time adequate to keep
up the increased supply. Bellows should therefore be so
constructed that the pressure may be uniform, and -not
immediately under the control of the workman. When he
wishes to quicken his heat, he should have the means of
increasing the aperture by a circular plate turning on an
axis at right angles to the length of the pipe, as seen in
fig. 9. When in the position ab, the whole area is filled ;
when in that of cd, the air passes in its full quantity.
The index being placed at any intermediate points ef, will
let in any proportionate quantity required.
The aperture might be made to change, by the increase
of power upon the machine, and thus caused to regulate
itself. Several simple contrivances of this kind may be
applied by any one skilled in machinery.
New blow- These improvements would render the common leather
mg ma- bellows, of the form above given, very useful for smiths,
chines. qq-^ irregular blast occasioned by their present construc¬
tion is found to be very injurious to the iron, both as to
its quality and economy. This is abundantly shown in the
use of some blowing machines lately invented, which have
the advantage of a blast that is uniform, and at the same
time much softer, being produced by a small pressure.
These blowing machines are also found to answer very
well for melting cast iron, the soft blast having less ten¬
dency to destroy the carbon, and the quantity of air be¬
ing compensated by increasing the aperture.
One of these machines is the invention of Mr Street,
for which he took out a patent. It consists of a barrel¬
shaped vessel, from four to five feet in diameter, and of
a length more or less proportionate to the work it has to
perform.
This cylinder is supported on two bearers by the two
ends of its axis, like a barrel churn. The cylinder is di¬
vided into two equal parts by a plane in the direction of
its length, fitting the two ends and the upper side, water¬
tight, and extending downward to a small distance from the
opposite side. This septum is in a perpendicular position
when the cylinder is at rest. When this vessel is partly
filled with water, and is made to pass through a certain
space on its axis, the air which occupies the upper part
of the vessel will be compressed on one side by the water,
which flows from one side of the septum to the other,
and will become in the same degree rarefied on the
other, from a contrary cause. If, however, in this situ¬
ation, a valve be made to open inwards from the atmo¬
sphere on the rarefied side, and another to open outwards
on the condensed side, two equal and contrary currents
MACHINES.
will be established, one inwards and the other outwards. Blowing
On the returning stroke both these valves will shut, and Machines
the other two sides will be put in the same situation with
the first cavities. If, now, two similar valves to the last
be introduced, two similar currents will be produced. If
the two valves at which the air escapes from the machine,
one on each side of the septum, be made to communicate
with one cavity from which a nose-pipe proceeds, while
the other two valves communicate with the atmosphere,
every stroke will discharge a quantity of air through the
nose-pipe from one cavity, and introduce the same volume
of air from the atmosphere into the other cavity. These
strokes are produced by the oscillating motion of the ma¬
chine, the limit of its vibrations being about a quarter of
the circle, or 90°.
These alternate puffs of air are first propelled into a ves¬
sel containing water to regulate the blast. This vessel is
divided into two portions by a septum, which passes from
the close cover at the top nearly to the bottom. When
the air is forced into the cavity, which is close at the top,
it expels the water under the septum at the bottom
into the open cavity, so as to keep a constant head in the
latter, compressing the air in the former. From this air-
chest a nose-pipe proceeds to the fire, and the air escapes
from it with a uniform velocity so long as the same co¬
lumn of water in the chest is preserved. This descrip¬
tion answers to the first machine of the inventor; he has
since taken out a second patent, the specification of which
is given in the Repository of Arts, vol. xxviii. p. 193.
We shall here give a description of this machine, with
the patentee’s improvements. See Plate CVIII. figs. 1, 2,
and 3.
Fig. 1 is a longitudinal section of this machine. AB is
the cylinder resting upon the axis ab and cd, which are
supported on the uprights gg. The oscillating motion is
given to it by a rod working upon the pivot p, the other
end of which is connected with a crank of such a length
as to cause the cylinder to move through an arch of 90
degrees. The vessel is filled with water to the height ws.
The part CBD (fig. 2) is cut off from the rest of the cy¬
linder by two planes meeting at c, and continuing down to
the axis x, so as to work upon its convex surface. These
planes extend the whole length of the cylinder, and are
then divided transversely into three cavities GHI, as seen
in fig. 1. The cavity G is for the reception of the exter¬
nal air, and is called by the patentee a receiving box.
The cavity H is open to the atmosphere, the periphery
of the cylinder being removed in that part. The cavity I
is appropriated to the air which is driven out of the ma¬
chine, through the valves tt and §7 (fig. 3), which open
alternately on each side. The cavity G is divided longi¬
tudinally in the middle, forming two cavities, m and n,
fig. 2; two valves, e and/, fig. 1, open into each, one from
the end of the cylinder, and the other from the cavity H.
Each of the cavities m and n communicate with the body
of the cylinder by the holes hh in the dividing planes.
The cavity I has no division, as it receives the air from
both sets of exit valves, which escapes at the pipe P.
The axis av works within the axis ab and cd, and is
rendered air-tight by a stuffing-box within the latter.
This axis will have the effect of remaining at rest while
the cylinder is in motion, there being no other force ex¬
erted to turn it than the friction of the stuffing-box. Ihe
use of this axis is to support and turn a swing valve MV,
which is made of rolled iron, strengthened by ribs con¬
nected with the axis. This valve is a plane, which would
exactly sweep the interior surface of the cylinder without
touching it. If the axis vx be held fast, the valve will re¬
tain its perpendicular position, while the cylinder performs
its vibrating motion. The water would also remain at
BLOWING MACHINES.
Blowing rest, with the exception of the motion which its friction
Machines. an(j tiie compression of the air occasions. When the ma-
chine moves from D (fig. 3) till the plane DC comes very-
near to the surface of the water ws, the valves qq open,
and a volume of air equal to the space DCS will be ex¬
pelled through the cavity I (fig. 1), along the pipe P, du¬
ring the time the valves in the cavity m (fig. 2) have
opened to admit the same volume of atmospheric air on
the returning stroke. The point B is earned the contrary
way, by which another portion of air opens the valves tt
to pass through the pipe P, while the same volume of
air from the atmosphere enters the cavity n, which in its
turn is forced through the exit valves tt.
The use of the swing valve MV will now be obvious.
If it did not exist, every time the air was compressed on
one side the water would be depressed on that side, and
the compression of the air would be limited by the in¬
creased column of water on the other side. This valve,
however, prevents the water from immediately changing
its situation, no more escaping from one side of the valve
to the other than what can pass between the edges of the
valve and the cylinder, which, in the short space of one
stroke, can be only a very small quantity. This may be
considered as a great improvement upon the first machine,
which we have before described. The patentee further
intends occasionally to give to this swing valve a contrary
motion to that of the cylinder, and thus still more to in¬
crease the blast. Or, in the use of a very small blast, the
valve may be left at liberty, and used merely to prevent
the too great agitation of the water, which in the original
machine was considered as an objection. Two of those
machines are frequently used together, and worked by
cranks, forming an angle of 45° with each other, to make
the strong part of the blast of the one to concur with the
weak part of the blast of the other.
The part I of the exit pipe PL, must be precisely to
the centre of motion. The part L works in a stuffing
part, or a ground socket connected with the pipe LN.
The latter should communicate with a regulator, which
the patentee does not describe, but recommends one of
water. This may be a vessel at least of the capacity of
the cylinder, inverted in a reservoir of water, and may
stand near to the bottom. The pipe N is inserted into
the bottom, which is now uppermost. The height of the
water in the reservoir must be such as to give the re¬
quired pressure to the air.
When the air is forced into the inverted vessel by the
machinery, the water descends in this, and rises in the re¬
servoir, which no v gives a pressure to the contained air
equal to the difference of the height of the water in the
inverted vessel and the reservoir. The surface of the re¬
servoir should be the greatest possible, in order that it
may be raised in the least degree by the water coming
from the inverted vessel, which will have the effect of keep¬
ing the blast more uniform.
The water regulator is certainly the best for smiths’
bellows, for refineries, forges, and perhaps the common
melting furnace, but they have been found very objec¬
tionable in the blowing of large blast-furnaces. The air
in the common blowing engine undergoes a great in¬
crease of temperature during its passage through the ma¬
chine, often as much as 40 or 50 degrees. The heated
air has the effect of carrying a greater quantity of water
along with it into the furnace, which destroys a larger
quantity of carbon than the same bulk of common air,
without producing an adequate portion of heat. A great
part of the heat of the air is doubtless produced by the
friction of the piston of the blowing cylinder, which, in
this construction, has a very tight wading. In the blow¬
ing machine above described, the water would doubtless
797
be an objection in blast-furnaces, but, as its little triction Blowing
would not heat the air like the common blowing cylinder Machines,
used in blast furnaces, the objection would be less formi-
dable. Air must doubtless give out some heat by its de¬
crease of volume, just as it will absorb the heat by rare¬
faction, as is experienced in exhausting the receiver of an
air-pump. The converse of this is equally shown in the
little instrument employed to kindle tinder by condensing
the air within it.
The heat by the friction of this piston is probably
much more than by the condensation of the air; the latter
is obviated in the machine above described, and in another
blowing machine lately introduced, of which we shall give
a description.
This machine, in its general appearance, does not seem
to have any advantage over the common blowing cylinder,
but in practice it is found superior.
It resembles in some degree the common smith’s bel¬
lows of the Chinese, which consists of a square wooden
trunk, in the form of a parallelopipedon. A board is made
to fit pretty nearly its cross section, to which is attached
a long rod, by which the board is pushed backwards and
forwards like a piston. At one end of the trunk is a valve
opening inwards to admit air, and at the same end is a
pipe with a valve opening outwards.
The machine above alluded to as having some resem¬
blance to this, is the invention of a Mr Vaughan, who has
fitted up several of them for founderies, and they are
much approved. The writer of this article took a drawing
from one of these machines employed to melt cast-iron at
the Phoenix Foundery in Sheffield.
Figs. 6 and 7 are two views of the machine. ABCD
is a square box formed of pieces of cast-metal, screwed
together by hinges. Two of these are placed side by side,
as may be seen in the end view, fig. 7. MQ, is a piston
fitting the square box, which is drawn backward and for¬
ward by the rod EF, which works horizontally on the
wheels wx by the spear G, which communicates with the
crank of a wheel at a distance.
The piston MQ, which is the most ingenious part of
this machine, is enlarged in fig. 8, to render it clearer.
The body of the piston is a cast-iron plate about half an
inch thick, with a socket in the middle to receive the rod.
The diameter of this plate is about one fourth of an inch
less than that of the box. Two pieces of wood, v n, are
cut diagonally, in order to place the pieces of leather, l /,
between them. These leathers, with the wood, are firm¬
ly fastened to the plate by bolts, such as gh.
The leathers extend about two inches beyond the
wood; and their slight elasticity keeps them in contact
with the metallic surface, which is not required to be
very smooth. When the piston moves towards the end of
the box, to which the leather projects, the leather claps
close to the surface, rendering it air-tight, while the lea¬
ther on the other side of the piston becomes loose, and
has no friction. These leathers will be contrarily acted
upon when the piston acts the contrary way. The pro¬
jecting curved pipes HI form a communication between
the box where the piston works and the air-chest N.
When the piston moves from B to D, the valves F and V
open, while L and S are shut. The air contained in the
box is now forced through the valve R into the chest N,
and from thence along the blast-pipe P.
In the returning stroke, which is the whole length of
the box, the valves R, V, and K, are shut, while L and S
open. The air is forced through H to N, and then
through P.
Two of these work at the same time by two cranks,
which cause one to be in full blast at the time the other
is returning the stroke; so that, with due management.
798 B L U
Blubber the four puffs produced by two double strokes may be
l| made to succeed each other at equal intervals, which al-
Blucher. most amounts to a steady blast. The inventor recom-
mends four of these boxes all to work together, which
would produce eight puffs in the time of one double stroke,
which, if divided into equal intervals, would produce a
sufficiently uniform blast for any purpose.
When the leathers of the piston are rubbed with black
lead, the friction amounts to almost nothing. The leather
acts so easy to the surface, and is so flexible, that it may
be very easily raised with the fingers. This could not be
the case if it were applied in the same way in a cylinder;
and this is a sufficient reason for using the square box in¬
stead of the cylinder.
This machine makes 70 strokes in one minute ; the nose-
pipe, where the blast enters the furnace, is 2^ inches in
diameter. When the length of stroke is the greatest, at
the above speed, it furnishes about 1200 cubic feet per
minute.
This machine steers clear of the objection of the water,
and, from its small friction, will have less tendency to heat
the air. Its original cost is also less than any other ma¬
chine yet constructed. In the situations where it has been
adopted it gives the highest satisfaction. The first con¬
struction of Street’s bellows, above described, was only
fitted for some smiths’ fires, where a very soft blast was
required. In their improved state they may be employed
for most purposes.
All the calculations relative to bellows will be easily
made, by the following rules and formula:
First,* get the space or capacity formed by one stroke
of the machine ; call this c, cubic feet.
Then get the number of strokes per minute, which call n.
The area of the nose-pipe, in feet, call a.
The pressure on the air to be discharged, whether by
a column of water or by a weight, call p.
v z= the velocity with which the air escapes.
r = the resistance, in pounds, which the blast will give.
Then cn = q, the quantity discharged in one minute ,
and v — Cn m one minute, or = for one second.
a 60 a
Then, since the resistance is equal to a column of the
fluid of the area a, and twice the height to give the velo-
'ifid • • •
city, ^ ^ ^ — p ; the weight of 14 cubic feet of air be¬
ing equal to one pound.
The energy of air in blowing fires is as the quantity,
and inversely as the space it occupies. For if the same
quantity of air be consumed in half the space, the inten¬
sity of the heat, or the temperature of that particular place,
will be double. Hence it is found that the same quantity
of air, by weight, in winter will produce a greater effect
on a blast-furnace than in summer, merely from the differ¬
ence of density. The great difference in produce of iron
in the cold and hot seasons of the year is a fact notorious
to iron-masters. For a description of the more recent and
improved method of blowing, see Iron-making, and Smelt¬
ing. (c. s—R.)
BLUBBER,the fat of whales and other large sea-animals,
from which train-oil is extracted. It is properly the adeps
of the animal, and lies immediately under the skin. In the
whale its thickness is ordinarily six inches, but about the
Under lip it is found two or three feet thick. The quantity
yielded by one of these animals usually amounts to from 20
to 30 tons of blubber, yielding from 15 to 22 tons of oil.
BLUCHER, Lebreoht yon, field-marshal of the Prus¬
sian armies, Prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia, was born at
Rostock in 1742. In his fourteenth year he entered into the
service of Sweden ; and in the war between that power and
[ Prussia he was taken prisoner. He afterwards entered into
B L U
the service of Prussia, in which he became distinguished by Blue
his activity ; but conceiving himself neglected by the great II
Frederick, he became a farmer in Silesia, and by his enterprise Blueing-
and perseverance in fifteeen years he acquired an honourable
independence. On the accession of Frederick-William II.,
he was recalled to the military service, and replaced as
major in his old regiment, the Black Hussars, where he dis¬
tinguished himself in six general actions against the French,
rose to the rank of colonel and major-general in 1793-4,
and gained a great reputation by his energy, promptitude,
and foresight. He was in a subordinate command in the
disastrous battle of Jena in 1802 ; but he made a masterly
retreat with his column to Lubeck; and extorted the praises
of his adversaries, who testified on his capitulation that it was
caused by “ want of provisions and ammunition.” He was
soon exchanged for General Victor, and was actively em¬
ployed in Pomerania, at Berlin, and at Konigsberg, until the
conclusion of the war. When Prussia shook off the French
yoke in 1813, he first obtained a separate command; and
at the head of 60,000 troops, chiefly composed of raw militia,
he defeated four French marshals at Catsbach ; and rapidly
crossing the Elbe, materially contributed to the signal victory
of Leipzig. In several severe actions he fought his way to
Paris, which he entered on 31st March 1814 ; where it has
hem stated, that but for the intervention of the other allied
commanders, he was disposed to make a severe retaliation
for the calamities that Prussia had suffered from the armies
of France. Blowing up the Bridge of Jena over the Seine,
■was said to be one of his contemplated acts. When war
again broke out in 1815, the veteran was at the head of the
Prussian armies in Belgium, and exhibited his wonted en¬
terprise and activity. But partly owing to his own con¬
fidence and temerity, partly to the skilful strategy of his
celebrated opponent, he was defeated in the severe battle
of Ligny on 16th of June ; yet, with his characteristic spirit
and energy, Bliicher rallied his defeated forces, and appeared
on file field of Waterloo on the 18th, just as Wellington
had repulsed the last attack of Napoleon on the British
' position. At that critical moment Bliicher was seen emerg-
ing from the woodof Frichemonton the French right; and
the simultaneous irresistible charge of the British forces
converted the retreat of the French column into a tumultuous
flight, followed by that of the mighty victor on a hundred
well-fought fields. The allied commanders met at a chateau
called La Belle Alliance. The pursuit was continued through
the night by sixteen fresh Prussian regiments with terrible
carnage. The allies soon again entered Paris, where Bliicher
remained for several months; but the health of the aged com¬
mander having declined, he retired to his Silesian residence
at Kirblowitz, where he died on the 12th of September 1819,
aged seventy-seven. (t. s. t.)
BLUE, one of the seven colours into which the ray of
light is decomposed when refracted through a glass prism.
See Chromatics.
Blue-John, a name applied by the Derbyshire miners
to the massive variety of fluorspar from the Odin mine near
Castleton, which is fabricated into vases and other orna¬
ments.
Blue Vitriol, the sulphate of copper; a salt of a fine
blue or bluish-green colour, containing 32,13 per cent, of
copper, 3P57 of sulphuric acid, and 36’30 of water. It is
employed as an escharotic and astringent, and in the arts it
is used in dyeing, cotton-printing, and the like. It owes
its existence in nature to the decomposition of other mine¬
rals, particularly copper pyrites; and, after having undergone
the process of purification, forms regular crystals of a blue
colour. It reddens litmus paper, and is soluble in about
four parts of cold and two of boiling water. Its chief lo¬
calities are the Rammelsberg near Goslar, in the Hartz ;
Anglesea in England; and Fahlun in Sweden.
Blueing of Metals is the process of heating them in the
B L U
Bluff- fire till they assume a blue colour. The blueing of iron is
Headed done thus: A piece of grindstone or whetstone is rubbed
II hard on the work to take off the black scurf; the iron is then
^bach”" Seated in the fire, and as it grows hot the colour changes by
v l ] degrees, becoming first of a light, then of a darker gold
^ colour, and lastly blue. Sometimes also indigo and salad-
oil are ground together, and the mixture rubbed on the work
with a woollen rag while it is heating, after which it is left
to cool. Among sculptors is used the term blueing a figure
of bronze, by which is meant the heating of it, to prepare
it for the application of gold leaf; and it is so called because
of the bluish cast the metal acquires in the operation.
BLUFF-Headed, a term applied by sailors to a ship with
an upright stem. It is the opposite of sharp-headed.
BLUMENBACH, Johann Friedrich, M.D. This
most distinguished man was bornat Gotha on the 11th of May
1752. He studied medicine at Jena, and afterwards at Got¬
tingen, where he took the degree of physician in 1775.
His thesis on that occasion De Generis Humani Varietate
Nativa, published in quarto, was the germ of those cranio-
logical researches to which so many of his subsequent in¬
quiries were directed ; and such was the opinion entertained
of his acquirements, that he was appointed an adjunct or
extraordinary professor of medicine in the following year,
and ordinary professor in 1778; soon after which period he
began to enrich the pages of the Medicinische Bibliothek,
of which he was editor from 1780 to 1794, with various
contributions on medicine, physiology, and anatomy. In
physiology he was of the school of Haller; and was in the
habit of illustrating it by comparing the animal functions of
man with those of the inferior creation. He obtained a
well-merited reputation by the publication of his excellent
Institutiones Physiologicoe, a condensed, well-arranged view
of the animal functions, in which the reader is supposed to
be sufficiently acquainted with anatomical details to render
such unnecessary. This work appeared in 1787, and be¬
tween its first publication and 1821 went through many edi¬
tions in Germany where it was the general text-book of the
science. It was translated into English in America, by
Caldwell in 1798, and in London by Elliotson in 1807.
Blumenbach was perhaps still more extensively known by
his admirable Handbuch of Comparative Anatomy, of which
the German editions were numerous, from its appearance in
1805 to 1824. It w<is translated into English in 1819, by
our eminent surgeon Lawrence, the legitimate successor of
Hunter in comparative anatomy ; and again, with the latest
improvements and additions, by Coulson in 1827. This
Outline of Blumenbach, though slighter than the subsequent
works of Cuvier, Carus, and other writers, will always be
esteemed for the accuracy of his own observations, and his
just appreciation of the labours of his predecessors.
One of our author’s favourite works is Decades Collec-
tionis suce Craniorum Diversorum Gentium, in which ac¬
curate though slight delineations of the skulls in his noble
collection are given, with brief descriptions of each. It ap¬
peared in fasciculi, until sixty crania were represented ; ex¬
hibiting in a striking manner the peculiarities in form of the
skulls of diverse nations, and justifying the division of the
human race into several great varieties or families, of which
five are most generally received—the Caucasian or white
race, the Mongolian or Tatar, the Malayan or brown race,
the Negro or black race, and the American or red race,
though some have identified this race with the Mongolian.
Although the greatest part of Blumenbach’s long life
was passed at Gottingen, in 1789 he found leisure to visit
Switzerland, and gave a curious medical topography of that
country in his Bibliothek. He was in England in 1788
and 1792. The Prince Regent conferred on him the office of
physician to the royal family in Hanover in 1816, and made
him knight companion of the Guelphic order in 1821. The
Royal Academy of Paris adopted him as a member in 1831.
BOA 799
This eminent philosopher died at Gottingen on the 22d of Blunder-
January 1840. (x. s. T.) buss
BLUNDERBUSS, a short fire-arm of a large calibre, Bo^r
widening towards the muzzle, and adapted for discharging ^ ’ ,
many bullets at once.
BLUSHING, a sudden suffusion or redness of the cheeks,
excited by a sense of shame, confusion, oi surprise, or by
the consciousness of some failing or imperfection, real or ima¬
ginary.
Blushing is supposed to be produced by a kind of sym¬
pathy between several parts of the body, occasioned by the
same nerve being extended to them all. Thus the fifth
pair of nerves being branched from the brain to the eye, ear,
muscles of the lips, cheeks, palate, tongue, and nose, a thing
seen or heard that is shameful covers the cheeks with blushes,
driving the blood into the minute vessels there dispersed, and
also affecting the eye and ear in a similar manner. For the
same reason it is, that a savoury thing seen or smelled affects
the glands and parts of the mouth; that if anything pleasing
be heard, the muscles of the face are affected with laughter;
and that if it be melancholy, it affects the glands of the eyes,
and occasions weeping.
BO, a cluster of six or seven islands in the Eastern Seas,
lying E.S.E. of the southern extremity of Gilolo. They are
inhabited, and supply navigators with cocoa-nuts. Long.
126. 25. E. Lat. 1 27. S.
BOA. See Reptilia, Index.
BOADICEA, a valiant British queen in the time of the
emperor Nero. She was the wife of Prasutagus, king of the
Iceni, a people inhabiting the eastern coast of Britain. On
his deathbed, a.d. 60, Prasutagus named the emperor heir
to his accumulated treasures conjointly with his own two
daughters, in expectation of securing thereby Nero’s pro¬
tection for his family and people ; but he was no sooner
dead than the emperor’s officers seized all. Boadicea’s op¬
position to these unjust proceedings was resented with such
cruelty, that orders were given that she should be publicly
whipped, and her daughters exposed to the brutality of
the soldiers. The Britons took up arms, with Boadicea at
their head, to shake off the Roman yoke ; and the colony ot
Camalodunum or Colchester was taken, and the Romans
were massacred wherever they could be found. The whole
province of Britain would have been lost to Rome, if Sue¬
tonius Paulinus had not hastened from the Isle of Mona or
Man to London, and at the head of 10,000 men engaged
the Britons, who are said to have amounted to 230,000. A
battle was fought with great obstinacy on both sides, and for
a time with doubtful success, but at last victory inclined to
the Romans. This conflict took place a.d. 62. Boadicea,
who had displayed extraordinary valour, soon after despatched
herself by poison. (Tac. Ann. 'sxw., Agric. 15-16.; Dion
Cass. Ixii.)
BOAR, a term in the manege. A horse is said to boar
when he shoots out his nose as high as his ears, and tosses
his nose in the wind.
Boar, a male swine. See Mammalia.
The wild boar, among huntsmen, has several names, ac¬
cording to his different ages. The first year he is called a
pig of the sounder ; the second, a hog ; the third, a hog-
steer ; and the fourth, a boar. When leaving the saunder,
he is called a singler or sangler. The boar generally lives
to the age of twenty-five or thirty years, if he escape acci¬
dents. The time of rutting is in December, and lasts about
three weeks. Wild boars feed on all sorts of fruits, and on
the roots of many plants. The root of fern in particular seems
a favourite with them : and when they frequent places near
the sea-coast, they descend to the shores, and demolish the
tenderer shell-fish in very great numbers. Their general
places of rest are among the thickest bushes that can be
found; and they are not easily induced to break cover, but
will stand at bay a long time. In April and May they sleep
i
800 BOA
Boat. more soundly than at any other time of the year ; and this
js therefore the successful time for taking them in the toils.
When a boar is roused out of the thicket, he always leaves
it, if possible, by the same way which he entered it; and when
he is once up, he will never stop until he reaches some
place of greater security. If a saunder of them be found to¬
gether, and any of their number break away, the rest follow in
the same track. When the boar is hunted in the wood where
he has been bred, he can scarcely ever be brought to quit
it; sometimes indeed he makes towards the sides to listen
to the noise of the dogs, but he retires into the middle again,
and usually dies or escapes there. When a boar happens to
run a-head, he will not be stopped or put off his way by man
or beast, as long as he has any strength left. He makes no
doubles or crossings when chased; and, if old, utters no
sound when killed, though the sows and pigs will squeak when
wounded. At his full strength he is one of the most resolute
and courageous of animals. His prevailing impulse is to close
with his antagonist. When fairly at bay he never shrinks
from any contest, however unequal; and, although mortally
wounded, he will nevertheless maintain the combat with the
most unflinching bravery to the last.
The hinder claws of a boar are called guards. In the
corn he is said to feed ; in the meadows or fallow-fields, to
rout, worm, or fern ; in a close, to graze. The boar is far¬
rowed with his full complement of teeth, which afterwards
increase in size, but not in number. Amongst these there
are four called tushes or tusks, the two largest of which do not
hurt when he strikes, but serve only to whet the other two,
with which the beast defends himself, and frequently kills
his assailant.
BOAT, a small open vessel, propelled on the water by
oars or sails. The construction, machinery, and even the
names of boats, are very different, according to the various
purposes for which they are intended, and the services on
which they are to be employed. Thus they are occasion¬
ally slight or strong, sharp or flat-bottomed, open or decked,
plain or ornamented ; as they may be designed for swiftness
or burden, for deep or shallow water, for sailing in a harbour
or at sea, and for convenience or pleasure. The largest
boat that usually accompanies a ship is the long-boat, which
is generally furnished with a mast and sails. Long-boats
fitted for men-of-war are occasionally decked, armed, and
equipped, for cruising short distances against merchant ships
of the enemy, or smugglers, for impressing seamen, and
other services. The barges, which are next in order, are
longer, slighter, and narrower. They are employed to carry
the principal sea-officers, as admirals and captains of ships
of war, and are unfit for the open sea. Pinnaces exactly
resemble barges, but are somewhat smaller, and have never
more than eight oars ; whereas a barge properly never
rows less than ten. The cutters of a ship are broader,
deeper, and shorter, than the barges and pinnaces : they are
fitter for sailing, and are commonly employed in carrying
stores, provisions, passengers, and the like, to and from the
ship. In the structure of this sort of boat the lower edge
of every plank in the side overlays the upper edge of the
plank below, which is called by ship-wrights clinker-build.
Yawls are somewhat less than cutters, nearly of the same
form, and used for similar services. They are generally x’owed
with six oars. The above boats more particularly belong
to men-of-war. Merchant-vessels above 150 tons have at
least two, a long-boat and yawl. Merchant-ships employed
in the Mediterranean find it more convenient to use a launch,
which is longer, flatter in the bottom, and better adapted
every way to the harbours of that sea, than a long-boat. A
wherry is a light, sharp boat, used in a river or harbour for
carrying passengers from place to place. Punts are a sort
of oblong flat-bottomed boats, nearly resembling floating
stages. They are used by ship-wrights and caulkers, for
breaming, caulking, or repairing a ship’s bottom. It is also
B 0 C
the name for the smallest boat of yachts, &c. A moses Boat-bill
is a very flat, broad boat, used by merchant-ships among II
the Caribbee Islands, to bring hogsheads of sugar off from Boccacio-
the sea-beach to the shipping anchored in the roads. A
felucca is a strong passage-boat used in the Mediterranean,
and propelled with oars and lateen sails. The pirogue of the
southern and eastern seas is a kind of canoe made of the trunk
of a tree hollowed out. It is generally worked with paddles,
but sometimes it is decked and furnished with sails and an
outrigger. The proa, so much used by pirates in the Eastern
Archipelago, is sharp at both ends, in order to sail either way.
Its lee-side is rounded, but the weather-side is flat, and pro¬
vided with an outrigger to secure its stability.
Boat-Bill. See Ornithology, Index.
BOATSWAIN, the officer in a ship who has the charge
of the boats, sails, rigging, colours, anchors, cables, and
cordage. It is also the duty of this officer to summon the
crew to their duty ; to assist with his mates in the necessary
business of the ship; and to relieve the watch when its
time expires.
He has a mate who has the charge of the long-boat, for
setting forth anchors, weighing or fetching home an anchor,
warping, towing, or mooring.
BOBBIN, a small cylinder of wood, with a little border
or head at each end, and bored through to receive an iron
pivot. It is used in spinning, to wind thread, worsted, hair,
cotton, silk, gold, and silver.
BOBBING, among fishermen, a method of catching eels,
different from sniggling. To bob for eels, a number of large
lobs are well scoured, and a twisted silk thread is run through
them from end to end with a needle : they are then tied fast
with the two ends of the silk thread, that they may hang in
so many hanks; after which the whole mass is attached to a
strong cord, with a plummet fixed a little above the worms to
sink the bait, and the cord is made fast to a strong pole. This
apparatus is thrown into muddy water : the eels tug lustily
at the bait; the rope is then to be drawn in gently, and the
eels are brought ashore.
BOBLINGEN, a town of Wirtemberg, in the circle of
Neckar, and capital of a bailiwick of the same name. It is
situated upon the declivity of a hill, 11 miles S.W. of Stutt-
gardt. Pop. 3300, engaged in the manufacture of woollen
goods, vinegar, beer, aquafortis, and chemicals.
BOBSTAYS, the ropes which secure the bowsprit of a
ship against the upward strain.
BOCA-ChicA, the strait or entrance into the harbour of
Carthagena in South America. It is defended by several
forts belonging to the Spaniards, all of which were taken in
1741 by the English ; who were obliged, however, to raise
the siege of Carthagena a short time after.
BOCAYRENT, a town of the province of Valencia, in
Spain. It contains 4074 inhabitants, who are remarkable
for their industry in the manufacture of linen and woollens,
of cordage, soap, paper, and brandy.
BOCCACIO, or Boccace, Giovanni, one of the most
gifted and learned writers of his age, whose name alone,
according to Mazzuchelli, is worth a thousand eulogiums,
was born in 1313. His father was a merchant at Florence,
where the pursuits of commerce were held in the highest esti¬
mation. His family came originally from Certaldo, a village
situated about 20 miles from the capital of Tuscany; for which
reason he generally subjoined to his name the words da Cer¬
taldo. Boccacio was not, therefore, the son of a peasant, as has
been asserted in the Dictionnaire Historique. He appears to
have been the illegitimate offspring of a connection which
his father had formed while at Paris, having been called
thither by some commercial affairs; and it was in the 4 rencn
capital that the illustrious author of the Decameron first saw
the light. Conveyed at an early period to Florence, he com¬
menced his studies, and, from his tenderest years, evinced
a decided taste for poetry; but he had scarcely attaine ^
B O C C
Boccacio. the age of ten when his father placed him in the house of
another merchant, with the view of training him up to
commerce. Several years afterwards this merchant took
him to Paris, and kept him in all six years in his house;
but failing to inspire his charge with a taste for the mer¬
cantile profession, to which the latter gave only a reluc¬
tant and compulsory attention, he sent the youth back to
his father. At Florence, as at Paris, Boccacio was divided
between occupations for which he felt nothing but repug¬
nance, and a taste for letters which went on increasing
daily. And this taste received a fresh stimulus at Naples,
to which he had been sent with the view of withdrawing
him from such pursuits, and attaching him definitively to
the mercantile profession. He remained there eight years,
and instead of associating only with merchants, he esta¬
blished an intimacy with several learned men, Florentine
as well as Neapolitan, whom the favour of King Robert,
the friend and patron of letters, had drawn to his capital.
There is no evidence whatever of Boccacio having per¬
sonally experienced the kindness of Robert; but he ap¬
pears to have excited a tender interest in the bosom of
the king’s natural daughter, for whom he composed seve¬
ral works both in prose and verse, and whom he often de¬
signates by the name of Fiammetta. Endowed with all
exterior advantages, of a lively and joyous disposition,
possessing an amiable and yielding character, and the fa¬
voured lover of the daughter of a king, it is not surprising
that he should have then felt less inclination than ever for
mercantile occupations and pursuits. The sprightly taste
of the princess, the intimate companionship of men of let¬
ters, the impression made upon him in a walk near Naples
by the tomb of Virgil, the presence of Petrarch, who was
treated with the most marked distinction by the court,
being then about to proceed to Rome, there to receive the
laurel crown, and probably, also, his first intercourse with
this celebrated man, whose intimate friend and associate he
was afterwards to become,—all contributed to strengthen
his natural inclination, and to decide his vocation as a
literary man and a poet.
After a residence of two years with his father at Flo¬
rence, he returned to Naples, and was favourably received
by the queen, Jane; and it is believed that it was as
much to gratify the young queen as his dear Fiammetta,
that he began the Decameron, or collection of a hundred
tales, which places him, without a rival, in the first rank
of Italian prose-writers. Having lost his father, and being
thus at liberty to follow his own inclination, he went to
settle at Florence, where his studies suffered no interrup¬
tion except what was occasioned by pleasure, and some
honourable missions with which he was charged by his
fellow-citizens. Among other offices of this kind, he was
the person selected to go to Padua, and carry to Petrarch
the intelligence of his recall, and of the restitution that
had been made of the property of his father, who, formerly
banished from Florence, had since died in exile; and it
was in the execution of this mission that he formed with
his illustrious contemporary that close and intimate friend¬
ship which only ceased with their lives. Some years
afterwards, having involved himself in embarrassments by
his expenditure in the purchase of books and his taste for
pleasure, he was generously relieved by Petrarch, who not
only afforded him pecuniary aid, but gave him good coun¬
sel both as to his works and his conduct, and was mainly
instrumental in bringing about the change which subse¬
quently took place in his habits and character. A course
of pleasure or dissipation is sure, sooner or later, to ter¬
minate in satiety, ennui, heart-sickness, and remorse; and
when this crisis actually comes on, the presence and coun¬
sels of a tender and judicious friend may not only serve
to check the moral re-action before it proceeds too far,
VOL. IV.
A C i O. 801
but may also give a new and salutary direction to the Boccacia
mind and feelings of the penitent. Petrarch performed
this important office to his friend. The exhortations of
a Carthusian monk had at first inspired the latter with an
extravagant scheme of reform, being nothing less than an
entire renunciation of the world, and of those studies which
are denominated profane ; but Petrarch brought him back
to better views, and kept him steadily in that just medium
which is the position recommended by true wisdom.
Some new troubles having about this time broken out
in Florence, Boccacio withdrew to Certaldo, where he
possessed a small estate, in order to continue his pur¬
suits in tranquillity. Hitherto he had only written in the
vulgar tongue, and produced works of mere amusement;
but now he composed several, which he wrote in Latin, on
subjects of erudition and history; and one of these trea¬
tises is the first modern work in which a collection was
made of all the mythological notions which are scattered
throughout the writings of the ancients. He knew Greek
very well, having brought, at his own expense, from
Venice to Florence, Leontius Pilatus of Thessalonica, and
entertained him for three years, in order to learn of him
that language, to read with the learned refugee the Iliad
and the Odyssey, and to translate both from beginning to
end into Latin. He had also the glory of procuring from
Greece, at his own expense, copies of these immortal works;
nor did his zeal in the cause of classical learning stop here;
for he spared neither pains nor expense in order to obtain
good Greek and Latin manuscripts, and employed all his
influence to induce his contemporaries to learn Greek,
and to substitute the study of antiquity for that of the
scholastic sciences, which alone had hitherto been encou¬
raged. Auspicious for the cause of true learning, these
efforts added to the reputation and authority of Boccacio.
He was twice charged with important embassies from the
republic of Florence to Pope Urban V., and executed
them in a manner creditable to himself and satisfactory to
his countrymen. He then returned to Certaldo, and re¬
sumed his favourite studies; but a long and grievous ma¬
lady, with which he was now attacked, reduced him to a
state of languor and depression more painful than even
the disease itself. On recovering somewhat, he under¬
took a difficult, but to him most agreeable, task. He had
always been an ardent admirer of Dante; he knew by
heart nearly the whole of his poem, and had copied it
several times with his own hand. The Florentines, who
had persecuted and exiled this great poet, wishing now
to honour and vindicate his memory, instituted, by a de¬
cree of the senate, a public chair for the explication of
this poem, which, although it contained many sublime
things, was nevertheless filled with obscurities and diffi¬
culties, certain to increase with the progress of time, and
in proportion as we are removed from the period in which
the author wrote; and it was on Boccacio that they con¬
ferred the new professorship. But the efforts which he
made to fulfil the expectations of his countrymen retard¬
ed his convalescence ; the death of Petrarch, his master
and friend, which took place at this time, and was sud¬
denly communicated to him, proved a stunning blow; he
became daily weaker and weaker; and in little more than
a year he died at Certaldo, on the 21st December 1375,
in the sixty-second year of his age.
Boccacio was indeed born a poet; he was so in all his
works of imagination, at least in invention if not in style.
All that he has written in verse is mediocre; several of
his Italian works in prose are also poor enough. He is
only superior and inimitable in his novels, of which never¬
theless he made small account. Like his master Petrarch,
he believed that his serious works, written in Latin, form¬
ed his best title to fame; yet his reputation rests exclu-
5 i
*
802
BOCCACIO.
Boccacio. sively on a simple collection of tales, as that of Petrarch
-v-*-'' does on his amatory verses. Every thing he has written
in Latin bears a character of crude precipitation, which,
however, is less the effect of negligence in the author,
than of those difficulties and obstacles which were then
opposed to the composition of such works. In his youth
he had flattered himself with the idea of obtaining the
second place in poetry by his verses; his admiration ot
Dante did not allow him to aspire to the first; and the
Italian poems of Petrarch were as yet unknown to him.
But as soon as he became acquainted with the latter, he
threw into the fire the greater part of his lyric verses,
sonnets, canzoni, and other amatory poems; and those
which have since been published are merely such as, m
spite of himself, escaped this act of severity. But the
fortunate result of his disgust with his poetical productions
was to induce Boccacio to write with greater care m prose,
and to give to his language a perfection, rhythm, harmony,
and elegance in the tournure of expression, which it had
hitherto wanted, and which Italian, with all. its capabili¬
ties, has never attained to the same degree in the hands
of any other writer. His style may be characterized in two
words; it is simplex munditiis; grace, elegance, and s™"
plicity combined are its peculiar attributes; and so si -
fully is the art of the writer concealed in the very perfec¬
tion of his work, that while the charm diffused over it proves
irresistible to readers of every class, it seems a spontaneous
emanation of his mind, the result of mere volition, without
labour, without effort, and without premeditation. I he
following is a tolerably correct list of the works of Boc-
1. De Genealogia Deorum libri xv. De Montium, Syl-
var'um, Lacuum, Fluviorum, et Marium nominibus, liber.
The first edition of these two works united is in folio,
without date, but it is supposed to have been printed a.t
Venice prior to 1472, which is the date of the second edi¬
tion. A third was printed the following year, and there
have since been several at Venice, Paris, and Basel. The
treatise on the Genealogy of the Gods was the fruit of im¬
mense reading; and as there existed at that time no simi¬
lar work in which information might be obtained respect-
in0- the mythology of the ancients, its success was prodi¬
gious. In this production Boccacio cites several authors
no longer extant, and derives from them particulars which
are only to be found in his book. This work, translated
into Italian by Joseph Betusi, has gone through twelve or
thirteen editions, the first being that of Venice, 1574, m
4to. There are also two French translations; the first at
Paris in 1498, in folio, reprinted in 1531, also in folio, and
the second at Paris in 1578, in 8vo. The little Treatise
on Mountains, Forests, Lakes, Rivers, and Seas, has a so
been translated into Italian; it is in quarto, but without date
or name of place. , .
2. De Casibus Virorum et Fceminarum Itlustnum, libri
ix. " The Paris edition of this treatise is in folio, and
dated 1535, 1544. It was translated into Italian by Be¬
tusi, Venice, 1545, 8vo; into English by John Ludgate,
London, 1494, folio, reprinted in the same form in 1527;
into Spanish by D. Pedro Lopez de Ayala, and D. Juan
de Zamora, Seville, 1495, Joledo, 1511, folio; into Ger¬
man by Jerome Ziegler, Augsburg, 1545, folio; and seve¬
ral times into French, first by an anonymous translator,
Bruges, 1476, folio; next by Laurens du Premier-fait,
Paris, 1483, folio, and at Lyons the same year; and, lastly,
by Claude Witard, Paris, 1578, 8vo.
3. De Claris Mulieribus. The first edition is without
date or name of place ; the second was published at Ulm in
1473, and, like the first, is in folio. The work was translated
into Italian by Vincent Bagli, a Florentine, Venice, 1506,
4to, and by Joseph Betusi, who made several additions,
and prefixed a life of Boccacio, Venice, 1545 and 1547, 8vo. Boccado.
There are also Spanish, French, and German versions.
4. Eclogee. These eclogues, sixteen in number, were
printed, along with those of Virgil, Calphurnius, Neme-
sianus, Petrarch, and Gauricus, at Florence in 1504, and
again at Basel in 1546, in the Bucolicorum Autores.
5. La Teseide, the first Italian poem which presents a
specimen of the epopee. It is written in the ottava rima,
of which Boccacio is usually considered as the inventor,
Ferrara, 1475, folio ; Venice, 1528, 4to; Paris, 1591, 12mo,
a French translation.
6. Amorosa Visione, Milan 1520 and 1521, in 4to, with
grammatical observations, and a defence of Boccacio by
Claricio dTmola, Venice, 1531, 8vo.
7. II Filostrato, a romantic poem in ottava rima, the
hero of which is the young Troilus, son of Priam, and the
subject his amours with Chryseis, whom the poet makes
the daughter of Chalcas, Bologna, 1498, 4to ; Milan, 1499,
4to; Venice, 1501 and 1528, 4to.
8. Nimfale Fiesolano, a poem also in the ottava rima,
in which, under the veil of pastoral fiction, Boccacio is
supposed to give an account of a gallant adventure which
occurred at Florence in his time. Venice, 1477, 4to;
Paris, Molini, 1778, 8vo.
9. Rime, or poems on various subjects, being such as
escaped the flames when the author resolved to burn all
his verses. They have been several times collected; but
Baldelli’s edition, printed at Leghorn in 1802, is the best.
10. II Filocopo, ovvero Amorosa Fatica, &c. a romance,
written by the author when very young, and wholly de¬
void of interest. It is unconscionably long, and despe¬
rately tedious; and the style, which is sometimes flat and
at other times bombastical, gives no promise of that purity
of diction which Boccacio afterwards attained. Venice,
1472, folio; Milan, 1476 and 1478, folio; Venice, 1514,
4to; Paris, 1542, folio, and 1555, 8vo.
11. EAmorosa Fiammetta, another romance, in no de¬
gree superior to II Filoslrato. Padua, 14/2, 4to ; \enice,
1481, 4to; Paris, 1585, 1609, 12mo.
12. E Urbano, Florence, 1598, 8vo ; translated into
French under the title of Urbain le Mescogneu, Lyons,
without date.
13. Ameto or Nimfale d'Ameto, a work written in prose,
intermixed with verse, and the earliest specimen of this
kind of composition. Rome and Venice, 1478, 4to; Tre¬
viso, 1479, 4to; Venice, 1503, folio; Florence, 1521, 8vo.
14. II Corbaccio, o sia Laberinto dAmore, a bitter and
coarse invective against some female who had displeased
him after his return to Florence. The indecency of this
production is abominable, but the purity and beauty of the
style have caused it to be sought after. Florence, 1487,
4to; Venice, 1516, 24to, and 1528, 8vo; Paris, 1569, 8vo.
15. Origine, Vita et Costumi di Dante Alighieri, Rome,
1544, 8vo ; Florence,. 1576, 8vo. In this life of Dante
Boccacio shows himself more of a romancer than a bio¬
grapher ; but it is nevertheless interesting on account ot
several curious anecdotes it contains, and also by reason
of the style, which is every way worthy of Boccacio.
16. Commento sopra la Commedia di Dante Alighieri, an
invaluable work, containing a great number of explications
of difficult passages in Dante, although almost suffocated
by a multitude of details foreign to the intelligence of the
text. This commentary, which embodies the lessons de¬
livered publicly by Boccacio at Florence, when he was at¬
tacked with the malady of which he died, was not printed
till the eighteenth century. It extends only to the I/th
chapter of the Inferno, and occupies the two last volumes
of the collection of Boccacio’s works in Italian prose, pub¬
lished at Naples, with the false imprint of Florence, in
vols. 8vo, 1724.
B O C
Boccale 17. Lastly, II Decamerone, Boccacio’s principal title to
ii _ immortality, and of all works extant, that, perhaps, of which
Boccalim. ^ jg |.jle mos(. diflicuit to convey a tolerably accurate idea in
'"‘^v few words. To regard it merely as a collection of gallant and
licentious tales, is to entertain a very false notion indeed of
this extraordinary work. The greater part of the poets, it is
true, who have borrowed from this source, have indeed taken
little else from it than licentiousness ; but it is their fault
more than that of the author, if their draughts have been so
confined. In the Decameron, Boccacio has painted, as on
an immense canvass, men of all conditions, of all characters,
of all ages; and described events of every kind, from the
freest and the gayest to the most touching and the most tra¬
gical. He has also given models of all sorts of eloquence,
and carried his language to a pitch of perfection unknown
before his time, and unrivalled since. For three centuries
after it appeared it was constantly reprinted, and more than
a hundred different editions might be enumerated, to say
nothing of translations into every language of Europe which
is connected with an independent literature. At the same
time it has experienced singular vicissitudes. From the
date of the first edition in 1470, liberties of every kind were
taken with the text, particularly in the more licentious parts,
which led to its prohibition by two popes, Paul IV. and
Pius IV.; some academicians also undertook to reform the
Decameron ; important corrections as well as suppressions
were made ; and several editions, thus amended, appeared.
But in order to judge of the work as it proceeded from the
hand of Boccacio, we must revert to the older editions, or
to those which have followed them. The rarest and dearest
is that of Florence, 1527, in 4to. Of this, however, an
exact copy was printed at Venice in 1729, but bearing at
the end the name of Florence and the date of 1527. It is
nevertheless easily distinguishable by those marks which are
known to bibliographers. The curious ought to have, also,
for comparison, the edition amended by the Florentine aca¬
demicians, conformably to the orders of the grand duke of
Tuscany, and approved by Gregory XIII. It will show, on
the one hand, to what a state the masterpiece of Boccacio
had been reduced ; and, on the other, excite surprise at the
remnants of the old interpolations which are preserved, and
invested with the pontifical sanction. This edition was
printed at Florence in 1573, in 4to. The edition of Sal-
viati, who undertook a new reform, appeared at Venice in
1584, in 4to. In both these reformed editions, the portion
of the text respected and left untouched is of extreme
purity. It would be endless to attempt an enumeration of
other editions, or of the translations which have been made
into different languages. (Biograplrie Universelle, Crescem-
. beni.) (j. b—e.)
BOCCALE, or Bocal, a liquid measure used at Rome,
equivalent to about an English quart.
BOCCALINI, Trajan, born at Loretto a.d. 1556, a
celebrated satirical writer who obtained the admiration of
all Italy by his refined and delicate criticisms. His pro¬
fession was architecture ; and it appears that he commenced
rather late in life to supply the deficiencies of a neglected
education. Pursuing his studies at Rome, he there acquired
the friendship of several distinguished persons, and through
their influence was appointed governor of a small town in the
Papal States; from which, however, he was soon recalled for
mal-administration. Returning to Rome, he wrote his cele¬
brated Ragguagli di Parnaso, in which Apollo is repre¬
sented as holding his court on Parnassus, receiving the com¬
plaints of the whole world, and distributing justice according
to the exigencies of each particular case. This work, which
was a satire on the lives, actions, and writings, of eminent
individuals, was published at Venice, whither the author had
retired, to escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom
he had abused. Here, on the 16th November 1613, Boc-
calini died of colic accompanied with fever, according to the
B O C 803
register of the parochial church of Sta. Maria Formosa. His Boccarella
end has by some writers been related differently. They assert II
that as he lay in bed some ruffians, employed by the court of ■Bochart-
Spain, assailed him with small bags filled with sand, and
beat him so violently that he died soon after. Mazzuchelli,
however, in his Scrittori d’Italia, has contradicted this
story. The freedom with which Boccalini had attacked the
tyrannical government of Spain in his Pietra del Paragons,
was supposed to be the cause of this outrage; but this work
did not appear until two years after his death. That en¬
titled La Segretaria d’Apollo, which was published as a con¬
tinuation of the Pagguagli di Parnaso, has generally been
attributed to Boccalini; but its authenticity is denied by the
best critics. The titles of his works are as follows :—Rag¬
guagli di Parnaso, in two centuries, Venice, 1612 and 1613,
4to ; 2. Pietra del Paragone Politico, Cosmopoli (Amster¬
dam) 1615, 4to; 3. Commentarj sopra Cornelio Tacito,
Geneva, 1669, and Amsterdam, 1677, 4to.
BOCCARELLA, in the glass manufacture, a small
round aperture in the furnace, beside the bocca, and almost
horizontal with it. Out of this and another similar aperture
the servitors take coloured or finer metal from the piling pot.
BOCCONE, Paolo (afterwards Sylvio), a celebrated
Sicilian naturalist, born at Palermo a.d. 1633. After he
had gone through the usual course of study, he was ordained
priest, and entered into the Cistercian order. For the sake
of improving his knowledge in natural history, he travelled
over Sicily, Malta, Italy, the Low Countries, England, France,
Germany, Poland, and several other countries; and in 1696
was admitted a member of the Academ. Curiosor. Naturae, in
Germany. Upon his return to Sicily, he retired to the con¬
vent of Sta. Maria d’Altifonte, near Palermo, where he died
in 1704. He left many curious works, some of which have
gone through several editions. The following in particular
may be mentioned, 1. Recherches et Observations Naturelles
touchant le Corail, la Pierre Etoilee, et VEmbrasement du
Mont Etna ; 2. Museo di Fisica e di Esperienza ; 3.
Osservazioni Naturali; 4. Pella Pietra Belzuar minerale
Siciliand ; 5. Appendix ad Museum de Plantis Siculis.
BO CHART, Samuel, one of the most learned men of
the seventeenth century, was born at Rouen in Normandy,
May 30. 1599. He early made great progress in learning,
and became a proficient in the oriental languages. He was
many years pastor of a Protestant church at Caen, and be¬
came tutor to Wentworth Dillon, Earl of Roscommon, author
of the essay on Translated Verse. While at Caen, he par¬
ticularly distinguished himself by his public disputations
with Father Veron, a Jesuit, and celebrated as a polemic.
The dispute was held in the castle of Caen, in the presence
of a great number of Catholics and Protestants, including
among the former the Duke of Longueville. In 1646, Boch-
art published his Phaleg and Chanaan, which are the titles
of the two parts of his Geographia Sacra. His Hierozoi-
con, which treats of the sacred animals of Scripture, was
printed at London in 1675. In 1652, Christina, queen of
Sweden, invited him to Stockholm: whither he repaired
accompanied by Huet. On his return to Caen he resumed
his duties as a minister of the gospel, married, and was re¬
ceived into the academy of that city. Bochart was a man
of profound erudition ; lie possessed a thorough knowledge
of the principal oriental languages, including the Hebrew,
Syriac, Chaldaic, and Arabic ; and such w as his zeal for ex¬
tending his acquirements, that at an advanced age he wished
to learn Ethiopic. He was remarkable for modesty and
candour; but so absorbed was he in his favourite study,
that he saw Phoenician, and nothing but Phoenician, in every¬
thing, even in the words of the Celtic; and hence the pro¬
digious number of chimerical etymologies which swarm in
his works. He died at Caen, May 16. 1667. A complete
edition of his works was published at Leyden, under the
title of Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia: hoc est; Phaleg,
sot
Bochins
II
Bodin.
BOD
BOD
Clmnaan, seu Geographia Sacra, et Hierozoicon, seu de
Animalibus sacris Sacrce Scripture, et Dissertationes Va-
ri(B, 1675, 2 vols. folio ; 1692, 1712, 3 vols. folio.
BOCHIUS, or Boch, John, a Latin poet, born at Brus¬
sels a.d. 1555. He travelled into Italy, Germany, Poland,
and Muscovy, and at bis return became secretary to the
Duke of Parma. He died January 13.1609. The critics in
the Netherlands honoured him with the title of the Belgic
Virgil.
BOCHNIA, the capital of a circle of the same name in
the Austrian province of Galicia, is situated on the river
Raba, in Long. 20. 25. E. Lat. 49. 57. 15. N. It has a
gymnasium and other schools, and extensive salt mines pro¬
ducing annually about. 200,000 cwt. of salt. Pop. 5590.
This circle contains 3 cities, 9 market-towns, and 4.) vil¬
lages, with 204,578 inhabitants.
BOCHUM, the capital of a circle of the same name in
the Prussian province of Westphalia, and government of
Arnsberg, with 4877 inhabitants, engaged chiefly in the
manufacture of cassimeres and hardware. I he circle con¬
tains three cities, 2 market-towns, 84 villages, and 55,8/4
'^BOCKING, a town and parish in the hundred of Hinck-
ford, county of Essex, 40 miles from London. It was for¬
merly celebrated for the manufacture of a particular descrip¬
tion of baize, which found a ready sale m the markets ot
Spain ; hut its chief manufactures now are silk and crape. It
has an old church, hospital, and flour mills. Pop. (1851 3846.
BOCK-Land {book and land), in ancient English law,
is the same as the modern freehold land, held by char¬
ter or deed in writing; by which name it was distin¬
guished from folk-land or copyhold land, which was holden
by the common people without writing.
BODE Johann Elert, a celebrated German astrono¬
mer, born’January 19. 1747, at Hamburg, where his father
kept a commercial academy. From his earliest years he
was devoted to the mathematical sciences, especially astro¬
nomy. In the garret of his father’s house, with the aid of
a telescope constructed by himself, he eagerly made obser¬
vations of the heavens; and at eighteen years of age had
acquired so great a knowledge of astronomy, that when Dr
Reimarus visited his father, young Bode was found occupied
in calculating an eclipse of the sun. _ This incident was the
means of introducing him to the notice of Professor Biisc i,
who at once afforded him every facility for prosecuting his
labours with success. Shortly afterwards Bode gave the first
public proof of his knowledge by a short work on the solar
eclipse of August 5. 1766; and this was followed by ns
Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels, an ele¬
mentary treatise on astronomy, which was eminently suc¬
cessful,' and has since gone through numerous editions. In
1772, being called to Berlin by Frederic II., he was made
astronomer to the Academy of Sciences, and afterwards a
member of that institution. The well-known periodical work
enfriXed AstronomischeJahrbucher,which is continued to the
present day, was commenced by Bode in 1774; but that on
which his fame chiefly rests is the Uranographia, published
in 1801, in which the industrious author has given observa¬
tions of 17,240 stars, or 12,000 more than are to be found
in any older charts. This veteran observer, who may justly
be said to have been the first to diffuse a general taste for
astronomy in Germany, died at Berlin, Nov. 23. 1826.
BODERIA, or Bodotria, the ancient name of the Firth
of Forth, Scotland.
BODIN, Jean, characterized by Bayle as “ one of the
ablest men that appeared in France in the sixteenth cen¬
tury,” and famous as the author of The Republic, and the
Methodus ad Facilem Historiarum Cognitionem, was born
at Angers about the year 1530. He was at one time in great
favour with Henry III., but this was not of long continu¬
ance. The Duke of Alenqon, however, gave him several
employments, and took him to England as one of his suite,
where he had the pleasure of finding his Republic in use as
a text-book in the university of Cambridge. In the Rag- ^
guaglia of Boccalini he is condemned to the fire as an
atheist, for maintaining liberty of conscience. He declared
himself with much freedom against those who asserted that
the authority of monarchs is unlimited; and yet he displeased
the republicans. Upon the death of the Duke of Alenqon,
Bodin retired to Laon, where he married; and in the time
of Charles IX. he was the king’s solicitor, with a commission
for the forests of Normandy. He died of the plague, at
Laon, in 1596. Besides his Methodus, and Six Livres de
la Republique, which Laharpe has described as containing
the germ of the Spirit of Laws, Bodin wrote Commentaire
sur les Livres de la Chasse d’Oppien, Paris, 1555, in 4to ;
Remononianie, Paris, 1581, in 4to; Fleau des Demons et
Sorciers, 1616, in 8vo; Universal Nature Theatrum,
Lyons, 1596, in 8vo; Paradoxes, doctes et excellents Dis-
cours de la Vertu touchant la Fin et Souverain Bien de
VHomme, Paris, 1604; aud Colloquium Heptaplomeron
sive de abditis Rerum sublimium Arcanis, printed for the
first time in 1841, at Berlin. For some further particulars
regarding Bodin, and a general estimate of his merits as a
writer, see Prelim. Dissert. I.
BODKIN, a small instrument of steel, bone, ivory,
&c., used for making holes by piercing : also a similar in¬
strument with an eye, for drawing tape or thread through
a loop, &c. . . . e
BODLE, an old Scottish copper coin, ot the value ot
two pennies Scots, or the sixth part of an English penny.
BODLEY, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian library
at Oxford, was born at Exeter a.d. 1544. When he was
about twelve years of age, his father, John Bodley, on ac¬
count of his Protestant principles, was obliged to leave the
kingdom. He settled with his family at Geneva, and con¬
tinued there till the death of Queen Mary. In that uni¬
versity, then in its infancy, young Bodley studied under
several eminent professors. On the accession of Queen
Elizabeth, he returned with his father to England, and was
soon after entered of Magdalen College, Oxford. In lo63
he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and the >ear ,9 f) ~
ing was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In lobo he
read a Greek lecture in the hall of that college ; took the
degree of master of arts the year after; and read natural
philosophy in the public schools. In 1569 he was one of
the proctors of the university, and for some time after offici¬
ated as public orator. Quitting Oxford in 15/6 he made
the tour of Europe; and on returning to his col ege after
four years absence, he applied himself to historical and poli¬
tical studies. He became gentleman-usher to Queen Eliza¬
beth ; and in 1585 he married Anne Ball, a widow lady of
considerable fortune, whose father, named Carew, was ot
Bristol. He was soon after sent as ambassador to the king
of Denmark, and several German princes. He was next de¬
spatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he went
as ambassador to the United Provinces. On his return to
England in 1597, finding his preferment obstructed by the
iarring interests of Burleigh and Essex, he retired from
court, and could never afterwards be prevailed on to accept
of any public employment. He now began the foundation
of the Bodleian library; and soon after the accession of
King James I. he received the honour of knighthood, lie
died at his house in London, January 28. 1612, and
buried in the choir of Merton College chapel, where a mo¬
nument of black and white marble was erected to him, on
which stands his effigy in a scholar’s gown, surrounded wt.
hooks. Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the yeai 16C 9 ,
Bodkin
Bodley.
Boehm.
B O E
Bodmin 1793, 8vo. For a particular account of the Bodleian Lib¬
rary, gee Libraries.
BODMIN, a parliamentary and municipal borough and
market-town in the county of Cornwall, 235 miles from
London. It is situated between two hills, and consists of
one narrow and ill-paved street, nearly a mile in length. It
is one of the county towns ; the assizes and quarter-sessions
being held here alternately with Launceston. It is also a
stannary town. It has a spacious church, town-hall, lunatic
asylum, county jail, and a grammar-school founded by
Queen Elizabeth. The principal manufacture is shoes. Its
municipal affairs are conducted by a mayor, four aldermen,
and twelve councillors, and it returns two members to par¬
liament. Market-day, Saturday. Pop. (1851) of municipal
borough, 4327, of parliamentary borough, 6337.
BODONI, Giambatista, superintendent of the royal
press at Parma, chief printer to his Catholic Majesty, mem¬
ber of various academies in Italy, and knight of several
orders, was born in 1740, at Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his
father owned a printing establishment. While yet a boy,
he began to engrave on wood. He at length went to Rome,
where he became a compositor for the press of the Propa¬
ganda. He made himself acquainted with the oriental lan¬
guages, and thus was enabled to render essential service to
the Propaganda press, by restoring and accurately distribut¬
ing the types of several oriental alphabets which had fallen
into disorder. The Infante Don Ferdinand having estab¬
lished at Parma, about 1760, a printing-house on the model
of those in Paris, Madrid, and Turin, Bodoni was placed at
the head of this establishment, which he soon rendered the
first of the kind in Europe. The beauty of his typography,
&c., leaves nothing further to be desired; but the intrinsic
value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward splen¬
dour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work;
and, indeed, his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the
best Greek manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin,
Italian, and French classics, are all highly prized for their
typographical elegance, and some of them are not less re¬
markable for their accuracy. Bodoni died at Padua in 1813,
aged seventy-three. Some years after his death appeared a
magnificent work in two volumes quarto, entitled Manuale
Tipografico, containing specimens of the vast collection of
types which had belonged to this celebrated typographer.
BOECE, or Boethius, Hector. See Boyce, Hector.
BOEDROMIA (Bo^Spo/na), a festival celebrated at
Athens in memory of the succour brought by Ion to the
Athenians, when invaded by Eumolpus in the reign of
Erectheus. Various accounts of its origin are given. Plu¬
tarch (Thes. 27) says that it was held in commemoration of
the victory obtained by Theseus over the Amazons, in the
month of Boedromion, which was the third month of the
Athenian year, corresponding to our September.
BOEHM, or Behmen, Jacob, founder of the sect of
Boehmists, and called by his disciples the Teutonic Theoso-
phist, was born in 1575, near Goerlitz in Upper Lausatia. He
was bred a shoemaker, and for some time supported a large
family by this occupation ; but having dabbled in chemistry,
his mind, heated by sermons and German divinity, became
subject to raptures, mystical ecstacies, and notions of divine
illumination. To these he first gave vent in 1612, in a
treatise entitled Aurora, or the Rising of the Sun, a mix¬
ture of astrological, philosophical, chemical, and theological
extravagances, written in a quaint and obscure style. This
work was censured by the magistrates of Goerlitz, who at
the instigation of the clergy endeavoured to suppress it; yet
Boehm continued to dream and to scribble, and in 1619 pub¬
lished his treatise Re Trihus Principiis, inculcating a spe¬
cies of Spinozism, namely, that the operations of grace are
subjected to laws analogous to those which nature has im¬
posed in the purification of metals, and that God is to be re¬
garded as the substance of the universe, which has produced
B O E
805
everything by way of emanation. He afterwards went to Bceotia.
Dresden, where he was examined by some theologians more
indulgent than those of Goerlitz, and found irreproachable.
He died at Goerlitz in 1624, leaving a great number of
treatises On the Celestial and Terrestrial Mystery, and on the
Intellectual Life. “ It is not possible,” says Mosheim, “ to
find greater obscurity than there is in these pitiable writings,
which exhibit an incongruous mixture of chemical terms,
mystical jargon, and absurd visions.” Nevertheless, in the
last century, Boehm found a zealous apologist in William
Law, the pious author of Christian Perfection, who pub¬
lished an English translation of his work, in two vols. 4to.
Boehm had a great many disciples, some of whom, like Kuhl-
mann, who was burned at Moscow in 1684, were wild and
dangerous fanatics. All his works were collected and re¬
printed at Amsterdam in 1682, and again in 1730, under
the title of Theosophia Revelata.
B Gi O TIA (Boiama), a country of central Greece, bounded
in the south by the Gulf of Corinth, by Magaris and Attica;
in the east by Attica and the Euripus ; in the north by the
Locri Opuntii; and in the west by Phocis. Its surface is
calculated to amount to about 1119 English square miles.
The country, surrounded nearly on all sides by mountains,
divides itself naturally into three parts, the low country of
and about Lake Copais, the valley of the river Asopus, and
the coast district between mount Helicon and the Corin¬
thian gulf. The country about Lake Copais is a large valley,
so completely surrounded by hills that it is connected with
the Eubcean Sea only by subterraneous passages. The ex¬
tensive Lake Copais in this hollow is fed by the Cephisus, the
principal river of the country. The natural subterraneous pas¬
sages not being sufficient to carry off the great masses of water
accumulating at times in the valley, the early inhabitants
often suffered severely from inundations ; whence at a very
remote period cloacae were built, probably by the Minyans
of Orchomenos, to carry off the waters. Remains of these
works, as great and stupendous as any that were executed
in antiquity, still excite the admiration of the traveller, and
for thousands of years they made that part of Bceotia one
of the most fertile districts of Greece. For several cen¬
turies, however, these drains have been neglected, in conse¬
quence of which the country has been changed into a pesti¬
lential marsh. Between this valley and the hasin of the Aso¬
pus is situated the Theban plain, which is still distinguished
for its fertility. The lowlands and valleys of Boeotia were
notorious in antiquity for their moist and thick atmosphere,
which was believed to exercise a peculiar influence upon
the character of the inhabitants, for they are often spoken
of as remarkable for dulness, and a kind of intellectual in¬
sensibility. The dialect spoken by the Boeotians was a
broad JEolic.
In the earliest times Bceotia was inhabited by several
tribes, such as Aonians, Temmices, Hyantes, Thracians,
Leleges, Phlegyans, and the Minyans of Orchomenos, the
last of whom appear to have formed a great centre of civil¬
ization at a very remote period. But all these tribes were
gradually either expelled by the Boeotian iEolians immi¬
grating from Thessaly, or absorbed by them, so that in later
times they wholly disappear. The country which before
had had no common name, henceforth is always spoken of
as Bceotia, and the several towns and cities, with Thebes at
their head, formed a sort of confederation ; in which, how¬
ever, the Thebans and Boeotians frequently came into hos¬
tile collision, Thebes claiming the supremacy of the whole
country, and the Boeotian towns insisting upon their inde¬
pendence. The political history of the country is insepar¬
ably connected with the history of Orchomenos, Thebes,
Plataea:, and Thespis, to which the reader must be
referred for details. The Boeotian confederacy continued
its nominal existence even under the Roman emperors, al¬
though the country was so reduced, that about the time of
BOEKHAAVE.
806
Boerhaave. Augustus, Tanagra and Tliespiae alone could be considered
as towns, the others having been either entirely destroyed,
or existing only as villages. (Compare the Travels of Clarke,
Wheler, Dodwell, Sir W. Cell, Hobhouse, and Thiersch,
JEtat actuel de la Grece, vol. i. p. 280, vol. ii. p. 23 ; Forch-
hammer, Hellenika, p. 143, fob) (l. s.)
BOERHAAVE, Hermann, one of the most celebrated
physicians of modern times, was born at Woorhout near
Leyden, December 31. 1668. Destined for the clerical pro¬
fession, to which his father belonged, he received a liberal
education, and early displayed unusual abilities. At the
age of sixteen he entered the university of Leyden, where
he studied under Gronovius, Ryckius, Trigland, and other
distinguished men, and obtained the highest academical hon¬
ours. In 1690 he took his degree in philosophy ; on which
occasion he delivered an inaugural dissertation De distinc-
tione mentis d corpore, in which he attacked the doctrines
of Epicurus, Hobbs, and Spinosa. Being left, on the death
of his father, without any provision, he was compelled to sup¬
port himself by teaching mathematics. By the advice of
Vandenberg, the burgomaster of Leyden, Boerhaave now
applied himself with ardour to the study of medicine, to which
indeed he had early manifested a decided inclination. The
works of Hippocrates among the ancients, and those of Syden¬
ham among the moderns, were the especial objects of his
study ; but his reading was by no means confined to these
authors. In 1693 he took his degree of M.D. at Harder-
wyck in Guelderland, and immediately entered on the duties
of his profession. His merits soon became conspicuous ;
and in 1701 he was appointed by the university of Leyden
to supply the place of Drelincourt as lecturer on the insti¬
tutes of medicine. Flis inaugural discourse on this occasion
was entitled De commendando Hippocratis studio, in which
he recommended to his pupils that great physician as their
model. In 1709, the university rewarded his distinguished
merit by appointing him successor to Hotton in the chair of
botany and medicine, in which capacity Boerhaave did great
service, not only to his own university, but also to botanical
science, by his improvements and additions to the botanic
garden of Leyden, and by the publication of numerous
■works descriptive of new species of plants. He was ap¬
pointed in 1714 rector of the university. In the same year
he succeeded Bidloo in the chair of practical medicine, and
in this capacity he had the merit of introducing into modem
practice the system of clinical instruction. Four years later
he was appointed to the chair of chemistry, and delivered
an inaugural discourse, which contains the germs of his ce¬
lebrated Elements of Chemistry. In 1728 he was elected
into the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, and two years
later into the Royal Society of London ; to both of which
he communicated his chemical researches. In 1729 declin¬
ing health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry and
botany ; and in 1731 he resigned the rectorship of the uni¬
versity, to which office he had been re-elected. On this oc¬
casion he delivered a discourse De Honore Medici Servi-
tute. This great and good man died, after a lingering and
painful illness, which he bore with Christian patience and
firmness, on the morning of the 23d September 1738. His
funeral oration was delivered by his pious and learned friend
the Rev. Mr Schultens.
From the time of Hippocrates, no physician had more
justly merited the esteem of his contemporaries, and the
admiration of posterity, than Boerhaave. To uncommon
intellectual abilities he united those amiable qualities of
the heart which give them so great a value to society.
His personal appearance was simple and venerable. He
taught very methodically, and with great precision : his style
was eloquent, and his delivery dignified and graceful. He
sometimes also gave his lectures a lively turn ; but bis
raillery was never coarse or satirical. He possessed remark¬
able powers of memory, and was an accomplished linguist.
A declared foe to all excess, he considered decent mirth as Boerhaave.
the salt of life. He was fond of music, with which he had v
a scientific acquaintance; and during winter he had a weekly
concert in his house. It was his daily practice throughout
life, as soon as he rose in the morning, which was gene¬
rally very early, to retire for an hour to private prayer, and
meditation on some part of the Scriptures. He often told
his friends, when they asked him how it was possible for him
to go through so much fatigue, that it was this practice which
gave him spirit and vigour in the business of the day.
Of his sagacity, and the wonderful penetration with which
he often discovered and described, at first sight, such dis¬
tempers as betray themselves by no symptoms to common
eyes, very surprising accounts have been transmitted to us.
Yet so far was he from having presumptuous confidence in
his own abilities, or from being puffed up by prosperity, that
he wras condescending to all, and remarkably diligent in his
profession : he used often to observe that the life of a pa¬
tient, if trifled wdth or neglected, would one day be required
at the hand of the physician. He used to say that the poor
were his best patients, because God was their paymaster.
His benevolence, however, was exercised with discrimination.
The activity of his mind sparkled visibly in his eyes. Fie
was always cheerful, and desirous of promoting every valu¬
able end of conversation, of which the excellency of the
Christian religion was frequently the subject. He never re¬
garded calumny nor detraction,—for even he had his ene¬
mies,—nor in any instance thought it necessary to confute
them. “ They are sparks,” said he, “ which, if you do not
blow them, will go out of themselves. The surest remedy
against scandal, is to live it down by a perseverance in well¬
doing ; and by praying to God that he would cure the dis¬
tempered minds of those who traduce and injure us.” His
great skill and celebrity as a physician brought him a large
fortune. He left his only surviving daughter two millions
of florins.
The genius of Boerhaave raised the fame of the univer¬
sity of Leyden, especially as a school of medicine, so as to
make it a resort of strangers from every part of Europe. All
the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found in this
skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an af¬
fectionate guardian. When Peter the Great went to Hol¬
land in 1715, to instruct himself in maritime affairs, he also
took lessons from Boerhaave. I he reputation of this emi¬
nent man was not confined to Europe : a Chinese mandarin
wrote him a letter directed “ lo the illustrious Boerhaave,
physician in Europe;” and it reached him in due course. I he
city of Leyden raised a splendid monument to his memory
in the church of St Peter, inscribed “ To the salutary genius
of Boerhaave,” Salutifero Boerhaavii genio sacrum.
When Boerhaave first directed his attention to medicine,
the philosophical reform inaugurated by Bacon had given a
powerful impulse to the physical sciences; and these, ac¬
cordingly, occupied all minds, whilst the healing art had but
little profited in consequence. It was overlooked or forgot¬
ten that, from its very origin, Hippocrates had applied to
it the experimental philosophy with which the learned were
now everywhere so enthusiastically occupied. His theory,
however, still continued to fluctuate between several dogmas
equally remote from the truth. The chemists who, at the
revival of learning in Europe, had overturned the authority
of Galen, had to defend themselves against the sects of the
mechanicians, and of Bellini, which divided the dominion of
medicine between them. In a small portion of Germany
alone Stahl brought back men’s minds to the judicious doc¬
trine of Hippocrates, attributing all the movements m the
animal economy to a force inherent in itself, and different
from the general forces of matter; but in adopting a word,
the meaning of which was by no means precise, he rendered
less general and less salutary the influence which he would
otherwise have produced. The first perusal of Hippocrates
B 0 E
Boethius, appeared to have carried away Boerhaave ; but this physi-
cian, endowed by nature with a mind fitted for analysis,
comparison, and combination, rather than with a creative
and inventive genius, was unable to resist the influence of his
age, and above all, the effect of his early studies. Having
been a mathematician and natural philosopher before he
became physician, he was constantly carried away by the
first objects of his labour and research; and being more ca¬
pable than any one else of detecting the accessory affinities
between these sciences and that of man, he ran greater risk
of being seduced by them. But as every system, however
vicious, has always, along with the facts which it arranges
and offers to explain, a point of accordance more or less re¬
mote, he thought that the best medical system would be that
which should unite and combine all opinions. Forgetting
that living bodies are free during their life from those move¬
ments to which other bodies are imperiously constrained, or
at least counterbalance them, and that all the acts which
they perform are the result of an activity which is peculiar
to them; overlooking, also, that those movements of the
living economy which most easily admit an application of
the laws of physics and mechanics, have, nevertheless, as
a primum mobile, the force of life, and only receive from
the forces of dead matter an accessory impulse; Boerhaave
wished to combine in one and the same theory the vital
philosophy of Hippocrates, the chemical principles of Syl¬
vius, the mechanism of Bellini, and many other incongrui¬
ties besides: attributing more, however, to the mechanical
and chemical forces, which can never be but accessory, than
to the more profound and secret powers of life, which are
the principal. Thus the calibre of the vessels adjusted to
the dimensions of the globules composing the liquids of the
body, formed, according to him, the hydraulic relation on
which depended the circulation of the humours, their sepa¬
ration from the blood in the different secretory organs, the
morbific congestion of the blood in various fluxions, in hu¬
mours, inflammations, and such like; and hence he concluded
that all the efforts of the physician should be directed to
establish this relation, or rather mechanical equilibrium.
Nor did he stop even here. To the mechanical hypotheses
just mentioned he added others founded on chemical prin¬
ciples, when, in attempting to explain the causes and the
phenomena of diseases, he admitted the formation of pre¬
tended acrimonies in the blood, which the physician ought,
according to him, to have constantly in view in order to
neutralize them ; acrimonies which were long famous in the
language of the schools, and which are still found in that of
ordinary life. The whole phenomena of diseases, with the
spontaneous evacuations by which they are terminated, and
which constitute the crises, find a ready explanation on this
vicious system, which seems to offer a reason, when it only
mystifies with a word, involving a gratuitous hypothesis. In
practice, however, theory receives many modifications; and
there can be little doubt, that in prescribing for patients,
Boerhaave was more guided by experience and good sense
than by the strangely eclectic doctrine to which we have
here cursorily alluded.
The principal works of this illustrious physician are, 1. In-
stitutiones Medicce, Lugd. Bat., 1708; 2. Aphorismi de
cognoscendis et curandis Morbis, Lugd. Bat., 1709. On
this work, which was the text bookof Boerhaave’s lectures,
Van Swieten published a commentary in 5 vols. 4to ; 3. Li-
bellus de Materia Medica, et Remediorum Formulis quee
serviunt Aphorismus, Lugd. Bat., 1719. 4. Institutiones et
Experimenta Chemice, Paris, 1724.
BOETHIUS, or Boetius, Antcius Manlius Torquatus
Severinus, a Roman statesman and philosopher, born of an
illustrious patrician family, between a.d. 470 and 475. It is
conjectured that he was the grandson of Flavius Boethius, the
prefect of the praetorium, who was murdered by Valentinian
HI., and that his father was the consul of a.d. 487. Being
B O E 807
left an orphan at a very early age, the care of his education Boethius,
devolved on his relations, who sent him, it has been said, to v"*''
Athens, where he resided eighteen years, and was a pupil
of Proclus. This statement, however, rests only on the very
questionable authority of Thomas Brabantinus {De Disci-
plina Scholarium), and is in effect contradicted by Cassiodo-
rus (i. 45). Plowever this may be, he was early distinguished
at Rome for the extent and variety of his acquirements,
and his intimate acquaintance with the literature of Greece.
Boethius occupies a remarkable place in literary history, as
standing on the confines between the ancient and scholas¬
tic philosophy ; being, says Gibbon, the last of the Romans
whom Cicero would have acknowledged for his countryman.
He lived at Rome in great splendour and affluence, and was not
more distinguished for his learning than for his virtue and great
liberality to the poor. Rising rapidly in the public esteem, he
was successively appointed to various high offices in the state,
and at length was made consul a.d. 510. That public af¬
fairs, however, did not entirely engross his attention, is tes¬
tified by his great literary industry, and in particular by his
voluminous translations from the Greek philosophers. As
a statesman he was pre-eminent for integrity, as well as for
his unremitting diligence in the detection of fraud and the
suppression of violence, to which his countrymen were con¬
tinually exposed from the rapacity of their Gothic invaders.
The talents and virtues of Boethius were duly appreciated
by Theodoric, who made him magister officiorum in his court,
and consulted him upon all affairs of importance. By that king
he was employed to regulate the coinage with a view to the
prevention of forgery ; and he was engaged in some impor¬
tant negotiations with Gundebald, king of the Burgundians,
and with Clovis, king of the F ranks. He also appears to have
paid some attention to practical mechanics, as among other
specimens of his skill he constructed for Gundebald a clep¬
sydra and a gnomon, which greatly delighted that prince.
Boethius married Rusticiana, the daughter of Symmachus,
and by her he had two sons, who were made consuls a.d. 522 ;
upon which occasion, after pronouncing a panegyric on Theo¬
doric, he distributed among the populace a large sum of
money. The consulships of his sons, and that of his father,
have erroneously been ascribed to himself. The story also
of his previous marriage with Elpis of Sicily appears to be
a fable, as the two sons of that lady were consuls in the year
500, at which time Boethius was certainly not above thirty
years of age.
His unflinching integrity, and the zeal he displayed in de¬
fending his countrymen against the extortion and excesses
of their Gothic masters, rendered Boethius highly obnoxious
to the courtiers; and they resolved to accomplish his ruin.
Theodoric, now grown through old age morose and fretful,
lent a ready ear to their insinuations against his noble minis¬
ter; and of this disposition in the king, three men of profligate
lives and desperate fortunes, Gaudentius, Opilio,and Basilius,
took advantage in order to gratify private revenge. The
boldness with which Boethius defended Albinus when accused
of treason, was made the plea on which they charged him with
adesign todethrone the king and throw oft’the barbarian yoke;
to which was added the crime of sacrilege or sorcery. Boethius
was at this time at a distance from Rome ; yet Theodoric
transmitted the complaint to the senate, who, partly perhaps
through fear, condemned him to death without summoning
him to his defence. Accordingly he was imprisoned at Ti-
cinum (Pavia), in the baptistery of the church; and here,
during his captivity, he composed his celebrated treatise
De Consolatione Philosophice. The manner of his death
is uncertain : it has been said that his eyes were forced from
their sockets by a cord drawn tightly round his head, and
that he was beaten with clubs till he expired ; but it is more
probable that he suffered decapitation, a.d. 524-526. Two
centuries afterwards, a cenotaph was erected to his memory
in the church of S. Pietro Cielo d’Oro, by Luitprand king of
808
Bosr
Bogota.
BOG
the Lombards ; and in 990 Otho III. honoured his memory
with a magnificent mausoleum, which was inscribed with an
epitaph by Pope Sylvester II.
It was for ages the custom to regard Boethius as a Chris¬
tian saint and martyr, but without any sufficient foundation ;
for unless the theological works sometimes ascribed to him
be really his (which seems more than doubtful), there is no
evidence of his having professed Christianity; nor is the name
ever mentioned in the Consolatio PhilosophicB, though the
high moral tone, and the belief in prayer and a superintend¬
ing Providence, might naturally lead to such an inference.
This work is written in alternate prose and verse (the latter
chiefly borrowed from Seneca), and is a dialogue between
the author and Philosophy personified.
During the middle ages this work had many translators
as well as imitators. For centuries the Peripatetic philoso¬
phy was studied only through the commentaries of Boethius ;
but on the introduction of Aristotle’s writings into Europe in
the thirteenth century, the fame of Boethius, whose works had
in some measure supplied the void during 800 years, gradually
began to decline,and sunk at length into comparative obscurity.
The learning and eloquence of Boethius are conspicuous
in his works, which were first published in a collected form
at Venice, in folio, 1491 (or 1492); and an improved edition,
in folio, appeared at Basle in 1570. It is worthy of notice
that Boethius is one of the principal Latin writers on
music, and that his treatise De Musica supplied for some
centuries the want of those Greek manuscripts which were
supposed to be lost. It may also be observed, as an inter¬
esting fact in literary history, that Alfred the Great trans¬
lated the Consolatio Philosophic into Anglo-Saxon, with
large original additions. The best edition of this work is by
J. S. Cardale, with notes and a translation, 1828.
BOG, or Bog of Gight, a small town of Scotland, seated
near the mouth of the river Spey, in Long. 2. 23. W. Lat.
57. 48. N.
BOGALCUND. See Rewah.
BOGNOR, a rising market and maritime town of Sussex,
in the rape, and six miles S.E. of the town of Chichester.
Previous to 1785, when the proprietor, Sir R. Hotham, be¬
gan its improvement, it consisted of only a few huts inha¬
bited by fishermen. It has now become a favourite water¬
ing-place, and has many handsome villas, a market-place,
mechanics’ institute, hotels, baths, assembly rooms, and the
other accessaries of a watering-place. Pop. (1851) 1913.
BOGODUCHOW, the capital of a circle of the same
name, in the European government of Charkow, on the river
Merle. It contains four churches and about 7000 inhabi¬
tants. Long. 35. 45. E. Lat. 50. 10. N.
BOGOMILI, or Bogarmita:, in Ecclesiastical History,
a sect of heretics which sprung up about the year 11/9.
Their founder was one Basil, a monk, who was burnt alive
at Constantinople by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus.
Their system was nearly allied to that of the ancient Gnos¬
tics and Manichseans. (See Anna Comnena, Alex. xv.;
Wolf, Hist. Bogomilorum.) r
BOGOTA, formerly called Santa Fe de Bogota, the
capital of the republic of New Granada, is situated in the
province of the same name, in 4. 6. N. Lat. and 78.30.
W. Long., in an elevated plain or table-land forming part
of the eastern ridge of the cordillera of the Andes, which
separates the extensive valley crossed by the river Mag¬
dalena fi'om those immense plains that are watered by the
Meta, the Casanare, and many other rivers flowing eastward,
which increase the waters of the majestic Orinoco.
Physical
aspect of
the coun¬
try.
The plain of Bogota occupies a space of about 60 miles from
south to north in length, and 30 miles east to west in breadth.
It is surrounded by lofty mountains, but more especially to the
eastward, where the summits of Chingaso and the Paramo de
la Suma Paz are conspicuous for their elevation. No part of
this chain, however, has been found to exceed in height 14,000
BOG
feet above the level of the sea, and consequently in these lati- Bogota,
tudes it does not reach the limits of perpetual snow. The
mountains which bound it in other directions are much less
elevated; and over those to the westward may be seen, in the
distance, the snowy summits of the more elevated mountains
which constitute the central ridge of the cordillera. Throughout
its whole extent this plain exhibits evident marks, in the per¬
fect level of its surface, the alluvial nature of the soil, and the
appearance of the insulated rocks which rise up in some parts
of its extent, of having formerly been the site of an extensive
lake. It is traversed by the river Funza or Bogota, which,
coliecting into one channel the numerous mountain-streams
that water the valley, bends its course to the south-western ex¬
tremity of the plain, and enters a narrow channel, from which
it is precipitated over a perpendicular precipice of 600 feet in
height, into the valley of the Magdalena, forming the magni¬
ficent fall of Tequendama. This splendid cataract is an object
of wonder and admiration to all beholders. The fall forms one
continued sheet of water, interrupted only a little at its upper
part by a projecting ledge of rocks. So great is the diffusion
of water in the surrounding atmosphere, in the form of rain or
haze, that a perpetual humidity prevails ; and the vegetation
in the immediate vicinity exhibits an uncommon degree of vi¬
gour and luxuriance. The contrast of the vegetation at the
summit, where oaks, elms, and other trees of temperate climes
are found, with that at the bottom, where the graceful palm-
tree flourishes, is very remarkable, and cannot be altogether
accounted for merely by the difference of level. The evapora¬
tion at the fall must be very great, as the volume of water
which issues from the bottom of the valley towards the Mag¬
dalena is much smaller than at the summit, where the river
leaves the plain of Bogota. In various parts of the plain, from
the great equality of its surface, the banks of the river are to
a considerable extent inundated, and so marshy, that, especially
in the rainy season, they cannot be passed without difficulty.
These situations abound in ducks and other water-fowl, in the
capture of which an ingenious device is resorted to by the In¬
dians. His head concealed by a cap made of rushes, while the
rest of his body is under water, the fowler stealthily moves to¬
wards the game, which he seizes by the feet and secures to
his girdle.
Could the opening at Tequendama, through which the river
Bogota now escapes, be closed up by artificial means, the whole
extent of the plain would be converted into one continuous lake,
as appears to have been the case in former times ; for the
change which has been produced, and which has rendered so
great an extent of soil useful to man, has without doubt been
occasioned by the agency of the river, whose waters, by con¬
stant attrition during a series of ages, have eventually been
able to overcome the rocky barrier opposed to their progress,
and have hollowed out the deep channel through which the
river now precipitates itself into the abyss beneath ; and, from
our knowledge of the laws which regulate the economy of na¬
ture, we may anticipate that the same causes will in time to
come still more effectually drain the plain of Bogota.. The tra¬
ditions of the aborigines tend to confirm the view which is now
taken of the ancient condition of this plain ; but, ignorant of
the extensive operation of those natural causes which are known
to us, they ascribed the whole to supernatural agency, and
have handed down a legend, setting forth, that an aged man of
great power and wisdom, named Bochica, broke down, by
means of his powerful arm, a passage through the rocks which
inclose the valley at Tequendama, and formed the outlet by
which he drained the adjacent plain ; and that having accom¬
plished this, he taught the inhabitants of the country to build
cities and villages, and introduced among them those habits of
industry, civilization, and religion, which were found to exist
at the time when the country was discovered by Europeans.
This extensive plain is exceedingly fertile, and susceptible
of the highest cultivation. It produces abundant crops of wheat,
barley, and the leguminous plants cultivated in Europe. Ut
the former the average produce is five quarters per acre ; and
of all these, owing to the regular succession of the rainy and
dry seasons, two crops may be obtained from the same held in
one year; a practice, however, which is not usually followed with
the cereals, as these require the alternation of green crops, o
prevent the fertility of the soil becoming too much exhaustec .
Lucerne is also cultivated to a great extent, and affords.ample
sustenance to numerous flocks of sheep and herds o ca e
BOGOTA.
Bogota, and horses, which are reared and maintained on this plain
^r the supply of the capital. Before the conquest of the
Spaniards, the plain of Bogota maintained a numerous popu¬
lation ; but the inhabitants who at present reside on it, and are
occupied in agricultural pursuits, are far too few in number
to give full development to its fertility and resources. Its
immediate vicinity to a populous city, where there is a ready
market for all its produce, presents very powerful induce¬
ments to . the establishment of industrious and intelligent
agriculturists; and, doubtless, many such, from Europe and
elsewhere, will ere long find their way to so inviting a
situation.
Climate. The plain of Bogota, according to the observations of Hum¬
boldt, has an elevation of 8694 feet above the level of the sea;
and consequently, although so near the equator, it enjoys a
mild and equable climate, the inhabitants experiencing a kind
of perpetual spring. In consequence of the sun being twice
perpendicular at nearly equidistant periods during the year,
there are two winter or rainy seasons, and two summer or
dry seasons every year, each of about three months continu¬
ance ; the rainy season commencing about the equinoxes, and
continuing during the months of March, April, and May, and
again during September, October, and November; and the dry
seasons beginning with the solstices, and continuing during the
intermediate months. Even during the winter months the
rains are not continuous, but generally the mornings are cool
and exceedingly agreeable, the rain usually commencing to¬
wards the afternoon. The range of the thermometer averages
at this season from 58 to 63°, but sometimes descends as low
as 4/ of Fahrenheit. During the summer months, however,
there is almost constantly a serene and unclouded sky, with so
little dew during the night that it scarcely incommodes the in¬
habitants who then venture out into the open air. At this season
the average height of the thermometer is from 68° to 70° in
the shade. A climate so delicious is found very conducive to
the preservation of health, and few spots within the tropics pre¬
sent so desirable a place of residence. Here those insects and
venomous reptiles which occasion so much annoyance in the
neighbouring districts of less elevation are altogether unknown;
and the females who inhabit this plain possess a freshness of
complexion unknowm to those who dwell in less favoured parts
of the country. Yet, with all these advantages, the period of
human existence does not appear to be in general so long pro¬
tracted in this country as in more rigorous climates ; old age
comes on at a less advanced period of life ; and females, who
reach maturity at an early age, exhibit the symptoms of decay
at a period when women in England are in the full enjoyment
of all their physical and intellectual faculties.
Owing to its great elevation, the rarefaction of the atmo¬
sphere is so considerable, that strangers, on their first arrival
at Bogota, are generally affected with a degree of oppression
and difficulty of breathing; but this, in most instances,
gradually disappears with a protracted residence. Here epi¬
demic diseases are altogether unknown. Travellers, how¬
ever, who proceed to Bogota by the Magdalena are not unfre-
quently attacked, on their arrival, with intermittent fevers ;
but there is every reason to believe that the causes which give
rise to this complaint have been in operation during the period
of their navigating that river.
Minerals. The mountains which surround the table-land or plain of
Bogota, and those that extend towards the provinces of
Casanare, Velez, Mariquita, and Antioquia, abound in rich
mines of iron, copper, lead, silver, gold, sulphur, precious
stones, and coal. I owards the north, in the province of
Velez, are situated the celebrated Monriquira copper mines,
which for more than a century have supplied all the interior
of New Granada with that metal. As they have not yet been
scientifically worked, the yield has hitherto been much smaller
than it ought to have been. They are very extensive, and
in the immediate vicinity are abundant coal mines, which
hitherto have not been worked by the proprietors, as the
abundance of other fuel has hitherto obviated the want of
them. The copper mines of Monriquira are situated at a
distance of 45 miles from the river Carare, which is one
of the navigable streams flowing into the Magdalena ; and
the authorities of Velez are occupied in opening a road lead-
VOL. IT.
809
ing that river by which to export the rich produce of Bogota,
their province. The copper mineral of Monriquira assayed
at Swansea, produced 31 per cent, of pure copper, and a
small quantity of silver. When science shall be applied to
the working of these mines, and a sufficient number of
workmen employed, they will be able to supply not only the
whole of New Granada, but also contribute a considerable
quantity for exportation. In Villete, a hamlet situated half¬
way between Bogota and the river Magdalena, there are
also some rich copper mines not yet worked: the most
noted of these are those of Poyande, on the left bank of the
river Magdalena to the south-east of Bogota. These mines,
from their proximity to the river Magdalena, which is the
principal source of communication in New Granada, offer
the greatest advantages for working, and have been lately
undertaken by a New Granadian house.
\Y estward of Bogota is the province of Mariquita, and on
the left bank of the Magdalena are the silver mines of Santa
Anna, now worked by an English company called the Mari¬
quita and New Granada Company. The hilly range in
which these mines are situated abounds in gold mines as
they approach the province of Antioquia, which comprises
auriferous grounds of extraordinary richness, and have lately
attracted the attention of Europe. Several companies for
working the mines have been formed in consequence. In
the auriferous parts of Antioquia, works have lately been
constructed by the New Granada Company, formed in this
country, and possessing the rich mines of Frontino, Bolivia,
and Juan Creollo; as also by a French company working the
mines of Curazao on the right bank of the river Nare, and
by a multitude of national companies, who are daily making-
new discoveries.
The produce of the gold mines of Antioquia at the pre¬
sent time is calculated at five millions of dollars annually,
although only a small part of the population work them, as
the inhabitants generally prefer agriculture to mining.
I hus it is that although the population of Antioquia, at
present divided in three provinces, is 230,000, it is cal¬
culated that not more than 7000 work in the mines.
In the vicinity of Bogota are the abundant salt mines of
Zipaquira, Enemocon, and Tauza. From these and from
the salt pits of Cheta, Recetor, Pajarito, and Cumaral, the
whole of the interior of New Granada is supplied.
These salt mines were worked by the Spanish and Colum¬
bian governments by the primitive method which they found
in use among the Indians. But the government of New
Granada has established a perfect administration for scien¬
tific and economical working, by which they produce con¬
siderable quantities.
At the present time these salt mines yield to the govern¬
ment an income of half a million dollars annually. As the
population increases the revenue to the government will be
augmented, as the produce of these mines will provide for
centuries a population of ten times the present number.
Close to Bogota are also situated the celebrated emerald
mines of Muzo, which for many years have supplied the
great demand for this precious stone in Europe. These
mines belong to the government, who have rented them to
a company composed of natives and foreigners.
The city of Santa Fe de Bogota was founded in 1538, Cit7-
by Gonzalez Ximenes de Quesada. It stands at the base of
two mountains, which are known by the names of La Gua¬
dalupe and Monteserrato. At first it consisted of only
twelve houses, in honour of the twelve apostles, and con¬
tained but sixty inhabitants ; but, from its favourable situa¬
tion, it increased rapidly, and became a place of considerable
extent; two years afterwards was raised to the rank of a city;
and eventually became the seat of government for the king¬
dom of New Granada. Its population in 1800 consisted of
21,464, exclusive of strangers and temporary residenters;
and in that year the number of births exceeded that of
5 K
810
BOGOTA.
Bogota.
deaths by 247. Its population was estimated at 30,000 in
1821, when, on the union of New Granada and Venezuela,
to form the republic of Columbia, it became the capital and
the seat of government.
Since the dissolution of Columbia, and its division into
three independent republics, Bogota has continued to be the
capital of one of them, namely of New Granada. Its popu¬
lation is estimated at present at 60,000.
The rapid increase of the population has greatly enhanced
the value of houses and other property in the city and
its vicinity. Nature indeed seems to have pointed out the
plain of Bogota as the most eligible situation which can well
be imagined for the formation of a great and opulent city,
the seat of government of a powerful nation. It enjoys a
genial and salubrious climate, in the midst ot a fertile
and abundant district ; and it forms the centre from
which diverge to the north and to the east the two most
extensive lines of internal navigation to be found in Co¬
lumbia.
The communication with the coast is easily effected by
means of a carraigeway from Bogota to El Roble, a distance
of 9 leagues, and one for mules from El Roble to Honda, 13
leagues; and between Honda and the coast by the steamers
of the Santa Marta, Carthagena and Barranquilla Companies,
and lately by those of the Magdalena Steam Company, es¬
tablished in London.
These various steamers scarcely suffice for the increasing
traffic, both export and import, of this improving country.
The steamers ascend the river in eight or ten days, loaded
with foreign merchandize for the consumption of the pro¬
vinces of the interior, and descend loaded with the tobacco
of Ambalema, Penalisa, Geron, Socerro, and the different
districts in which this article is produced in excellent quality
in New Granada; as also with the bark of Fusagazuga,
Pitayo, and other districts, where it is as good as that ot
Calisaya.
On approaching Bogota from the Magdalena, the city is
seen at a considerable distance, the cathedral and the con¬
vents of Guadulupe and Monteserrato being the most con¬
spicuous objects in view. These stand on the summits of
two mountains about 2500 feet above the city, which is
built at their base. The ascent is steep and difficult; but
the labour of the traveller is amply repaid by the magnificent
view which he obtains of the city, its convents and gardens,
and the whole extent of the plain, with its villages, its ham¬
lets, and cultivated fields. The city itself is somewhat in
the form of an amphitheatre, and occupies a larger space
than might seem requisite for the number of its inhabitants.
The convents, with their extensive gardens, comprise a con¬
siderable portion of it; and the houses, on account of the
earthquakes, are generally of but one story. The cathedral,
built in 1814, possesses very little external beauty ; but its
interior is fitted up with considerable taste and elegance ;
its ornaments are rich and valuable ; and the statue of the
Virgin, who is the patron saint, is covered with a profusion
of diamonds and other precious stones. The convents, for¬
merly numerous (about 33), and many of them richly en¬
dowed, have of late years fallen into decay, and been devoted
chiefly to the service of government, their revenues being
mostly applied to educational purposes. There are still,
however, about nine convents and three nunneries occupied
by religious persons, of which the most wealthy and pros¬
perous are those of Santo Domingo and San Juan de Dios,
to which latter there is attached a hospital for the reception
of the sick and wounded, affording accommodation to seve¬
ral hundred inmates, who are carefully attended by the friars,
and plentifully supplied with everything requisite ; besides
which, food is here daily distributed to the poor. The con¬
vent of San Francisco is of great extent, and under good
management. It contains many valuable paintings, the pro¬
ductions of Vasquez, a native artist of considerable merit;
one of which, in particular, a Madonna with an infant Jesus, Bogota,
has been mentioned in terms of high commendation.
The university of Bogota was founded in 1610, since which Education,
time two colleges have been endowed with large revenues for
the purposes of education. The colleges are now three in num¬
ber, and in them are educated nearly all the youth of these
countries. Formerly the course of study was confined to Latin,
mathematics, natural and moral philosophy, and theology ; and
even then the university produced some men of great eminence
for their attainments in the natural sciences ; among whom
Mutis, Caldas, and Zea hold a distinguished place.
In accordance with the new constitution signed on the 21st
May 1853, and which has merited the applause of the liberal
portion of the English and United States press, religion and
education are completely free, and no forced contributions
can be levied at any time or place to support any kind of wor¬
ship. Foreigners and natives can practise their religion with
every liberty, and keep their schools for the education of their
children in the manner they may think best.
A military school is supported out of the public funds, which
has produced some good engineers; and in some private col¬
leges literature is taught along with the physical sciences, ma¬
thematics, and moral philosophy. The scientific and pro¬
fessional degrees have been abolished, and the personal ac¬
complishments of each person alone determine his standing
in society.
The mint is a large and handsome building, with coining
machinery of great strength and solidity. All the departments
are regulated with much precision and minuteness. This is
the only mint in the republic of New Granada, with the ex¬
ception of that of Popayan. We are informed by Humboldt,
that from 1789 to 1795, 8,161,862 dollars were coined at Santa
Fe de Bogota, and, from 1788 to 1794, 6,502,542 dollars in
Popayan. During the four years 1801-4 inclusive, the amount
coined at Bogota was 5,214,199 dollars, at Popayan, 3,554,878.
Afterthis period the coinage seems to have increased in amount,
since in Santa Fe de Bogota alone no less than 3,499,489, dol¬
lars were issued in 1806 and 1807. At present the coinage in
Bogota and Popayan is not considerable, because the precious
metals are exported in bars or in dust since the duties on their
exportation were abolished. The French decimal system in
the monies has been adopted since 1847, and in all transactions
French silver and other coins of a similar standard are used
indiscriminately with the national coinage. These monies are
received in exchange for tobacco, coffee, cocoa, gold, and other
produce of the country. The gold coinage consists of ten, five,
and two-dollar pieces, the ten-dollar piece weighs 16 grains, 409
milligrams, and contains 900 parts of pure gold, and 100 alloy.
The doubloons of 16 dollars have been abolished. In public
business transactions the French decimal system is universally
adopted.
The square round the cathedral is beautified with a statue of
Bolivar in bronze by Teneroni, and a large building con¬
structed on the spot formerly occupied by the palace of the
viceroys, and the town hall. In this building are held the sit¬
tings of the legislative assembly; also the offices of the ministry
of finance, home department, municipality, and the local au¬
thorities, are in this building. There also are held the sittings
of the provincial government, which, in a country enjoying
perfect municipal institutions, is a very considerable body, as
it issues laws on all subjects concerning the provinces without
the government being able to interfere under any circumstances.
The palace of the president is an old Jesuit college repaired
and fitted up. The private houses are generally good, and the
great influx of foreigners has improved the style of building.
The streets, as in almost all cities built by the Spaniards in
South America, are formed at right angles to each other ; and
all those extending from east to west have a small stream of
water flowing along them, a convenience which might tend
greatly to increase the comfort and cleanliness of the inhabi¬
tants, under an improved system of police. Only a few of the
principal streets are provided with side pavements. There are
four public squares or plazas provided with fountains, and five
handsome bridges over two small rivulets which traverse the
city. _ .
A public market is held every Friday in the great square,
where abundant supplies of all kinds of provisions are exposed
for sale, and where may be seen an assemblage of all the varied
BOH
BOH
811
Bogota.
Inhabi¬
tants.
Moral
condition
of the
people.
classes which inhabit this country'—the Creole, the Mulatto,
the Mestizo, the Indian, and the Negro. The supplies of beef,
mutton, pork, poultry, and game, are abundant, and moderate
in price. Vegetables and fruit are also plentiful, and in the
utmost variety ; the vegetable productions of the tropical, the
temperate, and even cold regions, being all easily attainable,
in consequence of the diversified elevation of the surrounding
country. One part of the market-place is appropriated to the
sale of articles of native manufacture, which consist principally
of coarse cotton and woollen fabrics. In the vicinity of the
river Funza or Bogota, which is here an inconsiderable stream,
and runs close to the city, is situated the alameda or public pro¬
menade, which is inclosed on each side by gardens, and shaded
by rows of stately poplars. This forms the favourite resort of
the inhabitants during the delightful evenings of summer ; and
the surrounding gardens afford a place of resort to such parties
as desire to solace themselves with the silver tones of their fa¬
vourite guitar.
The society of Bogota is very agreeable, the inhabitants
being mild, polite, and cheerful. They are naturally fond of
gaiety and amusements, as is evinced by the frequency of their
tertulias or evening parties, their balls and concerts. The ladies
are remarkably lively and pleasing in their manners; they
are generally low in stature, but delicately formed, their feet
and ankles being particularly small and handsome, which they
set off' to. great advantage by the neatness of their shoes and
silk stockings. The morning dress, in which they usually at¬
tend their devotions, consists of the saya and mantilla. The
say a or skirt of black kersymere or silk, variously ornamented,
fits closely to the body, and is well calculated to show off a fine
figure: the mantilla covers the neck and shoulders, and some¬
times the head, and is kept close to the body by the folded arms.
The evening promenade dresses of the ladies are much more
showy and diversified, both in form and texture, than those
which are worn in the early part of the day, partaking a good
deal of the fashions of Europe, which daily become more pre¬
valent ; and at their balls and tertulias they frequently display
the additional ornaments of a profusion of rich and valuable
jewels. They dance with much grace and elegance; and among
the favourite dances of the country may be noticed the Spanish
contra-danza, which, by its slow and graceful movements,
is peculiarly well calculated to exhibit to advantage the fine
figures which they possess in common with most other women
of Spanish origin. The females of the inferior classes usually
go without shoes or stockings, a practice which often forms a
striking contrast with the rest of their attire, which in many
cases is both showy and expensive.
The moral condition of the inhabitants of Bogota h~.s been
variously estimated, and perhaps in most instances incorrectly.
The political state of the country before the revolution was such
as to afford little scope for the display of striking character.
But the eventful scenes of the revolution have given rise to a
development of character which shows that they possess in a
high degree those qualities which are calculated, with the aid of
an improved system of education, to raise them in the scale of
civilized communities. Previous to the revolution, the men,
besides their ordinary occupations or religious observances, had
scarcely any other means of employing their leisure time than
by devoting themselves to gambling, cock-fighting, and bull¬
baiting. The women, brought up in the most profound igno¬
rance and superstition, devoted much of their time to religious
matters, and in attendance on the numerous festivals and pro¬
cessions of the church. The want of a good and efficient edu¬
cation, the demoralizing influence of some of the religious
practices there prevalent, and the comparatively little estima¬
tion in which virtuous conduct in females has hitherto been
held, have tended materially to lower the tone of morals in the
country. But a new epoch has at length dawned upon them ;
efficient means have been adopted to promote education and
intelligence among all classes ; and a purer system of ethics
seems to be gradually introducing itself into the country, as has
been shown, among other things, by the establishment of a
Bible Society in Bogota, under the able auspices of some of the
most influential men of the country, and even aided by the Ca¬
tholic clergy themselves. (Humboldt, Essai Politique : Hum¬
boldt, I ue, des Cordilleres ; Relation Historiqtie des Voyages
de MM. Humboldt et Bowpland.; Hall’s Present State of Co¬
lombia ; Mollien’s Travels in Colombia, translated from the
I rench ; Present State of ColombiaHamilton’s Travels in
Colombia; Campaigns and Cruises in Venezuela, NewCren- Bohaddin.
ada, and the Pacific.) (j. B j K ^ J
BOHADDIN, or, more properly, Boh-a-Eddyn, an
eminent Arabian writer and statesman, better known in the
East under the appellation of Ibn-Sjeddad. He was born
at Mossul a.d. 1145 (a.h. 539), and early became eminent
in the study of the Koran, as well as in jurisprudence. At
the age of twenty-seven he obtained the place of lecturer
at Baghdad, and, soon after, a professor’s chair at Mossul. In
1187 he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and then proceeded
to visit Jerusalem and Hebron. In passing through Da¬
mascus he was sent for by Saladin, who was then employed
in the siege of Kancab. Bohaddin observed, as he himself
mentions ( Vita Saladini, ch. v.), that the whole soul of the
monarch was engrossed by the war which he was then wag¬
ing against the enemies of the faith ; and that the only mode
of acquiring his favour was by urging him to its vigorous
prosecution. With this view he composed a treatise on the
Laws and Discipline of Sacred War ; and this work, on
his return, he presented to Saladin, who received it with
peculiar favour. Bohaddin, from this time, remained con¬
stantly attached to the person of the sultan, and was em¬
ployed in various important embassies and departments of
civil government. That prince seems also to have sought,
by the friendship of so eminent a doctor, to exalt his reputa¬
tion for sanctity. Often, while riding through the ranks,
Bohaddin rode by his side, and read to him passages out of
the Koran. Bohaddin was now appointed judge of the army,
and judge of Jerusalem. In this latter capacity an incident
occurred which proves the impartial justice exercised by the
sultan. A merchant presented himself at the tribunal of
Bohaddin, and complained that he had been unjustly de¬
prived of a large sum of money. On being asked to name
the author of the injury, he replied “ the sultan himself.”
Saladin, on learning the circumstances, denied the truth of
the charge ; but said that the man should have justice. Ac¬
cordingly he was introduced into his presence ; and the sul¬
tan, descending from his throne, pleaded his own cause be¬
fore Bohaddin. The latter decided in favour of Saladin, and
even hinted that the plaintiff merited chastisement. The
sultan, however, dismissed the person not only unpunished,
but with handsome presents.
Bohaddin continued in favour with Saladin during the
whole of that monarch’s life ; and after his death, he was
active in securing the throne to his son Melik-al-Dhaker.
That prince created him kadi of Aleppo, which gave Bo¬
haddin an opportunity of founding in that city a college, of
which he himself was the principal professor. Under his
auspices, the sciences, which had greatly declined in Aleppo,
soon rose to more than their former lustre. When Melik-
al-Dhaker died, his son Melik-al-Aziz wras a minor, and Bo¬
haddin obtained the principal sway in the regency. This
gave him an opportunity of introducing learned men at
court, and loading them with honours. As the prince, how¬
ever, approached to manhood, Bohaddin, though he still re¬
tained his offices, found it expedient to retire from court.
Even after he was unable to go to college, he continued to
give lectures in his own house ; and he persevered in these
learned labours till the age of ninety, when he died a.d. 1235
(a.h. 633).
Bohaddin wrote on jurisprudence and Moslem divinity;
but his principal work is his Life of Saladin ; which, with
several other pieces connected with the same subject, was
published by Schultens, at Leyden, in 1732, accompanied
by a Latin translation, with notes and a geographical index.
This work affords a favourable specimen of the historical
compositions of the Arabs. It is written with some spirit,
and yet is free from that inflation which so frequently dis¬
figures oriental composition. Whatever relates to Saladin,
breathes the highest tone of panegyric ; yet the enthusiasm
with which everything concerning him is narrated, and the
812 B 0 II
Bohea anecdotes which the author, from his personal knowledge, is
11 able to communicate respecting that extraordinary character,
n°hCu Uan give his work a great degree of interest. (h. m.)
v >‘et BOHEA, the name given in commerce to black teas,
^ comprehending Souchong, Campo, Pekoe, Congo, and com¬
mon Bohea. See Tea.
BOHEMIA. See Austria.
BOHEMIAN or Moravian Brethren. Christianity
was originally introduced into the Slavonian provinces lying
between Germany and Turkey, not from Rome but from
Constantinople, in the ninth century, under their native
princes. In the tenth century Bohemia and Moravia were
conquered by Otho I. oi Austria, when, with imperial des¬
potism, ecclesiastical domination was attempted to be en¬
forced upon the inhabitants. Arms could subdue the land,and
the law of the strongest compel the submission of an en¬
slaved people, but neither violence nor priestcraft could sub¬
jugate or ensnare the conscience of the true converts to the
gospel. These ever maintained the doctrines and the or¬
dinances of their primitive church ; and never relinquished
the Scriptures in their own language, the holy communion
in both kinds, and the right of their clergy to marriage.
Though popery gradually gained ascendency among the
multitude, with whom religion was a profession, those with
whom it was a reality clave to that which they had received
Rom their fathers, who had received it from the earliest age of
the church on earth, w hose teachers had been the apostles and
evangelists, and Jesus Christ himself their “ One Muster.
In the thirteenth century, King Richard II. ot England
married a Bohemian princess, who had became acquainted
with the disciples of our Wickliffe, “ the morning star of the
Reformation” both in England and Germany, as he has been
worthily styled. The writings of this great light shining in
a dark world, by the queen’s correspondence with her native
country, were transmitted thither, translated, and eagerly ap¬
proved by the faithful in Bohemia and Moravia. Among
these, in the fifteenth century, John Huss, for maintaining
the Scriptural doctrines which they promulgated, was burned
by the popish council of Constance. After his death a schism
arose among his followers,—many taking the sword to fight
for their faith, and a few choosing rather to perish by the
sword than defend that faith with carnal weapons.
Out of the small peace party sprang “the United Bre¬
thren,” as a distinct denomination, under episcopal govern¬
ment, having received the rite of ordination from the Wal-
denses. This little flock during the two next centuries, like
their forerunners in all ages, were persecuted with unrelent¬
ing malignity by the bigoted priesthood ; while, at the in¬
stigation of the latter, on sundry occasions war was waged
against them by the Austrian tyrants under whose yoke they
had been born. At length, about 1660, the remnant were
either scattered through the adjacent provinces of Germany
and Poland, or were compelled to hide themselves among
the fastnesses of their native forests and precipitous mountains.
Their last bishop, Amos Comenius, took refuge in England ;
and thinking that his people were about to cease from the
earth, he commended their cause while they did yet exist
to their pious brethren of the church of England, for the
preservation of their memory and their name.
In the year 1650, was published in London, by certain
refugees from Bohemia, for the information of Christians in
England, The History of the Bohemian Persecution, from
the beginning of their conversion to Christianity, in the year
894, to the year 1632, Ferdinand the Second of Austria
reigning, in which the unheard of secrets of policy, councils,
arts, and dreadful judgments, are exhibited. Printed by
B. A. for John Walker, at the Star in Pope’s Head Alley,
M.D.C.L.” This volume, which has now become very rare,
was avowedly compiled as supplementary to Foxe’s Book of
Martyrs, to show in this country how much had been suf¬
fered on the Continent in “ the dark places of the earth,”
B O XX
which, as well as here, were “full of the habitations of cruelty Bohemian
and wickedness,” during the death-pangs of expiring error, Brethren.^
and the birth-pains of regenerating truth in the nominally v'—
Christian world.
The following specimen of the style and contents of this
remarkable chronicle may suffice :—“ New edicts were pub¬
lished in the name of the king and the consistory, that these
pernicious men should nowhere be suffered either in Bo¬
hemia or Moravia. Hence it came to pass, that many, espe¬
cially the chiefest among them, being dispersed among the
woods and mountains, did dwell in caves where they were
scarce secure enough ; wherefore they dressed not their
meat, nor made any fire but in the night only, for fear the
smoke ascending should betray them ; and in the extremity
of the cold in winter nights, sitting near the fire, they gave
themselves to reading of the Bible and holy discourses.
When, in the depth of the snow they went forth to provide
themselves necessaries, they went close together lest they
should be discovered by their footsteps, and the hindermost
did draw behind him a great bough of beech, to cover the
print which their feet had made in the snow, that nothing
might be seen but the impression of some country lad drawr-
ing a bush behind him.”
About this period some of the persecuted refugees ob¬
tained protection and privileges from the English govern¬
ment; and the Church of Austin Friars, in the centre of
London, was granted to one of the ministers of the Brethren,
John de Lazco, with the distinct superintendence over the
members of Protestant congregations from Bohemia, Mora¬
via, Poland, and Hungary. Again, in the reigns of Charles
II. and George L, the case of these sufferers was recom¬
mended by briefs read, and monies to be collected for their
aid, in the churches throughout the kingdom; with the ex¬
press sanction of two successive archbishops of Canterbury,
who, with the Lord Chancellor, the Archbishop of York, and
Bishops of London, Carlisle, Sarum, Norwich, and Bristol,
were appointed trustees for the advancement of the charity.
On both these occasions, the credentials of these foreigners,
after rigid scrutiny, were avouched as follows:—“ 1 he Bo¬
hemian Church has been free from her infancy, and for al¬
most 700 years, from the encroachment of the Roman See ;
crushed at length by its prevailing powers, she brought forth
a progeny, which, growing up in Bohemia, obtained’the name
of UNITAS FRATRUM. This fraternity, the heir of the truly
ancient faith, spread its boughs as far as Poland, re¬
nounced the errors of Popery, and preserved the succession
of episcopal orders.”
Amidst all their tribulations the Brethren laboured in¬
cessantly as well as suffered patiently, and in them weie
literally exemplified the declarations of the apostle concerning
the ancient worthiesthey “ had trial of cruel mockings
and scourgings, yea, moreover, of bonds and imprisonments;
they were stoned, they were tempted, were slain by the
sword, being destitute, afflicted, tormented,—of whom the
world was not worthy.” From their origin till their appa¬
rent extinction towards the close of the seventeenth century,
they were merely a church of martyrs and confessors.
During the lucid intervals from persecution, they were the
first people who employed the newly invented art of print¬
ing for the publication of the Bible in a living tongue, and
three editions of the Bohemian Scriptures were issued by
them before the Reformation. When Luther, Melancthon,
Calvin, and Bucer, at length arose to testify the truth more
successfully than they had been able to do, to each of these
illustrious men the Brethren submitted their doctrinal tenets,
their church discipline, and the records of their affairs ; and
from each, in return, they received assurances of cordial ap¬
probation and the kindest encouragement.
Sixty years after the suspended animation which follow e
the flight of Comenius from Moravia, the church of the
United Brethren was raised from the dead. “ A remnant
B O H
BOH
813
Bohol, was saved." A few individuals and their families gradually,
and by stealth as it were, emigrated from their own country
and found refuge on the estates of Count Zinzendorf, in Lu-
satia, where they built a humble village, and named it Herrn-
hut. This is still the principal settlement of the society,
which has at this day affiliated stations, Home and Mission¬
ary, to the ends of the earth.
The United Brethren first appeared in England as a body
before the middle of the last century, where (although the
most malignant slanders were circulated against them), with
the simplicity of conscious innocence, they laid their case
before parliament, their doctrines, discipline, history, and
character. These were scrupulously investigated by com¬
mittees of both houses; and twro bills, exempting them
from taking oaths, and bearing arms in certain cases, were
carried with the unanimous consent of all the bishops; in¬
deed all opposition was abandoned after the final test of
their claims; and they were thus fully acknowledged by the
British legislature to be “ An Ancient Protestant Episco¬
pal Church, which had been countenanced and relieved by
the kings of England, his Majesty’s predecessors." (See acts
20th Geo. II. cap. 44, and 22d Geo. II. cap. 30, passed in
1747 and 1748; also a Congratulatory Letter from Arch¬
bishop Potter to Count Nicholas Lewis Zinzendorf, one
of their bishops, on his consecration; including this testi¬
mony : “ I should be entirely unworthy of that high sta¬
tion in which Divine Providence has placed me, were I not
to show myself very ready to use every exertion for the
assistance of the universal church of God; but to love even
preferably your Church, united with us in the bond of love;
having hitherto, as we have been informed, invariably main¬
tained both the pure and primitive faith and discipline of
the first Church; being neither intimidated by dangers,
nor seduced by the manifold temptations of Satan.”
The revived Church of the United Brethren, on the
estates of Count Zinzendorf, in Lusatia, including their ex¬
patriated countrymen and pious persons from other quarters,
gradually multiplied through Germany, Denmark, Russia,
Holland, and North America. But, when their number at
Hei'rnhut scarcely amounted to 600 persons, when they had
only rested from suffering, and were beginning to build
their first church, and lay out their first burying-ground,—
the missionary spirit was sent down upon them with such
constraining influence, that in the short period of eight years,
they had messengers of peace in Greenland, Lapland, North
and South America.
At present (1853) the church of the Brethren numbers
about 20,000 Europeans, and has 293 missionaries and 70
stations in Greenland, Labrador, and South America, the
West Indies, South Africa, and Australia. The number
of converts and heathen receiving instruction is as fol¬
lows:—
British Subjects...
Negroes 30,741
Indians  205
Hottentots  6,191
Esquimaux  1,321
Danish,
f Negroes 10,252
\ Greenlanders... 2,102
Dutch Negroes
United States Indians..
38,458
12,354
18,972
286
Total, 70,070
The annual expenses of carrying on this great work little
exceed L. 12,000, and of this sum about one-half is contri¬
buted by Christian friends of various other denominations,—
a glorious example of that “ Charity which never faileth ; ”
and showing that it may still be said, as of old, “ See hoiv
these Christians love one another !" (j. M—Y.)
BOHOL, or Bool, one of the Philippine Islands between
Mindanao and Leyte, discovered by Magellan in 1521. It
is in Long. 124.15. E. Lat. 10. N., and is about 40 miles in Boiardo.
length, and 32 in breadth. It produces some gold.
BOIARDO, Count Matteo Maria, of a noble and
illustrious house established at Ferrara, but originally from
Reggio, was born at Scandiano, one of the seignoral estates
of his family, near Reggio di Modena, about the year 1434,
according to Tiraboschi, or 1420 according to Mazzuchelli.
At an early age he entered the university of Ferrara, where
he applied to his studies as regularly as if he had not been
a person of quality, nor belonged to the privileged class.
He acquired the Greek and Latin, and even the oriental
languages, and was in due time admitted doctor in philo¬
sophy and in law. At the court of Ferrara, w here he en¬
joyed the favour of Duke Borso d’Este and his successor
Hercules, he was invested with several honourable employ¬
ments, and in particular named governor of Reggio, an ap¬
pointment which he held in the year 1478. Three years
afterwards he wras elected captain of Modena, and re-ap¬
pointed governor of the town and citadel of Reggio, where
he died in the year 1494, though in what month is uncertain.
Almost all of his works, and especially his great poem of
the Orlando Inamorato, were composed for the amusement
of Duke Hercules and his court, though not written within
its precincts. His practice, it is said, was to retire to Scan¬
diano or some other of his estates, and there to devote him¬
self to composition; and Castelvetro, Vallisnieri, Mazzu¬
chelli, and Tiraboschi, all unite in stating that he took care
to insert in the descriptions of his poem those of the agree¬
able environs of his chateau, and that the greater part of the
names of his heroes, as Mandricar, Gradasse, Sacripant,
Agramant, and others, were merely the names of some of
his peasants, which, from their uncouthness, appeared to
him proper to be given to Saracen warriors. But be this
as it may, the Orlando Inamorato deserves to be considered
as one of the most important poems in Italian literature,
since it forms the first example of the romantic epic worthy
to serve as a model, and, as such, undoubtedly produced the
Orlando Furioso. Gravina and Mazzuchelli have said, and
succeeding writers have repeated on their authority, that
Boiardo proposed to himself as his model the Iliad of Homer;
that Paris is besieged like the city of Troy, that Angelica
holds the place of Helen, and that, in short, the one poem is
a sort of reflex image of the other. In point of fact, how¬
ever, the subject-matter of the poem is derived from the
Fabulous Chronicle of Turpin ; and with the exception of
the names of Charlemagne, Roland, Oliver, and some other
principal warriors, who necessarily figure as important
characters in the scene, there is not the least resemblance
or analogy between the fable of the one and that of the
other. This poem, which Boiardo did not live to finish, was
printed at Scandiano the year after his death, under the
superintendence of his son Count Camile. The title of the
book is without date ; but a Latin letter from Antonio Car-
affa di Reggio, prefixed to the poem, is dated the kalends
of June 1495. A second edition, also without date, but
which must have been printed before the year 1500, ap¬
peared at Venice ; and the poem was there twice reprinted
during the first twenty years of the sixteenth century. These
editions are the more curious and valuable, that they contain
nothing but the text of the author, which is comprised in
three books, divided into cantos, the third book being in¬
complete. But Niccolo degli Agostini, a mediocre poet,
had the courage to continue the work commenced by Boi¬
ardo, adding to it three books, which were printed at Venice
in 1526-1531, in 4to ; and since this time no edition of the
Orlando has been printed without the continuation of Agos¬
tini, wretched as it unquestionably is. Nor is this all. Suc¬
cessive rifacciamenti were executed by Domenichi and
Berni, who took prodigious liberties, especially with the
style, which they chose to consider as feeble, and ill suited
to the high qualities of the poem in other respects ; and the
consequence has been, that the original composition has
814
B 0 I
B G I
Boileau- been nearly overlaid by these innovations, and that the ro-
Despreaux. manbc epic invented by Boiardo is now almost universally
r_m~J read as remodelled by Berni. The other works of Boiardo
are, 1. 11 Timone, a comedy, Scandiano, 1500, 4to; 2.
Sonnetti e Canzoni, Reggio, 1499, 4to; 3. Carmen Bucoli-
con, Reggio, 1500, 4to ; 4, Cinque Capitoli in terza rima,
Venice, 1523 or 1533; 5. Apulejo dell’ Asino d’oro^emce,
1516, 1518; 6. Asino (Toro de Luciano, tradotto in volgare,
Venice, 1523, 8vo ; 7. Erodolo Alicarnasseo istorico, tra¬
dotto di Greco in Lingua, Ltaliana, Venice, 1533 and 1538,
8vo ; 8. Eerum Italicarum Scriptores. {Biographie Vni-
verselle; Tiraboschi, Storia dellaLetterat. Ital. lib. c. 3. sect.
26, 33 ; Crescembeni, tom. i. and iii.) (J. b—E.)
BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicolas, a celebrated
French poet, born at Paris, or at Crosne, November 1. 1636.
After he had gone through a course of literature and philoso¬
phy, his relations induced him to study the law, and he was
admitted advocate at the age of twenty-one. But though he
had all the talents necessary for the bar, he could not adapt
himself to a science which turns upon continual equivocations,
and often obliges those who follow it to clothe falsehood in
the garb of truth ; and it may be imagined that the dreamy
tomes of Accursius and of Alciat afforded no congenial
nourishment to the disciple of Horace and Juvenal. He
accordingly deserted what his biographers call “ Pantre de
la chicane,” and determined to study theology. He soon
found, however, that scholastic divinity had its tricks and
quirks as well as law ; and imagined, that in order to allure
him the more cunningly, chicanery, which he thought to
avoid, had only changed her habit. Renouncing, therefore,
the Sorbonne, he applied himself entirely to the study of the
belles-lettres, and soon occupied one of the most distinguished
places on the French Parnassus. The public gave his works
the reception they deserved ; and Louis XIV. not only had
Boileau’s works read to him as they were composed, but
settled a yearly pension of 2000 livres upon him, and gave
him the privilege of printing all his works. He was after¬
wards chosen a member of the French academy, and also of
the academy of inscriptions. This great man, who was as
remarkable for his integrity, his innocence, and diffusive
benevolence, as for the keenness of his satire, died of a dropsy
in the chest on the 13th of March 1711, in the seventy-fifth
year of his age. The Lutrin of Boileau, still considered by
some French critics as one of the best poems to which
France has given birth, was first published in 1674. But
it is with great reason and justice that Voltaire confesses
it inferior to the Rape of the Lock. There are two ac¬
tions recorded of Boileau, which sufficiently prove that
the inexorable satirist had a most generous and friendly
heart. When Patru, the celebrated advocate who was
ruined by his passion for literature, found himself under
the painful necessity of selling his extensive library, and
had almost agreed to part with it for a moderate sum,
Boileau tendered him a higher price, and, after paying the
money, added this condition to the purchase, that Patru
should retain, during his life, the possession of the books.
Another instance of the poet’s generosity is of a yet nobler
character. When it was rumoured at court that the king
intended to retrench the pension of Corneille, Boileau has¬
tened to Madame de Montespan, and represented that his
sovereign, equitable as he was, could not, without injustice,
grant a pension to an author like himself, just ascending
Parnassus, and withdraw it from Corneille, who had so long
been seated on the summit; he entreated her, for the honour
of the king, to prevail on his Majesty rather to strike off Ins
pension than to withdraw that of a man whose title to that
which he enjoyed was incomparably greater; and he de¬
clared that he could more easily console himself under the
loss of that distinction, than under the affliction of seeing a
just reward taken away from such a poet as Corneille. This
magnanimous application had the success which it deserved;
and it appears the more noble, that the rival of Corneille
was the intimate friend of Boileau. The long and unre¬
served intercourse which subsisted between Boileau and
Racine was highly beneficial and honourable to both. The
dying farewell of the latter is the most expressive eulogy on
the private character of Boileau: “ Je regarde comme un
honheur pour moi de mourir avant vows” said the tender
Racine, in taking a final leave of his faithful and generous
friend. As a satirist Boileau is inferior to Horace; but in
his Epistles he almost equals his illustrious model; whilst
in regularity of plan, felicity of transition, and a firm, sus¬
tained elegance of style, his Art Poetique will stand a com¬
parison with the celebrated Epistle to the Pisos.
The works of Boileau consist of his Satires; his Epistles; his Art
of Poetry, including his Epigrams, and some other pieces of French
and Latin poetry ; his Dialogue on Poetry and Music ; a Dialogue on
the Heroes of Romance ; a Translation of Longinus’’s Treatise on the
Sublime, with Critical Reflections on that author. The best edition
of them, perhaps, is that with the notes and commentaries of M.
Daunou, printed at Paris in 1809, in 3 vols. 8vo; but the edition
of 1747 by Lefevre de Saint-Marc, in 5 vols. 8vo, with cuts, and
accompanied with the remarks of Brossette, is the most recherchee.
His life has been written by Desmaizeaux, Amst. 1712, 12mo.
BOII, a people of ancient Gaul, who made immigrations
into Germany and Italy, and appear to have given their
name to Bohemia and to Bologna. (Niebuhr).
BOILING, the effect produced on liquids by the applica¬
tion of heat sufficient to convert them rapidly into vapour,
with the phenomena of ebullition. The boiling point varies
greatly in different liquids, and is also affected by the de¬
gree of atmospheric pressure, being higher when the pres¬
sure is increased, and lower when it is diminished. When
the barometer stands at 30 inches, the boiling point of water
is 212° Fahr., and it is found to vary 0-88 of a degree for
each half inch of barometric variation: consequently, for
every variation of one-tenth of an inch in the barometer,
the boiling point of water is altered OT76 of a degree.
Hence water will boil sooner at the top of a mountain than
at its base; and thus a method is afforded for determining its
height. Water boils in vacuo at 98° Fahr. Under a uniform
barometric pressure of 30 inches, mercury boils at 662°; alco¬
hol at 176°; ether at 96°; and oil of turpentine at 316° Fahr.
Boiling Springs. See Iceland; Physic al Geography.
BOIS-LE-DUC, or Hertogenbosch, a city of Holland,
capital of the province of North Brabant, 28 miles S.S.E. ot
Utrecht. It stands at the confluence of the Dommel and
the Aa, and is strongly fortified, being defended by a citadel
and two forts. The city is handsome and well built, and is
intersected by several canals. It contains seven churches,
among which is that of St John, founded in the beginning
of the fourteenth century, and one of the finest ecclesiastical
edifices in Holland. It has also a handsome town-hall, sur¬
mounted by a tower containing a fine set of chimes, an
orphan asylum, grammar-school (once attended by Eras¬
mus), prison, two hospitals, an arsenal, and barracks for 3000
troops. The trade of Bois-le-Duc is very considerable: it
has several distilleries and glass-works, and manufactures
of linen, needles, cutlery, &c. It is the seat of a vicar-
general, and has tribunals of primary instance and com¬
merce. Pop. 21,000.
BOISSARD, Jean Jacques, a classical antiquary and
Latin poet, born at Besanqon in 1528. He studied at Lou¬
vain ; but, disgusted by the severity of his master, he secretly
left that seminary, and after traversing a great part of Ger¬
many reached Italy, where he remained several years, and
was often reduced to great straits. His residence in Italy
developed in his mind a taste for antiquities, and he soon
formed a collection of the most curious monuments of Rome
and its vicinity. He then visited the islands of the Archi¬
pelago, with the intention of travelling through Greece, but
a severe illness obliged him to return to Rome. Here he
resumed his favourite pursuits with great ardour; and
B 0 L B O L 815
Bojador having completed his collection, returned to his native
I! country. But not being permitted to profess publicly the
Boling- Protestant religion, which he had embraced some time be-
broke. forej }le withdrew to Metz, where he died, Oct. 30. 1602,
aged seventy-four. His works are :—
1. Poemata, Epigrammatum libri tres, Elegice libri tres, Epistola-
rum libri tres, Basle, 1574; 2. Emblemata, Latin and French, Metz,
1584; 3. Emblemata, Latin, Francfort, 1595; 4. Vitw et leones
Sultanorum Turcicorum, &c., Francfort, 1596; 5. Theatrum Vitce
Humance, Metz, 1596 ; 6. Romance Urbis Topographic et Antiquita-
tum, quibus succincte et breviter describuntur omnia quoe turn publice
quum privatim videntur animadversione digna, partes vi., Francfort,
1597, 1598, 1600, and 1602, folio, six tomes in three, with plates,
and now very rare; 7. leones et Vitce Virorum Illustrium, Francfort,
1592 to 1599 ; 8. Parnassus Biceps, Francfort, 1601 ; 9. Be Bivina-
tione et Magicis preestigiis, Oppenheim and Hanau, rare and curious;
and, 10. Habitus Variarum Gentium, Metz, 1581, ornamented with
seventy illuminated figures.
BOJADOR, a cape of Western Africa, which projects
considerably into the sea, and presents a very rugged and
dangerous aspect. The Portuguese were long deterred by
it from prosecuting their career of discovery in this direction.
It was at length passed by Gellaney ; and vessels navigating
the Atlantic now stand too far out to sea to be exposed to any
danger. Lat. 26. 7. N. Long. 14. 29. W.
BOKHARA. See Bukharia.
BOL, Ferdinand, a Dutch painter, born at Dordrecht
about 1610, was one of Rembrandt’s most distinguished
pupils. His works are chiefly found at Amsterdam, where
he died in 1681 or 1686.
BOLABOLA, or Borabora, one of the Society Islands,
in the South Pacific Ocean. It is about twenty*four miles
in circumference, and is surrounded by a reef of rocks and
islets. A very lofty double-peaked mountain rises in the
centre. There is a border of low land along the coast,
which is very fertile, and covered w ith cocoa-nut and bread¬
fruit trees. The island is populous, and the inhabitants are of a
more warlike disposition than their neighbours, some of whom
they have subdued. Long. 151. 52. W. Lat. 16. 32. N.
BOLBEC, a town of France, capital of a canton of the
same name, in the department of Lower Seine, on the Bolbec,
and on the railway from Paris to Havre, 18 miles E.N.E. of
the latter. It is a handsome and flourishing manufacturing
town; the streets are wide and well laid out, and the suburbs
contain many neat houses. The principal manufacture is
cotton; besides which it has woollen and linen factories,
dye-works, and tanneries. Pop. 9000.
BOLE, an opaque, earthy minei’al, occurring in solid
amorphous masses, of a yellow, red, or brownish colour. It
yields to the nail, and cuts easily, has a conchoidal frac¬
ture, with a shining streak, and adheres to the tongue. Its
specific gravity is between P60 and 2*00, and when thrown
into water it emits a crackling noise, and falls to pieces. It
occurs in wacke and basalt at Striegau in Silesia, at Ha-
bichtswald in Hessia, near Sienna in Tuscany, and among
the cliffs of the Giant’s Causeway, Ireland. Armenian bole
is used as a coarse red pigment.
BOLEYN, Anne. See Anne Boleyn.
BOLI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia, 85 miles
N.W. of Angora. It is the capital of a district, and the
residence of a governor, and contains numerous public edi¬
fices, though nowise remarkable in their structure. In the
vicinity are the ruins of the ancient Hadrianopolis, and many
marble fragments with Greek inscriptions. The country
around is fertile ; and in the neighbourhood is an extensive
forest, which supplies Constantinople with a great quantity
of w^ood. Long. 31. 19. E. Lat. 40.35. N.
BOLINGBROKE (Henry St John) Viscount, was
the only son of Sir Henry St John, a baronet of ancient fa¬
mily, and was born on the 1st of October 1678, at the family
seat at Battersea. During the early years of his life he was
intrusted to the care of his grandmother, a rigid and some¬
what fanatical Presbyterian, from whose religious adviser, Boling-
Damel Burgess, the future orator received the rudiments l>rokp
of his education. Burgess, like his patroness, was somewhat ''■*v'"*’
of a fanatic, and was more desirous to indoctrinate his pupil
in the principles of the Presbyterians, than in the languages
of ancient Greece and Rome. To the injudicious rigour
of his discipline may be traced that prejudice against reli¬
gion which taints the most elaborate of St John’s composi¬
tions. The time came at length when the pupil was deli¬
vered from the jurisdiction of both his grandmother and
tutor, and to his great joy he was sent to Eton. Nothing
is known of his history at that college, save that he made
the acquaintance of Robert Walpole. The future statesmen
were even at this early period rivals, and the bitter malignity
with which Bolingbroke in after life assailed the great mini¬
ster is said to have arisen out of the quarrels of their school
days. From Eton he went to Christ Church, Oxford, where
he astonished his tutors by the extraordinary quickness of
his apprehension and the strength of his memory; while
he dazzled his fellow-students by the splendour of his ap¬
pearance and the wit and brilliancy of his conversation. From
Oxford he removed to London, where he persisted for a time
in his career of debauchery with such success that he came
to be regarded by the most licentious men of the age as an
irreclaimable libertine, and by such of them as remembered
the days of Charles II., waslikened to the infamous Rochester.
Even Swift does not attempt to defend this period of his life,
but expresses his belief that he lived long enough to regret
and repent of it. The intervals of his excesses he employed
in writing poetry ; and when Dryden published his transla¬
tion of Virgil, he recommended it in a copy of verses pre¬
fixed to the first edition of that work. His next public ap¬
pearance was made in 1700, when he gave to the world an
ode entitled Almahide, which was so bad that it did not elicit
even a hostile criticism. A few other pieces which he wrote
at this time have not been preserved. About this time he
went abroad and travelled on the Continent for two years,
spending the most of his time in France and Italy. The
knowledge of French which he wras in this way enabled to
acquire was of signal service to him in after life. In 1700
he married the daughter of Sir Henry Winchescomb, with
whom he received a handsome fortune ; but so incompatible
was his temper with that of his bride, that in a short time
they were formally separated. In the following year he be¬
gan his political career, by representing in parliament the
borough of Wootten Basset. The family to which he be¬
longed had been known for several generations as firm sup-
portersof the Whig faction; but the young member consulted
at once his interests and his inclination by siding with the
Tory party, then promising to become dominant in England.
Harley was at this time speaker in the House of Commons ;
and his dexterity was such as to make him respected alike
by his own friends and the Opposition. To Harley St John
attached himself, and so effectually did he assist him in dif¬
ficult conjunctures with the whole weight of his personal and
family interest, and the fire of his splendid eloquence, that
when Harley was made secretary of state in 1704, St John,
as a reward for services, was appointed secretary at war. In
1707, after a long series of court intrigues, the queen was
induced to dismiss her secretary, and St John, hitherto
consistent, immediately gave in his resignation. He re¬
tired not only from office but from parliament, and for the
next two years devoted himself wholly to study. These
two years he repeatedly mentions as the happiest of his life.
It was not long, however, before he was called upon to quit
his retirement and direct his attention once more to public
affairs. While St John was thinking and writing in the soli¬
tude of the country, Harley, after the manner of these days,
had been busily intriguing at court. The result of his
machinations was that the Whigs were in their turn ousted,
and the Tory administration once more reinstated. Harley
BOLINGBROKE.
816
Boling- became chancellor of the exchequer. St John took office
broke. as secretary of state in 1710, and was soon acknowledged
ministerial leader in the House of Commons. Circumstances,
however, soon transpired which made it apparent that these
two men, hitherto so true to each other, could no longer act
in concert. For when in 1712, Harley, now Lord Oxford,
refused to secure for his late coadjutor a rank in the peer¬
age equal to his own, St John’s indignation knew no bounds.
He resolved, however, for the ultimate advancement of his
interests, to maintain at least the appearance of friendship
with the successful minister. Mr St John was therefore in the
meantime obliged to content himself with the titleof Viscount
Bolingbroke. His ambition, however, was far from being
satisfied even with so honourable a distinction, and he now
determined to turn against his ancient friend and ally the
very weapons by means of which that friend had cleared his
way to power. He was no less skilful in the conduct of a
court intrigue than Oxford himself had been, and at length,
through the influence of Mrs Masham the queen’s favourite,
whose good graces he had cultivated assiduously for two
years, he obtained the dismissal of the lord treasurer in
1714. Two years before this consummation he had been
sent as ambassador to the French court, and his conduct
while there was such as to justify his enemies in the cla¬
morous outcry which they raised against him. It was sus¬
pected, and not without reason, that Bolingbroke’s object in
visiting Paris was not so much to negotiate the details of
a general peace, as to make arrangements for the resto¬
ration of the exiled royal family. It was reported in Eng¬
land that he had had at least one interview with the Preten¬
der ; it is now clearly ascertained that he had two. His
conduct, which had long been most suspicious, was now
openly canvassed with the utmost freedom. His useless
and wanton treachery in the matter of the peace of Utrecht
was remembered against him ; the readiness with which he
had deserted his party and his old patron Oxford, when
the opposition was once more in the ascendant, was not for¬
gotten and even the follies and vices of his early manhood
were cast up to him. These circumstances all marked him
out as a man eminently unscrupulous, and reckless of the
national honour, when it interfered with the prospects of
his personal advancement. The airy fabric of his ambition,
however, was overthrown by a circumstance of which he had
never contemplated the possibility, and which he could not
prevent. The queen died ; George I. was quietly pro¬
claimed ; and the ambitious secretary was deprived of the
seals. Harley laboured under the same suspicions with him¬
self : each was suspected of favouring the cause of the Pre¬
tender, though from different motives. It was now resolved
that both of them should be impeached. Bolingbroke received
notice of his impending danger and fled to France, where he
was warmly welcomed by the Pretender and his party, and
pressed to accept the office of secretary. This office he
held for a very short time. He failed as completely to se¬
cure the confidence of his new master as of his old partizans
in England, and in 1716 was dismissed. In 1718 his wife
died. Two years after he married the Marquise de Villette,
the niece of Madame Maintenon, a widow of large fortune.
He resided for some years upon his wife’s property, devoting
his time entirely to literary pursuits, and the entertainment
of literary men. Amongst others who visited him in his
retreat was the young Voltaire, who submitted to him the
manuscript of the Henriade, which he had just completed.
It was now that he composed his Reflections upon Exile.
In 1723 he was informed that he was at liberty to return to
England. He accordingly returned to his native country,
where he remained, however, for a very short time. Fie soon
returned to France, and removed thence to Aix-la-Chapelle.
In 1724 he once more revisited England, and had the satisfac¬
tion of learning in the following year that the bill of attainder
against him was reversed, and that he was now at liberty to
resume his title and his fortune. Provision, however, had Boling-
been expressly made that he should never again cross the kroke.
threshold of the House of Lords. This qualified pardon
Bolingbroke attributed to the influence and intrigues of Sir
Robert Walpole. Flis old hostility against that minister re¬
vived, and for ten years he opposed his policy with all the
bitterness and malignity of which he was capable. His invec¬
tives he published in the form of letters, under the title of
The Occasional Writer. The success which attended these
letters, and another series that appeared in a paper called the
Craftsman, was so great as to place their author above all
the political pamphleteers of the day, Swift alone excepted.
Some of these contributions were afterwards republished,
and have descended to us as the Letters on the History of
England. So great was the impression they produced that
the government prosecuted the publisher, and menaced the
author in a manner that elicited from him one of the most
brilliant and witty of all his compositions. Finding at length
that, on the accession of George II. his hopes of political
preferment were blighted for ever, he resolved to retire to
France, and devote the remainder of his days to the study
of history and philosophy. He set out for the Continent
wdth his wife early in 1735, and did not again visit England
till summoned by the death of his father in 1742. Bad
health once more drove him to France, and shortly after to
the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1744 he bade a last fare¬
well to the Continent. He returned to England only to find
that all the friends of his early years had passed away. Gay,
Prior, Atterbury, and Windham were gone ; Swift had re¬
cently died ; and Pope did not survive him long. By his
will the great poet appointed Bolingbroke his literary ex¬
ecutor, and made over to him all his manuscripts “ to pre¬
serve or to destroy.” None of these documents were allowed
to see the light, and the statesman ever persecuted the me¬
mory of the poet with a rancour that has not yet been satis¬
factorily explained. From this time till his death he devoted
all his time and energies to correcting and arranging his
works for posthumous publication. Lady Bolingbroke, whose
health had been for a long time declining, died in 1750, and
on the 15th December 1751, her husband closed his stormy
career. He was buried beside his wife in the family vaults
at Battersea, where a long epitaph, written by himself, re¬
cords his history, his virtues, and his misfortunes.
Bolingbroke’s fame with posterity will rest chiefly on his
oratory. No specimen of his oratorical powers has descended
to our times, save a small fragment, of which the finest pas¬
sage is avowedly borrowed from Demosthenes. When we
recollect, however, the great natural advantages he pos¬
sessed, the splendour of his personal appearance, his clear and
powerful voice, and his action unsurpassed for ease and
grace ; when we remember, moreover, his great natural
endowments, which he had taken care to improve by long
and severe study, his great acquaintance with history, his
brilliant wit, and the copious felicity of his diction, we can¬
not but believe that he takes rank as on the whole the great¬
est of British orators. Such was the opinion of Pitt, who,
on one occasion discoursing on the lost treasures of the past,
and hearing his friends lament, one the lost books of Livy,
another those of Tacitus, declared that for his part he re¬
gretted most of all the speeches of Bolingbroke. Such, too,
is the opinion of Lord Brougham, the greatest orator of our
own day. As a writer his influence has long since passed
away—a circumstance which made Burke ask “ Y\ho now
reads Bolingbroke ?” As a speculator he merits little gra¬
titude from posterity. When Dr Johnson was
opinion of Bolingbroke’s ethical works, he replied i>o ing-
broke, sir, was a scoundrel and a coward ; he loaded a blun¬
derbuss against Christianity, which he had not the com age
to fire during his lifetime ; but left half-a-crown to a mm-
gry Scotsman to draw the trigger after he was dead. ihe
“ hungry Scotsman” here alluded to was David Mallet, to
Bolivar.
—
BOLIVAR.
817
whom Bolingbroke intrusted the publication of his works.
1Jiey appeared, in a handsome edition in 5 vols. 4to, Lond.,
1754. They were afterwards reprinted, with a life hy Gold¬
smith, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1809. (j. c—l.)
BOLIVAR, Simon, the hero of South American inde¬
pendence, was born in the city of Caraccas, on the 24th
July 1783. His father was Don Juan Vicente Bolivar y
Ponte, and his mother Dona Maria Concepcion Palacios
y Sojo, both descended of noble families in Venezuela.
After acquiring the elements of a liberal education at
home, Bolivar was sent to Europe to prosecute his studies,
and with this view repaired to Madrid, where he appears
to have resided for several years. Having completed his
education, he spent some time in travelling, chiefly in the
south of Europe, and visited the French capital, where he
was an eye witness of some of the last scenes of the revo¬
lution. Returning to Madrid, he married the daughter
of Don N. Toro, uncle of the marquis of Toro in Carac¬
cas, and embarked with her for America, intending, it is
said, to dedicate himself to domestic life and the improve¬
ment of his large estate. But this plan was frustrated by
the premature death of his lady, who fell a victim to yel¬
low fever; and Bolivar again visited Europe, in order, by
change of scene, to alleviate the sorrow occasioned by this
bereavement.
On his return home he passed through the United
States, where, for the first time, he had an opportunity of
observing the working of free institutions; and soon after
his arrival in Venezuela he appears to have embarked in
the schemes of the patriots, and pledged himself to the
cause of independence. Being one of the promoters of
the movement at Caraccas in April 1810, he received a
colonel’s commission from the supreme junta then esta¬
blished, and was associated with Don Luis Lopez Men¬
dez in a mission for communicating intelligence of the
change of government to Great Britain. He took part in
the first military operations of the Venezuelan patriots,
after the declaration of independence on the 5th of July
1811; and in 1812, when the war commenced in earnest,
by the advance of Monteverde with the Spanish troops,
he was intrusted with the command of the important post
of Puerto Cabello. But the castle of San Felipe, which
commanded the town, having been treacherously surren¬
dered to the Spaniards, Bolivar was compelled to evacu¬
ate the place ; and Miranda having soon afterwards made
his peace with the government, Venezuela submitted to
Monteverde, while those who had been most deeply com¬
mitted in the revolution consulted their safety by quitting
the country. On this occasion Bolivar succeeded in ob¬
taining a passport under a fictitious name, and made his
escape to Cura^oa.
But as important events were passing on the continent,
he repaired to Carthagena in September 1812, and, with
other refugees from Caraccas, joined the patriots of New
Grenada, who gave him a command in the small town of
Baranca, under the orders of Lahatut, the republican go¬
vernor of Santa Martha. Not content, however, with the
obscure part of a subaltern at Baranca, Bolivar undertook
an expedition against Teneriffe, a town higher up on the
Magdalena; and having made himself master of the place,
proceeded to Mompox, driving the Spaniards before him
from all their posts on the Upper Magdalena, and finally
entering Ocana in triumph amidst the acclamations of the
inhabitants. He then marched upon Cucuta; defeated a
Spanish division commanded by Correa; and, emboldened
by success, conceived the design of invading Venezuela,
and expelling Monteverde. The congress of New Grena¬
da approved of the project, and gave him a commission as
brigadier ; but from the jealousy of some, the lukewarm¬
ness of others, and the procrastination of all, many dis-
vol. iv
heartening obstacles were thrown in his way. By zeal and
perseverance, however, he at length surmounted every dif¬
ficulty, and commenced his march for Venezuela with little
more than 500 men. At the head of this handful of troops
he boldly entered the province of Merida; made himself
master of the provincial capital, where, on learning the
news of his approach, the inhabitants rose upon the Spa¬
niards; re-established the republican authorities there; then
pushed his vanguard under Jirardot upon Trujillo, where
a corps of royalists under Cahas was defeated ; and finally
expelled the Spaniards from the provinces of Merida and
Trujillo. While he was thus carrying every thing before
him, Bolivar obtained intelligence of the cruelty and op¬
pression exercised by Monteverde and his subordinate
officers in Venezuela ; and, exasperated at their barbarity,
as well as desirous to give a check to their excesses, he
issued the famous decree ofguerra a muerte, condemning to
death all Spanish prisoners who might fall into his hands.
Bolivar’s army increasing daily, he now formed it into
two divisions, one of which he committed to the charge
of Rivas, and advanced rapidly on Caraccas through the
provinces of Trujillo and Varinas. After a variety of en¬
counters, which generally terminated in favour of the pa¬
triots, a decisive battle was fought at Lastoguanes, where
the flower of Monteverde’s troops sustained a total defeat,
and the road to Caraccas was in consequence left uncover¬
ed. Monteverde threw himself into Puerto Cabello, and
Bolivar lost no time in marching on the capital, which
being evacuated by the Spaniards, he entered in triumph
on the 4th of August 1813. While this operation was in
progress, Marino effected the liberation of tbe eastern
provinces of Venezuela, of which, excepting the fortress
of Puerto Cabello, the patriots regained entire possession.
At this period the whole authority in Venezuela centred
in Bolivar as commander of the liberating army; and a
convention of the principal civil and military officers, held
at Caraccas on the 2d of January 1814, confirmed the
dictatorial power which circumstances had placed in his
hands. Misfortune, however, was at hand.
The contest, which had hitherto been confined to a spe¬
cies of partisan warfare, now assumed a more serious cha¬
racter. The royalists, effectually roused by the reverses
they had sustained, concentrated all their means; and a
number of sanguinary encounters ensued. At length,
after various vicissitudes of fortune, Bolivar was defeated
by Boves near Cura, in the plains of La Puerta, and com¬
pelled to embark for Cumana with the shattered remains
of his forces. Caraccas was also retaken by the Spaniards
in July ; and before the end of the year 1814 the royalists
were again the undisputed masters of Venezuela. From
Cumana Bolivar repaired to Carthagena, where he once
more appeared as a fugitive, and thence proceeded to
Tunja, where the congress of New Grenada was sitting,
in order to render an account of his operations. He had
been unfortunate, which generally exposes a commander
to misconstruction and obloquy ; and his expedition, as
brilliant in its outset as it proved disastrous in the issue,
was severely criticised. But notwithstanding his misfor¬
tunes, and the efforts of his personal enemies, he was re¬
ceived and treated with great consideration; and as the
congress were then organizing an expedition against Bo¬
gota, for the purpose of compelling Cundinamarca to ac¬
cede to the general coalition of the provinces, Bolivar was
intrusted with the command of the forces of the union on
this occasion. Accordingly, in December 1814 he march¬
ed against Santa Fe at the head of 2000 troops. All at¬
tempts at negociation having failed, he invested the city,
drove in the out-posts, carried the suburbs by storm, and
was preparing to assault the grand plaza or square, where
Alvarez and the troops of Cundinamarca were posted,
5 l
Bolivar.
1
818 B O L I
Eolivar. when the latter capitulated and acknowledged the gene-
ral government of New Grenada, which was now transfer¬
red to Bogota. For this important service Bolivar receiv¬
ed the thanks of the congress; and even the inhabitants
of the city against which he had been sent expressed their
approbation of his conduct.
In the meanwhile Santa Martha had fallen into the
hands of the royalists, through the incapacity of Labatut;
and as the general government appreciated the importance
of recovering possession of that place, Bolivar was employ¬
ed on this service, with orders to receive the necessary
supplies and munitions of war from the citadel of Cartha-
gena. But the preposterous jealousy of Castillo, the mili¬
tary commandant, defeated all his plans. I he season for
action was wasted in disgraceful altercations and ruinous
delays; and while Bolivar was investing Carthagena, in
the hope of intimidating Castillo into submission, Morillo
landed on the island of Margarita at the head ot an over¬
whelming force of Spaniards, and put an end to dispute.
Finding a check thus effectually given to any movement
against Santa Martha, and satisfied that he could not be
usefully employed at Carthagena, Bolivar resigned his
command, and embarked for Jamaica in May 1815. He
remained at Kingston during the greater part of the year,
whilst Morillo was reducing Carthagena and overrunning
New Grenada almost without opposition; and in the interim
narrowly escaped assassination by a Spaniard who had been
hired to make an attempt on his life.
From Kingston Bolivar repaired to Aux Cayes in Hayti,
where, assisted by private individuals, and furnished with a
small force by Petion, he organized an expedition, in order
to join Arismendi, who had raised anew the standard of in¬
dependence in the island of Margarita. In May 1816 he
reached Margarita, and sailing thence, landed on the con¬
tinent near Cumana; but being attacked at Ocumare by
the Spaniards under Morales, he was compelled to re¬
embark. Nothing disheartened by this failure, he obtain¬
ed fresh reinforcements at Aux Cayes, and in December
landed again in Margarita, where he issued a proclamation
convoking the representatives of Venezuela in a general
congress. He then proceeded to Barcelona, where he
organized a provisional government, and assembled troops
to resist Morillo, who was then advancing at the head of
a strong division. The hostile forces encountered each
other on the 16th of February 1817, when a desperate con¬
flict ensued, which lasted during that and the two fol¬
lowing days, and ended in the defeat of the royalists.
Morillo retired in disorder, and being met on his re¬
treat by Paez with his llaneros, experienced a new and
more complete overthrow. Being now recognised as
commander-in-chief, Bolivar proceeded in his career of
victory, and before the close of the year had fixed his
head-quarters at Angostura. But as the military opera¬
tions of this and the following year belong rather to the
history of Colombia than to the biography of Bolivar, the
reader is referred to that head for an account of them.
He presided at the opening of the congress of Angostura
on the 15th of February 1819, when he submitted an ela¬
borate exposition of his views on government, and also
surrendered his authority into the hands of congress.
Being, however, required to resume his power, and retain
it until the independence of the country should be com¬
pletely established, he re-organized his troops, and set out
from Angostura, in order to cross the Cordilleras, ef¬
fect a junction with General Santander, commanding the
republican forces in New Grenada, and bring their united
means into action against the common enemy. This bold
and original design was crowned with complete success.
In July 1819 he reached Tunja, which he entered, after
a sharp action on the adjoining heights; and on the 7th of
V A R.
August he gained the victory of Bojaca, which gave him Bolivar,
immediate possession of Santa Fe and all New Grenada.
Nor was this all. By the resources of men, money, and
munitions of war, which he found at Bogota, he was en¬
abled to augment the effective strength of his army, and
to return to Venezuela with a force sufficient to insure the
expulsion of the Spaniards.
The campaign of New Grenada is unquestionably Bo¬
livar’s most brilliant achievement, and deserves much of
the praise which has been lavished on it. His return to
Angostura was a sort of national festival. He was hailed
as the deliverer and father of his country, and all manner
of distinctions and congratulations were heaped upon him.
Fie availed himself of this favourable moment to obtain
the enactment of the fundamental law of the 17th De¬
cember 1819, by which the republics of Venezuela and
New Grenada were henceforth united in a single state,
under his presidency, by the title of the republic of Co¬
lombia. The seat of government was also transferred
provisionally to Rosario de Cucuta, and Bolivar again took
the field. Being now at the head of the most numerous
and best appointed armj' the patriots had yet assembled,
he gained important advantages over the Spaniards un¬
der Morillo, and on the 25th November 1820 concluded
at Trujillo an armistice of six months, probably in the
hope that the Spaniards would now come to terms, and
that the further*effusion of blood might be spared. If
such were his views, however, they were disappointed.
Morillo was recalled; Torre assumed the command; and
the armistice was allowed to expire without any pacific
overture being made. As a renewal of the contest was
therefore inevitable, Bolivar resolved, if possible, to strike
a decisive blow; and this accordingly he did at Cara-
bolo, where he vanquished Torre, and so completely de¬
stroyed the Spaniards, that the shattered remains of their
army were forced to take refuge in Puerto Gabello, w'here
two years after they surrendered to Paez.
The battle of Carabolo may be considered as having put
an end to the war in Venezuela. On the 29th June 1820
Bolivar entered Caraccas, and by the close of the year the
Spaniards were driven from every part of the country ex¬
cept Puerto Cabello and Quito. The next step was to se¬
cure, by permanent political institutions, the independence
which had now been conquered; and accordingly, on the
30th of August 1821, the present constitution of Colom¬
bia was adopted with general approbation, Bolivar himself
being president, and Santander vice-president.
Having thus achieved the independence of his own
country, Bolivar next placed himself at the head of the
army destined to act against the Spaniards in Quito and
Peru. The fate of Quito was decided by the battle of
Pichincha, which was fought in June 1822, and gained by
the conduct and prowess of Sucre. Bolivar then march¬
ed upon Lima, which the royalists evacuated at his ap¬
proach ; and entering the capital in triumph, he was in¬
vested with absolute power as dictator, and authorized
to call into action all the resources of the country. But
being violently opposed by some of the factions which
then distracted Peru, and unable to make head against
their intrigues, he was obliged to withdraw to Trujillo,
leaving the capital to the mercy of the Spaniards under
Canterac, by whom it was immediately occupied. This
success, however, proved only temporary. By June 1824
the liberating army was completely organized; and taking
the field soon after, it routed the vanguard of the ene¬
my. Improving his advantage, Bolivar pressed forward,
and on the 6th of August defeated Canterac on the
plains of Junin ; after which he returned to Lima, leaving
Sucre to follow the royalists in their retreat to Upper
Peru; an exploit which the latter executed with equal abi-
B O L I V A R.
Bolivar, lity and success, gaining a decisive victory at Ayacucho,
and thus completing the dispersion of the Spanish force.
1 he possessions of the Spaniards in Peru were now con¬
fined to the castles of Callao, which Rodil maintained for
upwards of a year, in spite of all the means that could be
employed for their reduction. In June 1825 Bolivar vi¬
sited Upper Peru, which having detached itself from the
government of Buenos Ayres, was formed into a separate
state, called Bolivia, in honour of the liberator. The first
congress of the new republic assembled in August 1825,
when Bolivar was declared perpetual protector, and re¬
quested to prepare for it a constitution of government.
We now come to what may be considered as the se¬
cond part in the biography of Bolivar. Hitherto we have
been almost exclusively occupied in tracing his military
career; at first uncertain, and marked by great reverses,
but afterwards illustrated by a series of victories which,
although fortune frequently favoured his enterprises, were
principally owing to his own courage and constancy, aided
by very considerable military genius. But from the pe¬
riod at which we have arrived, he appears before us in
the capacity of a lawgiver; and imputations on the purity
of his political views, whether well founded or the reverse,
seem to have been contemporaneous with his attempts to
consolidate the governments which owed their existence
to his military prowess. Our present business, however,
is with facts. In December 1824< he convoked a consti¬
tuent congress for the February ensuing, and this body
assembled accordingly; but, owing to the unsettled state
of the country, the dictatorial power was vested in Bolivar
for another year, and a grant of a million of dollars was
offered him, which, however, he declined. The congress
soon adjourned, and the dictator remained absolute go¬
vernor of Peru. There is no evidence that he abused the
power thus intrusted to him. Residing partly at Lima
and partly at Magdalena, he directed the acts of the go¬
vernment, and also proposed the celebrated congress at
Panama for establishing an alliance between all the inde¬
pendent states of America. His project of a constitution
for Bolivia was presented to the congress of that state on
the 25th May 1826, accompanied with an address, in which
he embodied his opinions respecting the form of govern¬
ment which he conceived most expedient for the newly-
established republics. Of this code some account will be
found in the article Bolivia ; but its most extraordinary
feature consisted in the provision for lodging the executive
authority in the hands of a president for life, without re¬
sponsibility, and with power to nominate his successor.
This alarmed the friends of liberty, and excited lively ap¬
prehensions amongst the republicans of Buenos Ayres and
Chili; whilst, in Peru, Bolivar was accused of a design to
unite into one state Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia, and to
render himself perpetual dictator of the confederacy.
And it must be confessed that the conduct of the libe¬
rator gave some colour to these imputations. By the sur¬
render of the castles of Callao, Peru was completely freed
from the Spaniards, and the object which Bolivar professed
to have had in view was accomplished. Yet he manifested
no intention of resigning his authority, and departing from
the country. On the contrary, when the deputies for the
constituent congress of 1826 assembled, they were induced
to decline acting in their legislative capacity; whilst a
majority of their number published an address, urging
Bolivar to continue at the head of affairs for another year,
and, in the meanwhile, requesting him to consult the pro¬
vinces individually respecting the form of government
which they would prefer, and the person who should be
placed at its head. He complied with this request, which
he had probably suggested; circular letters were address¬
ed to the prefects of departments, commanding them to
819
assemble the electoral colleges, and to submit for the sane- Bolivar,
tion of these bodies a constitution similar in all respects
to the Bolivian code; and this constitution was adopted
by the colleges, which, with an unanimity perfectly extra¬
ordinary, nominated Bolivar president for life. We are
too distant from the scene of these events, and too near
the time of their occurrence, to be able to judge accurately
as to the means by which this unanimity was produced in
a country which, above all others, was distracted by fac¬
tions, and a prey to intestine commotions.
In the meanwhile the affairs of Colombia had taken a
turn which demanded the presence of Bolivar in his own
country. During his absence Santander had administered
the government ably and uprightly; its independence had
been recognised by other countries; and its territory had
been subdivided into departments, defined by geographi¬
cal boundaries analogously to that of France. But Paez,
who commanded in Venezuela, having been accused of
arbitrary conduct in the enrolment of the citizens of Ca-
raccas in the militia, refused obedience to the summons of
the senate, and placed himself in a state of open rebellion
against the general government; whilst the disaffected
party, taking advantage of this collision, united with the
refractory commander, and encouraged him in his opposi¬
tion, by which means the northern departments became
virtually separated from the rest of the republic. All,
however, professed a willingness to submit their grievances
to the decision of Bolivar, and equally required his return
to Colombia. But the factious jarrings to which we have
adverted did not rest here. Whilst these movements were
taking place in Venezuela, various municipalities of the
southern departments, which had originally constituted
the presidency of Quito, held public meetings, at which
the Bolivian code was adopted, and the supreme authority
lodged in Bolivar as dictator. Whether these proceedings
were in accordance with the wishes of Bolivar or not, it is
impossible to affirm with any degree of certainty. It has
been generally believed, indeed, that the meetings in
question were summoned, and the resolutions suggested,
by Leocadio Guzman, an emissary of Bolivar’s ; and some
have even alleged that Paez was incited and encouraged
by hints from the same quarter. But be this as it may,
the actual state of affairs, however produced, was such as
demanded the presence of Bolivar.
Accordingly, having intrusted the government to a
council nominated by himself, with General Santa-Cruz
at its head, he set out from Lima in September 1826, and
hastened to Bogota, where he arrived on the 14th Novem¬
ber, and immediately assumed the extraordinary powers
which by the constitution the president was authorized to
exercise in case of rebellion. He remained only a few days
in the capital, and then pressed forward to stop the effusion
of blood in Venezuela, where matters had gone on much far¬
ther than he could ever have contemplated, even supposing
him to have been the main-spring of the intrigues to which
we have already adverted. On the 31st December he reach¬
ed Puerto Cabello, and the following day issued a decree
offering a general amnesty. He had then a friendly meet¬
ing with Paez, and soon afterwards entered Caraccas,
where he fixed his head-quarters, in order to check the
northern departments, which had been the principal thea¬
tre of the disturbances. In the meanwhile Bolivar and
Santander were re-elected to the respective offices of pre¬
sident and vice-president, and by law should have qua¬
lified as such in January 1827. In February, however,
Bolivar formally resigned the presidency of the republic’
at the same time expressing a determination to refute the
imputations of ambition which had been so freely cast
upon him, by retiring to private life, and spending the re¬
mainder of his days on his patrimonial estate. Santander
820 BOLIVAR.
Bolivar, combated this resolution, urging him to resume his station Intelligence of these events reached Bolivar while in Bolivar.
as constitutional president, and declaring his own convic- the north of Colombia. He had long remained in a state of v—y-^
tion, that the troubles and agitations of the country could comparative inactivity ; but the news of the countef-revo-
only be appeased by the authority and personal influence of lution in Peru, effected by the very troops in whom he
the liberator himself. But distrust and suspicion of Boli- had most implicitly confided, called forth all his energy,
var’s conduct and intentions now filled all the friends of and he lost no time in preparing to march to the south, in
republican institutions. The anti-republican code of Bo- order to reduce the refractory division. But he was spared
livia was considered as a record of his political faith, and the necessity of coming to blows with these troops, who,
he was believed to be anxious for its introduction into finding the government in the hands of the national exe-
Colombia. He was also accused of being in concert with cutive, had peaceably submitted to General Ovando. In
Paez, and of having secretly fomented discord in the na- the meanwhile Bolivar had accepted the presidency, and
tion, in order to create an impression of the necessity of resumed the functions belonging to his official station,
appointing him dictator. What truth there may be in But although Colombia was, to all external appearance,
these charges, or whether there be any at all, we shall not restored to tranquillity, the nation was divided into two
at present take it upon us to say. That they were generally parties, and agitated by their opposite views and incessant
believed at the time is unquestionable; nor is it easy, collisions. Bolivar had regained the personal confidence
upon any other supposition, to account for the private in- of the officers and soldiers of the third division ; but the
timacy which subsisted betwixt Bolivar and Paez, whilst republican party, with Santander at their head, continued
publicly they were at open war, and fiercely denouncing to regard with undisguised apprehension his ascendency
each other. Another proof of the belief which then pre- over the army, and the political movements in which he
vailed is the large minority in congress who voted for ac- was continually engaged, accusing or suspecting him of a
cepting his resignation of the presidency. But as a majo- desire to imitate the career of Napoleon. In the mean-
rity were of a contrary opinion, and insisted on his retain- while all parties looked anxiously to the convention of
ing the presidency, he repaired to Bogota to take the oaths Ocaha, which was to assemble in March 1828, for a decid-
and resume his functions. Before his arrival, however, ed expression of the national will. The republicans hoped
he issued simultaneously three separate decrees; one grant- that the issue of its deliberations would be favourable to
ing a general amnesty of all past offences; another, con- their views; whilst the military, on the other hand, did
voicing a national convention at Ocaha; and a third for not conceal their conviction that a stronger and more
establishing constitutional order throughout Colombia. permanent form of government was essential to the
His arrival was accelerated by the occurrence of events public welfare, that the people were unprepared for re¬
in Peru and the southern departments, which struck at publican institutions, and that Bolivar should be intrust-
the very foundation of his power. Not long after his de- ed with discretionary power to administer the affairs of
parture from Lima, the Bolivian code had been adopted Colombia.
as the constitution of Peru, and Bolivar had been declar- And the latter view seems to have prevailed. In virtue
ed president for life. This took place on the 9 th of Decern- of a decree, dated Bogota, the 27th August 1828, Bolivar
ber 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho; at assumed the supreme power in Colombia, and continued
which time the Colombian auxiliary army was cantoned to exercise it until his death, which took place at San
in three divisions, one in Upper, and two in Lower Peru, Pedro, near Santa Martha, on the 17th December 1830.
at Arequipa and Lima. The third division, stationed at By this decree he was authorized to maintain peace at
Lima, consisted of veteran troops, commanded by gene- home, and to defend the country against foreign invasion,
rals Lara and Sands, personal friends of the liberator, to command the forces of the state by land and sea, to
But notwithstanding their known attachment to Bolivar negociate with foreign powers, to make peace and declare
personally, his recent conduct in Colombia had rendered war, to enter into treaties, to appoint all civil and military
them distrustful of his designs; and although they had officers, to issue decrees and ordinances of every descrip-
originally no disposition to thwart his views on Peru, had tion, to regulate the administration of justice, and in short
his ambition been confined to that state alone, they re- to exercise all the functions and prerogatives of sovereign,
solved to strike a blow against his power when they'con- not to say absolute power. The decree, indeed, provided
ceived it employed for the subjugation of their own coun- that he was to be assisted in the exercise of the executive
try. Accordingly, in about six weeks after the adoption power by the council of ministers ; but it is obvious, from
of the new constitution, a counter-revolution in the go- the terms of this document, and above all, from the na-
vernment of Peru was effected by this body of dissatisfied ture of the powers it conferred on the president, that, al-
veterans. They had taken their measures so well that though the council might advise, it could never control
they arrested their general officers without opposition ; him ; and that, with the army at his back, he was sovereign
placed them under the orders of Bustamente, one of their of Colombia under a new denomination. Still his position
colonels; and announced to the inhabitants of Lima that was, in many respects, far from being an enviable one.
their sole object was to relieve the Peruvians from op- Suspicion and distrust were excited by all his actions, and
pression, and to return home to protect their own country his life seems to have been embittered, if not shortened,
against any attack on its liberties. Availing themselves by the incessant attacks made on his character and con-
of the opportunity thus unexpectedly afforded them, the duct. 1 his seems evident from an address to the Colom-
Peruvians abjured the Bolivian code, deposed the council bian nation, which he dictated only a few days before his
of ministers appointed by the liberator, and proceeded to death; and in which, after alluding to his efforts in the
organize a provisional government for themselves. After cause of liberty, and asserting his disinterestedness, he
this bloodless revolution, the third division embarked at complains that his enemies had abused the credulity of
Callao on the 17th March 1827, and landed in the south- the people, and violated what to him was most sacred, his
ern department of Colombia in April; part proceeding to reputation ; that he was the victim of his persecutors,
Guayaquil, and part to Cuenca and Quito, but all declar- who had brought him to the brink of the grave ; that he
ing that their only object in the step they had taken was had aspired to no other glory than the consolidation or
the restoration of constitutional order, the preservation of Colombia ; and that if his death should contribute to paci-
republican institutions, and opposition to the designs en- fy all factions, and to strengthen the union, he would de-
tertained by Bolivar against the general liberty. scend with tranquillity to the tomb.
B O L
Bolivia. The time has not yet arrived when it would be either
safe or just to attempt an estimate of Bolivar’s real views
and character. But there are some facts in his history
which, as they seem to be well established, it is due to
his memory to bring prominently forward. He expend¬
ed nine-tenths of a splendid patrimony in the service
of his country; and although he had for a considerable
period unlimited control over the revenues of three coun¬
tries, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia, he died without a
shilling of the public money in his possession. The value
of his military services can best be estimated by their re-
B O L 821
suits. He conquered the independence of three states, Bolivia,
which he also organized ; and he called forth a spirit in the
southern portion of the New World, which can never be
extinguished. He purified the administration of justice ;
he encouraged the arts and sciences ; he fostered national
interests ; and he induced other countries to recognise that
independence which was in a great measure the fruit of
his own exertions. (Restrepo’s Colombia, vol. iii.; Ame¬
rican Annual Register, vols. i. and ii.; Encyclop. Americ.
v. Bolivar ; Memoirs of General Miller, vol. ii.; Uucoudray
Holstein’s Memoirs of Simon Bolivar.) (j. b—E.)
BOLIVIA.
This name was given in 1825 to a new state or re¬
public in South America, formed from the provinces of
Upper Peru, which formerly constituted part of the vice¬
royalty of Buenos Ayres, and were well known by the
names of Charcas, Potosi, La Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa
Cruz de la Sierra. These provinces, on securing their in¬
dependence, soon after the battle of Ayacucho, 9th Decem¬
ber 1824, found it necessary to come to a determination as
to their future political state and institutions; and therefore
it became a question with the inhabitants of Upper Peru,
whether they should continue their former connection with
the Buenos Ayrean or Argentine provinces, attach them¬
selves to the republic of Peru, or form their country into a
separate and independent republic. But the existing go¬
vernment of Buenos Ayres having with equal judgment and
generosity divested itself of the claim which it had on the
provinces of Upper Peru, the inhabitants of the latter
were left at perfect liberty to decide on the future political
government of their country. Deputies from all the pro¬
vinces were in consequence nominated; and having assem¬
bled in Chuquisaca, the capital of the republic, in August
1825, the result of their deliberations was, that the pro¬
vinces of Upper Peru should in future constitute a sepa¬
rate and independent nation. This assembly, continuing
its sessions, issued a declaration of national independence;
and in the exuberance of their gratitude to General Boli¬
var for the important influence he had exercised in accom¬
plishing the liberation of their country, they determined
on giving the name of Bolivia to the whole country.
Boundaries Bolivia extends from 9. 30. to 25. 40. of S. Lat., and
and divi- from 71,0f W. Long, from London, and it is bounded
on the north by Peru and Brazil, on the east by Brazil and
Paraguay, on the south by the Argentine provinces and
Chili, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and Peru. It
has been divided by the constituent congress of Bolivia
into six departments, viz. Potosi, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Santa
Cruz, Cochabamba, and Oruro ; and these have been sub¬
divided into provinces and cantons. Thus each department
includes in its jurisdiction certain provinces of the an¬
cient regime. The department of Potosi contains Ata¬
cama, Lipez, Potosi, Porco, Chayanta, and Chichas; Chuqui¬
saca contains Charcas or Chuquisaca, Cinti, Yamparaes, and
Tomina ; La Paz, the provinces of La Paz, Pacajes, Sica-
sica, Chulumani, Omasuyos, Larecaja, and Apolobamba;
Santa Cruz, the provinces of Santa Cruz, Mojos, Chiquitos,
Vallegrande, Pampas, and Baures ; Cochabamba contains
Cochabamba, Sacaba, Tapacari, Arque, Palca, Clissa, and
Misque; and the department of Oruro, the provinces of
Paria, Oruro, and Carangas.
Physical The province of Atacama, which belongs geographically
aspect of either to Chili or Peru, forms the only part of Bolivia
e coim— whigh comes into contact with the Pacific Ocean, and is
situated between the Andes and the ocean. It is almost
entirely desert and destitute of population. At its north¬
ern extremity is situated the small port of Cobija, which
has been recently denominated Puerto la Mar, and has ac¬
quired additional importance from its being now the only
avenue by which foreign articles of commerce can enter
the Bolivian republic without the payment of transit du¬
ties ; having obtained peculiar and valuable privileges, as
an encouragement to the introduction of merchandise by
this route, in preference to the more convenient routes by
the Puertos Intermedios, belonging to the republic of Peru.
But the arid nature of the surrounding country, and the
great scarcity of water, must greatly retard its advance¬
ment, as the inhabitants are not only scantily supplied
with this very essential necessary of life, but the mules em¬
ployed in the transportation of goods into the interior are
exposed to great privations and hardships from the want
of water and pasture.
The provinces of Lipez, Porco, Potosi, Chichas, Oruro,
Paria, Carangas, and some others, are very elevated districts,
and principally valuable on account of their mineral riches.
The climate is so cold that scarcely any vegetable produc¬
tions present themselves, except a species of coarse grass,
which serves as pasture to the numerous herds of llamas,
guanacos, alpacas, and vicunas, which abound in these ele¬
vated situations. Cinti, Yamparaes, Tomina, some parts of
Chichas, and other places, enjoy a milder climate, and the
vegetation is more abundant and varied; while from these
the mining districts are principally supplied with provisions
and other necessaries. In the provinces of Chayanta,
Larecaja, Sicasica, Chuquisaca, and other places in the de¬
partment of La Paz, there are also numerous and valuable
mines of gold and silver; but the nature of the country being
more diversified and less elevated in many places, the in¬
habitants are less dependent on the neighbouring provin¬
ces for their supplies. The greater number of the eastern
provinces, which belong to the departments of Cochabamba
and Santa Cruz, are of less elevation, and consequently
possess many of the productions peculiar to tropical regions.
The province of Tarija, which is situated at the south¬
eastern extremity of the department of Chuquisaca, and
which belongs politically to the Argentine republic, forms
geographically a part of the Bolivian republic, and was at
one period claimed and taken possession of by them as
such. This quarter has always been described as possess¬
ing a delightful climate, with a rich and fertile soil.
The greater part of the republic of Bolivia is situated Moun-
in a mountainous and elevated country, more particularly tains,
at its western and central parts; but towards the east
it becomes much less so, and at length terminates in ex¬
tensive plains, which are bounded on the east by the
Brazils. That part of the Andes which is situated in
Bolivia is divided into two separate chains, of great eleva¬
tion, running in a northerly direction, and nearly parallel
to each other. Their separation commences near Potosi,
in the province of Porco, between 19° and 20° of south
u
822 BOLIVIA.
TSolivia. latitude, and they continue apart from each other, form- that of Thibet, which presents only mountain pastures, Bolivia,
s—’-V'w' ing the eastern and western Cordilleras of Bolivia, and ^covered with sheep; while this table-land oi the New
terminate by their union, between 14° and 15° of south World presents towns and populous cities,—affords support
latitude, to the south of the city of Cusco. These lofty to numerous herds of cattle, llamas, gaanacos, and sheep,—•
ranges inclose an extensive valley or table-land, which and is covered with harvests of maize, rye, barley, and
has no visible outlet for the discharge of its waters; in this wheat, at an elevation which has nothing to equal it in
respect resembling the valley of Mexico before the for- any other part of the world. 1 he lake of iiticacaor Chu-
mation of the artificial outlet denominated the Desagua quito, which occupies its northern extremity, is 12,/03
de Huehuetoca. The former, however, greatly exceeds feet above the level of the sea, and its extent is equal
the latter in extent, as well as in elevation. From Carangas to twenty times that of the lake of Geneva, or 448 square
at its southern extremity, in 19° 45', to Lampa, in 15° S., marine leagues. _ It is surrounded by numerous towns and
its extent has been estimated at about 3500 square leagues; villages, with a rich and fertile country, and contains seve-
and the barometrical observations of Mr Pentland give it ral islands, the largest of which is called Titicaca, and
an elevation above the level of the sea, at Oruro, the lowest was long held in great veneration by the Peruvian Indians,
point of observation, of no less than 12,441 feet. The moun- in consequence of its having been the place from whence
tains of the western Cordillera vary in elevation from 13,605 Manco Capac and his consort Manco Oello Huaco, the
feet, which has been observed at El Paso del Alto de los great founders of the empire of the Incas, issued, to spread
Huesos, to that of 18,898 feet, which is attained by the civilization, industry, and good government among the
Cerro de Tacora or Chipicani. In this chain are found surrounding nations ; in memory of whom, and as a testi-
several active volcanoes, amongst which may be enume- mony of gratitude for so many benefits conferred upon
rated those of Shama and of Arequipa, the latter of which the country, the Incas afterwards erected in this island
presents to the observer the most perfect natural cone a magnificent temple to the sun, in which were accumu-
which has yet been observed in any country. The eastern lated great riches in silver and gold, being offerings of the
Cordillera, which is entirely confined to Bolivia, has been Peruvians, all of which were afterwards thrown into the
ascertained, by the trigonometrical observations of the lake, to prevent their falling into the hands of the Spaniards,
same gentleman, to possess an elevation greatly exceed- I his island has in latter times fallen sadly fiom itsfoimer
ino- that of Chimborazo, or of any other mountain in the high destinies; since, during the revolutionary war, it served
New World. Thus he has found that the summit of the the purpose of a secure prison, in which were confined the
Cerro Nevado de Sorata has an elevation of 25,250 feet, patriot prisoners who had had the misfortune to fall into the
and that of the Cerro Nevado de Illimani, situated to the hands of the royalists. The lake of Titicaca is very irre-
eastward of the city of La Paz, an elevation of 24,350 gular in its form, but it has been estimated at about 240
feet above the level of the sea. miles in circumference ; in many places it has a depth of
From that part of the eastern Cordillera which is situated seventy or eighty fathoms, and admits of extensive navi-
between Oruro and La Paz, in about 18° of south latitude, gation for ships and smaller vessels, though not unattend-
there branches offa chain, which proceeds from west to east, ed with danger, as it is subject to sudden storms and vio-
constitutes the mountains of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz lent gusts of wind from the neighbouring mountains. This
de la Sierra, and is called, in the different parts of its course, forms the most elevated scene of navigation perhaps in the
the Cordillera de Chiriguanaes, de los Sauces, and de Yura- universe. This lake communicates with the smaller Jake
carees, each rising to the region of perpetual snow. Their of Paria, situated at the southern extremity of the valley,
eastern declivity is very rapid, and their loftiest summits by means of the Rio Desaguadero, which flows out of the
are situated, not in the centre, but in the northern part lake of Titicaca, and has a breadth of from eighty to a
of the group. This lateral ridge, where it terminates, hundred yards. This river and lake form part of the
forms the point of partition between the basin of the Ama- western boundaries between the republics of Bolivia and
zons and that of the Rio de la Plata. The Cachimayo and Peru. Over this river was formed, in the time of the
the Pilcomayo, which rise between Potosi, Talavera de Incas, a suspension bridge, composed of cables and cords
la Puna, and Chuquisaca, flow to the south-east to unite made of the grass and rushes which grow on its borders;
with the Parana ; while the Parapiti and the Guapey or and the work was constantly renewed from time to time, to
Rio de Misque pour their waters into the Mamori towards obviate the effects of decay, as it constituted the only line
the north-east, and thence into the Amazons. But the of communication between the opposite sides of the valley,
ridge of partition being placed near Chayanta, between These lakes, with the Desaguadero, form the only reci-
19° and 20° south latitude, and south of Misque, Tomina, pients for the water of those rivers and streams which
and Pomabamba, the river Guapey, which flows through arise from the surrounding mountains and enter into this
these provinces, is forced to sweep round the whole group extensive plain, which has no visible outlet, by which any
or chain of Cochabamba in order to reach the plains of the portion of its contents can escape, otherwise than by means
Amazons. From that part where this chain of mountains of evaporation.
closes the ridge of partition of Cochabamba, it proceeds Those rivers which take their rise from the western Rivers,
towards, the north-east to 16° of south latitude, and forms, declivity of the western Cordillera, and flow into the Pa-
by the intersection of two plains slightly inclined, a kind cific, are so inconsiderable in magnitude, and so short in
of wall in the midst of the savannahs, which separates the their course, as scarcely to merit observation, and are
waters of the Guapore, flowing into the Madeira, from those only useful in supplying the means of a partial irrigation
of the Aguapehy and Jauru, tributary streams of the Rio to the arid plains which separate these mountains from the
Paraguay, and thus forms a line of junction between the Pacific. But those numerous rivers taking their origin
lateral Cordillera or counterfort of Cochabamba and the on the eastern declivity of the more elevated or east-
mountains of Brazil. This level strait, which divides the ern Cordillera, which is distinguished in the different parts
sources of the Mamori and the Pilcomayo, and crosses the of its extent, as the Cordillera of La Paz, of Palca, of
provinces of Mojos and Chiquitos, displays bare and grassy Ancuma, and of Pelechuco, present a very different aspect,
steppes, like the plains of Casanare and Buenos Ayres. and are of much greater importance, since they commum-
Lakes. The valley or table-land which is occupied by the lake cate with large navigable rivers, which terminate in the
of Titicaca and the Rio Desaguadero forms the most Atlantic Ocean. ....
elevated table-land in the globe, with the exception of The river Paro or Beni, which takes its origin in the
Bolivia.
Animals.
B O L I V I xV.
823
neighbourhood of the city of La Paz,—and the Guapey,
which arises near Cochabamba, and, sweeping round the.
southern and eastern bases of the Cordillera of Cochabam¬
ba, unites itself to the Mamori,—flow to the north-east to
mingle with the waters of the mighty Maranon or Ama¬
zons; while the Pilcomayo, which arises near Potosi and
Chuquisaca, and the Vermejo, which has its origin in the
valley of Tarija, bend their courses, at a considerable dis¬
tance from each other, to the south-east, until they mingle
their contents with those of the Paraguay, which termi¬
nates in the Rio de la Plata. All these rivers are navigable
throughout their whole extent, until within a very incon¬
siderable distance of the important cities above mentioned ;
and not only afford the most convenient and extensive lines
of river communication with the nations of Europe and all
the countries which border on the Atlantic, but will like¬
wise, in time, by means of steam navigation, open up the
vegetable wealth of the intermediate districts.
The animals which distinguish the more elevated parts
of Bolivia are the guanaco, the llama, the alpaca, and the
vicuna, which are found in great abundance in such si¬
tuations. These animals, in their structure and habits, are
all closely allied to the camel of Africa. Thus, an exami¬
nation of the structure of the stomach shows that they are
capable of existing during a considerable time without any
supply of water, and in fact they are seldom seen to drink
from the streams of their native mountains. The camel
seems peculiarly well calculated to live in the arid and
burning deserts of the Old World, and the form of its feet
is singularly adapted for traversing rapidly these exten¬
sive plains; whilst, on the other hand, the guanaco and
the llama have their feet so constructed as to enable them
with facility to ascend and descend the abrupt declivities,
and to traverse the rugged and uneven passes, which
abound in these mountains. They seem likewire to fre¬
quent particularly those parts of the Cordillera of the An¬
des which are the most dry and arid, and which are least
clothed with dense forests and shrubbery. Thus, in the
Cordillera which separates the Argentine republic from
Chili, the guanacos are found in great numbers on the
summits and eastern declivities, which are exceedingly
arid and bare, when compared with the western or Chili
side, where the Andes in their whole extent are clothed
to a certain elevation with a broad belt of forest trees and
evergreens, and where, at certain seasons of the year, there
are heavy and continued rains. On this side the guanaco
is of comparatively rare occurrence.
There has existed considerable diversity of opinion
among naturalists whether the guanaco, llama, alpaca, and
vicuna, are different, or only the same species: but it is
now the prevailing opinion that they comprise two distinct
species, the three former constituting one, the Camelus
Llama of Linnaeus, or Auchenia Glama of Iliiger; and that
the differences which have been observed are only the
results of domestication,—the gwarcaco being the animal in
its wild or native state, the llama the same animal after it
has been modified by a long period of domestication, and the
alpaca only differing from the llama in being covered with
a more abundant fleece, and kept in flocks for the sake of
the wool. The subject, however, of the identity of these
animals requires some further investigation, as it has been
asserted that the distinctive types of the different kinds may
yet be discovered in a wild state. In their natural state, the
guanacos.we found in numerous herds on the more elevated
parts of the Andes, Peru, and Bolivia, and of the Cordillera
which separates Chili from the Argentine provinces, and
extend even a great way along that chain as it approaches
the Strait of Magalhaens, having been met with in consider¬
able numbers, according to the testimony of Captain King,
in various parts of the islands composing Tierra del Fuego,
at a distance of only fifty miles from Cape Horn. They
are likewise found in the Andes of Colombia or New Gre¬
nada, but are there much less numerous. In the summer
they usually frequent the most elevated parts of the moun¬
tains ; but on the approach of winter, the snow and the in¬
clemency of the season obliges them to seek shelter in the
valleys and plains below. They are then in high condi¬
tion, and at this season are most prized by the hunters.
The young of the guanaco are easily tamed, and soon be¬
come remarkably gentle and attached to their keepers.
These were the only ruminating animals found in South
America on its discovery by the Spaniards ; and the llamas
were then extensively employed as beasts of burthen by
the Peruvian Indians;—a custom which is still continued
to a considerable extent, in consequence of the greater
facility and economy in feeding them. But, in many in¬
stances, the introduction of horses and mules has entirely
superseded the use of them. They are capable of carry¬
ing a load of from 100 to 150 lbs., which they convey, at
the rate of fifteen, and sometimes even of twenty, miles a
day, over rocks and precipices where their attendants can
sometimes with difficulty follow them; and they require
very little care to direct them in their course. The larger
species are capable of carryingafull-grown man, and will trot
or run under him with great swiftness for several miles. The
chief merit of the llama, x\es.t to its being sure-footed, seems
to be its extreme docility, and the trifling expense of its
maintenance. “ They want neither bit, bridle, nor saddle,”
saysFeuillee; “there is no need of oats to feed them; it is only
necessary to unload them in the evening at the place where
they are to rest for the night; they go abroad into the
country to seek their own food, and in the morning they
return to the same place; their baggage is replaced, and
they continue their route.” Their defects are, their com¬
parative weakness, their slow rate of travelling, and their
obstinacy. If their load is too heavy, if they are fatigued,
or are urged forward too fast, they lie down and refuse to
proceed. It is therefore requisite to have a number of
spare llamas in readiness to supply the places of such as
are fatigued or give in; for after four or five days’ travelling
they general!}' require to rest.
The guanaco, and the llama, which is considered as of the
same species, but only in a domestic state, are exceedingly
graceful and handsome animals; and their whole physiogno¬
my indicates vivacity and intelligence. They usually march
two and two when in troops, in a stately manner, with their
heads erect; and it is a remarkable circumstance, that the
llamas, in passing underneath an archway to which they
are unaccustomed, alwyays bow' their heads, however high
the arch may be. In their wild state, when disturbed by
the approach of strangers, these animals seem to possess
a considerable degree of curiosity, placing themselves on
the summits of the neighbouring mountains, and gazing
upon the intruders beneath, occasionally uttering a pecu¬
liar interrupted cry, after which they scamper off’ to a dis¬
tance. They are remarkably gregarious, and may some¬
times be seen in herds of from 300 to 500; and when dis¬
turbed, or when travelling in the mountains, they constant¬
ly follow a leader—a circumstance of which the hunters
who lie in wait for them frequently take advantage. The
llamas are so exceedingly tame and gentle in their man¬
ners, that in passing along the streets or roads they oc¬
casionally approach their heads towards the bystanders,
as if requesting corn or some other article of food : when
irritated, however, the guanaco, in its tame state, as well
as the llama, squirts on the aggressor some saliva from a
cleft in the upper lip; but our own experience has proved
to us that this saliva is quite destitute of that acrid quality
which some have attributed to it. On the arrival of the
Spaniards in Peru these animals were killed in vast num-
Bolivia.
824 B O L 1
Bolivia, bers for their flesh and skins. Gregorio de Bolivar esti-
mates, that in his time 4,000,000 were annually killed to
be eaten, and no less than 300,000 llamas were employed
in the transport of the ores from the mines of Potosi alone.
Even at the present day the guanaco or wild species ex¬
ists in great numbers in those parts of the Andes which
are least frequented ; yet many are still annually destroyed
and eaten by the Indians, and also by the puma or Ameri¬
can lion, which is found in many parts of these mountains.
' Their flesh is savoury when young, but not very palat¬
able when full grown; their wool, however, is very valu¬
able to the Indians, who manufacture it into hats and
various kinds of woollen stuffs; and their skins, when
tanned, are useful in making shoes and harness.
The vicuna ( Camelus Vicugna) is a smaller animal than
the guanaco or llama, and only useful for its fleece. 1 he
wool is long and fine, and forms a valuable article of com¬
merce ; it is of a brownish colour, somewhat resembling
that of a dried rose leaf; it has a soft, silky, and close
texture, and is well calculated for the manufacture of hats
and warm clothing. The vicuna very much resembles the
llama and guanaco in its habits and dispositions, but can¬
not be usefully employed as a beast of burthen. It usually
frequents the highest parts of the mountains, even where
frost and snow prevail. It is extremely timid, but grega¬
rious, and runs very swiftly. The chinchilla (Chinchilla
lanigera) is also an inhabitant of the mountainous parts of
Bolivia. The skins, however, are of an inferior quality, al¬
though larger than those obtained from the northern parts
of Chili; but still they form a very valuable article of com¬
merce, on account of the great fineness and delicacy of
their furs. The eastern or more thickly wooded parts of
Bolivia are inhabited by a variety of wild animals, which
are more or less common in Brazil, and the other parts of
intertropical America of inconsiderable elevation.
Vcgefca- The vegetation of Bolivia is exceedingly various, de¬
lion- pending principally upon the elevation of the district above
the level of the sea. In many situations the mountains
are covered with perennial snows, below which level we
find those extensive plains or paramos, on the less ele¬
vated parts of which are situated the cities of Potosi,
Oruro, and other towns in the district of Charcas. On
these vegetation is very slight and scanty, consisting prin¬
cipally of a coarse wiry grass called ichu, and rushes,
which only serve the purpose of food for the llamas, gua-
nacos, alpacas, and vicunas, which abound there ; and du¬
ring long journeys, as from Oruro to La Paz, scarcely a
tree is to be seen. In the more sheltered spots may be
found some stunted bushes of the carob tree, and another
shrub called tola. Several species of the cactus tribe are
also found in these elevated regions, and especially the
Cactus Peruvianus, so general an inhabitant of South
America, where it sometimes grows to the height of from
twenty to thirty, or even forty feet, and is either in sin¬
gle stems or variously branched. It is used in many
parts of Bolivia as a fence for inclosures; and the stems,
when divested of their spines, are employed in the forma¬
tion of rafters and door-posts for houses. Descending in
level, as on the margins of the lake of Titicaca and at La
Paz, the vegetation becomes more vigorous and varied, and
the plains may be seen covered with abundant crops of
grain; while in the neighbourhood of La Paz is cultivated
to a great extent the coca plant (Erythroxylum Coca), in
such general use, and so essential an article with the In¬
dians, that its culture in the province of La Paz is pro¬
ductive of great wealth to the inhabitants of that part of
the country. It is used by them as a masticatory in com¬
bination with a particular alkaline substance, called llipta,
and on long and painful journeys serves the Indian in lieu
of all other nourishment. In the neighbourhood of Chu-
Y l A.
quisaca and Cochabamba, which have respectively an ele- Bolivia,
vation of 9331 and 8448 feet above the level of the sea,
and in numerous other valleys, the vegetation is so rich
and luxuriant, that they are considered as the gardens of
Bolivia, and supply the more elevated mining districts
with a great part of those necessaries and luxuries of life
which their more rigorous climate denies them. As the
country descends towards the east, the sides of the moun¬
tains become clothed with dense forests, and at length
present all the exuberant richness and variety which cha¬
racterize the vegetation of level districts within the tropics.
The geological structure of the colossal mountains situ-Geology,
ated in Bolivia has hitherto been very imperfectly exa¬
mined. We learn from Humboldt, however, that the me¬
talliferous mountains near Potosi are principally composed
of trachytic porphyries; and Mr Pentland likewise disco¬
vered trachyte in the mountain of Pichu, one of the most
elevated of the western Cordillera. In the same chain
there likewise exist various volcanic mountains, some of
which are in an active state. There is perhaps no part of
the world which affords a more interesting field for the in¬
vestigations of industrious and intelligent geologists than
Bolivia, not only on account of the great elevation which
it attains, but also from the exhibitions of internal struc¬
ture presented by volcanic agency and otherwise; while
powerful aid might be afforded by such inquiries in search¬
ing for mines, and in the prosecution of mining enterprises,
and also in discovering beds of coal and other important
auxiliaries, tending to lessen the difficulty and expense of
such undertakings.
The great variety, extent, and value, of the mineral Minerals,
productions of the mountainous districts of Bolivia have
given to this part of America an importance and celebrity
which it would not otherwise have obtained, and caused
large and populous cities and towns to be built at eleva¬
tions where the rigours of the climate and the deficient ve¬
getation would otherwise have afforded very few induce¬
ments for fixing the abodes of industry.
Gold is found in considerable quantities in the moun-Gold.
tainous parts of Bolivia; but, owing to the expense of ex¬
tracting the metal from the ore, the mines which produce
it have not been worked to the extent of which they are
susceptible. In these it is usually found in the form of
grains or nodules, or intermixed with antimony, silver, and
other substances, and is separated by reducing the whole
to a fine powder, and by amalgamation with quicksilver.
The colossal mountain of Illimani is believed to contain
great quantities of gold, in consequence of that metal having
been found in a native state in considerable quantities in
the lake of Illimani, situated at its base, and at an eleva¬
tion of 15,780 feet above the level of the sea. In the seven¬
teenth century, likewise, an Indian found near its base,
at a short distance from the city of La Paz, a mass of native
gold, which was said to have been detached from the moun¬
tain by the agency of lightning, and which, having been
purchased for the sum of 11,269 dollars, was afterwards
deposited in the cabinet of natural history at Madrid.
But by far the greater part of the gold procured in Bo¬
livia is obtained by means of the lavaderos or gold wash¬
ings, in the beds of rivulets, where it is found in the form
of grains. The most productive of these are the cele¬
brated lavaderos of Tipuani, consisting of streams de¬
scending from the snow-capped summits of the Cordillera
of Ancuma, situated about sixty leagues to the north-east
of the city of La Paz, in the province of Larecaja. Ihe
town of Zorata, which is the great resort of the miners
and all others who are attracted by these gold washings,
is at a considerable distance, and is reached by a road
full of difficulties and dangers. The eastern sides of the
mountains, when contrasted with the western declivities,
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia.
Silver.
looking towards the lake of Titicaca, present a rich and vi¬
gorous vegetation, and the climate becomes sensibly milder
as we descend. The waters rush with impetuosity from
these lofty mountains, and, accumulating greatly in their
progress, at the distance of fifteen miles from the summit
called Amicarpa, form the river Tipuani, which runs with
great rapidity, and, passing between two lofty mountains,
emerges, after a course of about forty miles, near the vil¬
lage of Tipuani, where it loses its former rapidity, the
country now consisting of only gentle undulations. This
river terminates in the Beni, one of the tributaries of the
Amazons ; but before reaching the Beni its channel ceases
to be productive of gold. From its inconsiderable eleva¬
tion, the country where these lavaderos are situated is
hot and moist, and subject to intermittents. The sur¬
rounding country is covered with a very luxuriant vegeta¬
tion, and teems with all the animal and vegetable produc¬
tions of tropical America.
The gold is found in the form of grains or pepitas, at
the depth of ten or twelve yards below the surface, im¬
bedded in a stratum of clay of several feet in thickness,
and has the purity of 231 quilates. All the operations are
performed by manual labour, and the excavations are kept
free from water by means of buckets, at an expense of
labour wrhich might easily be saved by the employment
of pumps and other mechanical contrivances. An idea may
be formed of the disadvantages of pursuing such a course
by stating, that at the works of Isola alone, in the years
1819, 1820, and 1821, no less than from 300 to 400 la¬
bourers were constantly employed in emptying the water
by means of hide buckets; yet the gold-washings were
so productive as not only to cover the heavy expense thus
incurred, but greatly to benefit the proprietor. The gold-
washings at Tipuani were worked in the time of the Pe¬
ruvian Incas, as is evinced by their tools, which are occa¬
sionally found imbedded in the alluvial soil, and almost in¬
variably in such situations as prove the most productive.
Silver, however, has hitherto been the staple metallic
production of Bolivia, and has given to it that celebrity
which it has long possessed. In the rich mountain of
Potosi alone, according to the records kept at Potosi of the
quintas or royal duties from the year 1545 to the year 1800,
no less than 823,950,509 dollars were coined during that
period; and if to this be added the amount of the preced¬
ing years, not included, and that obtained in a clandestine
manner, without the payment of the customary dues, not
less than 1,647,901,018 dollars have been obtained from
this source alone in the space of 255 years.
The Cerro de Potosi, or argentiferous mountain of
Potosi, has somewhat of a conical form, resembling a
colossal sugar-loaf; its base being about three leagues in
circumference, and its summit 16,037 feet above the level
of the sea, and 2723 above the level of the great square
or plaza of the city of Potosi, which is situated at its
base. At the foot of the cerro is a smaller mountain
called Huayna Potosi, or the Younger Potosi, likewise
containing silver, but in less abundance than the other,
and less accessible, from the numerous springs which there
impede the operations of mining. The principal moun¬
tain has been worked as high up as within 125 feet of
its summit. The labours of the miners have hitherto
been principally confined to the upper half of the moun¬
tain, which has been perforated by numerous excavations,
with at least 5000 bacas minus, or opening of mines. This
number, however, does not indicate the existence of so
many mines, since each mine has often two or more open¬
ings. These operations have not been conducted with
any regard to order or convenience. The upper part of
the mountain is exhausted to a considerable extent of
its valuable contents ; but the lower part is still in a great
VOL. IV.
825
measure untouched, as the springs are there more nume- Bolivia.
ious, and the water accumulates in such quantities as
materially to interrupt the further progress of the miners.
Various works have been commenced and prosecuted, for
carrying off these waters from the lower part of the moun¬
tain, but none of them have ever been carried to such an
extent as fully to answer the purpose of their formation.
The most extensive of these has been the Socabon or adit
of San Juan Nepomuceno, in the formation of which the
Spanish government expended no less a sum than 560,243
dollars. It is 2200 varas or yards in extent, six feet in
height, and six in breadth at the base, and it is arched
and lined with rough stones without cement. In various
parts of the country near the mountain are numerous lakes
or pools formed from the water of these springs and other
sources in the mountains, which, being economized, give
motion to the machinery employed in reducing the ore.
The mines of Potosi, according to Humboldt, rank next
in importance to those of Guanaxuato in Mexico. The
existence of silver in this place was first accidentally
discovered by an Indian in the year 1545, and ever since
that time its mines have been worked. A few years
prior to the commencement of the revolution it was
worked to a considerable extent, and no less than 40
ingenios or mills for grinding ore were in full operation;
but the events which followed proved most destructive,
not only to the machinery employed, but likewise to
the capital embarked in mining operations. From fifty
to sixty bocas minus were worked in 1825, when General
Miller became prefect of the department; but Temple,
when he visited it soon afterwards, found only about fif¬
teen ingenios at work, affording on an average 1500 merks
of silver weekly, or about L.125,000 sterling per annum.
Pazo, in his Letters on South America, on visiting the
mountain of Potosi, thus expresses himself: “ The subli¬
mity of the surrounding scenery did not so much inte¬
rest my feelings as the celebrated mountain which has
poured forth its lavas of silver upon the world, to ani¬
mate enterprise and reward industry; to pamper the
luxurious, and minister to the comforts of the sober and
virtuous; to disseminate knowledge and religion, and to
spread the desolations of war, marshalling armies in the
field, and pointing the thunder of navies on the ocean;
filling cities with monuments of taste and art, and over¬
whelming them with ruin ; founding mighty empires, and
levelling them with the dust; inciting, in short, to virtue
and to crime, and being the source of much good, and the
root of great evil, in the world.”
The silver mines of Portugalete, in the province of Chi-
chas, have acquired considerable celebrity on account of
the richness as well as quantity of their ores, which yield
from 60 to 80 merks of silver to the caxon, while those of Po¬
tosi only afford about 10 merks from the same quantity of ore.
Ihe silver mines of Choromo, near Tupiza, in the pro¬
vince of Chichas, were worked, until lately, on account of
General Olaneta, the proprietor, and were considered
as productive. Besides these there are various other sil¬
ver mines in the province of Chichas, but their value is
much diminished by the scarcity of water, and their being
situated in an almost desert and unproductive country. At
La Plata, Porco, and Lipes, there exist silver mines, espe¬
cially one in the latter province, celebrated for the purity of
its ores, which were formerly in great repute, but since
eclipsed by the more important ones of Potosi and of other
places. In Carangas there are rich mines, where the silver
is found in its metallic state, disseminated in the rock, a
kind of ore which is considered as very productive. At
Oruro the silver mines were formerly very rich and pro •
ductive, as the opulence of its inhabitants, of which there
are some remarkable instances on record, sufficiently
5 m
8*26
B O L I V I A.
Bolivia, evinced ; but these, as well as the celebrated tin mines of
the same place, have fallen into decay, principally in con¬
sequence of the disastrous events which attended the insur¬
rection of Tupac Amaru. They are now filled with water,
and the inhabitants being deficient in the requisite ma¬
chinery, have no means of emptying them. Besides those
already enumerated, many other gold and silver mines
were worked to advantage ; but in consequence of the di¬
minished confidence and capital resulting from the long
and disastrous war of independence, they have latterly
been neglected.
Timber or coal for smelting is a great desideratum in
Potosi and others mining districts, as, from the nature
of the ores, in which the silver is principally associated
with copper and lead, they are unsuited for the process of
amalgamation, and can only be properly extracted by fu¬
sion, by which means the copper and lead are also pre¬
served. The loss of mercury, in extracting the silver by
the process of amalgamation from the ores produced in
the mines of Bolivia and Peru, is from 15 to 25 per cent,
on the value of the silver produced; while, by the process
of smelting, all the silver might be obtained at an eighth
part of the expense, in a tenth part of the time, and with
infinitely less labour, and great quantities of lead and
copper at the same time preserved.
The methods hitherto employed for the reduction of the
silver ores of this country are exceedingly imperfect and
inefficient; the manipulations are tedious, operose, and
expensive; and a considerable proportion of the silver is
entirely lost in its extraction by means of amalgamation,
while much of the mercury is also unnecessarily wasted.
But great advantages may be expected to arise from the
introduction of improved methods of mining and metal¬
lurgy. These mines can never be worked to advantage
in the manner which has of late been so generally fol¬
lowed. More skill and capital are requisite to render
them productive and remunerating. . .
Roads. The roads which form the means of communication
between Bolivia and the surrounding countries, and be¬
tween the various provinces of the same republic, are. in
no respect commensurate to the important purposes which
they are destined to serve. By inattention to the for¬
mation and preservation of roads, the Spaniards and their
descendants have fallen greatly behind the Peruvians,
whose industry and civilization they affected to despise,
and laboured hard to depreciate. We have the testimony
of a late observer, that the most distinct traces of an
ancient Peruvian road may be observed at the present
day as far south as the valley of Uspallata, in 32 degrees
of south latitude; and there is little doubt that it was
continuous with that formed between Potosi and Cuzco,
since the inhabitants of the provinces of Mendoza, San
Juan, and La Itioja, which are situated along the eastern
base of the Cordillera of the Andes, separating Chili from
the Argentine provinces, are in the constant practice of
conveying to the upper provinces of Peru their wines,
brandies, dried fruits, and mules, by this mountain route,
which is distinguished by the name of El Despoblado.
Those persons who are in the habit of travelling by this
route describe it as by no means difficult, since, with
only occasional interruptions, it proceeds along longi¬
tudinal valleys, running north and south in a direction
parallel with the Cordillera; and it has been remaiked
by Andrews, a recent traveller in Bolivia, that there is
another road distinct from that by Jujuy, which might
easily be made passable for carriages, from Salta to iu-
piza and Potosi, and even to Cuzco, and which is only dis¬
tant twelve leagues from the one presently in use between
Potosi and Jujuy,—a miserable tract, incapable of being
passed except on mules and horses, and in many places
not only difficult, but dangerous. The present route, for ^ Bolivia
it can scarcely be designated by the name of road, from
Potosi to Jujuy, the first city belonging to the Argentine
republic, is about 310 miles in length ; and this place forms
the point where a road commences for carriages and wag¬
gons as f ar as Buenos Ayres, an additional extent of land
carriage of about 1617 geographical miles. Ihe various
routes from Bolivia to the coast of the Pacific, by the way
of Cobija or Puerto Lamar, Tarapaca, by Oruro to Tacna
and Arequipa, can only be passed on mules or horseback ;
and travellers are sometimes exposed to great perils and
hardships from exposure to those storms which occasion¬
ally prevail at such great elevations. The President Bal-
livian, however, while in office, did much to obviate these
difficulties, and initiated a new era of things by the con¬
struction of a splendid highway, which leads from Sucre,
and passing Santa Cruz connects Moxos and Chiquitos and
the fertile plains of the Beni and Madera. Other roads of equal
magnitude and importance are now in course of formation.
The climate of Bolivia is exceedingly various, being Climate,
principally dependent upon the propoi tional elevation of
the district above the level of the sea. In some parts the
mountains are covered with eternal snows, below which
are extensive plains or paramos destitute of vegetation,
where the climate is cold and rigorous. Here travellers are
frequently exposed to great danger and hardship, owing to
the storms that occasionally prevail, especially snow storms,
which, besides other inconveniences, frequently produce the
surumpi or snow blindness, an affection which has pioved
fatal to some travellers, and to many of the brave and ener¬
getic men employed in the late eventful struggle for inde¬
pendence. On the less elevated of these plains are situated
the cities of Potosi, Oruro, and others. The climate of Po¬
tosi, at an elevation of from 13,314 to 13,668 feet, is dis¬
agreeable, and so various that in one day it frequently ex¬
inbits the vicissitudes of the four seasons of the year. Thus,
during the night and the early part of the morning it is
piercingly cold ; in the forenoon it resembles our fine wea¬
ther in March ; in the afternoon the rays of the sun, in so
pure and attenuated an atmosphere, are very powerful, and
scorchingly hot; while towards evening the air usually
becomes mild and serene. Europeans and the Creoles
therefore require to be well clothed ; but the Indians, who
are inured to the climate from early infancy, seem less
susceptible of its effects, and enjoy good health with in¬
ferior clothing. Strangers, on first arriving in this coun¬
try, are usually affected with difficulty of breathing, owing
to the extreme rarity of the atmosphere.; they are like¬
wise frequent sufferers from dysentery, which, however, for
the most part soon disappears, and then they enjoy tole¬
rably good health. Here no inconvenience is experienced
from troublesome insects. The climate of Oruro, which
has an elevation of 12,441 feet above the level of the sea,
is likewise cold, but by no means unhealthy. From its
sheltered situation, the city of La Paz, at an elevation o
12,195 feet, enjoys a mild and pleasant climate ; but that of
Chuquisaca, with 9331, and Cochabamba, with 8448 feet
of elevation, are universally admitted to be the most de¬
licious and agreeable places in Bolivia. In descending
through the eastern provinces, towards the plains of Mojos
and Chiquitos, are experienced all the gradations of cli¬
mate, from the mildness of Chuquisaca to the temperature
which characterizes the equinoctial regions of America,
where intermittent fevers, dysenteries, and other diseases
peculiar to warm climates, are found to prevail. .
The only productions hitherto furnished by Bolivia, as Commerce,
articles of commerce have been the precious metals, which
were exchanged for various articles of luxury and neces¬
sity. The rude and simple fabrics manufactured by the
Peruvian Indians are usually appropriated to their own
B O L
Bolivia.^ domestic uses; while the valuable vegetable productions,
and the herds of cattle and mules, which are reared in the
eastern parts of the republic, have hitherto scarcely been
sufficient for the supply of the inhabitants of those po¬
pulous mining districts, that are principally dependent
on them for subsistence. Coca to the value of 200,000
dollars is annually exported from La Paz to other parts of
Bolivia and Peru.
Before the revolution a very extensive traffic was main¬
tained between the upper provinces of Peru and the pro¬
vinces of the Rio de la Plata, for supplies of cattle and
mules. These were reared in great numbers in all the in¬
terior Argentine provinces, expressly for the use of those
countries, and were first sent by easy journeys to the
luxuriant pastures of Salta and Jujuy, where they were
carefully fed and tended during the winter, previous to their
being conveyed to their final destination in Bolivia and Peru.
Some idea may be formed of the extent of this traffic by
stating, that besides all those furnished by the other Ar¬
gentine provinces, the province of Salta alone supplied an¬
nually to Upper and Lower Peru from 60,000 to 80,000
mules, on all of which they realized considerable profits, the
prices beingproportioned to the distance to which they were
conveyed. The war of independence, which has so greatly
desolated the northern provinces of the Riode la Plata, and
the diminished working of the mines of Bolivia, have al¬
most annihilated this lucrative traffic; but it may be expect¬
ed to revive with increasing vigour on their again resuming
their former habits of tranquillity, and becoming stimu¬
lated to increased exertion, by the accession of laborious
and intelligent Europeans, and by the spread of education
and intelligence.
By the route of Cordova, Tucuman, and Salta, the pro¬
vinces of Upper Peru or Bolivia formerly received their
supplies of articles of commerce from Europe, which were
landed at Buenos Ayres; and by the same channel they
likewise obtained large supplies of Yerba or Paraguay tea,
to the great amount, it is affirmed, of 100,000 arrobas,
or about 2,500,000 pounds annually, which had been pre¬
viously conveyed by water from Paraguay to Buenos
Ayres, and from thence by waggons and mules to Jujuy
and Bolivia; thus enhancing its value by a circuitous and
expensive land-carriage of from 2000 to 3000 miles, while
by a more improved system of conveyance it might be sent
by the rivers Vermejo and Pilcomayo into the heart of
Bolivia, at a vast saving of trouble and expense. The
large amount of goods sent from Buenos Ayres by wag¬
gons to Jujuy tended greatly to enrich the various pro¬
vinces through which they passed, giving employment to
numbers of the inhabitants ; and Jujuy, which formed the
most distant point that could be reached by waggons or
carriages, became a place of considerable importance, form-
ingthe entrepot of the commerce of Peru and the Argentine
provinces. From this place the various articles of commerce
were conveyed on mules to their ulterior destination.
The new order of affairs consequent on the revolution
has necessarily produced important changes in this branch
of commerce, and Bolivia has in a great measure ceased to
receive her supplies of foreign commodities by this ex¬
pensive route. Commerce, where unrestricted, always
finds out the shortest and least expensive channels for
the introduction of its commodities. The trade is now
in a great degree diverted to the ports of the Pacific,
called the Puertos Intermedios. Tacna and Arequipa,
with their respective ports, have now become the princi¬
pal channels through which Bolivia receives the produce
and manufactures of other countries. How far the Bolivian
government has succeeded in making Cobija or Puerto
la Mar of that exclusive commercial importance which
it contemplated, remains yet to be ascertained. Nature
L V I A. 827
presents great obstacles to the success of the undertak- Bolivia,
ing, which is certainly a most praiseworthy one; while
all the rest of the coast, in which are situated the Puertos
Intermedios, forms part of the republic of Peru, to which,
therefore, they must necessarily pay transit duties. A
new and very important channel of communication for
commerce will be opened between Bolivia and the At¬
lantic, whenever commercial enterprise and increasing ci¬
vilization shall have established steam navigation on the
Rio de la Plata and its tributary streams, the Vermejo and
Pilcomayo, and from the mouth of the Amazons to its dis¬
tant tributaries the Beni and the Mamori.
By a decree of the republican government of Peru,
dated 22d February 1831, the following judicious regu¬
lations have been established for settling the commercial
relations of that state with the republic of Bolivia:—
1. The productions of the territory of the Bolivian re¬
public, introduced into Peru for its consumption, shall be
subject to an import duty of four per cent, on their valu¬
ation. 2. Those productions of Bolivia which only pass
through the territory of Peru for embarkation from its
ports, shall only be subjected to a transit duty of two per
cent. 3. Silver and gold, either coined or otherwise, in¬
troduced from Bolivia into Peru, shall be exempted from
any duties. 4. All foreign articles of commerce passing
through the territory of Peru, and destined for Bolivia,
shall only be subjected to the payment of two per cent.
ad valorem ; and the decree of 22d January 1830, which
imposed transit duties of from fifteen to forty-five per
cent, on such commodities, has been repealed. 5. All
articles of foreign commerce which are exempted from
the payment of duties on their introduction into Peru,
such as books, quicksilver, iron, machinery. &c., shall like¬
wise be exempted from the payment of any transit du¬
ties on passing into Bolivia; and the decree of 5th March
1830, imposing a transit duty on such articles of fifteen
per cent, has been repealed.
The population of Bolivia has been variously estimated. Population
By some authorities it has been computed at little more
than half a million ; by others, Berghaus in the number, at
considerably more than two millions. No means existed,
however, by which even an approximate correctness could
be attained until in the year 1845 the existing government
determined to take the census. It was then ascertained
that Chuquisaca or Sucre, the capital and seat of govern¬
ment, contained only 20,000 ; Cinti, 15,000 ; the city of
La Paz, 57,000; Lorata, 12,000; and Cochabamba, 30,000.
In the western districts of the republic the towns and cities
are even more thinly peopled. Atacama contains 1000
inhabitants; and Cobija or Puerto la Mar, the only sea¬
port of the state, despite the efforts of the government
to attract to it all the foreign commerce of Bolivia, has
a resident population of only 500 souls. The exports of
copper and the guano trade have of late years elicited
some symptoms of vitality in these desolate regions, and
Cobija is one of the few towns in the Bolivian republic
whose population exhibits a tendency to increase. Its
prosperity, however, is in the meantime seriously re¬
tarded by the proximity of Arica, a seaport of Peru,
situated much nearer the productive districts of Bolivia,
and in a region infinitely more fertile than that which
surrounds Cobija. In 1562 a royal mint was established in
Potosi, and the population of that city, formerly insignifi¬
cant, increased with such rapidity that in the year 1611
it amounted to more than 160,000. At the end of the
seventeenth century, however, the silver-mines in the
neighbourhood ceased to yield the enormous returns which
had once attracted adventurers from every quarter of the
earth, and from that date the population of Potosi gradu¬
ally declined. When the census was taken by govern-
Indians.
BOLIVIA.
ment in the year 1845, it was found to amount to no more
than 42,000.
The subjoined tables are compiled from the statistical
returns made to the Bolivian government in the year 1845.
It has been deemed advisable to append the names, of the
provinces, and the numbers of the cantons into which the
departments have been respectively divided.
Department of Charcas La Plata, or Chuquisaca, now
called Sucre.
Provinces.
Chuquisaca
Cinti 
Yam pares
Tomina ...
Oruro 
Carancas...
No. of Cantons.
6
8
Population.
110,000
Department of Potosi.
Potosi  
Atacama  
Lipes  
Porco  
Chayantas  
Tarrija or Chicas.
5
6
3
26
19
7
265,527
Department of La Paz.
Pacajes    17
Sicasica   16
Chulumani 20 I 573,930
Omasuyas   ^4
Laricajas   9
Apolobamba   6
Department of La Cochabamba.
Cochabamba   4
Clisa   8
Tapacari  9
Arque  7
Oyapaya  7
Misque  7
488,947
Department of Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
Santa Cruz de la Sierra  6 j
Valle Grande  6 |
Moxos   4
Chiquitos   10
Cordillera   4
71,952
The sum-total of the population of Bolivia according to
these returns is 1,510,406. The literal accuracy of this
estimate, however, is hardly to be depended upon, as the
condition of the country has until recently been such as to
afford few facilities for the correct investigation of many im¬
portant points in its social economy.
The civilized Indians inhabiting Bolivia, and descen¬
dants of the Peruvians under the empire of the Incas, are
still numerous, notwithstanding the many causes which
have so much tended to diminish their numbers, and form
a distinct and peculiar race, preserving the language, the
manners, and even the dress of their ancestors ; their habits
having been only somewhat modified by the peculiar cir¬
cumstances and situation in which they have been placed
since they came under the dominion of the Spaniards.
They are naturally mild and passive, and seemingly a
subdued and apathetic race; but these qualities are the
natural result of that state of subjection and debasement
in which they have so long been held by their merciless
conquerors; and, under every disadvantage, they still
possess a latent energy, which was fearfully exemplified Bolivia,
in the insurrection under Tupac Amaru, during which
great numbers of them perished, the victims of their pa¬
triotism. Their defects originate from extraneous causes ;
their virtues are their own; and, with the exception already
mentioned, they are generally unstained by those great
moral crimes which prevail in more civilized countries, and
require the strong arm of the law to repress them. The
plaintive ditties, ox yaravis, in their sweet and melancholy
tones, evince the prevailing feelings which animate them,
and are highly characteristic of the race. They possess
considerable intellectual talents and capabilities, and are
exceedingly sensible of kindness and justice; to which,
however, they have long been strangers. Any attempt at
dictation, or an imperious behaviour, on the part of their su¬
periors or strangers, always produces an opposite effect
to that desired, and they become stubborn and reserved;
but when treated with mildness, they usually relax from
their accustomed apathy, and often evince to strangers,
when in sickness or distress, proofs of the most genuine
humanity and hospitality. This was experienced, in a
remarkable manner, by General Miller, during his ad¬
ministration of the department of Potosi, where, by his
just and benevolent demeanour towards them, he so
completely won their confidence and good-will, that his
name is still a sufficient passport with the whole nation.
With their great numbers, the union of purpose they
still exhibit, and the energy of which they are capable,
it will require much tact and discernment on the part of
the new republican government to prevent their eventually
obtaining a powerful, perhaps injurious, ascendency in
the country. By the judicious and excellent regulations
established by the distinguished individuals into whose
hands the charge of first organising the Bolivian admi¬
nistration devolved, all those odious and oppressive distinc¬
tions which had so long depressed the native energies of
the Peruvian Indians have been for ever abolished, and
in point of legal rights they have been placed on the most
perfect equality with the other portions of the community.
But new laws are often very inefficient when opposed by
long-continued customs and inveterate prejudices; and the
Indians of Bolivia are still in too many instances subjected
to acts of oppression and injustice on the part of their more
fortunate fellow-citizens. These occurrences, however,
may be expected to diminish in frequency and extent, as
education prevails and intelligence extends its beneficial
influence over the country.
The Bolivian Indians are very industrious. The men at¬
tend their flocks and herds, and cultivate the land accord¬
ing to their rude and primitive modes of husbandry; while
the women are usually employed in spinning, knitting, and^
weaving coarse fabrics, in the laborious occupation of
pounding maize in a rude mortar, and in other domestic
occupations. They live principally on vegetable food, espe¬
cially maize and potatoes; but indulge freely in their fa¬
vourite chicha, an intoxicating liquor, which they prepare >
from maize. They are apparently contented and happy,
mild and submissive in their manners, and particularly
amenable to those placed in authority over them, especially
when caciques of their own nation, who in fact commonly
hold the situation of alcalde in the Indian villages, and
carry a gold-headed cane as their badge of office. By ap¬
pealing to the people through these alcaldes, travellers will
generally have their wants supplied in a manner which, un¬
der different circumstances, money could not provide for
them. The Indians are very superstitious, and scrupulously
devout in the performance of their religious duties.
They are generally of small stature, and resemble Ma¬
lays in their physiognomy. They are robust and muscular,
and are capable of undergoing great fatigue when travelling
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia.
Religion.
on foot. Thus the postilions who usually accompany per-
sons travelling on mules are frequently in advance, although
they proceed on foot; and they perform long and toilsome
pedestrian journeys of from twenty to thirty leagues a-day,
with scarcely any other sustenance than a portion of the
leaves of the coca plant, which they masticate in combina¬
tion with the llipta, an alkaline substance prepared for the
express purpose, and with a little roasted maize. From this
custom of habitually travelling on foot, they are equal to
undertakings which no other persons in South America can
accomplish. 1 hey travel at a trot, take short steps, and
keep their feet close to the ground. To this cause mav in
a great measure be ascribed the circumstance of the Spa¬
niards having been able, during so long a period, to main¬
tain their political superiority in the mountainous parts of
Peru, and the success which usually attended their military
operations in that country. Their infantry force being
principally composed of native Indians, compelled to serve
as soldiers, they were thus enabled to move with that deci¬
sive celerity which characterized most of their evolutions
during the war of independence. As striking instances
of this fact may be cited the feats of General Valdez and
others previous to the dispersion of the patriot army of
General Santa Cruz in 1823. Valdez, with his division of
infantry, marched during fifty-seven successive days at the
rate of seven leagues a day; at another time the royalist
army marched eight leagues a-day for eight consecutive
days; and on one occasion, previous to coming into action,
they had actually accomplished a march of thirty-nine
leagues, or 117 miles, in three days.
In all parts of South America, even in the most distant
parts of Chili, the Argentine provinces, Colombia, and
Brazil, may occasionally be met with, parties or groups
of certain tribes of Peruvian Indians, who are denominat¬
ed Callavayas. They always travel on foot, and carry on
an extensive traffic in a variety of gums, resins, barks, and
other medicinal productions, collected in the Yungas and
other parts of the mountains, which are plentifully cover¬
ed with vegetation, and in other parts of the provinces of
La Paz and Larecaja, near which they principally reside.
They also carry on an extensive and profitable practice as
itinerant physicians, employing only their native remedies.
They always travel along the remains of the ancient Peru¬
vian roads, where such exist, these being uniformly the
most direct; and they generally return to their own dis¬
tricts, sometimes after an absence of several years. They
are very loquacious, and employ considerable artifice in
extolling the virtues of their remedies and the extent of
their own skill. Besides the Spanish language, which is
that in general use in Bolivia, they employ the Quichua or
language of the Incas; but the Aimaru is the language in
common use in the department of La Paz.
Religion, as it has been practised in Bolivia and most
other parts of South America, has long been in a very
degraded state, consisting almost entirely in the repetition
of a certain number of prayers, imperfectly understood by
the greater part of the people, and the performance of a
number of ceremonies, the object of which seems to be, to
occupy the attention, and to serve as a pretext for extort¬
ing money from the community. It truly exhibited the form
of sanctity without the substance; for the spirit of true
religion was entirely lost sight of, and the higher faculties
of reason and reflection were never called into exercise.
With some few honourable exceptions, the clergy were
profoundly ignorant of every thing appertaining to their
sacred profession, and were only adepts in deception and
immorality, d hey were notoriously licentious in their con¬
duct, and although bound by their vow of celibacy to a life
of chastity and virtue, they were the great promoters of
vice and immorality, especially amongst the weaker sex,
829
from the opportunities they enjoyed at the confessional, and Bolivia,
the influence they possessed in virtue of the sacredness
of their office. In South America, particularly in Bolivia
and Peru, it has been quite customary for many of the
curates to live in a state of concubinage with females, by
whom they have numerous illegitimate children, who are
generally designated as cousins, nephews, nieces, and the
like, although everyone is fully aware of the nature of the
connection subsisting betwixt them.
The evil consequences resulting from this condition of
the ministers of religion may easily be conceived. They
fell as heavily upon the Creoles or Spanish South Ameri¬
cans as upon the Peruvian Indians; but the extortions
which, under the semblance of religion, were exercised
upon the ignorant, indigent, and inoffensive aborigines, al¬
most exceed belief. Not contented with the salaries allow¬
ed them by the Spanish government, they weekly exacted
contributions in various forms from the Indians on the ad¬
ministration of the communion and the other ordinances
of religion, such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals; and
the amount of these was graduated according to the dis¬
cretion of the curate, and the knowledge he possessed of
the ability of the devotee to defray them. By these, and
other devices still more nefarious, the clergy generally con¬
trived to amass large incomes, frequently seven or eight
times the amount to which they were legally entitled ; and
many of the curacies in Peru thus afforded incomes of from
5000 to 15,000 dollars per annum.
Under the guidance of such spiritual leaders, and breath¬
ing a moral atmosphere so tainted, it could hardly be ex¬
pected that pure and undefiled religion and morality could
prosper and advance. The elements requisite to produce
such effects were awanting, since neither precept nor ex¬
ample was given to the people; and it is rather matter
of surprise that, in countries thus circumstanced, so many
remarkable instances should be met with of individuals dis¬
tinguished by a virtuous and amiable deportment. Such
occurrences, however, speak volumes in favour of the na¬
turally good disposition which characterizes them, and
warrant the most pleasing anticipations of their future
improved condition, when in the full enjoyment of the fa¬
cilities and advantages presented by the extension of edu¬
cation and the diffusion of knowledge.
Free and unrestricted religious toleration does not yet
exist in any part of South America, excepting in Buenos
Ayres and Bolivia. Still, the bad consequences which have
in some instances resulted from premature attempts to
establish toleration in South America, where the public
mind was not prepared for the reception of such a measure,
induce us to deprecate the repetition of such attempts as
exceedingly dangerous and injudicious, until some prepa¬
ration has been made. At the same time, it would be an
act of great injustice not to mention, that before and since
the commencement of the revolution, there have appeared
amongst the catholic clergy of South America, men whose
just and benevolent demeanour, and whose enlightened
patriotism and devotion to the cause of humanity, would
do honour to any age or country. And of late years, when
circumstances more fully favoured the development of the
nobler faculties, many of them have taken a prominent
part in promoting education, intelligence, and every insti¬
tution calculated to improve the religious, moral, and in¬
tellectual condition of tlieir countrymen.
Since the commencement of the republican government, Education,
a considerable part of the revenues of the minor convents
and monastic establishments in Bolivia has been diverted
from their original purposes, to form a fund for the esta¬
blishment and support of seminaries of education. Col¬
leges on improved modern principles are forming in each
of the departments, and Lancasterian schools are in course
830
Bolivia.
Society.
History.
Political
state oft
Jndians.
BOLIVIA.
of being established in all parts of the republic. A uni- from the archives of Madrid by our countryman Barry,
versity having long existed at Chuquisaca for the educa- and by him given to the pub ic.
lion of the youth of Upper Peru, the 'utility of the establish- One of their Pr‘nch»l grievances „astlm
ment was greatly augmented, during the administration of pulsorykln o l1< r^',n , , -i, exacted from the
General Sucre,'by .in improvement in the modes of in- mines or in the cultivation of the fields, exacted t.om the
Bolivia.
struction, and an increase in the number of the depart¬
ments of education, analogous to the advanced .state, of
knowledge in other parts of the world. In Potosi, likewise,
efficient means were adopted by General Miller, while pie-
fect of that department, to establish there a college for the
study of mineralogy; a branch of education of great im¬
portance in a place wholly dependent on mining.
The society in Bolivia is exceedingly agreeable, the in¬
habitants being kind, hospitable, and courteous to strangers.
The ladies are particularly affable and pleasing in their
manners, exhibiting a happy mixture between the reserve
of the English and the vivacity of the French. Their coun¬
tenances are handsome, they have small feet and ancles,
and possess fine figures, with a most graceful carriage, es¬
pecially in promenading, and when walking abroad. I hey
dress with much taste, using at the church, and on occa¬
sions of ceremony, their former costume of the basquina
and mantilla; but on other occasions they assume the more
modern fashions of Europe. The fan, which they use with
much dexterity, is a constant accompaniment on all such
occasions. They have frequent tevtulias or evening par¬
ties and balls, and dance with considerable gracefulness.
Their conversation is agreeable, and even superior to what
might be expected in a country which has enjoyed so little
of the advantages of education and moral training.
The early history of that part of the empire of the
Incas which now forms the republic of Bolivia is so inti¬
mately connected with that of Peru, that the consideration
of it may with propriety be deferred until we come to treat
of that country, in which Cuzco, the capital of the Incas,
is situated. Attention will therefore at present be direct¬
ed only to that period of its history which is more recent,
and which has so materially influenced its present condi¬
tion,—the unsuccessful insurrection of the Peruvians or ab¬
original population under Tupac Amaru, and subsequently
the more fortunate war of independence. But before pro¬
ceeding to the consideration of these, it seems requisite to
point out the principal causes which gave rise to events
so memorable in South American history.
The Peruvians, ever since the conquest of their coun-
hetry by the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, have been
subjected to a system of tyranny and oppression which
has few parallels in the history of the universe. They
were treated little better than beasts of burthen. By their
toil the gold and silver were obtained from the mines, the
lands were cultivated, the flocks and herds were attended
to, and all the domestic and menial offices performed. Yet
the fruits of their labour, especially that of mining, which
was attended with numerous privations, and too oflen with
great loss of life, were altogether devoted to enriching their
cruel oppressors. While so employed they were denied all
the comforts and many of the necessaries of life; they were
treated as minors, and considered as incapable of attending
to their own affairs and interests, nay even deprived of the
means of information and improvement; while the cleigy
powerfully contributed to the general degradation, by keep¬
ing them in the most profound ignorance of their moral
and religious duties, and substituting instead of these a few
unmeaning and useless ceremonies, by means of which they
plundered the Indians, without ceremony or remorse, of the
scanty pittance which they were able to save from the ra¬
pacity of their civil rulers. These heart-rending occur¬
rences are fully detailed in the secret report of Don Jorge
Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa; which important docu¬
ment, after the lapse of nearly a century, was procured
Indians generally for the space of one year. The proprie¬
tors of mines and land to be worked or cultivated, were
privileged to claim as their undoubted right, the personal
services of the Indian population of the district surround¬
ing that in which their property was situated. By the re¬
gulations of the mita a proportional number of the In¬
dians of the district were annually chosen by lot for the
purposes required; and some idea may be formed of the
effects of such a regulation, by stating, that 1400 mines
were registered in Peru alone, and that eveiy mine which
remained unworked a year and a day became the property
of the first claimant.
So much was the labour of the mines dreaded by those
persons on whom the lot fell, that they considered it as equi¬
valent to a sentence of death, and made all their arrange¬
ments accordingly, carrying with them their wives and
families to their new and dreaded place of abode. While
thusemployed, each person was nominally paid an allowance
of four rials or two shillings daily, out of which he had to
provide himself and family with food, clothing, and habi¬
tation, which were furnished to him at an exorbitant rate,
the one third was retained for the purpose of paying the
expense of returning his wife and family to their homes
in the event of his death or at the expiry of his period of
service; and besides, at the end of every year a tribute of
eight dollars was exacted, which being in arrear, or any
other debt contracted with his employer, was too often
used as a pretext for retaining him in this odious service,
generally till death put a period to his misery. An estimate
may be formed of the extent of this evil, by stating that
12,000 Indians were annually required by the mxta of Po¬
tosi alone; and it is calculated that, in the mines of Peru, no
less than 8,285,000 Indians have perished in this manner.
Besides the mita for the service of the mines, the In¬
dians were also compelled to labour for their superiors on
their cultivated estates, their estancias or grazing farms,
and also in their obrages or manufactories. In these latter
establishments, according to Ulloa, they were obliged to
work all day, and only received a pittance for then laboui,
the half of which was in many instances stopped to pay
their arrears of tribute, and the other hall was geneially
insufficient to pay for their necessary sustenance. The In¬
dians were besides liable to serve as pongos or menial ser¬
vants to the governors, and other functionaries, as likewise
to the caciques and the curates; but for this service they
received no recompense, excepting their food and clothing.
The numbers employed in these domestic occupations in
Peru and Bolivia have been estimated at 60,000.
The tribute exacted by the government from every
Indian between the age of eighteen and fifty-five was a
capitation tax of eight dollars. This was levied with the
o-reatest rigour, and the official persons charged with its
collection too frequently committed great injustice in do-
ing so ; obliging the Indians to commence these payments
at fifteen, and continue them until seventy years of age,
and putting the amount of tribute for the years before and
after the legal period into their own pockets. In proof of
the extent to which this evil was carried, and of the ra¬
pacity of the Spanish government, it may be stated that a
law was enacted for the express purpose of augmenting the
number of the people liable to pay tribute. By it the In¬
dians were obliged to marry, the men at the age of fifteen,
the women at thirteen. The governor of each province was
responsible to the government for the amount of the tribute,
which was regulated by a census of the tributary Indians,
BOLIVIA. 831
Bolivia, taken every seven years ; and in this many frauds were
practised, the actual number being often much underrated.
The governor of the province of Porco, in the department
of Potosi, according to the testimony of Miller, was be¬
lieved to have collected annually a surplus of 10,000 dol¬
lars by these fraudulent means. This tribute continued to
be exacted until the year 1825, when it was finally abolished
by General Bolivar on his arrival in the country; and all
the Indians now enjoy the same rights and privileges as
the other inhabitants of the country.
Besides all these, the Peruvian Indians were long sub¬
jected to another system of extortion no less grievous and
unjust,—the law of reparlamiento. This was originally
established with the best intentions ; the governors or cor-
regidors of the districts being intrusted with the charge of
supplying the inhabitants under their care with such articles
as they might require at a fair and equitable price. But
the law, which had so plausible an origin, was shamefully
abused; and it was made compulsory on the Indian popu¬
lation to purchase articles of the most worthless description,
both in kind and quality, whether they required them or
not, and at a price double or treble that for which the same
article of the best possible quality might have been pur¬
chased. Thus razors were forced at an exorbitant price on
Indians who had no beards to shave; and those who had
never gone otherwise than barefooted were compelled to
purchase velvets and silk stockings, of the use of which they
were even ignorant. On one occasion a large assortment
of spectacles was forwarded to a merchant at Lima, who,
finding them unsaleable in a country where the natives pro¬
verbially retain their vision unimpaired till an advanced
period of life, got them disposed of at an exorbitant profit
by consigning them to a corregidor, who issued a decree to
the Indians of his district, ordaining that no Indian should
be permitted to attend divine service on certain occasions
without having on a pair of spectacles. A repartamiento took
place in 1743, at about forty leagues from Lima, where the
corregidor exacted the sum of 300,000 dollars for goods
which he had purchased at 70,000 dollars. The Indians
of this district, according to Ulloa, “ finding themselves
tyrannized over with greater cruelty than they had expe¬
rienced from the predecessors of the corregidor, determin¬
ed to complain to the viceroy, and produced before him the
goods, together with the proofs of the exorbitant prices
which they had been obliged to pay for them. We do not
state this fact from report, as we happened to be present
when the Indians came to make known their grievances.
The viceroy heard them, and referred them to the audien-
cia; and the result was that the Indians were seized and
punished as insurgents.”
These accumulated grievances at length exceeded even
the powers of endurance possessed by these pacific Indians,
and gave rise to the memorable insurrection of Tupac
Amaru in 1780, in which torrents of native as well as Spa¬
nish blood were shed before it was finally suppressed. This
event, however, gave a death-blow to the law of reparta¬
miento, which was then finally abolished.
Political The constant and extensive operation of these demora-
state ofthelizing practices, although more immediately affecting the
Creoles, aboriginal population, could not fail to produce the most
pernicious and injurious effects on the Creoles or descen¬
dants of the Spaniards; but, in addition to these causes of
debasement, the latter were subjected to numerous unjust
and oppressive laws, all tending to paralyze their advance¬
ment in industry, intelligence, and civilization.
The raising of those vegetable productions which form
the principal objects of culture in Spain, as articles of
commerce, was strictly prohibited to the South Americans,
however favourable the soil and climate of their native
country might be for the production of them. The pro¬
sperity and happiness of the transatlantic population were Bolivia,
of no value or importance when put in competition with
the interested views and wishes of the mother country.
Thus the cultivation of the vine and the olive was either pro¬
hibited, or the plants were rooted out where they had been
introduced. Prohibitory decrees were issued against the
manufacture of wines, brandies, vinegar, olive oil, &c.; and
even the culture of almonds and raisins was interdicted.
No kind of manufacture of cloth or articles of clothing was
permitted which could interfere with the commerce of
Old Spain, excepting only the coarse fabrics manufactured
and worn by the Indians. Even the valuable mines of mer¬
cury and iron found in South America were, in a great
measure, hermetically sealed by prohibitory decrees, lest
they might interfere with the traffic carried on by Spain
in these articles. And, not contented with'confining the
commerce of South America entirely to Spain, aqd prohi¬
biting it under the severest penalties with other nations,
these colonies were not permitted to have any intercourse
or commerce with each other.
The South Americans were generally excluded from
all offices of honour or emolument in their own country ;
and when any deviation from this law took place, it was
too frequently in consequence of enormous bribes receiv¬
ed, or a reward to some unnatural Creole for acts of cruelty
and oppression committed on his own countrymen. They
were also systematically deprived of the means of obtain¬
ing a suitable education for their children; nothing being
taught at their seminaries excepting Latin, philosophy, the
civil and canon law, and theology, while every attempt at
improvement on the part of the natives was resisted by the
government.
The upper provinces of Boliviaand Peruwere those which Insurreo-
formed the principal scenes of the memorable insurrection of Tu-
of Tupac Amaru, so just in its origin, so energetic in its Pac^-maru”
prosecution, and so unfortunate in its results to the Peru¬
vian nation. From the details which have appeared of
this eventful period, it is evident that a deep-rooted feel¬
ing of the oppressive and degrading servitude to which they
had so long been subjected by the Spaniards, united with
a lively recollection of the happiness and glory of their
more fortunate ancestors, conspired to rouse the latent
energies of the whole nation to accomplish their liberation
from the cruel yoke under which they had groaned. And
they found an able and a willing leader in Jose Gabriel Con-
dorcanqui, cacique of Tungasuya, a lineal descendant of the
Inca Tupac Amaru, whose name and title he afterwards
assumed. But although an excellent and intrepid man,
and possessing the entire confidence of his countrymen,
he was deficient in that knowledge, foresight, and energy,
so requisite for conducting to a happy termination so diffi¬
cult and hazardous an enterprise. He experienced various
successes and reverses, but was eventually taken prisoner,
and put to death in the most barbarous manner by the
Spaniards. He was succeeded in the direction of the en¬
terprise by his nephew Andres, who, with the aid of Ca-
tari and other caciques, continued the contest with great
and indiscriminate carnage on both sides ; but having to
contend against the superior skill, discipline, and arms of
the Spaniards, aided by treachery, they were finally over¬
come, and the insurrection was put down in 1782.
Having thus failed in their arduous undertaking, after
the destruction of great numbers of their nation—-for nei¬
ther the lives of men, women, nor children, were spared on
either side during this sanguinary contest—their chains
were rivetted with double force ; and the sorrow and de¬
spondency which followed these disastrous events were so
great that they never again recovered their wonted ener¬
gies. Yet there is every reason to believe that, had they
possessed better arms and discipline, more knowledge and
832 B O L I V I A.
Bolivia, experience, and leaders better adapted for such an enter-
prise, they would, from their number, union, and devotion
to the cause, have finally accomplished their deliverance.
These circumstances will account in a great measure for
the apathy and comparative indifference with which they
viewed the rise and progress of the war of independence,
the objects of which they did not rightly understand, and
found difficult to reconcile with their knowledge of the ac¬
tive part taken by the Creoles in the suppression of their
own previous endeavours to throw off the Spanish yoke.
War of in- From the causes already stated, the war of indepen-
depend- dence was principally carried on, as regards Bolivia, by
the resources of, and in concert with, the neighbouring
provinces of the Rio de la Plata and Peru, all of which
had equal cause to avenge themselves on their oppressors,
but were placed in circumstances somewhat more fortunate
for accomplishing their purpose. When the patriots of
Buenos Ayres had succeeded in liberating, from the do¬
minion of Spain, the interior provinces of the Rio de la
Plata, they turned their arms against their enemies in
possession of Upper Peru. General Antonio Balcarce
was therefore sent with the forces of Buenos Ayres into
that country, and succeeded in defeating the royalist
general Nieto, at Cotagaita, on the 27th October 1810 ;
and on the 7 th November following, a similar fate, over took
Colonel Cordova at Tupiza. These successes gave him
possession of the country as far as the bridge of the Incas,
which crosses the river Desaguadero; at which time his
army had been increased by recruits to about 4000 men.
Castelli was sent from Buenos Ayres as governor of Upper
Peru, and to act as the commissioner of the Argentine
government, with the army of Balcarce. He was a man
distinguished for his great and versatile talents, but was
of a restless and fiery temper. By the violence of his pro¬
ceedings, and numerous acts of unjustifiable cruelty, he so
far succeeded in inspiring the Spaniards with terror and dis¬
may, that the army of Buenos Ayres was enabled, on the
25th of May 1811, to celebrate the first anniversary of their
independence among the ruins of the palace of the Incas at
Tiaguanaco, on the shores of the lake of Titicaca, 690 leagues
distant from Buenos Ayres. The dissolute conduct of Cas¬
telli, however, and the irregularities of the Buenos-Ayre-
ans who accompanied him, tended greatly to alienate
the affections of the inhabitants of Upper Peru from their
deliverers, and considerably aided the efforts of Abascal,
viceroy of Peru, who, after some unsuccessful attempts to
conclude an armistice with Castelli, in which little cour¬
tesy seems to have been observed on either side, collected
all his disposable forces under his best generals. The
civil administration of the provinces was neglected by the
patriots; and the army became disorganized, from the
dissolute conduct and negligence of Castelli and his fol¬
lowers. General Goyeneche was intrusted with the com¬
mand of the Spanish army, which, to the amount of 4000
men, took up a position on the north side of the Desa¬
guadero, two days’ march from their opponents. In the
interim an armistice had been concluded between the
two contending armies ; but, regardless of the inviolability
of such a transaction, Goyeneche attacked and defeated
the patriot army under Balcarce and Castelli at Huaqui,
on the 20th June 1811, six days before the expiry of the
truce. Balcarce retired from Bolivia with the remains of
his army, and took up a position at Jujuy, distant 236
leagues from the scene of action. After his success Goy¬
eneche committed great cruelties in Bolivia, particularly
at Chuquisaca and La Paz; but he met with considerable
opposition from the patriots, who had retired to the moun¬
tains of Cochabamba, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Chayanta.
General Belgrano, who succeeded to the command of
the army of Balcarce, had the good fortune, at Tucuman,
to defeat the royalist army, 3000 strong, under General Bolh
Pio Tristan, on the 30th September 1812, while his own
force did not amount to half that number. And, again, on
the 20th February following, he obtained another victory
over the same general, who had entrenched himself in Salta
with 2000 men, all of whom were either killed or taken
prisoners. Belgrano generously permitted the vanquish¬
ed Tristan, with his officers and men, to return to Peru,
on their giving solemn pledges not again to bear arms
against the republic of the Rio de la Plata. But all
of them, influenced by the example of their general, and
regardless of their obligation, violated their parole, and
joined the army of Pezuela, which, by such dishonourable
means, was augmented to 4000 men. With these he at¬
tacked Belgrano, who, with his army, had advanced into
Upper Peru, and defeated him at Vilcapugio, between
Oruro and Potosi, on 1st October 1813; and again at
Ayoma, in the department of Cochabamba, on the 14th
November of same year. Belgrano escaped with the re¬
mains of his army to Tucuman.
Notwithstanding these disasters, the cause of indepen¬
dence did not slumber in Upper Peru, since numerous
bands of patriots maintained themselves in Cochabamba,
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Chayanta, and Yamparaes, and
obtained many advantages over the royalists, under the
able command of Warnes, Camargo, and Padilla, who car¬
ried on a guerilla warfare. On 25th May 1814, Colonel
Arenales obtained some advantages over his opponents
in the provinces of Cochabamba, and Warnes was equally
fortunate on the 9th October following, in the Quebrada
of Santa Barbara. Guemes, with the irregular troops of the
province of Salta, cut off the supplies of the royalists in
front; whilst the guerilla parties under Warnes, Padilla,
and Munecas, in the rear, so distressed them, that Pezuela
with his army was obliged to retire upon Cotagaita. The
patriot army at Tucuman under the command of General
San Martin never came into collision with the royalists
until after his removal to the command of Cuyo, when
General Rondeau succeeded him in the direction of that
army, amounting to 3500. With these he marched again
into Upper Peru against the royalists, whom, in nearly
equal numbers under Pezuela, he encountered at Sipe-
sipe, between Potosi and Oruro, on 28th November 1815,
and was totally defeated ; and this was followed soon after
by another defeat at Viluma, which again placed Upper
Peru under the control of the royalists. General Belgrano
was a second time appointed to command the army sta¬
tioned at Tucuman, composed of the remains of the army
which had been vanquished at Sipe-sipe and Viluma ; and,
by unwearied exertions, he soon collected a force of about
4000, well equipped. But a spirit of disaffection and an¬
archy had crept into his army, which, incited by the prin¬
cipal officers, revolted against their general. He was depos¬
ed and made prisoner; and the officers, with such soldiers
as chose to follow them, dispersed over the provinces,
where, in many instances, they usurped the civil and
military administration, which in some cases they retain¬
ed until a late period.
To these events succeeded, under Pumacagua, an in¬
surrection of the Indians of the neighbouring provinces of
Arequipa, Cuzco, and Huamanga, in Peru ; and the object
being the independence of the whole country, it was join¬
ed by numerous Creoles from Bolivia and Peru. But this
attempt was speedily put down by the activity of the
royalist general, Ramirez, who inflicted a severe retalia¬
tion on Pumacagua and his followers. After this period
Upper Peru remained tranquil for a considerable time,
unless when disturbed by the enterprises of Lanza and
his followers, who maintained themselves in the Yungas.
On the viceroy Abascal being superseded in that office
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia, by Pezuela, General Laserna was appointed commander
in chief in Upper Peru, where he arrived in September
1816, with 2000 fresh troops. He introduced many inno¬
vations, and very humanely prohibited the infliction of the
punishment of death for political offences, without his
previous permission. He made an attempt, with an army
of from 4000 to 5000 men, to penetrate into the Argentine
provinces, intending to march to Buenos Ayres; but he
was completely foiled by the activity and intrepidity of
the Gauchos, or irregular troops of the provinces of Salta
and Jujuy, and was compelled to retire with the remainder
of his army to Cotagaita.
The expedition of General Santa Cruz, prepared with
great zeal and activity at Lima, landed in June 1823, in
the Puertos Intermedios, and marched in two divisions
to Upper Peru: the one under Santa Cruz by the Cordil¬
lera of Iscuchaca, obtained possession of the bridge of the
Incas on the Desaguadero on 29th July, and occupied La
Paz on the 7th August; the other division, under General
Gamarra, marched by the route of Tacora and San Andres
de Machaca, and reached Calamarca on the 10th August,
where it had a sharp rencontre with a division of the army
of General Olaheta, and then marched to Oruro, where it
was joined by Lanza with 600 men. During six years the
latter had maintained himself in the Yungas with great
valour against all the efforts of the Spaniards. At this
period General Urdininea, with 1000 men, occupied the
quebrada or defile of Humaguaca, near Jujuy, ready to
approach Potosi on the first favourable occasion.
At this time the royalist force in Upper Peru, under
Olaheta, did not exceed from 2000 to 3000 men, besides
about 1500 men in garrison at Puno and La Paz. But
Canterac, then near Lima, hearing of the large army which
had gone to Upper Peru under Santa Cruz, dispatched
General Valdez with three batallions of infantry, 400 ca¬
valry, and two cannon, to unite with the forces under the
viceroy Lasema, and Generals Carratala and Olaheta. On
the other hand, General Sucre also sent from Lima 3000
troops, either to co-operate with Santa Cruz, or to act se¬
parately, as occasion might require; and he soon afterwards
proceeded in person to command them, with authority
from the congress, if necessary, to assume also the com¬
mand of the army under Santa Cruz.
Santa Cruz remained in quiet possession of Upper Peru,
occupying the country from Oruro to the bridge of the Incas,
his head-quarters being at La Paz. Valdez proceeded by
Andaguaylas and Sicuani towards Puno, having completed
a march of about 400 leagues in fifty-seven successive days.
On the approach of the royalists, Santa Cruz took up a po¬
sition near the bridge of the Incas; and at Zepita, on the
25th August, fought an indecisive action with Valdez, who
commanded 1800 men, his own force being only 1600. The
royalists immediately concentrated their forces at Sicuani,
amounting to 4500 men, whilst those of Santa Cruz were
about 7000 men. Various movements now took place on
both sides, which evinced much skill and activity on the
part of the royalists, and great indecision and want of judg¬
ment on the part of Santa Cruz. The royalists being
at length joined by the forces of Olaneta, amounting to
2500 men, and considering themselves equal in number
to the patriots, began to act on the offensive, and came
in contact with the army of Santa Cruz at Sicasica. But
this general showed no disposition to come into collision
with the royalists, and retreated towards Aya-aya, losing
some of his baggage, and many deserters. He appears
to have resisted all the endeavours and entreaties of his
officers, as well as the declared wishes of his army, to rally
and engage the enemy. A severe storm, which overtook
them here, served to increase their disasters, and convert¬
ed the retreat of the army into a precipitate flight. The
VOL. IV
833
fugitives retired by Santa Rosa ana Moquegua towards llo, Bolivia,
where about 1300 embarked in the transports; but of an
army of 7000 men only 1000 returned to Lima. About
1000 retired from Sic asica with Lanza, but were afterwards
defeated by Olaheta, and their leader and a few followers
only escaped to the mountains. It is difficult to account
for the strange infatuation which led to the destruction of
this fine army, as Santa Cruz on other occasions had shown
himself an able commander; but these events will always
remain as a cloud upon his military character.
In May 1824, Generals Valdez and Olaheta occupied
Upper Peru, each with about 5000 men under his com¬
mand, but opposed to each other on political points; the
former having withdrawn his allegiance from the viceroy
Laserna, in consequence of advocating the constitutional
cause of Spain, while Olaheta adhered to the principles of
absolute monarchy. This dispute was useful to the cause
of the patriots, as it prevented Olaheta from uniting his
forces with the viceroy during the campaign which ter¬
minated in the battle of Ayacucho, so glorious to the cause
of freedom. General Sucre, whose abilities and valour so
much contributed to the success of that day, improved the
advantages he had obtained, by his clemency and genero¬
sity to the vanquished, and by the rapidity with which
he followed up his successes; so that none of the fugitives
could unite with the army of Olaheta, now the only royalist
general in arms in Upper or Lower Peru. A part of the
army, therefore, proceeded towards Upper Peru, and in
their march experienced in some instances great hardships;
the division of General Cordova having lost many men near
Santa Rosa, from surumpi or snow blindness.
On hearing of the victory of Ayacucho, the patriot
prisoners of war confined in the island of Chuquito, in the
lake of Titicaca, rose on their guards, whom they over¬
came ; and placing themselves under the command of Ge¬
neral Alvarado, likewise a prisoner, they took possession
of the country as far as the bridge of the Incas ; a division
of 1500 patriots under the command of General Urdininea
still occupying the quebrada of Humaguaca, on the south¬
ern frontier of the department of Potosi. General Olaheta,
however, still retained his position in Upper Peru, at the
head of about 4000 men, having refused to accede to the
liberal and even generous terms of accommodation pro¬
posed to him by General Sucre. The latter, therefore,
on recruiting his army after the fatigues they had under¬
gone, and supplying them with clothing and other neces¬
saries, advanced to Oruro, and afterwards to Puno, which
he reached on the 1st February 1825, and there obtained
information that the royalist garrisons of Cochabamba,
Chuquisaca, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, had declared for
the patriots, and that the city of La Paz was in possession
of the gallant and indefatigable Lanza. Olaheta, with his
army, diminished to 2000, was confined to the department
of Potosi, but still persisted in his determined opposition,
notwithstanding the entreaties and remonstrances of Colo¬
nel Medina Celi, his second in command, who at length,
with a considerable portion of his army, rose against him.
Olaheta, with a few resolute followers, resisted to the last;
until, in an action with some of his own revolted troops at
Tumusla, sixteen leagues south of Potosi, he was mortally
wounded, on the 30th of March 1825.
General Sucre was now invested with the supreme com¬
mand in Upper Peru, until the requisite measures could be
taken to establish in that country a regular and constitu¬
tional government. Deputies from the various provinces to
the number of fifty-four were assembled at Chuquisaca, the
capital, to decide upon the question proposed to them on
the part of the government of the Argentine provinces,
respecting their separation or otherwise from that country.
In August 1825 they decided this question, and declared
5 N
834
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia.
Bolivian
code.
it to be the national will that Upper Peru should in future
constitute a distinct and independent nation. This assem¬
bly continued their session, although the primary object
of their meeting had thus been accomplished, and after¬
wards gave the name of Bolivia to the country; issu ng
at the same time a formal declaration of independence.
They also voted one million of dollars to General Bolivar,
as a reward for his past services; and an equal sum to
those belonging to the army who had served in the cam¬
paign of 1824. The former grant, however, was only ac¬
cepted by Bolivar on the express condition that it should
be wholly appropriated to purchasing the freedom of about
a thousand slaves still existing in Bolivia.
The first general assembly of deputies of Bolivia dis¬
solved themselves on the 6th of October 1825, and a new
congress was summoned, and formally installed, at Ghu-
quisaca, on the 25th May 1826, to take into consideration
the constitution prepared by Bolivar for the new republic.
A favourable report was made to that body by a commit¬
tee appointed to examine it, on which it was approved by
the congress, and declared to be the constitution of the
republic ; and as such, it was sworn to by the people. Ge¬
neral Sucre was chosen president for life, according to
the constitution; but only accepted the appointment for
the space of two years, and on the express condition that
2000 Colombian troops should be permitted to remain with
him, which request was agreed to by the congress.
The Bolivian constitution is founded on the strictest
principles of justice, in as far as regards the civil rights
and privileges of the community; but in other respects, and
particularly in reference to the supreme executive autho¬
rity, its provisions savour strongly of a monarchical spirit.
The supreme authority is vested in a presidente vitalicio,
or president for life, with the power of naming his suc¬
cessor. It guarantees to the Bolivians civil liberty, secu¬
rity of persons and property, and equality of rights ; the
free exercise and communication of thoughts and opinions,
either by the press or otherwise ; liberty to remain or leave
the territory of the republic with their property, at their
pleasure, but without prejudice to others; equality in the
imposition of taxes and contributions, from the payment
of which none can be exempted; and the abolition of all
hereditary employments, privileges, and entails. No pro¬
fession, trade, or employment, can be prohibited, unless
repugnant to public feeling, or injurious to the health and
security of the community; and every inventor is secured
in the benefits of his discovery. No one can be arrested
without previous information of the alleged fact of delin¬
quency, unless when taken in flagranti delicto. All trials
and judgments are public; and in criminal cases none can
be imprisoned more than forty-eight hours without having
presented to him the charges preferred against him, and
being delivered over to the proper tribunal or judge. No
demand for redress in civil or criminal cases can be brought
judicially before the justices of peace, until they have first
endeavoured to promote reconciliation, by hearing the re¬
presentations of the parties, explaining to them their respec¬
tive rights, and proposing some means of accommodation.
By this constitution, all legitimate power emanates di¬
rectly from the people, and is in the first instance exer¬
cised by all who can justly claim the privilege of citizens.
Of these, every ten nominate an elector, who exercises his
delegated authority for a period of four years. At the com¬
mencement of each year all the electors assemble in the ca¬
pitals of their respective provinces, and regulate their pro¬
ceedings and the exercise of their various functions by a
plurality of votes. They elect the members of the three
legislative chambers, the number for each amounting to
thirty ; those for the chamber of tribunes being nominated
tor four years, and renewed by moieties every two years;
those for the senate for eight years, and renewed by moie¬
ties every four years; and those for the chamber of censors
being nominated for life. The electors also exercise the
privilege of proposing in ternaries, ls£, To the executive
power, all candidates for the prefectures of departments,
for the government of provinces, and for corregidors of
cantons and towns, and also curates and vicars for the va¬
cancies in their provinces ; 2dly, To the senate, the mem¬
bers of the courts of the judicial district to which they be¬
long, and the judges in the first instance ; and, Mly, To the
prefect of the department, the alcaldes and justices of the
peace, who are to be appointed in their respective provinces.
The functions of the chamber of tribunes are, to origi-
Bolivia.
nate all laws respecting the revenue, peace and war, and to
exercise an immediate inspection of those branches which
are administered by the executive, with the least interven¬
tion of the legislature. This chamber also possesses the
initiative in the settlement of the territorial division of the
republic; the coinage, weights and measures; the sea¬
ports, roads, bridges, and public buildings ; the police, &c.
The attributes and functions of the chamber of senators
are, to form the civil, criminal, and ecclesiastical regulations
and codes, and watch over the tribunals of justice and re¬
ligion ; to choose, from the ternaries presented to them by
the executive and by the electoral body, the prefects, go¬
vernors, corregidors, judges of districts, and all others in
the department of justice; to propose to the chamber of
censors those w ho are to be members of the supreme tribu¬
nal of justice, the archbishops, the bishops, dignitaries of
the church, canons, and prebends; and to examine the deci¬
sion of ecclesiastical courts, bulls, rescripts, and pontifical
briefs, with a view to their approval or disapproval.
The chamber of censors exercise a political and moral
power. It is their duty to watch that the constitution, the
laws, and treaties, are strictly adhered to and executed; and
to express the national judgment, when such is rendered
necessary by the good or bad administration of the execu¬
tive government. The censors are also charged with the
protection of morality, the arts and sciences, education, and
the press. They exercise the important functions of con¬
demning those who usurp sovereign power, or are guilty
of high crimes and malversation ; and they bestow public
honours and rewards on the services and virtues of illus¬
trious citizens. This chamber also exercises the functions
of choosing, from the ternaries presented to them by the
senate, those who are to form the supreme courts of justice,
to become archbishops, bishops, canons, and prebends.
The general or collective duties and attributes of the
three chambers, when united, are, to nominate the presi¬
dent of the republic for the first time, and to confirm his
successor; to approve of the vice-president proposed by
the president; to determine on the seat of government;
to decide on any charge against members of the cham¬
bers, the vice-president, or secretaries of state ; to invest
the president with extraordinary powers in cases of great
emergency or danger; to select from the candidates pre¬
sented in ternaries by the electoral bodies, those mem¬
bers who are to fill up the vacancies of the chambers; and
to regulate and judge the department of police. All the
sessions must be public, excepting in such state cases as
require secrecy. No public functionaries are capable of
being members of the chambers ; and the latter enjoy in¬
violability in their persons for opinions expressed, and are
not subject to arrest.
The executive government consists of a president, vice-
president, and three secretaries of state. The president
of the republic is named for the first time by a ma¬
jority of the collective legislature, and retains the dignity
during life, with the power of naming his successor. He
is the chief of the administration of the state, and is not
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia.
responsible for the acts of his administration. On his
death, resignation, or infirmity, the vice-president is vir¬
tually his successor. In the absence or non-existence of
both of these functionaries, the three secretaries of state
take charge, ad interim, of the administration of the go¬
vernment, the oldest in office acting as president until
the assembling of the legislature. The constitutional
privileges of the president are the most limited that have
been intrusted to the supreme chief of any nation. They
extend only to the nomination of the officers of the reve¬
nue, of peace and of war, and the command of the army.
He proposes to the chambers the vice-president, and he
nominates the three secretaries of state, and can remove
any of these functionaries when he judges it necessary.
He appoints all diplomatic functionaries ; receives foreign
ambassadors and agents; directs all negociations; and, with
the previous sanction of the legislature, concludes treaties
of peace, alliance, commerce, &c. He presents to the se¬
nate, for its sanction, one of the three candidates proposed
by the electoral body for each of the situations of prefect,
governor, and corregidor; and to the ecclesiastical govern¬
ment, one of the three candidates proposed by the electoral
body for each of the offices of curate and vicar in the pro¬
vinces. He authorizes the regulations for the proper ful¬
filment of the constitution, laws, and treaties; he forwards
and causes to be executed the sentences of the tribunals;
and he has the power of commuting capital punishments
awarded by them.
The president cannot deprive any Bolivian of his liber¬
ty, or inflict punishment on him, of his own accord ; nor can
he imprison any one longer than forty-eight hours without
delivering him over to the proper judge or tribunal; nor
deprive any individual of his property, unless such a pro¬
ceeding be urgently demanded by the public interests;
nor impede the elections or any other public functions au¬
thorized by the laws ; nor absent himself from the republic
or the capital without permission of the legislature. He is
nominated for life, and made irresponsible as a security for
his permanency; but his hands are nevertheless tied, so that
be cannot do injury to any one. He does not nominate the
magistrates and the judges, nor does he appoint to any
ecclesiastical dignity, however subordinate ; and hence he
is, at least nominally, deprived of the powerful influence
over society which is exercised by other supreme rulers.
The administration belongs wholly to the ministry, which
is responsible to the senate, and is subject to the zealous
vigilance of the legislators, magistrates, j udges, and citizens.
The vice-president is proposed by the president, and ap¬
proved of by the legislature. He is at the head of the mi¬
nistry, and, with the secretaries of state, is responsible for
all the acts of the administration; while, in the name of the
president and the republic, he signs all the public documents,
along with these secretaries, in order to legalize the orders
of the executive. Of all the magistrates intrusted with
command, the vice-president is that one whose hands are
most shackled ; for he has to obey both the executive and
the legislature. He receives laws from the latter, and or¬
ders from the former; and between the two has often a dif¬
ficult course to steer. His nomination as the successor of
the president insures the services of an individual whose
previous experience in the difficult art of government, and
knowledge of those in subordinate situations, render him
the most eligible of any for such an office; and by this means
are avoided those elections for the supreme ruler so produc¬
tive of mischief in other republics. As the expectant of the
supreme command, the vice-president has the most power¬
ful motives for the zealous and conscientious discharge of
his functions, in order to secure, on the one hand, the con¬
fidence and support of the president, and, on the other, that
of the legislature and the people- The three secretaries
835
of state are for the home and foreign departments, for the Bolivia,
finance, and for war and marine ; and each is required to
give in accounts of the expenses incurred in his respective
department, and the estimates for each ensuing year.
The judicial power enjoys the most perfect indepen¬
dence, the members composing it being proposed by the
people, and chosen by the legislature; a condition which
insmes the strict and impartial administration of the laws.
Tortures and confessions are altogether abolished, as re¬
pugnant to humanity. The territory of the republic is
governed by prefects, governors, corregidors, justices of
the peace, and alcaldes ; and the proportion of these is re¬
gulated by the population : the details to be defined by the
congress ; and every one in the enjoyment of office is made
responsible for his actions. I he armed force is composed
of the regular army to garrison and defend the frontiers,
of the national militia to preserve internal order, of the
preventive service to protect the revenue, and of the navy,
when circumstances may require the formation of such.
Slavery in every form was abolished, as inconsistent with
the just rights of mankind, and at variance with the whole
spiiit of the constitution. I he exercise of religion was
freed from all restraints; it being considered incompetent
to legislate in matters affecting the conciences of others.
Such are the principal features of the Bolivian consti¬
tution, the merits of which will be variously estimated,
according to the particular political bias of each individual.
It contains in theory much that seems calculated to insure
ihe liberty, the prosperity, and the happiness of the com¬
munity. The legislative portion has been objected to as
being too complicated for practical purposes; but this re-
quiies to be put to the test of experience. No part of it,
however, has excited more criticism, or given rise to
more, sinister suspicions, than that which provides for the
election of a president or supreme ruler for life, with the
power of nominating his successor. With such a provi¬
sion, the Bolivian constitution is, in fact, nothing more nor
less than a limited monarchy, somewhat incuriously dis¬
guised under republican forms. This seems undeniably its
political character; and although it may have worked
tolerably well in Bolivia, the country for which it was os¬
tensibly intended, and where, according to the latest ac¬
counts, it still subsists, yet there seems to be little doubt
that it was conceived in a spirit more friendly to indivi¬
dual aggrandizement than to the liberty of the people or
the ultimate consolidation of republican institutions.
Had Bolivar, the lawgiver of this republic, ceased to exist,
or had he retired altogether from public life, on the pro¬
mulgation of the Bolivian code, his reputation as a patriot
and a statesman would have been handed down to poste¬
rity as one of the brightest in the annals of history. But,
unfortunately, the formation and establishment of this con¬
stitution gave rise to events in Peru, Colombia, and other
parts of South America, which incontrovertibly prove
that it was not dictated by that pure spirit of patriotism
which his friends and admirers have attributed to Bolivar;
but that under it lurked a gigantic scheme of ambition
and aggrandizement, in fruitless endeavours to accomplish
which much crime and misery were occasioned, whilst the
glory which its.author had previously earned contracted a
stain which, it is to be feared, no length of time will ever
efface. The project which emanated from the promulga¬
tion and.establishment of this code in Bolivia, and in the
prosecution of which Bolivar principally employed his ac¬
tive energies during the latter years of his life, was, the
establishment of the same constitution in Peru and Co¬
lombia as well as in Bolivia, and the union of these three
republics, either federally, or as one state, of which he was
to be the president for life. The celebrated congress at
I anama, which took place in June 1826, was originally pro-
i
836 B O L I V I A.
Bolivia, jected by him for this express object; and many other ex- been insincere on the part of Gamarra. General Sucre sue- Bolivia.
pedients, which it is foreign to our present purpose to enu- ceeded, however, in obtaining the sanction of Gamaira v v '
merate, were also resorted to for the accomplishment of the embarkation at Arica ot all the Colombian tioops in
his design. But all his schemes proved abortive, and he Bolivia, excepting about 500 men; and tlnswas accordingly
died without effecting any of the objects, personal to him- carried into effect without any fuithei opposition on the
self, for which he had compromised his fame, and incurred part ot the Peruvians.
the suspicion and dread of all who were friendly to repub- While Sucre was occupied with these transactions, the
lican institutions. sPirit of discord had extended itself to Chuquisaca the
The congress which sanctioned the adoption of the Bo- capital, and spread amongst the ganison. With the view
livian code, and elected General Sucre as the president of of repressing this disorder, Sucre rode in amongst the mu-
the republic, continued its sessions, to legislate more in tinous soldiers, accompanied by his staff and a few other
detail. The republic was peculiarly fortunate in its first officers; but he was unsuccesslul in his attempt to quell
choice of a president in the person of the conqueror of the mutiny; Colonels Lanza and Escalona weie mortally
Ayacucho, whose mildness, urbanity, integrity, love of wounded, and the general himself was so severely wound-
justice, and devotedness in the discharge of the important ed as to be made prisoner. This revolt, however, was ul-
duties confided to him, endeared him to every one capable timately suppressed by General Lopez with some troops
of beinf influenced by generous feelings. He had few per- from Potosi, aided by the well-disposed inhabitants of
sonal enemies; and those who opposed him were princi- Chuquisaca; and Sucre was set at libeity. But lie oiti-
pally influenced by the impression of his intimate connec- mated his fixed determination not to resume the office of
tion with Bolivar, and of his favouring the political principles president, except for the purpose of resigning it into the
advocated by the latter; for all viewed Sucre as the firm- hands of congress, at its fiist meeting,
est and most energetic supporter which Bolivar possessed. On hearing of the affair at Chuquisaca, Gamarra called
Under the upright administration of this officer much pro- a council of war, the members of which, with only one dis-
gress was made in organizing the various departments of sentient voice, agreed as to the propiiety of his maich-
the administration; the resources of the country were called ing into the Bolivian territory, with tlm ostensible object
forth; and effectual means were adopted for promoting of preventing anarchy, and protecting Sucre from further
the extension of education and intelligence throughout the personal violence ; and this resolution was soon afterwards
community. sanctioned by orders to the same effect from the Peruvian
Amidst these powerful inducements to tranquillity, much government. Accordingly, Gamarra and his army crossed
discontent was excited by the presence of a body of Colom- the Desaguadero on the 1st of May ; but they w ei e coo y
bian troops in the country, which, in a period of profound received by the Bolivians, whose forces being too few for
peace, was considered by many as derogatory to the dig- resistance, retired from La Paz, and concentrated fhem-
nity, and inconsistent with the liberty, of the republic. Ihe selves towards Oruro and Potosi, undei the command of
number influenced by such feelings was greatly aug- General Urdininea. but the latter, instead of advancing
mented by the accession of those aspirants to place and with his whole forces to encounter Gamaira, weakened his
power, who considered their respective claims as having army by detaching a large division, in order to reduce a
been neglected or ill requited ; and strength and consis- mutinous regiment of cavalry under Colonel Blanco, m the
tency were given to these malcontents, by a belief, which province of Chichas. Ineffectual endeavours at negociation
subsequent events proved to be well founded, that the were followed by some indecisive affairs between the two
government of Peru favoured their views, and that they armies in the province of Paria. Meanwhile Blanco, elud-
would be supported by a numerous and well-appointed ing the vigilance of the party sent against him, placed him-
Peruvian army, stationed in the department of Puno. self in communication with the Peiuyian fbices, and with
Meanwhile they succeeded in gaining over to their party a party of them proceeded to Chuquisaca, wheie he seiz-
the Colombian battalion of voltigeros stationed at La Paz, ed General Sucre, hurried him by forced marches to the
among whom a mutiny took place on the 23d December head-quarters of Gamarra, and during the whole journey
1827; but this was speedily suppressed by the Colombian treated him with the greatest inhumanity and indignity,
cavalry under Colonel Brown, and the armed peasantry of A treaty of peace was now entered into between Gene-
La Paz, after a desperate resistance on the part of the rals Gamarra and Urdininea at Piquisa (6th July), by
mutineers, of whom eighty were killed. The battalion was which the independence of Bolivia was guaranteed, and
consequently disbanded. This revolt was hailed with loud the object of the Peruvian invasion accomplished by the
demonstrations of joy by the government and people of retirement of General Sucre, and the removal of the re-
Peru, who viewed it as the first step towards the down- maining Colombian troops from the teiritory of the le-
fall of the policy of Bolivar. public. Accordingly the latter embarked at Aiica for
General Sucre, convinced that removing the principal Colombia on the 28th of July, under the command of
source of discontent was essential to the stability of the Colonel Brown. Sucre, was then set at liberty, and for-
constitution and the welfare of the country, applied to the mally resigned the presidency of Bolivia on the 18th of
government of Peru for permission to the Colombian troops August 1828 ; on which occasion General Santa Cruz was
to march through the territory of that state, and embark elected as his successor. . _
at Arica. But the Peruvian administration denied to these General Sucre descended from his high station in a
brave men the privilege of returning to their native coun- manner which accorded well with his.elevated chaiacter..
try by the route by which they had formerly advanced to His message to the congress, of Bolivia, dated the 4th of
establish the freedom of Peru, unless they submitted to August, will serve as a lasting monument of his merits
the humiliating condition of suffering themselves to be dis- in organizing Bolivia, and of his impartiality in pointing
armed; a condition which was spurned at by Sucre and the out that part of the Bolivian code which he considered as
Colombians. On the 5th March an interview took place most imperfect. During the two years ot his administra-
near the Desaguadero, between Generals Sucre and Ga- tion, colleges and Lancasterian schools were established
marra, the latter commanding the Peruvians. On this in the capitals of each of the departments, and schools ot
occasion each disclaimed any intention of interfering in the same description for females were instituted in thiee
the internal affairs of the republic to which the other be- of them ; besides which, other schools were multiplied
longed; a pledge which subsequent events proved to have throughout the country under improved regulations, and
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia, well provided with funds. Important ecclesiastical reforms
,I_ v ^ ^ *v t'1 e effected, and the number of friars so diminished that
only six convents remained of the thirty-six in existence
when he came into office, the funds of those suppressed
having been devoted to the purposes of education and various
useful public institutions. Some progress was also made in
the impiovement of the police, prisons, &c.; and the army
was left in a very efficient state. Agriculture had been im-
pioved in all its branches, and no forced loan or contribution
of any kind was made. Mining had increased so much, that
during the preceding year one-third more of the precious
metals had been extracted than in any former year. Com¬
merce had also been promoted, and efforts were made to
establish the free port of Cobija or La Mar. Although the
amount of the revenue received had diminished in conse¬
quence of the changes in the imposts, yet such had been the
economy observed by the administration, that the revenue
was not only sufficient to defray all necessary expenses, but
a surplus had been accumulated to meet extraordinary
837
charges.
^ Santa Cruz was now elected president of the republic;
Creneial Velasco vice-president. The new governor, who
happened to be absent in Chili, found, to his surprise, on
reaching Chuquisaca, that General Blanco had in the mean
time usvu ped his functions, and appointed a new vice-presi¬
dent. The usurper, however, did not live long to enjoy his
honours; for in a week he was assassinated, and his death left
Santa Cruz in undisputed possession of the chief power.
From this date till the year 1834, the president directed all
his efforts to developing the internal resources of the state.
The better to gain his end, and attract to his own country
a share of the foreign commerce which had hitherto been
almost monopolized by the neighbouring states of Chili and
Pei u, he formed the bold design of uniting Bolivia and Peru
into a confederation. 1 he latter country was at this time
in a state of anarchy. At the invitation of Orgebozo, the
deposed president, Santa Cruz marched an army into Peru,
gained two battles, and reinstated Orgebozo, with whose'
assistance he carried out his scheme, and was appointed pro¬
tector of the Peru-Bolivian confederation. The two coun-
tries had just begun to prosper under his rule, when the
Chilians, jealous of their commercial interests, sent an in¬
vading army, which defeated Santa Cruz at Yungay in 1839,
dissolved the confederation, and compelled the "protector to
abdicate. He now became an exile from his country, where
his influence was still dangerously great; and though he
more than once tried to return, he was always intercepted.
In 1843 he fell into the hands of the Peruvians, by whom
he was delivered up to the Chilian government, which de¬
tained him for some time as a prisoner at Chiloe. It was
at last found convenient to despatch him to Europe as Boli¬
vian plenipotentiary; and he was till 1852 the accredited
minister of that country at the courts of London, Paris
Madrid, Rome, and Brussels. After the battle of Yungav’
another revolution occurred in Bolivia, which left Velasco
pi esident, and Ballivian vice-president. As the former soon
showed himself incapable, the army mutinied in 1841, and
endeavoured to reinstate Santa Cruz. To prevent this, the
Peruvians interfered, and invaded Bolivia with a large army.
Llie vice-president hurried to meet the invaders, routed
them completely at Ingavi, in his turn entered Peru, and
established himself at Arica on the Pacific. Intestine
tioubles, however, compelled him soon after to return home,
where in 1843 he was duly elected president of the re¬
public. Despite the numerous attempts to dispossess him
of his power, he retained it till 1848, when a new revolution
more formidable than its predecessors compelled him to ab¬
dicate. No regular president was appointed for two years;
out the administration was carried on by Manuel Isidore
tfelzu, commander-in-chief of the army. These two years
are signalized by the number of revolts and conspiracies,
and by the bloody atrocities of a civil war scarcely yet put Bolivia,
down. Belzu, in spite of his extreme unpopularity, has
contrived to maintain himself in power. His life has been
often attempted, and more than once he has been severely
wounded by the pistol-shot of the assassin. The policy of
the present government of Bolivia is, unfortunately, ill
adapted to repress these outrages, and is itself characterized
by that narrow and jealous spirit of distrust so injurious to
the prosperity of young states. A decree of 1850, for
example, deprives all foreigners of the right to trade with
the interior of the country, and leaves them only the inac¬
cessible port of Cobija. In 1853, however, this act, so in
jurious to the prosperity of Bolivia, was rescinded ; and not
only was free trade proclaimed, but a large reward of¬
fered to the first steamer of any nation that should sail up
to the Bolivian territory through the rivers La Plata or
Amazon.
The year 1852, to the astonishment of all, elapsed with¬
out a revolution, or even a new civil war. It was signalized
by no event of public interest, except the retirement of
Santa Cruz, the death of the ex-president Ballivian, and the
enactment of certain measures for the prevention of treach¬
erous designs against the government. By these every sol¬
dier who is tempted to revolt, and gives instant information
against the conspirators, is rewarded with two grades of pro¬
motion if an officer, and 6000 piastres if a private. All
who are tampered with, and do not inform, are subject to
the same penalties as the rebels. At the beginning of 1853.
another rupture broke out between this country and Peru.
The principal cause of this event was asserted to be the
Bolivian coinage. Since 1830 the money struck at the na¬
tional mint was stated to be only 23 per cent, below the
usual alloy ; the Peruvians, into whose country this coinage
readily found its way, maintained that it was 33, and even 40
pei cent, below the legal value. Fhe bad feeling engen¬
dered on both sides by the mutual complaints and recrimina¬
tions on this subject, was further complicated by another
untoward event. The Bolivian government accused M.
Paredes, the Peruvian charge d’affaires at La Paz, of com¬
municating false intelligence to the authorities at home, and
spreading alarming rumours about the intentions of the state,
and demanded his recal. The Peruvians refused to com¬
ply with the demand, but to obviate difficulties M. Paredes
voluntarily retired. Pending negotiations, he was seized and
expelled the country by the police. His countrymen de¬
manded reparation for this outrage, which was refused.
Then began a mutual system of reprisals; the result of
which was a declaration of war, and the occupation of Cobija
by a Peruvian fleet. The matter here rests for the present
(Jan. 1854), as the war has not yet been prosecuted to ex¬
tremes by either party.
In 1836, slavery was formally abolished in Bolivia by act
of congress, though the native Indians are still considered
as in a state of tutelage, and continue to pay the capitation
tax ; and in 1839 the entire political constitution of Bolivia
was remodelled. In 1843 it was again altered ; and was not
finally established till 1848. The executive is now vested
in a president, who holds office for four years, and is re-eli¬
gible after an interval of the same duration. He is assisted
by a council of state and four ministers. The power of le¬
gislation belongs to the congress, which consists of a senate'
and a chamber of deputies. J he congress, whose sessions
last for two months, meets annually on the 6th of August.
Every department returns three senators; while the deputies
are elected in the proportion of 1 to 40,000 electors. Every
elector must be able to read and write, and possess a capi¬
tal of 4000 piastres, or an equivalent.
Justice is administered gratuitously. There is a justice
of peace for each canton; z.juez de letras at the headquar¬
ters of the province; a court of appeal in the capital of each
department; while the supreme court sits at Chuquisaca,
.
838 B 0 L
Boll and is composed of four judges and a president. By the
II decree of 1845, a system of public instruction was organized
Bollards.^ an(j promulgated. A university was founded, colleges were
established, and elementary schools opened in some places.
Teachers and professors, however, were not to be found in
Bolivia; and the inducements held out by the government
were insufficient to attract men of learning and skill from
other countries. The funds, moreover, which were origi¬
nally set apart by Bolivar for this most important object, have
been gradually diverted by succeeding governments, so that
now the beneficencia is in arrears in almost all the depart¬
ments. That of Cochabamba has lost since 1844, 300,000
piastres, while those of Oruro, Potosi, and Chuquisaca, are
unable to defray current expenses.
The present military force of Bolivia consists of three bat¬
talions of infantry, and two regiments of cavalry. Though
the sum total of the standing army amounts only to 1500
men, yet the exigencies of the country render every man
more or less familiar with the use of arms.
The finances of Bolivia have, of late years, been much
impaired by the general insecurity that pervaded every de¬
partment of public affairs. During the civil wars, according
to the report of the minister of finance in 1850, the mint,
the bank, and the public treasury, were literally swept of
their funds. In 1849 the deficit amounted to 473,752
B O L
piastres, in 1849 it rose to 506,516 piastres. In 1850 there Bologna,
was a surplus of 237,473 piastres. The national debt of ~
Bolivia is entirely confined to the country itself, and con¬
sists, 1. Of the bonds of the loan contracted in 1826, chiefly
to reimburse the founders of the independence ; and, 2. Of
the loan of 1843, which amounts to 2,181,216 piastres, bear¬
ing interest at 6 per cent. The interest of arrears since
1847 amounts to 392,618 piastres. The value of the en¬
tire commerce of Bolivia, imports and exports included, is
at present about L.1,000,000 sterling.
The press is not without its representatives in Bolivia.
The majority of the journals published there are printed at
the expense of the government, which, however, does not
hold itself responsible for any statements they may contain,
In Chuquisaca is published The Naked Truth ; in La Paz,
The Epoch and The Prism; in Oruro The Republican; and
in Tarija The Telegraph. The existence of these journals
is almost the only sign of intellectual life in the Bolivian
republic. {Secret Report of D. Jorge Juan and 1). An¬
tonio de Ulloa, by Barry ; Relation Historique des Voyages
de Humboldt et Bonpland; Brackenridge’s Voyage to
South America; Andrews’ Travels in South America;
Temple’s Travels in South America; Edinburgh New
Phil. Jour. Oct. 1829 to April 1830 ; Memoirs of General
Miller} (J- G.)
BOLL (Saxon bolla, a bowl), a Scotch measure for corn,
containing 4 firlots. (See Fjrlot.) The boll of wheat or
beans is equivalent to 4 Winchester bushels ; of oats, barley,
or potatoes, to 6 bushels. A boll of meal is equal to 140
lb. avoirdupois. This measure is now abolished, corn being
measured by the imperial standard measure.
BOLLANDUS, John, a learned Flemish Jesuit, born
at Tirlemont in Limbourg Aug. 13. 1596. He is celebrated
as the first of that series of hagio graphers, called after hi in
Bollandists, who compiled the vast collection of the lives of
Romish saints known as the Acta Sanctorum. Rosweide,
a learned Jesuit, had published in 1607 the plan of such a
work, but died in 1629 without having realized his design.
Bollandus was appointed to this work, with the approval of
Pope Alexander VIL, by the conclave of his order, and in
1635 received as his coadjutor Godfrey Henschen. Dis¬
carding Rosweide’s plan of reproducing unchanged the whole
of the ancient legends, he set himself to the task of verify¬
ing their contents by an examination of all the historical
sources at his command. Of this immense work he lived to
complete only five volumes. After his death in 1665, the series
was continued by Henschen, Papebroch, Baert, Janning, and
a host of other writers. On the abolition of the Jesuit order
in 1763, the work was for a time interrupted. It was re¬
sumed in 1779, and again interrupted in 1792 by the trench
invasion. At this time the series extended to 54 vols. folio.
The order pursued in the work was to give under the names
of each month the lives of the saints whose days occur in
that month. The number of biographies is estimated at
25,000. The 54 vols. brought down the series to the 16th
of October. A continuation of this work is now in progress,
under the auspices of the Belgian government. 1 wo addi¬
tional volumes have already appeared. This vast collection,
with much that is useless and legendary, contains a valuable
mine of facts in civil and ecclesiastical history.
BOLLARDS, large posts set into the ground on each
side of a dock. On docking or undocking ships, large blocks
are lashed to them; and through these blocks are reeved
the transporting hawsers to be brought to the capstans.
BOLOGNA, one of the legations or provinces of the
Papal States, bounded on the north by Ferrara, east by Ra¬
venna, south by Tuscany, and west by Modena. Area 1430
square miles ; pop. 350,600. It is a district of great natural
fertility, and though but indifferently cultivated produces
abundant crops of rice, barley, wheat, and pulse, besides
hemp, flax, silk, oil, wine, figs, almonds, chestnuts, and other
fruits.
Bologna, the principal city of the above legation, and
the see of an archbishop, is situated between the rivers Reno
and Savena, in a beautiful and fertile plain at the foot of the
lower slopes of the Apennines, 399 feet above the level of
the Adriatic, and 23 miles S.E. of Modena. Lat. 44. 30.
N. Long. 11. 21. E. The city is about 2 miles in length
by 1 ^ in breadth, and is surrounded by a high brick wall,
having 12 gates, but without fortifications. It is intersected
by the Reno canal, and is divided into four quarters. The
streets are clean and well paved, but generally narrow and
crooked ; the houses are mostly three stories high, with deep
projecting roofs, and are generally surrounded with arcades.
The Piazza Maggiore, or principal square, has many fine
edifices. In the centre is a fountain, adorned with a colossal
statue of Neptune, by Giovanni de Bologna, and said to be
one of the finest modern statues in Italy. Among its princi¬
pal buildings are the Palazzo Pubblico, the Palazzo del Po-
desta, and numerous private palaces; the two leaning towers of
Asinelli and Garisenda, the Scuole Pie, cathedral, &c. The
university, the oldest and at one time the most celebiated
in Italy, has lost its reputation, and is not now frequented
by above 600 or 700 students. The library contains about
140,000 volumes and 9000 MSS. The famous linguist
Cardinal Mezzofanti was for some time librarian here. The
Accademia delle Belle Arte has a rich gallery ot paintings,
chiefly by native artists. There are cabinets of mineralogy
and natural history ; academies of science, music, sculpture,
&c.; several schools ; a public library ; 74 churches, 35 con¬
vents for monks, and 38 for nuns ; 9 hospitals, a monte di
pietd, and many other benevolent institutions. Its princi¬
pal manufactures are crape, silk, glass, chemicals, wax can-
1 The principal facts connected with the later history of Bolivia were obtained from some va.ua emanuscnp s P ve
with which the writer (the late Dr Gillies) was favoured by the author of the Memoirs of General Miller, i ore re
nished the supplementary portion of this article.
Bolsche-
retsk.
B 0 L
Bologna dies, musical instruments, paper, the celebrated Mortadelle
sausages, &c. Pop. (1844) 75,000.
Bologna is said to have been founded by Felsina, an
Etruscan king, who gave it his name and made it the capital
of the twelve Etruscan cities. When, in the time of Tarqui-
nius Priscus, it was occupied by a tribe of the Boii, its name
was changed to Bononia, although some contend that this
name was given to it by an Etruscan king Bonor. Under the
Romans Bononia gradually became a place of some conse¬
quence, and it was chosen in the time of the second trium¬
virate as the seat of an interview between Octavius, Antony,
and Lepidus. After the fall of the Roman empire it passed
into the power of the Lombards, and on their subjugation
by Charlemagne it was united to the empire of the Franks.
In 962 it threw off the yoke and became a republic, at first
aristocratic, but towards the end of the thirteenth century
democratic. The middle ages formed the period of its greatest
celebrity and importance. In the contest between the Guelfs
and the Ghibellines, the Bolognese, after a long neutra¬
lity, sided with the former, and became deeply involved in
struggles both foreign and intestine. After innumerable
revolutions of fortune, Bologna was finally annexed to the
papal dominions by Pope Julian II. in 1506. After its cap¬
ture by the French in 1796, it was made a constituent part
of a new republic, and afterwards of the kingdom of Italy.
On the fall of Napoleon it reverted to the papal dominion.
A revolution in 1831 was quelled by the intervention of
Austrian troops. In 1848 the Austrian general Welden
made an attack upon this city, but was repulsed with great
bravery by the inhabitants. The following year, however,
the Bolognese were obliged to surrender after a heroic de¬
fence of ten days The Austrians have since then main¬
tained possession, which has subsequently been sanctioned
by a treaty with the papal government.
Bologna, Giovanni di, (or Giovanni Bologna, as he
styled himself), a very celebrated sculptor, born at Douay
in 1524. He went early to Italy, and studied at Florence,
where his finest works still remain. His two most celebrated
productions are the single bronze figure of Mercury, poised
on one foot, resting on the head of a Zephyr, as if in the act
of springing into the air (in the Florentine gallery) ; and the
famous marble group of the Rape of the Sabines, which re¬
ceived this name, as we read in Lanzi, after it was finished.
It is now in the Loggia de Lanzi of the ducal piazza. Gio¬
vanni was also employed at Genoa, where he executed
various excellent works, chiefly in bronze. All his pieces
are characterized by great spirit and elegance.
The surname of Bologna is common to a large number
of Italian artists and literary men, from the tw elfth to the
seventeenth century.
BOLOGNESE School, sometimes called the Lombard
School of painting, was founded by the Caracci. Among
the principal painters it produced were Domenichino, Lan-
rianco, Coreggio, Guido, Schidone, Caravaggio, Zampieri
Fnmaticcio, &c. r ’
BOLOGNIAN Stone, a radiated sulphate of barytes
found in roundish masses, composed of radiating fibres.
When calcined, pulverized, converted into a paste with
mucilage, and then dried in pieces about a quarter of an
inch thick, it affords a pyrophorus, which, after a few mi¬
nutes exposure to the sun’s rays, gives light enough in the
dark to render the figures on the dial-plate of°a watch
visible. It was first discovered at Monte Paterno near
-bologna, wdience it derives its name.
BOLSCHAIA Reka, or the Great River, a river of
Kamtschatka, which rises in a lake about 120 miles from its
mouth. It flows into the sea of Okhotsk, in Eat. 54. 52. N
It is navigable from its source to its mouth, on the south
side ot which there is a lighthouse.
BOLSCHERETSK, a town and fortress of Kamtschatka,
ormerly the capital of that peninsula, and the seat of the
B O L
839
Bolton-le-
Moors.
government. It is situated on the river Bolschaia Reka, Bolsena
twenty miles from its mouth, in an extensive plain stretch-
157 eY ^fN110^ PreSent ET- scarcely 200. Long.
BOLSENA (ancient Volsinium or Vulsinium), a town
ot the Papal States, in the delegation of Viterbo, and ten
mdes S. by E. of Orvieto. It is situated on the north shore
o the lake of the same name [Lago di Bolsena)but is
chiefly remarkable for the remains of the ancient city in its
vicinity, among which are numerous granite columns, sup¬
posed to have formed part of the temple of the Etruscan
goddess Norcia. 1 his was one of the most ancient and
powerful of the Etruscan cities. After a series of struggles
with the Romans, the Volsinians were finally subdued, their
city razed to the ground, and themselves obliged to settle
in a less defensible site in the plain. The new city was
the birthplace of Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius. It
is now a miserable village of 1700 inhabitants.
The lake of Bolsena is about ten miles in length by eUht
in breadth, and surrounded by well-wooded hills. It con¬
tains twro small islands, and discharges its waters by means
of the Marta into the Mediterranean. The surroundino-
country is extremely unhealthy. °
BOLSOVER, a small town in Derbyshire, best known
for its limestone quarries, which have supplied the yellow
stone for the new houses of parliament. Pop. of parish in
1851,1611. 1 1
BOLSWERT, Boetius-Adam, an eminent engraver,
born at Bolswert in Friesland, about the year 1580: died in
I(>34- Jt is inferred, from his style, that he studied in the
school of Blomaert. His principal works are the following-
—arter Rubens, “ The Last Supper,” “ Resurrection ^
arter Rubens, -me Rast Supper," “Resurrection of
Lazarus, “ 1 he Crucifixion,” and “ The Judgment of So-
lomon; “ The Martyrdom of St Stephen,” after Coningloo;
Jesus with Martha and Mary,” after Goiomar; after Blo¬
maert, “The Adoration of the Shepherds,” “ The Holy Wo¬
men in the Desert,” in twenty plates, four landscapes, and
twenty landscapes inscribed O nimium felix, 1616. Bols¬
wert was also the author of a romance entitled The Pil¬
grimage to Jerusalem.
Bolswert, or Bolwert, Scheltius, the younger brother
of the preceding, lived at Antwerp about the middle of the
seventeenth century, and has left admirable prints after
some of the finest works of Rubens and Vandyck. He
worked entirely with the burin, and without stippling. His
finest works are—the “ Christ crowned with Thorns,” after
Vandyck; “The Assumption,” “The Brazen Serpent,”
Mercury and Argus,” and two prints of Satyrs, after
Jordaens; “A Lion Hunt,” after Rubens; and a “Cruci¬
fixion.”
BOLT-Rope, a rope sewed round the edges of a sail, to
strengthen it.
BOLTER, or Boulter, a kind of sieve, made of wool¬
len, hair, or wire, for separating bran from flour, See.
BOLTING Mill, an engine for sifting with more expe¬
dition. The cloth around it is called the bolter.
BOLTON, or Boulton, Edmund, an ingenious Eng¬
lish antiquarian of the seventeenth century. '’His principal
work is that entitled Nero Ccesar, or Monarchic Depraved,
dedicated to his patron the Duke of Buckingham, lord
high admiral, printed at London 1624, folio, and adorned
with several curious and valuable medals. It contains also
an interesting account of the British revolt under Boadicea
He also wrote, 1. An English translation of Lucius Florus’s
Roman History ; 2. Hyper critica, or a rule of judgment for
i eading oi writing our histories ; 3. The Elements of Armo¬
ries ; and some other works. The time of his death is un¬
known.
Bolton le Moors, a municipal and parliamentary bo-
rough of England in the hundred of Salford, Lancashire,
1- miles N.W. of Manchester. The small stream Croal,
BOM
BOM
which falls into the Jewell, divides it into Great and Little
Bolton ; the former being on the south side' of that stream.
This town has latterly been much improved by the forma¬
tion of wide and well-paved streets and squares, but it has
still several narrow and crooked streets and lanes. In the
vicinity are some handsome villas, particularly on the south
side of the town. Bolton is well supplied with water, a com¬
pany having been formed for that purpose in 1824. It is
brought from springs about four miles N.E. of the town.
The corporation has lately purchased the water-works from
the company. Bolton has an ancient parish church, six
other churches, and a chapel of ease, two Homan Catholic
chapels, three Independent, six Methodist, and nine other dis¬
senting chapels ; a free grammar-school, two charity schools,
and numerous others. Among its public buildings are the
town-hall, cloth-hall, public baths, exchange, theatre, bai -
racks, &c. It has also a mechanics’ institute, savings-bank,
several libraries and reading-rooms, and numerous charities.
The woollen manufacture was introduced here by the Flem¬
ings in the fourteenth century, but it is only since the intro¬
duction of spinning machinery that Bolton has become one
of the principal seats of the cotton manufacture in England.
In 1849 there were 53 cotton mills within the borough, giv¬
ing employment to 9759 persons. It has also a number of
large foundries and iron works, bleach works, a paper mill,
See. There are numerous coal mines in the vicinity. Bolton
is connected by canal as well as by railway with Manchester
and Bury; and by railway with Liverpool, Preston, Leigh,
and Blackburn. Since the Reform Act it returns two mem¬
bers to parliament. Population (1851) 61,171. Arkwright
and Crompton, inventors of the spinning-frame and mule-
jenny, were both natives of the parish.
BOMB (ySdp/Sos, a loud noise), in military affairs, a large
shell of cast-iron, with a vent to receive a fusee, which is
made of wood. The shell being filled with gunpowder, the
fusee is driven into the vent within an inch of the head, and
fastened with a cement made of quicklime, ashes, brick-dust,
and steel-filings, worked together in a glutinous water; or
of four parts of pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine,
and one of wax. This tube is filled with a combustible
matter made of two ounces of nitre, one of sulphur, and three
of gunpowder-dust, well rammed. To preserve the fusee,
it is pitched over, but uncased when the bomb is put into
the mortar, and covered with gunpowder-dust, which, taking
fire by the flash of the powder in the chamber of the mortar,
burns all the time the bomb is in the air ; and when the com- Bombax.
position in the fusee is spent, it fires the powder in the bomb,
which bursts with great violence and commits dreadful de¬
vastation.
Bombs may be used without mortars, as was done by the
Venetians at Candia, when the Turks had possessed them¬
selves of the ditch. Bombs were rolled down upon them
along a plank with ledges set sloping towards their works.
Bombs did not come into common use before the year 1634,
and then only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. One
Malthus, an English engineer, is said to have first carried
them into France, where they were used at the siege of
Collioure. The art of throwing bombs or shells constitutes
a branch of gunnery. See Gunnery.
Bomb- Vessel, or Bomb-Ketch, a small ship of unusual
strength, employed for throwing bombs into a fortress ; said
to have been invented by M. Reyneau, and first used at the
bombardment of Algiers. Till then it had been judged im¬
practicable to bombard a place from the sea.
BOMBARDIER, a gunner whose business is to drive
the fusee, fix the shell, and load and fire the mortar.
BOMBARDO, a musical instrument of the wind kind,
similar to the bassoon, and used as a bass to the hautboy.
BOMBASINE (bombycinus, from bombyx, a silkworm),
a name given to two sorts of stuffs, the one of silk, the other
crossed of cotton.
BOMBAST, in composition, is a serious endeavour, by
strained description, to elevate a low or familiar subject;
which, instead of being sublime, never fails to be ridiculous.
The mind, in some animating passions, is indeed apt to mag¬
nify its objects beyond natural bounds; but such hyperbo¬
lical description has its limits, and when carried beyond
these it degenerates into burlesque. An ambitious writer
who has not natural elevation of genius is extremely apt to
glide unconsciously into bombast. He strains above his
pitch, and the violence of the effort generally carries him
beyond the limits of propriety.
BOMBAX, a genus of soft, spongy trees, of the natural
order of Bombaceae. The most noted is B. Ceiba, the silk-
cotton tree of South America, the trunk of which is often 100
feet high, and of enormous thickness, so that a canoe hollowed
out of its spongy stem will carry at once fifteen or twenty
hogsheads of sugar. B. pubescens of Brazil attains only a
height of 20 or 30 feet. Its tough bark is manufactured
into ropes.
END OF VOLUME FOURTH.
NEILL AND CO., PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.
ASTRONOMY.
PLATE LAY VI.
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LIST OF WORKS
PDBLISUED BY
ADAM AND CHAELES BLACK.
BLACK’S ATLASES AND GLOBES.
LAST EDITIONS, WITH ALL THE LATEST DISCOVERIES.
General Atlas of the World, 1853.
Containing upwards of Seventy Maps, engraved on Steel, in the first style of the Art, by Sidney
Hall, Hughes, and others; with Introductory Chapters on the Geography and Statistics of the
different Countries in the World, and an Index of all the Names occurring in the several Maps,
amounting to above 60,000, with their Latitude and Longitude, and the number of the Map in
which they will be found. New Edition, containing all the latest discoveries in Australia, Cali¬
fornia, Africa, and the Arctic Regions, with numerous improvements and additions. Strongly
and elegantly half-bound in morocco, with gilt leaves. Price £2, 16s.
A New Map of the Arctic Regions, containing the North-West Passage, discovered by
H.M.S. “ Investigator,” also the coast explored in search of Sir John Franklin, from 1848 to
1853, has just been added. Possessors of former Editions may procure this from the Publishers
by remitting One Shilling in postage stamps.
** Ihis work is published on the plan of small impressions, and frequent new and cor¬
rected issues. The publishers are thus enabled to take advantage of every discovery as it
appears, and to offer the public an Atlas that can be relied upon for accuracy, beauty, and
comprehensiveness.
School Atlas.
New Edition, with the principal Maps required for Instruction in Physical, Ancient, and Scrip¬
ture Geography. A Series of Thirty-seven Maps, by W. Hughes, F.R.G.S., late Professor of
Geography in the College for Civil Engineers, Sidney Hall, and John Bartholomew ; with an
Index of Names, exhibiting the Latitude and Longitude of places, and reference to the Mops
Royal 4to or 8vo, half-bound, 10s. 6d.
2
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
BLACK’S ATLASES AND GLOBES—(continued).
Atlas of Australia, with all the Gold Regions.
A Series of Six Maps, constructed and Engraved from the latest and best Authorities. Royal
Quarto, coloured, hound in cloth, Price 5s.; paper wrapper, 3s. 6d.
Beginners’ Atlas.
A Series of Twenty-seven Coloured Maps of the Principal Countries in the World. In oblong
12mo, price 2s. 6d., cloth ; 2s. in paper cover.
♦
GLOBES,
Terrestrial Globes, Constructed and Engraved from the latest and best
Authorities.
Containing all the recent Geographical Discoveries, and Mounted on the most approved principle.
I. Eighteen-inch diameter Globe, mounted on high Mahogany Stand, with Compass, £7 7 0
on low ... ... no Compass, 5 5 0
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Gaille, Havelius, Mayer, Bradley, Herschel, Maskelyne, the Transactions
of the Astronomical Society, &fc.
I. Eighteen-inch diameter Globe, mounted on high Mahogany Stand, with Compass, £1 7 0
II. Twelve-inch diameter Globe, ... ... ... ... t.. 330
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Lay of the Last Minstrel. New and Splendidly Illustrated Edition,
With the Author’s last Introductions, Notes, Corrections, and Additions.
Illustrated by One Hundred Designs in Wood, by Btrket Foster and John Gilbert.
Beautifully printed on a warm tinted paper, uniform with the Illustrated Edition of the Lady
of the Lake, Longfellow’s Poems, &c. Extra Cloth, gilt edges, price 18s.; morocco, elegant or
antique, 24s, Gn December 1.
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3
NEW WORKS IN THE PRESS—(con^Wd).
The Old Field-Officer; or, the Military and Sporting Adven¬
tures, Recollections, and Reflections of Major Worthington. Edited by J. H. Stocqueler,
Author of the “ Life of the Duke of Wellington,” the “ Handbook of British India,” &c. 2
vols. post 8vo. Price 18s. Nearly ready.
Notes on Norway and its Glaciers.
Followed by Journals of Three Excursions in the High Alps of Dauphine, Berne, and Savoy, in¬
cluding the Ascent of the Jungfrau. By James D. Forbes, F.R.S., &c. &c., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, and Author of “ Travels through the Alps.”
With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Lithographed Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Nearly ready.
Class-Book of Botany.
Being an Introduction to the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom. Part II. Vegetable Physiology,
and Systems of Classification, &c. By J. H. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Keeper of the
Royal Botanic Garden, Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh, &c.,
&c. With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo.
Christ and Christianity.
A Vindication of the Truth of the Christian Religion grounded on the Historical Veri ty of the
Life of Christ. By WJlliam Lindsay Alexander, D.D., Author of the “ Connection and
Harmony of the Old and New Testaments,” &c. &c.
The Chief Periods in the History of Hungary, from its origin
down to the present. By Emeric Szabad, late Secretary under the Hungarian National
Government of 1849.
The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden.
By Patrick Neill, LL.D. A new Edition, greatly improved, and with upwards of Sixty Illus¬
trations.
The Basis of Moral Science.
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4
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
NEW WORKS IN THE PRESS—
Modern Greek Grammar.
By J. Donaldson, M.A., Greek Tutor to the University of Edinburgh.
The Last Hope; with other Poems.
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NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED.
I.
Waverley Novels. New Library Edition, complete in 25 Vols. Demy 8vo.
Uniform with the Standard English Authors, containing all the latest Corrections and Additions
of the Author. Price £11, 5s.
Each volume contains a complete Novel or Novels, illustrated with a Frontispiece and
Vignette, painted and engraved by the most eminent Artists of the day.
II.
The Lady of the Lake. Second Edition, with Additional Illustrations.
By Sir Walter Scott, Bart. Including all his latest Copyright Notes, Various Readings,
and Additions. Exquisitely Illustrated by Birket Foster and John Gilbert, uniform with the
Illustrated Editions of Thomson, Goldsmith, and Longfellow’s Poems, forming a beautiful and
appropriate Gift-Book.
The Illustrations of the Scenery are from Sketches drawn on the spot during the past
summer by Mr Foster expressly for this Work, and comprise all the principal places alluded to
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Life of Sir ^Valter Scott. New Edition, in One Volume.
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Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott. New Edition, in One Vol.
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NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED—
y.
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VI.
Treatise on Biblical Criticism. By Samuel Davidson, D.D.,
Author of “ Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament,” “ Introduction to the New Testament,’
“ Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied,” &c. Two vols. 8vo, 28s., cloth.
VII.
Life of Lord Jeffrey.
By Lord Cockbur^, one of the Judges of the Court of Session.
25s., cloth.
Second Edition. Two vols. 8vo,
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book contains a variety of excellent matter, and the Letters of Lord Jeffrey will heighten the
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disappointed. The
respect that attaches
“ Taken altogether, this is a most pleasing and satisfactory book.”—Examinee.
“ 0lie of ihG letters we would fain Sive ^ire, as not only one of the best in the volume, but one of the
happiest pieces of epistolary writing in the language.’’-tLitebaby Gazette.
vhl
The Christian W orld Unmasked. Edited by the Rev. Thomas
Guthrie, D.D., Minister of Free St John’s, Edinburgh.
12mo, cloth, 2s. 6d.; gilt edges, 3s.; sewed, 2s.
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the core; it glows with fervent piety; it exhibits a most skilful and unsparing dissection of the dead professor ;
while its style is so remarkable, that he who could preach as Berridge has written, would hold any congregation by
the ears.”—Editoe’s Peeface. j
IX
Uncle Tom s Cabin. Superbly Illustrated Edition.
By Mrs H. Beecher Stowe, with One Hundred and Thirty Illustrations. Frontispiece by John
Gilbert, and Vignette by Phiz. Cloth, gilt edges, 10s. 6d.
6
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
WORKS BY JOHN KITTO, D.D.
Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature.
By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., Editor of “ The Pictorial Bible,” &c., &c. Assisted by
numerous able Scholars and Divines, British, Continental, and American, whose Initials are
affixed to their respective contributions. Illustrated by Maps, Engravings on Steel, and 554
Engravings on Wood. In Two thick Volumes 8vo, £3, cloth.
“ ft is not too much to say, that this Cyclopaedia surpasses every Biblical Dictionary which has preceded it,
and that it leaves nothing to he desired in such a work, which can throw light on the criticism, interpretation, his¬
tory, geography, archaeology, and physical science of the Bible. It is beautifully printed, and is illustrated with
fourteen engravings of maps and views, besides more than five hundred well-executed woodcuts of subjects calcu¬
lated to elucidate the Holy Scriptures.”—Horne’s Introduction to the Critical Analysis of the Scriptures,
Ninth Edition, vol. v., p. 437.
In the Cyclopedia before us, we recognise the closeness of the connection between the Scriptural and pro¬
fane subjects of the ancient world ; the learning and ability with which the one class is made to throw light upon
the other ; the industry with which obsolete usages are again restored to the knowledge of mankind ; the acute
criticism which is made to bear on the most disputed forms and things of revelation ; and the extraordinary illus¬
tration which the most recondite subjects receive at the hands of the contributors.”—Athenaeum.
♦ •
Popular Dictionary of the Bible.
By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., &c., Editor of the Pictorial Bible. Illustrated by 336 En¬
gravings on Wood. 8vo, 10s. 6d., cloth or half-bound calf.
This work is studiously accommodated to the wants of the great body of the religious public.
To Parents, to Sunday School Teachers, to Missionaries, and to all engaged, either statedly or
occasionally, in the important business of Biblical Education, the volume is confidently recom¬
mended as the most valuable Compendium of Bible Knowledge for the People which has ever
appeared in this country.
History of Palestine Illustrated.
A new Edition, with Map and upwards of 200 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 6s., cloth; 6s. 6d., cloth,
gilt edges.
History of Palestine for Schools.
From the Patriarchal Age to the Present Time ; with Introductory Chapters on the Geo¬
graphy and Natural History of the Country, and on the Customs and Institutions of the Hebrews,
By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., Editor of “ The Pictorial Bible,” &c., &c. With Questions for
examination, by Alexander Reid, LL.D., Rector of the Edinburgh Institution. 12mo, 3s. 6d.,
or with Map of Palestine, 4s., bound.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
7
SIR WALTER SCOTT’S WRITINGS AND LIFE.
WITH THE AUTHOR’S LAST INTRODUCTIONS, NOTES, AND ADDITIONS.
Waverley Novels.
45s.; 50s.; £3, 13s. 6d.; £7, 4s.; £11, 5s.; £11,11s.
EACH NO^EL MAY BE HAD SEPARATELY AT THE FOLLOWING- PRICES.
Abbot, . . . .
Anne of Geierstein,
Anti-quary,
Betrothed—Highland Widow,
Black Dwarf, &c.,
Bride of Lammermoor,
Count Robert of Paris,
Fair Maid of Perth, .
Fortunes of Nigel,
Guy Mannering,
Heart of Mid-Lothian,
Ivanhoe,
Kenilworth,
1/9
21-
!/8
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1/6
14
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Legend of Montrose, &c.,
Monastery,
Old Mortality,
Peyeril of the Peak, .
Pirate, .
Quentin Durward,
Redgauntlet,
Rob Roy,
St Ronan’s Well,
Surgeon’s Daughter, &c.,
Talisman—Two Drovers, &c.,
Waverley,
Woodstock,
1/6
1/9
1/9
2/6
1/11
1/11
1/10
1/11
1/9
2/6
1/9
21-
21-
I.
People’s Edition. 5 Vols., royal 8w, sewed, £2, 5s.; cloth, £2, 10s.
With Portrait, Fac-simile, and Vignette Titles, after designs by Harvey.
II.
Cabinet Edition. In 25 Vols., foolscap 8vo, cloth, £3, 13s. 6d.
With Vignettes, Fac-simile, and Engraving from Greenshield’s Statue of the Author.
III.
Author’s Favourite. In 4:8 Vols., foolscap 8vo, cloth, £7,4s.
With Ninety-Six Engravings on Steel by the most eminent Artists.
IV.
Library Edition. 25 Vols., demy 8w, cloth, £11, 5s.
With new Frontispieces and Vignettes.
V.
Abbotsford Illustrated Edition. 12 Vols., super-royal 8vo, cloth, £11,11$.
With 120 Engravings on Steel, and nearly 2000 on Wood.
8
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
SIR WALTER SCOTT’S WRITINGS—{continued).
Poetical Works. 5s., 6s., 10s., 18s., 24s., 36s.
I. —POCKET EDITION FOR TOURISTS. Lay of the Last Minstrel—Marmion—Lady
or THE Lake—Rokeby—and Lord of the Isles. Illuminated Covers, gilt edges, Is. 3d.
each. Cloth, lettered, Is. 6d.,; full bound morocco, 2s. 6d.
II. —New Edition in One Vol., portable size, including The Lord of the Isles, and a variety
of other Copyright Poetry contained in no other pocket edition. "With a Life of Scott, and
Illustrations on Wood and Steel. Foolscap 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 5s.; or crown 8vo, with
additional Engravings, 6s.
III. —In One Yob, royal 8vo, cloth, 10s. People’s Edition, with Vignette Title, and Fac-simile.
THE SAME, large paper, with 26 Engravings from Turner, Ac., forming a companion to the
Novels, Abbotsford Edition. Cloth, lettered, 18s.; full morocco, elegant, 32s.
IV. —In Six Vols., fcp. 8vo, cloth, 24s., with 12 Engravings after Turner, and Fac-simile.
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*** JVo separate Poem, or collected edition of Poems, by Sir Walter Scott, is complete,
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traits and Maps.
Tales of a Grandfather. 6s.; 10s. 6cL; 15s.
I. —In One Vol., royal 8vo, cloth, 6s.
THE SAME, large paper, with 11 Engravings after Turner. Cloth, 10s. 6d.
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III. —(HISTORY OF FRANCE). By Sir Walter Scott. Numerous Illustrations. Cloth 4s.;
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ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
9
LIFE AND WRITINGS OF SIR WALTER SCOTT—(continued).
Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 10s., 18s., 20s.
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THE SAME, large paper, with 14 Engravings after Turner apd others, uniform with the
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Beauties of Sir Walter Scott.
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Readings for the Young, from the Works of Sir Walter Scott.
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10
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL CLASS-BOOKS.
Balfour—Class-Book of Botany.
Being an Introduction to the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom. By J. H. Balfour, M.D.,
F.R.S.E , Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Professor of Medicine and Botany in the
University of Edinburgh, &c.
Part I. Structural and Morphologica. Botany, with upwards of One Thousand Illustrations.
8vo, 10s. 6d., cloth.
Ballingall—Military Surgery.
By Professor Sir George Ballingall. Fourth Edition, with numerous Illustrations. 8vo,
14s., cloth.
“ The Author has collected and arranged the whole of the established facts, he has added the result of his
own experience, and executed a System of Military and Naval Surgery of inestimable value to those engaged in
the practice of that branch of the healing art.”—Lond. Med. and Surg. Journal.
Bryce—Elements of Algebra.
By James Bryce, M.A., F.G.S., One of the Masters of the High School, Glasgow. Second
Edition. 12mo, 4s. 6d., bound.
Carson—Exercises in Attic Greek.
For the Use of Schools and Colleges. By A. R. Carson, LL.D., F.R.S.E., &c., and late Rector
of the High School, Edinburgh. 12mo, 4s., bound.
Carson—Phsedri Fabulse, cum Indice.
For the use of Elementary Schools. By A. R. Carson, LL.D., late Rector of the High School,
Edinburgh. Seventh Edition. 18mo, 2s., bound.
Christison’s Dispensatory.
A Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain, comprising the Natural History, De¬
scription, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Actions, Uses, and Doses of the Articles of the Materia Medica.
By Robert Christison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh.
New and improved Edition, with a Supplement, containing the most important New Remedies
which have come into general use since the publication of the last Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia in
1841. 8vo, 20s., cloth.
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ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
11
UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL CLASS-BOOKS-Oo^am^).
Christison—Treatise on Poisons,
In relation to Medical Jurisprudence, Physiology, and the Practice of Physic. By Robert
Christison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. Fourth
Edition, enlarged, corrected, and improved. 8vo, 10s., cloth.
Christison—Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys,
And its connection with Dropsy, Inflammation, and other Diseases. By Robert Christison,
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“ The illustrative cases, thirty-one in number, are narrated with Dr Christison’s usual clearness, and, like
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Gunn—Rudiments of the Latin Language.
By William M. Gunn, LL.D., late One of the Masters of the High School, Edinburgh. Second
Edition. 12mo, 2s., bound.
Kelland—Elements of Algebra.
By P. Kelland, A.M., F.R.SS.L. andE.,&c. &c., late Fellow of the Queen’s College, Cambridge,
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. 8vo, 9s., cloth.
Kelland—Demonstrative Mathematics.
Being a Course of Lectures, by P. Kelland, A.M., F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh. 12mo, 4s. 6d., cloth.
Kitto—History of Palestine for Schools,
From the Patriarchal Age to the Present time; with Introductory Chapters on the Geography
and Natural History of the Country, and on the Customs and Institutions of the Hebrews. By
John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., Editor of the “ Pictorial Bible,” &c., &c. With Questions for exami¬
nation, by Alexander Reid, LL.D., Rector of the Edinburgh Institution. I2mo, 3s. 6d., or
with Map of Palestine, 4s., bound.
Lindsay—High School Vocabulary.
By Samuel Lindsay, A.M., late One of the Masters of the High School, Edinburgh. 18mo, Is.
bound.
12
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL CLASS-BOOKS—(continued).
Marshall—Enlisting, Discharging, and Pensioning of Soldiers.
With the Official Documents on these Branches of Military Duty. By Henry Marshall,
F.R.S.E., Deputy Inspector-General of Army Hospitals. Second Edition. Bvo, 7s. 6d., cloth.
“ A most valuable book, and ought to be in the library of every medical officer in the public service, whether
of the army or navy.”—British and Foreign Medical Review.
Miller—Principles of Surgery. Third Edition.
By James Miller, F.R.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. New
Edition {The Third), illustrated by 240 Woodcuts. 8vo, 16s., cloth.
“ An admirable epitome of the surgical science of the day. Being written by a sound practical surgeon, ac¬
customed to the public teaching of his science, it has that clearness of diction and arrangement which renders it an
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safe and valuable guide to the practitioner.”—Lancet.
Miller—Practice of Surgery.
By James Miller, F.R.S.E,, Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh, &c. New
Edition, illustrated by 227 Woodcuts. 8vo, 16s., cloth.
“ We have no hesitation in stating that the two volumes form, together, a more complete text-book of surgery
than any one that has been heretofore offered to the student.”—Northern Journal of Medicine.
Nicol—Manual of Mineralogy.
The Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom ; containing a General Introduction to the Science,
and Descriptions of the several Species, including the more recent Discoveries and Chemical
Analyses. By James Nicol, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History, King’s College,
Aberdeen. Post 8vo, 6s., cloth.
“ There is a completeness about this Manual of Mineralogy which must recommend it to every one pursuing
this branch of science. Particular attention has been paid to the crystallographic and chemical characters of each
mineral, and the analyses given are more extensive, and selected with more care, than those to be found in any
work on mineralogy in the English language.”—Athenaeum.
i
Pillans—First Steps in Classical Geography.
With an Illustrative Map of the Ancient World. By James Pillans, M.A., F.R.S.E., Pro¬
fessor of Humanity in the College of Edinburgh. 12mo, Is. 6d., cloth.
Porteus—Christian Evidences.
By Beilby Porteus, D.D., late Lord Bishop of London. New Edition, with Definitions, Ana¬
lyses of the several Propositions, and Examination Questions. By James Boyd, LL.D., of the
High School, Edinburgh. 18mo, Is., bound.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
13
UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL CLASS-BOOKS—(conta'nwed).
Schmitz—-Elementary Greek Grammar.
By Dr L. Schmitz, F.R.S.E., Rector of the High School, &c. &c. The Irregular Verbs are sim¬
plified by a system of classification, and the rules of Syntax contain all that is essential to a
thorough knowledge of the Greek Language. 12mo, 3s. 6d., cloth.
Scott—History of Scotland.
By Sir Walter Scott, Bart. School Edition. 2 vols. crown Bvo, with coloured Map. Bound
and lettered, 10s.
Scrymgeour—Class-Book of English Poetry.
Comprising Extracts from the most distinguished Poets of this Country, from Chaucer to the
Present Time ; with Biographical Notices, Explanatory Notes, and an Introductory Essay on the
Origin and Progress of the English Language. By Daniel Scrymgeour, of Circus Place School,
Edinburgh. 12mo, 4s. 6d., bound; or in Two Parts, price 2s. 6d. each.—Part I. containing the
Poets from Chaucer to Otway; Part II. from Prior to Tennyson.
“ The "best and compactest view of the subject we have seen.”'—Spectator.
“ Did we believe in the attainment of perfection, we should pronounce this the perfection of Poetical Class-
Books.”—Educational Times.
Thomas—Practice of Physic.
New Edition. By Algernon Frampton, M.D. Cantab. Two vols. 8vo, 28s., cloth.
Traill—Medical Jurisprudence.
Being Outlines of a Course of Lectures by Thomas Stewart Traill, M.D., F.R.S.E., &e. &c.
Regius Professor of Medical Jurisprudence and Medical Police in the University of Edinburgh.
Second Edition. Post 8vo, 5s., cloth.
“ These Outlines may indeed be recommended as presenting an excellent compendious view of the present
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divisions.”—Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.
Traill—Physical Geography.
By Thomas Stewart Traill, M.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in
the University of Edinburgh, &c. &c. Post 8vo, 6s., cloth.
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ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL CLASS-BOOKS—(continued).
Tytler—History of Scotland.
By Patrick Fraser Tytler, Esq.; Enlarged and Continued to the Present Time, by the Rev.
James Taylor, D.D.; and adapted to the purposes of Tuition by Alexander Reid, LL.D.,
Rector of the Edinburgh Institution. 12mo, 3s. 6d., bound.
Tytler—Elements of Modern History.
By Alexander h raser Tytler, Lord AVbodhouselee, late Professor of Universal History in the
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*** This Edition of a work of great Educational utility has been carefully revised, with the
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Veitch—Greek Verbs, Irregular and Defective.
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ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
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MISCELLANEOUS WORKS—{continued).
Glassford—Italian Poets.
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21
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,
EIGHTH EDITION.
In every country where Science and Literature have been long and successfully cultivated,
and books extensively multiplied, attempts more or less skilful have been made to reduce the
mass of information to a compendious and regulated form, and to furnish a ready access to its
varied details by means of Encyclopedias. Of the importance and advantages of such publica¬
tions, there can scarcely be two opinions. Executed on a plan sufficiently comprehensive, they
ought to embrace all the departments of human learning, rendering the Alphabet a ready key,
not only to the Arts and Sciences, but to the multiplied details of History, Biography, Geo¬
graphy, and Miscellaneous Literature. A work thus constructed is not only valuable to the
Scholar and the man of Science as a Dictionary of Universal Reference, but the subjects being
treated in a form consistent with Systematic Exposition, as well as with Alphabetical Arrange¬
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leisure for very laborious research or profound investigation, are yet desirous to possess that
general information on all subjects which constitutes an intelligent and well-informed man.
Among books of this class, the Encyclopaedia Britannica has long been conspicuously
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which was added the Supplement, in two volumes, by Bishop Gleig, in 1801; this was fol¬
lowed by an edition in twenty volumes, in 1810 ; and other two editions during the succeeding
ten years ; to which was added the celebrated Supplement, in six volumes 4to, edited by Pro¬
fessor Napier, commenced in 1815, and finished in 1824.
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of the nineteenth century. The publication thus of Seven Editions with successive improve¬
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accomplished and scientific scholars, remains an irrefragable proof of its unquestionable merit,
and have given it so decided a preference in public favour, that its popularity, instead of suffer-
22
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK’S PUBLICATIONS.
ing diminution from rivalship, has steadily continued to increase, and never stood higher than at
the present time.
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with pleasing information, in such proportions as would be most useful and most acceptable to
the public, to deliver the truths of Science in the most accurate and intelligible form, and, at
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habits, and character of the individual,—in a word, to render the "Wbrk at once a Dictionary
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Reference.
The Eighth Edition will undergo careful revision and extensive alterations, so as to be
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To the Gentleman and the Merchant, to- the Agriculturist and the Manufacturer, to the
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EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
“ The Encyclopmdia Britannica, a publication well worth your having.”
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Now Publishing, in Monthly Parts, price 8s., and Quarterly Volumes, price 24s.,
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
EIGHTH EDITION.
GREATLY IMPROVED AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.
EDITED BY
THOMAS STEWART TRAILL, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh ;
ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS CONTRIBUTORS, WHOSE INITIALS ARE ATTACHED
TO THEIR RESPECTIVE ARTICLES.
The ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA forms an Alphabetical Repertory of every branch of
Human Knowledge, and renders the Alphabet a ready key not only to the Arts and Sciences, but to
the .multiplied, details of History, Philosophy, Biography, Geography, Commerce, Manufactures, Sta¬
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LIST OF SOME OF THE CONTRIBUTORS TO THE EIGHTH EDITION
Rt. Hon. Thomas Babington Macaulay, M.P.
Richard Whately, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin.
R. Dickson Hampden, D.D., Bishop of Hereford.
William Whewell, D.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy,
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Baron Justus Von Liebig.
Dr Wm. Gregory, Professor of Chemistry in the University of
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William Spalding, Professor of Rhetoric, St Andrews Uni¬
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Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., Author of the History of Europe,
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John Hill Burton, Esq., Advocate, Author of the History of
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Rev. Wm. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., Author of Connection
and Harmony of Old and Hew Testaments, &c. &c.
George Farquhar Graham, Esq., Author of various Works
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J. R. M'Culloch. Esq., Member of the Institute of France
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Sir William Hamilton, Bart.
George Ferguson, LL.D., Professor of Humanity, Kinn’s
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Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E., Author of Topography of
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William Hosking, Esq., Professor of Architecture and Arts of
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Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.M.A., Woolwich.
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J, H. Stocqueler, Esq., Author of British Officer, Military
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James Wilson, Esq., F.R.S.E., Author of various Works on
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David Craigie, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Hon. Lord'Cockburn, Author of Life of Lord Jeffrey.
Dr Leonard Schmitz, F.R.S.E., Rector, High School, Edin¬
burgh, Author of History of Rome.
John Hutton Balfour, M.D., Regius Professor of Botany,
Edinburgh University.
James D. Forbes, F.R.S.E., &c. &c., Professor of Natural
Philosophy, Edinburgh University.
Emeric Szabad, late Secretary under the Hungarian National
Government of 1849.
Three Volumes are now published:—
VOLUME I. contains the Preliminary Dissertations. By Dugald Stewart, Sir James Mackin¬
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Life Of Sir Walter Scott, By J. G. Lockhart, Esq.
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